Recap of loads/forces/airworthiness/

flight envelope/load factors

Some Fundamentals of Fluids

Lift
Drag

Loads/Forces on Aircraft
Ground Loads and Forces
Expected Aerodynamic Loads
Unexpected Aerodynamic Loads
V-n diagram or Flight Envelope
Load factor, n
Limit load factor n1
Proof load factor 1.25n1
Ultimate load factor 1.5n1
Gust load factors
Level Flight case, n=1
Steady Pull up from dive, n=f(r,q)
Correctly Banked turn, n=f(r,f)

K gVeU g C L
n 1
498 W
S

Altitude
(Feet)

@ VB

20k-50k

38

0-20000

66

Ug [fps]
@ VC

@ VD

25

12.5

50

25

MECH3650 Aircraft Structures

Review of Mechanics

Prof Jinglei YANG

Room 2553 (lift 27&28)
3469 2298
maeyang@ust.hk
This set of notes and supplementary information can be found at
https://canvas.ust.hk

Main Stress/Structural Analyses

Fuselage

Bending
Twisting
Internal Pressure
Axial

Wing

Bending
Twisting

Other Analyses
Joints/Connections
Stress Concentrations
Fracture Mechanics
Fatigue

Reviews of Mechanics

Safety considerations of aircraft structures.

External loads internal loads stresses and deformations.
Overview of stresses and deformation in aircraft.
Fundamentals of equilibrium.
Stress and strain.
Energy and work done.
N My
z

I xx

zs

SQ
I xx t

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Stress
Analysis

Normal/Bending stress
Torsional Shear stress
Transverse Shear stress

Stiffness
Analysis

Stability
Analysis

Vibration
Analysis

Buckling load and stress

Modes of buckling
Bending deformation
- bending and shear deflection
Twisting deformation
- angle of twist and warping

Natural Frequencies
Modes of vibration
5

Safety considerations of structural components

Essential Failure/Safety/Design For checks required for an analysis or a design are:
Material Stress Limits Design for Strength yielding, fracture, joints failures.
the working stresses or a combination of the working stresses are limited by the
allowable stresses of the material. Some common failure criteria are Max Normal Stress,
Tresca and von-Mises.
Deflections Limits Design for Stiffness
the deflections of the structure are limited by specified maximum deflections. This is
common in the design of the aircraft such that deflections are not significant enough
that they affect the aerodynamic performance of the lift surfaces.
Buckling Limits Design for Stability
A severe problem in thin-walled and in slender structure subjected to compression.
Global buckling can be catastrophic and local buckling can cause permanent
deformations.

Natural Frequencies and Modes Design to avoid Resonance

External vibration sources exciting the natural frequencies of a structure is to be
avoided. Determination of the natural modes of vibration is a very important initial step
in the design against resonance.

External Forces Internal Forces Stresses, Strains

Known and unknown

external forces

Structures subjected to external loads

Internal forces
>Normal force
>Bending moments
>Shear forces
>Twisting moment

Stresses
>Normal stresses
>Shear stresses

Material
properties

SY

Strains
>Normal strains
>Shear strains

Deformation
>Extension/Contraction
>Bending/Shear Deflection
>Twisting/Warping
Failure
>Yielding/Fracture
>Buckling
>Vibration

SX

MX
MY

Unknown internal forces

at the cross-section

Stiffness

Strength
Stability
Vibration

Aircraft Structural Loads Internal Forces and Moments

Centroidal position
Shear centre
Twist centre

distributed lift loads

fuselage

ion

compress

wing

My

Sx

LIFT

tension

Sy

Sx
T

Mx

centroidal

Mx

My

Sy

centroidal

Centroidal Position, Twist Center and Shear Center

My

Sx

Sy

translations+rotation

Mx

Twist center

x
Centroidal position
> geometric center of the section.
> position of Cartesian axes.
> by default, internal forces/moments
act through this position.
Centroid of a plane figure is the average
position of all the points in the shape. If a
physical object has uniform density, then its
center of mass is the same as the centroid of
its shape.

rotation

The twist center is a point of the section, which is not subjected to any
displacement under twist/torsion.

y translations

Sy
translations+rotation

Sx

Shear center

Sx

Sy

The shear center/elastic axis/torsional axis is an imaginary point on9a

section, where a shear force can be applied without inducing any torsion.

Stresses in Aircraft Structures

Normal and shear stresses are set up in aircraft structures as a result of

aerodynamic loads, structural weights and internal pressure.

Normal and shear stresses in fuselage due to

bending.
Shear stresses due to twisting.

Normal and shear stresses in wing due to bending

Shear stresses due to twisting

Normal stresses due to internal pressure

TORQUE, MOMENTS, AXIAL and PRESSURE

10

Forces/Moments and Deformations

12

In-Plane and Out-of-plane Deformations

Tensile / Compressive forces in-plane deformations (elongation and shortening)
D

Bending moments in-plane deformations (elongation and shortening)

out-of-plane deformations (deflections)

Torsion in-plane deformations (twisting)

out-of-plane deformations (warping)
q, f

13

Introduction to thin-walled structures

1. A thin-walled section has a thickness much smaller than its other geometric dimensions.
2. A closed thin-walled section (sometimes referred to as a tube) is one which the locus of point
defining the centre of the walls is a closed curve. The area enclosed by a tube wall is called a
cell.
3. An open thin-walled section has no enclosed cells. Examples are channels, angles, I-beams,
and wide-flange sections.
4. Other thin-walled sections may consist of cells with protruding fins; a hybrid of open and
closed sections.
open section

single cell,
closed section

multi-cell section

hybrid section

14

Sign Conventions

The following system will be adopted to define the axes.

x-axis: horizontal axis of the beam's cross section
y-axis: vertical axis of the beam's cross section
z-axis: along the longitudinal axis of the beam

Positive distributed forces and moments are indicated and they act at the
centroid of the section.

Sy
O

My
x

dA

Mx

Mz

Sx
Nz

15

Sign Conventions: axial stress, torsion

A positive axial force
(stress) is defined as a
force (stress) that induces
elongation.
A negative axial force
(stress) is defined as a
force (stress) that induces
axial shortening.
The sign convention is
designed to characterize
the nature of the force or
stress, rather than in
relation to a particular
direction
of
the
coordinates.

A positive torque is a
moment that acts on the
cross-section in a righthand-rule sense about the
outer normal to the crosssection
Consequently, a positive
angle of twist is a rotation
of the cross-section in a
right-hand-rule
sense
about the outer normal.

The
sign
convention
defined here is again not
related to a particular
direction of coordinates.

16

Sign Conventions: shear, bending

A downward shear force
acting on the cross-section
of the left-hand-side free
body of a cut, or an
upward shear force acting
on the cross-section of the
right-hand-side free body
of the cut, is defined as a
positive shear force.
The shear forces shown in
Figure 4.3(b) tend to push
up the left-hand side of
the beam segment.

A positive bending moment

produces compression in the
upper part and tension in the
lower part of a beams crosssection. The deformed beam
takes a shape that can retain
water.
A positive bending moment can
also be described as sagging
moment since the moment
induces a sagging deflection.

17

Internal Force/Moment to Stresses

Internal forces and moments give rise to normal and shear stresses.
Axial force normal stress

Bending moments normal stresses

Sy
o

My
x

zy

dA
y

Mz

Mx

Sx
Nz

zx

Shear force shear stress

Bending moments shear stresses

Twisting moments shear stresses

18

Stresses to Force and Moment Resultants

Force Resultant
Internal Forces

Forces 0
N z z dA

S x zx dA

S y zy dA

Moment Resultant
Internal moments

Moments 0
M x y dA
z

zy

M x z y dA

zx

M y z x dA

xy

yz

zy

zx
z

take note of the subscripts

Positive Mx is anti-clockwise about the x-axis, whereas positive My is clockwise

about the y-axis. That is, a tensile force acts on the first quadrant will
produce positive Mx and My about the x and y axes, respectively.

19

Uniform and Varying Stresses

dz

P
P

dz

Point

dz

dz

Element

z
z+dz

P
P

dz

dz

dz

d
20

Equations of equilibrium
y
dy
dz

y#

dx

x
z

x x dx
x

zx# zx zx dz
z
#
x

xz

zy#

xy

yx

yx
#
yx

yx#

xy#

#
yz

yz

yx
y

#
zx
#
z

xz#

In general, the directional stresses on opposite

faces are not equal.
Equilibrium of forces gives:

x#

dy

SFx=0,

x dzdy zx dxdy yx dxdz

x# dzdy zx# dxdy zx# dxdz Xdxdydz

where X , Y and Z are body forces.

x yx zx

X 0
x
y
z

y
y

xy

x
yz

zy
z

Y 0

xz Z 0
z
y
x
Equilibrium of moments yields:

xy yx
xz zx
yz zy

21

Linear Strain-Displacement Relationships

Let u, v and w be the displacement in the x-, y- and z-direction.
Normal strains

u
x
x

Shear strains

v
y
y

xy
xz

yz

w
z
z

u v

y x
u w

z x

w v

y z

z
w
2

yz
y

w
2

zy

22

General Strain-Stress Relationships

The general strain-stress equations (generalized Hookes Law) takes into account of the
Poissons effect, using the principle of superposition :

1
x x y z
E

xy

1
y y x z
E
1
z z y x
E
x

xz
yz
y

x
x

xy
G

xz
G

yz
G

z
z

23

General Stress-Strain Relationships

The transposition of the strain-stress equations to get the generalized stress-strain
equations :

E
vE
x y z
x
1 v
1 v 1 2v
E
vE
x y z
y
y
1 v
1 v 1 2v
E
vE
x y z
z
z
1 v
1 v 1 2v

xy G xy
xz G xz
yz G yz

For the case of plane stress in which z=0 :

E
x y
2
1 v
E
y x
y
2
1 v

1
x y
E
1
y y x
E
v
z x y
E

xy G xy
24

Stress-Strain Relations and Deflections

Axial/Normal Stress
In-Plane Force
Bending

Px
A
E
D

L
PL
D
AE

My

I
E

y
D max

PL3
K
EI

Pressure Vessel
pr
H
t
pr
L
2t
1
X X Y
E
D X LX X

Shear Stress
Bending
Twisting

VQ

It
G
PL
DK
GA

y
Failure Criteria

Principal stresses
Max Shear stress

xy

Tr
T

J 2 AO t

TL
GJ

G
L rf

x
25

Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stress

T

y
zy

Y
R

Mx
zy

pr
y
t

T
2 Aot

pr N M x y

2t A
I xx

zy

1, 2 ave R

max

max

zy

z y
zy2
R
2

z y
2

2qp

ave

ave

z y

1 2
2

y
zy2
R 2 z
2
2 zy
tan 2q p
z y26
2

Failure Theories of Traditional Materials

Maximum Normal-Stress Criterion
for brittle materials

principal

The factor of safety, n =

UTS
n

Limiting/ultimate stress

Allowable/Working/Design stress

Maximum Shearing-Stress Criterion (Tresca)

for ductile materials

1 3

2 3

1 2

YIELD

n
YIELD
n

YIELD
n

Maximum Distortion-Energy Criterion (von-Mises)

for ductile materials

1 2 1 3 2 3
2

2 YIELD
n

27

Computation of Sectional Properties (Solid section)

Second moment of area of a standard section, I xx y 2 dA
dA

dq

I xx y 2 dA
A

d 2

bd
12

I yy x dA
A

d 2

b2

y 2bdy

I xx y 2 dA
A

Polar second moment of area of a standard section,

I xx

d 4
64

y 2bdy

y 2 2 cos q dy
d 2
2

d 2

d
d

sin q d cos q cos q dq

2 2
2

db 3

12

d 2

x d dx

b 2

d 2

d4

and

J I xx I yy

cos 2 q sin 2 q dq

I yy

or

d 4
64

J r 2 dA
A

28

Sectional Properties of thin section of thickness t

I xx y dA

t
dq

I xx y 2 dA 2 R sin q tRdq

ds

dA tds

ds Rd q

y
sin q
R

2 R 3t sin 2 q dq

2 R 3t 1 cos 2q dq
0
2

dA tRd q

R 3t 1 cos 2q dq

y R sin q

R t q sin 2q
2

I xx R 3t

wall thickness, t
o

I oxx y 2 dA

ds
y
H/2

dA tds

H/2

y
s

H /2 L/2

I 0 xx

H 2 2
y 2 dA L / 2 s t ds
L

L/ 2

3
H s
t
L 3 L / 2
2

H
s
L

H

L

I xx I 0 xx Ad 2

L/2

L3
t
12

29

Computation of Sectional Properties (Non-standard)

Parallel axes theorem for a non-standard section,

I N I C Ab 2

I xx I C Ab 2
3

i 1

2
3
bt 3f
d twd w
I xx 2
bt f
12
2 12

Product of the second moment of area, I xy A xy dA

dA

I xy 0

dA

or

I xy 0

I xy xy dA i
N

i 1

I xy 0

30

Implications of thin-walled approximation

A typical I-section
of thickness, t

t
h

No approximation
I NA

bt 3
th 3
2
2
btd
12

12

With approximation

I NA

th 3
2btd
12
2
th
h

b
2
6

Approximate/Accurate

Facilitates the computation of sectional properties.

Some stresses can be regarded as uniform through thickness.
1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5

0.1

0.2

t/b

0.3

0.4

thin-walled structures
31

0.5

Strain Energy and Work Done

In mechanics, Energy is the capacity to do work and Work is force times distance.
In solid deformable bodies, Force=A, and deformations are distances. The internal
work done is the product of these two quantities. This internal work is stored in an
elastic body as the elastic strain energy.
To illustrate the basic ideas of strain energy, the assumption of static load is used. No
dynamic or inertial effects due to motion. The load is applied slowly, so that it gradually
increases from zero to its maximum applied value.

External Work Done

1
WE Tq
2

TORSION

D
q

r
T

WE

1
PD
2

TENSION

32

Elastic Normal Strain Energy

Consider an infinitesimal element subject to uniaxial stress,

Normal strain, X=du/dx

deformation, du=X dx

average force=1/2 X dydz

du/2

X
dz

dx

dy
du/2

The elemental work done or the elastic strain energy stored in the element is:

1
dU x dydz
x dx
2
1
x x dxdydz
2

1
1 x2

dxdydz or E x2 dxdydz
2
2 E

33

Elastic Shear Strain Energy

Consider an infinitesimal element subject to pure shear stress,

xy

deformation, du= dy

average force = 1/2 xy dxdz

1
dU xy dxdz dy
2
1
xy dxdydz
2

1 2
1

xy dxdydz or G xy2 dxdydz

2G
2

The elemental work done or the elastic strain energy

stored in the element is:

xy

dy
dz

dx

dy
y

xy

x
34

Strain Energy for Deformation Analysis

3D stress
y

For an element under a general stress state, the strain energy is :

dU

1
x x y y z z xy xy xz xz yz yz dxdydz
2

Considering the assumptions of plane stress, the strain energy is :

1
U x x y y xy xy dxdydz
2

Applying the generalised Hookes Law :

1
x x y
E

1
y y x
E

xy

x2 y2 2 x y xy2
1
dxdydz
U

2
E
E
E
G

From the conservation of energy :

external work, WE internal work, U

xy

zy

xy

yz

xy

2D stress

yx

35

Deformation of a Bar in Tension

For a uniform bar in tension :

E
L

x2 y2 2 x y xy2
1 L x2
1
Strain energy in bar : U

dxdydz 0
2 E
2 E
E
E
G
The stress in bar is uniform :

P
A

A L x2
A
dx
Strain energy in bar : U

2 0 E
2E

P2L
P
dx 2 EA
A
2

The work done on the bar, assuming linear elastic response : WE

From the conservation of energy,

Adx

1
PD
2

external work, WE internal work, U

PL
D
EA

36

Deformation of a Bar in Torsion

G

For a uniform bar in torsion :

Radius, r

2
x2 y2 2 x y xy2
1 L xy
1
Strain energy in bar : U

dxdydz 0 A

2
2
E
E
G
G
E

The shear stress in bar :

xy

Tr

2
1 L xy
Strain energy in bar : U
2 0 A G

1 L T 2r 2
1

dAdx
dAdx

0 A GJ 2
2
2GJ

The work done on the bar, assuming linear elastic response :

From the conservation of energy,

the relative angle of twist

1
WE T q
2

dAdx

T 2L
T dx
2GJ
2

external work, WE internal work, U

TL
q
GJ

37