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Recap of Important Concepts in Mechanics of Materials

Safety considerations of aircraft structures


Strength, Stiffness, Stability, Vibration

Methodology for stress analysis


External loads internal loads stresses and deformations

Overview of stresses and deformation in aircraft


Fuselage (bending normal & shear stress; twisting shear stress; internal
pressure normal stress)
Wing (bending normal & shear stresses; twisting shear stress;)

Fundamentals of equilibrium
Force and moment equilibrium

Stress and strain


Normal stresses and strains of typical structures under in-plane force, bending, and
internal pressure
Shear stresses and strains of typical structures under bending and twisting
Plane stress condition and Mohrs circle method

Failure theories
Max. strength criterion for brittle materials
Max. shear stress criterion (Tresca)
Max. distortion energy criterion (Von Mises)

Sectional properties
(Polar) Second moment of area of various sections and parallel axial theorom
Product of second moment of area of various sections
Approximation of thin-walled structures

MECH3650 Aircraft Structures


Torsion of thin-walled structures
Prof Jinglei YANG
Room 2553 (lift 27&28)
3469 2298
maeyang@ust.hk

twisting of the fuselage

twisting of the wing

This set of notes and supplementary information can be found at


https://canvas.ust.hk

Contents of topic 4

Review of Torsion
Development of theory for thin-walled closed
section

Development of theory for thin-walled open section

Single cell and multi-cell


Hybrid section

Development of theory for warping of thin-walled


section

Shear Stresses and Deformations of Torsion

Thrust from engine located below wing


Flexibility of wing tip
Shear stresses in the skin of the wing.

Sudden banking
Asymmetric loads
Shear stresses in the skin of the fuselage.

Due to the thin-walled nature of aircraft structures, torsional deformation and


stresses are of major concern.
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Torsion of Solid Circular Shafts


When a solid circular shaft is subjected to a torque about its twist center, the
relationships between the angle of twist, shearing stresses, and the twisting
moment are deduced from experiments.
From these deductions, the basic assumptions used in the development of the
torsion equations for solid circular section are:
1) plane section remains plane before and after deformations.
2) shear strains g vary linearly from the central axis reaching gmax at the
periphery.
3) Within the elastic limit of the material, Hookes law can be used.
4) material is homogeneous.
5) deformations are small and hence small angle approximation is valid.
6) torque is applied through the twist centre, i.e the section will only twist
and does not bend.
7) the effect of axial constraint is neglected.

Response of Solid Shafts subject to torque

Non-Circular Section

Circular Section

Response of Thin-Walled Shafts subject to torque

Thin-Walled Open Section

Thin-Walled Closed Section

Axial Constraint in Torsion of Thin-Walled Shafts


walls develop both
axial stresses and
shear stresses

Constrained end
develops axial stresses

St Venant free torsion

Torsion of Circular Shafts


If plane section remains plane after deformation, then lines OC, BC (undeform) and
OC, BC (deformed) will always be straight. It can be shown from the deformed
shaft, that shear strain g varies linearly from the central axis.
MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM

DEFORMATION

T
B
g

dz

g dz rdq
dq
g r
dz

dq
Gg Gr
dz

dq
C

dF

r
O
T

dF
r

dF
dA

dF dA

dT rdF r dA
T r dA r 2G
G

dF

dq
dA
dz

dq 2
dq
r dA GJ

dz
dz

Solid and Hollow Circular Shafts


Combining the two equations, the equations of the elementary
theory of torsion are derived:
T
dq
r

dz

The polar moment of inertia, J, depends on the section of the shaft:


hollow shaft

thin tube

r
2

4
o

ri 4

J 2 rm3t

The corresponding shear stress in the thin tube can be expressed as:

Trm
T

2 rm3t 2 Aot

Shear stress is constant over the thickness in the wall of the tube of constant t.

Torsion of Thin-Walled Single Cell Closed Sections


In the absence of axial constraint, a closed tube subjected to a torque T at its twist
center will result in a pure shear stress system.
The shear stress varies linearly with the radius r in a thick-walled closed section.
However when the thickness of the tube is small compared to other dimensions,
the stress can be assumed to be uniform across the thickness.
For non-circular thin-walled tube, the stress distribution across the wall thickness is
also uniform.
This observation greatly simplifies the analysis of thin-walled structures in torsion.

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Thin-Walled Single Cell Closed Section


Consider a tube of an arbitrary shape with varying wall thickness across its section
but constant along its length, and subjected to a torque T through its twist center.

Examine the force equilibrium of an


element cut from the tube.

1t1dz 2t 2 dz
1t1 2t 2 q constant
The symbol q is defined as the shear
flow in the tube wall.

z dz
s ds

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Bredt-Batho Theory
In the cross-section of the tube, the shear force acting on the element ds is q ds.
The applied torque T is resisted by shear force q ds times distance r about the twist center :

q ds r q r ds
T 2 Ao q

ds
r
O

T
2 Ao

where Ao is the total area enclosed by the mid-line of the


tube.

q ds

In this derivation, the sweeping of radius about point O is


counterclockwise (same direction as applied torque) and this
action of sweep yields a +r.
The theory of the torsion of closed tubes is known as the BredtBatho theory.
For any thin-walled tube, the shear stress at any point of the tube where the wall thickness is t :

zs

q
T

t 2 Ao t

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Deformation of Thin Walled Closed Sections


The angle of twist per unit length of the tube is defined as f=dq/dz.
The elastic shear strain energy per unit length is,

dV
U g V

2G
2
vol
2

dz

T
T2
ds 2
2
8 Ao G
8 Ao Gt

dz
t

ds
t

ds

dV=tds dz

The external work done per unit length of the tube is Tf/2,
Hence equating this work to the internal strain energy yields :

dq
T

dz 4 Ao2G

ds
t

or f

1
2 Ao

q
ds
Gt

4 Ao2
Equating this to the torsion formula f=T/JG, J can be defined as : J
ds t
For thin-walled circular tube of constant t,

4 r 2 t
J
2r 3t
2r
2

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Example: Thin-Walled Tube of constant (segment) thickness in Torsion


(Benham, Crawford & Armstrong, Mechanics of Engineering Materials)

The light-alloy stabilizing strut of a high-wing


monoplane is 2m long and has the cross section
shown. Determine the torque that can be sustained
and the angle of twist if the max shear stress is
limited to 28MPa. Take G=27GPa.
The enclosed area, Ao=(25)2 + 50x50=4460mm2
The maximum shear stress depends on the minimum wall thickness,

zs

q
T

t 2 Aot

T 2 Aot zs 2 4460 2 28 500kNmm

dq
T

The angle of twist,


dz 4 Ao2G

ds
t

where

500000 2000
102.4
2
4 4460 27000
0.0476 rad 2.73o

ds 25
50
2
2 102.4
t
3
2

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Example: Tube of varying wall thickness in Torsion


An aircraft wing consists of the cross section shown in the figure. The inclined webs
have linearly varying thicknesses. The length of one half of the wing measured from
the fuselage connection to its tip is 6 m. Assuming that fuselage connection is rigid
and the wing can be treated as a cantilever.
Calculate the maximum shear stress in the wing, and the angle of twist at the free end
when the wing is subjected to a uniformly distributed torque of 25 kN-m per metre
length. Shear modulus G=28.5 GPa throughout and assumes shear flow is constant
in the walls at any section.

400 mm

3.5 mm

500 mm

375 mm

3.5 mm

250 mm

125 mm
25 kNm/m

3 mm
6 mm
4.5 mm

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Example: Tube of varying wall thickness in Torsion


The cantilever wing is subjected to a uniformly distributed torque
of 25 kN-m per metre length,
6m

25 kNm/m
TR
T(z) Nm

T z
The shear flow q is : q
2 Ao

T(z)

0,

TR 25 6 150 kNm

Maximum shear stress occurs at


fixed end (at z=0),

max

max

25 kNm/m

qmax
T
max
tmin 2 Aotmin

150 103

N/m2
2 Ao 0.003

TR

T(z)

0,

T z 150 25 z kNm

z
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Example: Tube of varying wall thickness in Torsion


Analyzing the enclosed area,
484.12 mm

395.09 mm

375 mm

250 mm

250 375
A1 395.09

123443.75 mm 2

Ao 244473.75 mm 2

125 mm

125 375
A2 484.12

121030 mm 2

0.2445 m 2

max

150 103

102.25 MN/m 2 MPa


2 0.2445 0.003

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Example: Tube of varying wall thickness in Torsion


Analyzing the rate of twist,

dq
q
ds

dz 2 Ao G t

Analyzing the integral of ds/t,

ds 250 125
ds
ds

2
t 3.5 3.5 1 t 2 t
250 mm

3.5mm
3.5mm

t1
dt
ds

125 mm
3.0mm

t2

6.0mm
4.5mm

ds
ds dt ds t2 dt

t dt t dt t1 t
ds ds

ln t2 ln t1
t dt

ds 0 400
1 t 6.0 4.5 ln 4.5 ln 6.0 76.72
ds 0 500
2 t 4.5 3.0 ln 3.0 ln 4.5 135.16

ds 250 125
t 3.5 3.5 276.72 2135.16 530.90

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Example: Tube of varying wall thickness in Torsion


Analyzing the rate of twist,

dq
q
ds

dz 2 Ao G t

The angle of twist at the free end is :

q
ds

dz

2 Ao G t

1
ds

4 Ao2G t
therefore

The shear flow q is :

T z
q
2 Ao

T z dz
L

530.90 6
150 25 z dz
q
2

0
4 Ao G
6

530.9
z2

150 z 25
2
6
4 0.2445 28.5 10
2 0
7.7902 105 150 6 12.5 62
0.03506 rad
=2.01o

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Torsion of Thin-Walled Multi-cell Tubes


The fact that shear flow in a single cell section is constant is used here.
The torque applied at a section with multiple cells will be distributed as :

q1

q2

2
Cell 1

Cell 2
q2

q1

T2
T1

q3

T2

T1

T3

unknowns = q1, q2 .... qn

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Torsion of Thin-Walled Multi-cell Tubes


Lets use a 2-cell thin walled closed section as a basis for discussion.
B

Equilibrium along length :


q2

q1
C

A1

Cell 1

qw

Aw

qw
L

Cell 2

q1 L q2 L qW L 0

q1
q2

A2

qW q1 q2 q12

Taking moment equilibrium about arbitrary point O, the torque is:

q r ds

OBCA 1

OADB

q2 r ds

OAB

qwr ds

2 A1 Aw q1 2 A2 Aw q2 2 Aw qw 2 A1q1 2 A2 q2
With an additional cell, there exists an additional independent shear flow associated
with this cell, which cannot be determined by statics.
The degree of indeterminacy of a tube having n cells is (n-1).
21

Thin-Walled Multi-cell Tubes


For a n-cell closed section of general shape.
The n independent shear flows are taken as unknowns.
The equation of equilibrium for multi-cell becomes :
n

T 2 Ar qr
r 1

where qr is the shear flow in cell r and Ar is the


enclosed area of cell r.
Hence (n-1) equations of compatibility (or deformation) must be used to
supplement the single equation of equilibrium that is available.
Saint-Venant torsion theory states that a cross section does not distort in its own
plane, hence each cell has the same rate of twist.
For the i-th cell :

dq
1 q

ds

dz 2 Ai G t i

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Saint Venants Torsion Theory


Saint Venants Torsion theory states that :
1) The cross section does not distort during deformation, the deformation at any point on the
cross section can be described by translations and rotation.
2) Even with warping, plane sections rotate as a rigid body. This implies that the in-plane
displacement components of u and v follows those of a rigid body rotation.
3) If the cross section is free to warp, there will be no axial stresses arising from the twisting.
This is called a state of Saint-Venant free torsion.

q1q
q
q2q
O
O

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Example: Multi-cell Thin-Walled Tube in Torsion


(R.D Cook, W.C Young, Advanced Mechanics of Materials)

Find the rate of twist of the section and shear stresses in the walls of the 3-cell
section shown. Given that the T=2kNm, G=70GPa and dimensions shown in the
figure.
4mm

Apply the rate of twist for each cell:

q2

2Gf

q1
2

35
5mm

1
4mm

3mm

3 45
q3

4mm

40mm

40mm

1 q
1 40 80 40
45
35
ds

q12

1
13
Ai t i 40 80
4
3
3

2Gf

1 40 35
40
35
q2 q23 q21

40(35) 4
5
3
3

1 45 40
45
40
2Gf

q32
31

3
40(45) 5
4
3
3

T 2 Ar qr
2 106 2Gf 40(80)(165) 40(35)(168.3) 40(45)(175.76)
f 13.2 106 rad / mm

q21 q2 q1

Solving simultaneously yields: q1 165Gf

Substitute these into the torque eqn :


r 1

q12 q1 q2

q2 168.3Gf
q3 175.76Gf
Knowing f, qi can be obtained
and hence the shear stresses
in the wall.
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Torsion of Thin-Walled Open Sections Background


Prior to developing a simple theory for thin-walled open sections.
Examine the response of a thin-walled flat bar in torsion.

Axial Stresses,

sz

Shear Stresses, zx
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Torsion of Thin-Walled Open Sections Background


Away from the axial contraints, within St. Venants free torsion area
Examine the shear stresses in the cross-section.

Shear Stresses, zx

Shear Stresses, zy
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Torsion of Thin-Walled Open Sections Shear Stresses


Away from the axial contraints, within St. Venants free torsion area
Examine the shear stresses in the cross-section in details.
b

~b
2h
dT

dh

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Torsion of Thin-Walled Open Sections - Theory


An approximate solution for thin-walled open section start with torsion of a
strip of rectangular cross-section whose t<<b.

Consider the strip to be built up of a series of thin walled


concentric tubes which all twist by the same amount.
Neglecting the small edge regions, the enclosed area of
one of these tube is:

Ao 2bh

The shear stress of this tube is:

T
dT

2 Aot 4bh dh

The angle of twist of this tube,

2h

dh

dT
T
ds
2b
dT

f 2

2
4 Ao G t
42bh G dh 8bh 2G dh

dT
f
8bh 2G
Combining the two eqns yields:

2Ghf
4bh dh
4bh

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Torsion of Thin-Walled Open Sections Theory


The applied torque can be found from :
t /2
dT
1
T 4bh dh 4bh 2Ghf dh Gf bt 3 Gf J R

0
4bh dh
3
T
f
GJ R
The maximum shear stress occurs at h=+t/2 and h=-t/2 :

2Ghf

2Th
JR

max

Tt
JR

Imagine that the rectangular cross section is distorted into a C, T or L shape.


The sum of the JR of each part of the cross section contributes to the total torque, i.e:
b2

t2
t3

1 3 3
J R bi ti
3 i 1

b3

JR = ?

t1
b1
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Torsion of Thin-Walled I-Beam

zx

zy

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Example: Low Torsional Stiffness of Thin-Walled Open Sections


Compare the torsional stiffnesses of a closed circular thin-walled section with that of
an equivalent circular thin-walled section with a small slit.
t

The ratio of the GJ :

3
2 R c t 2

GJ R 2 R c t

3
GJ
6 R3
3 2 R t

0.001

(a) closed

GJ G

4 R2

GJ R

bt
3

2 R c t 3

G
3

open/closed

GJ R G

2 R t

G 2 R 3t

0.0008

(b) open

4 Ao2
GJ G
ds t

c=0.1t

0.0006

0.0004
0.0002
0
0

50

100
R/t

150

200

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Torsion of Hybrid Section


It is usual to find aircraft components having combinations of open and closed
section beams.
ti
bi

T
GJ

4 A02 1 N 3
J
bi ti
ds
t 3 i 1

Ao

bi

Ao
ti

In general, the torsional stiffness (GJ) of the closed portion is dominant.


Thus the torsional stiffness of the open portion is usually ignored.
Shear stresses in the open portion should always be checked.
Closed portion

q
ds 2 A0 q
f

2 A0 G t
GJ

i q ti

Open portion

max

Tt
GTt

J
GJ
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Example: Torsion of an hybrid section


(THG Megson, Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students)

(a) Find the angle of twist per unit length in the wing whose cross-section is as
shown in the figure when it is subjected to a torque of 10 kNm.
(b) Find also the maximum shear stress in the section.
G=25000 N/mm2. Wall 12 (outer)=900 mm. Nose cell area=20000mm2.

2 mm
300 mm

1.5 mm

2
600 mm

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Example Torsion of an hybrid section


(THG Megson, Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students)

G=25000 N/mm2. Wall 12 (outer)=900 mm. Nose cell area=20000mm2.


1

2 mm
300 mm

1.5 mm

The torsional stiffness is :

2 mm

4 A02G G N 3
GJ
bi ti
ds
t 3 i1

4 20000 25000
2

25000 900 2

900 300 /1.5


5000 6 107 Nmm 2

4
600 mm

5006 107 Nmm 2

(a) The angle of twist/length is :

dq
T
10 10 6

0.0002 rad/mm
dz GJ 5006 10 7

(b) The maximum shear stress in the section.


Closed portion

dq
q
ds 2 A0 q

dz 2 A0 G t
GJ

Open portion

max

Tt
GTt

J
GJ

q 250 N/mm m ax 166 .7 N/mm 2

m ax 10 N/mm 2

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