BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

By
M.JANAKI
Asst.Prof (SG)
School of Electrical Engineering

UNIT - III
Steady State Sinusoidal analysis

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as a function of its argument

as a function of time.

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One complete series of values is called a cycle.

The time taken for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is
called the period or the periodic time, T, of the waveform.
The number of cycles completed in one second is called the
frequency, f, of the supply and is measured in hertz, Hz.

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Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quantities at any

instant of time.
The largest value reached in a half cycle is called the peak value or the
maximum value or the crest value or the amplitude of the waveform.
The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity,
(such as a sine wave), is the average value measured over a half cycle,
(since over a complete cycle the average value is zero).

The area under the curve is found by approximate methods such as

the trapezoidal rule, the mid-ordinate rule or Simpsons rule.

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The RMS value of a set of values (or a continuous-time waveform) is the

square root of the arithmetic mean (average) of the squares of the
original values (or the square of the function that defines the continuous
waveform).
In the case of a set of
formula:

values

, the RMS value is given by this

The corresponding formula for a continuous function (or waveform)

the interval
is

defined over

and the RMS for a function over all time is

The RMS over all time of a periodic function is equal to the RMS of one
period of the function. The RMS value of a continuous function or signal
can be approximated by taking the RMS of a series of equally spaced
samples.
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In the common case of alternating current when

is a sinusoidal current, as is
approximately true for mains power, the RMS value is easy to calculate from the
continuous case equation above. If we define
to be the peak current, then:

where t is time and is the angular frequency ( = 2/T, where T is the period
of the wave). Since
is a positive constant:
Using a trigonometric identity to eliminate squaring of trig function:

but since the interval is a whole number of complete cycles (per definition of
RMS), the
terms will cancel out, leaving:

A similar analysis leads to the analogous equation for sinusoidal voltage:

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The effective value of an alternating current is that current which will

produce the same heating effect as an equivalent direct current. The
effective value is called the root mean square (rms) value

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Phase difference

v2 leads v1 by
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P35.

P36.

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P37.

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In order to compare v1 and v2,we must express them in the same form.

the phase difference between v1 and v2 is 30.

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Phasor Representation in polar coordinates

V is thus the phasor representation of the sinusoid v(t), In other

words, a phasor is a complex representation (polar coordinate
representation) of sinusoid.
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PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

Purely resistive a.c. circuit
Purely inductive a.c. circuit
Purely capacitive a.c. circuit

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Voltage-current relations for a resistor

If the current through a resistor R is

The voltage across it is given by

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Phasor diagram for the resistor.

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Voltage-current relations for a inductor

For the inductor L, the current through it is

The voltage across the inductor is

We can write the voltage as

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and

showing that the voltage has a magnitude of LIm and a phase of

+90. The voltage and current are 90 out of phase. Specifically,
the current lags the voltage by 90.

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Phasor diagram for inductor.

23

Voltage-current relations for a Capacitor

For the capacitor C, assume the voltage across it is
v = Vm cos(t + ).
The current through the capacitor is

showing that the current and

voltage are 90 out of phase.
To be specific, the current
leads the voltage by 90.

Phasor diagram for Capacitor.

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P38.

P39.

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25

RL series A.C. circuit

In an a.c. circuit containing inductance L and resistance R, the applied
voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and VL, and thus the current I lags
the applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0 and 90 (depending
on the values of VR and VL), shown as angle . In any a.c. series circuit
the current is common to each component and is thus taken as the
reference phasor.

V = Vm

Applying KVL

di (t )
v = Ri (t ) + L
dt
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Substituting

i (t ) = I m e jt
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Vm = RI m e

j t

d
+ L ( I m e j t )
dt

Vm = RI m e jt + jLI m e jt
V = IR + jLI

Vm = I R + (L) tan
2

L
R

In terms of voltages

V = IR + jLI

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V = VR + jVL

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If each side of the voltage triangle in Figure is divided by current I, then

the impedance triangle is derived.

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RC series A.C. circuit

In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance C and resistance R, the
applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and VC and thus the current I
leads the applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0 and 90
(depending on the values of VR and VC), shown as angle .

Applying KVL

1
v = Ri (t ) + i (t )dt
C
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Substituting

i (t ) = I m e jt
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Vm = RI m e

j t

1 1
+ I m e j t
C j

jt
Vm = R
I
e
m
C

V = R
I

1
1 1
Vm = I R +
tan
CR
C
2

V = I R + X C tan
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XC
R
30

In terms of voltages

I
V = IR j
C

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V = VR jVC

31

R-LC series A.C. circuit

Vm = RI m e

j t

1
d
j t
+ L ( I m e ) + I m e jt dt
dt
C

jt
Vm = R + jL
I
e
m

V = [R + j ( X L X C )]I
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V = [R + j ( X L X C )]I

Vm = I R + ( X L X C ) tan
2

X L XC
R

where

In terms of voltages

V = VR + j (VL VC )

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When XL = XC , the applied voltage V and

the current I are in phase. This effect is
called series resonance.

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RL parallel a.c. circuit

The current flowing in the resistance, IR, is in-phase with the supply
voltage V and the current flowing in the inductance, IL, lags the
supply voltage by 90. The supply current I is the phasor sum of IR
and IL and thus the current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle
lying between 0 and 90 (depending on the values of IR and IL),
shown as angle in the phasor diagram.
Applying KCL

v(t ) 1
I=
+ v(t )dt
R
L
Applied voltage

v(t ) = Vm e jt

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Vm jt
1
e +
Vm e jt
I m =
R
j L
1
1
j t
I m = j
Vm e

L
R

I = YV
1
1
Y= j
R
L
1
Z=
Y
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Y is the admittance of RL parallel circuit.

impedance

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In terms of current

I = I R jI L
2

I m = I R + I L tan

where

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Vm e jt
IR =
R

and

IL
IR

Vm e jt
IL =
jL

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RC parallel a.c. circuit

IR is in-phase with the supply voltage V and the current flowing in the
capacitor, IC, leads V by 90. The supply current I is the phasor sum of
IR and IC and thus the current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle
lying between 0 and 90 (depending on the values of IR and IC), shown
as angle in the phasor diagram.
Applying KCL

v(t )
dv(t )
I=
+C
R
dt
Applied voltage

v(t ) = Vm e jt

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Vm jt
I m =
e + jCVm e jt
R
1

j t
I m = + jC Vm e
R

I = YV
1
1
Y= +
R 1

j C
1
Z=
Y
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Y is the admittance of RL parallel circuit.

impedance

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In terms of current

I = I R + jI C
2

I = I R + I C tan
where

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Vm e
IR =
R

j t
and

IC
IR

Vm e jt
IC =
jX C

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P40. An alternating voltage has the equation of v(t)=141.4sin377t;

what are the values of:
a) r.m.s. voltage;
b) frequency;
c) average voltage
d) the instantaneous voltage when t=3ms
Ans: 100V, 60Hz, 90.1V, 127.8V
P41. A capacitor of 8.0F takes a current of 1.0A when the alternating
voltage applied across it is 230V. Calculate
a) the frequency of the applied voltage
b) the resistance to be connected in series with the capacitor
to reduce the current in the circuit to 0.5A at the same
frequency.
c) The phase angle of the resultant current.
Ans: 86.5Hz, 398, 30o leading

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P42.
Ans:

P43.
Ans:

P44.

Ans: 3.9A, 56, 16

P45.
Ans: 26.8A
P46.

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INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

The instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by an element is the

product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) across the element and the
instantaneous current i(t) through it. The instantaneous power is the
power at any instant of time. It is the rate at which an element absorbs
energy.
Let the voltage and current at the terminals of the circuit be

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The instantaneous power absorbed by the circuit is

The first part is constant or time independent. Its value

depends on the phase difference between the voltage and the current.
The second part is a sinusoidal function whose frequency is 2, which is
twice the angular frequency of the voltage or current.

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The instantaneous power p(t) entering a circuit.

p(t) is positive for some part of each cycle and negative for the
rest of the cycle. When p(t) is positive, power is absorbed by the
circuit. When p(t) is negative, power is absorbed by the source; that is,
power is transferred from the circuit to the source. This is possible
because of the storage elements (capacitors and inductors) in the
circuit.
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The average power is the average of the instantaneous power over one
period.

The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant is

the same constant. The second integrand is a sinusoid. We know that
the average of a sinusoid over its period is zero because the area
under the sinusoid during a positive half-cycle is canceled by the area
under it during the following negative half-cycle.
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Thus, the second term in Eq. vanishes and the average power becomes

APPARENT POWER AND POWER FACTOR

The average power is a product of two terms. The product

VrmsIrms is known as the apparent power S. The factor cos(v i) is
called the power factor (pf).

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COMPLEX POWER
Complex power S absorbed by the ac load is the product of the
voltage and the complex conjugate of the current, or

The real part of this expression as the average power P

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When v = i , the voltage and current are in phase. This implies a

purely resistive circuit or resistive load R, and

When v i = 90, we have a purely reactive circuit, and

showing that a purely reactive circuit absorbs no average power. In

summary,
A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive
load (L or C) absorbs zero average power.

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The complex powermaybe expressed in terms of the load impedance Z.

Since Z = R + jX,

where P and Q are the real and imaginary parts of the complex power;
that is,

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P is the average or real power and it depends on the loads resistance R.

Q depends on the loads reactance X and is called the reactive (or
quadrature) power.
The real power P is the average power in watts delivered to a
load; it is the only useful power. It is the actual power dissipated by the
load.
The reactive power Q is a measure of the energy exchange
between the source and the reactive part of the load. The unit of Q is
the volt-ampere reactive (VAR) to distinguish it from the real power,
whose unit is the watt.
Energy storage elements neither dissipate nor supply power, but
exchange power back and forth with the rest of the network. In the
same way, the reactive power is being transferred back and forth
between the load and the source. It represents a lossless interchange
between the load and the source. Notice that:

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SERIES RESONANCE
Resonance occurs in any circuit that has at least one inductor
and one capacitor.
Resonant circuits (series or parallel) are useful for
constructing filters, as their transfer functions (impedance or
admittance) can be highly frequency selective. They are used in
many applications such as selecting the desired stations in radio and
TV receivers.
Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive
and inductive reactances are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in a
purely resistive impedance.

zero.

Resonance results when the imaginary part of the impedance is

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The response curves of the inductive reactance XL, capacitive

reactance XC and impedance Z versus frequency f are illustrated in
Figure

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Thus, the resonance condition is

Since 0 = 2f0,

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At resonance:
1. The impedance is purely resistive, thus, Z = R. In other words,
the LC series combination acts like a short circuit, and the
entire voltage is across R.
2. The voltage Vs and the current I are in phase, so that the
power factor is unity.
3. The magnitude of Z() is minimum.

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Current magnitude

Half Power Frequencies

Dissipated power is half of
the maximum value.

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The average power dissipated by the RLC circuit is

The highest power dissipated occurs at resonance, when I = Vm/R, so

that

BANDWIDTH: In general, it is the range of frequencies for which

the magnitude of output (current or voltage) is greater than or equal to
70.7% of output at resonant frequency.

At frequencies = 1, 2, the dissipated power is half the maximum

value; that is,

Hence, 1 and 2 are called the half-power frequencies.

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At 1,

1
1L = R
1C

At 2,

2 L

Q Z = R2 + R2 = 2R

1
=R
2C

Equating the above two equations

1
1
1L = 2 L
1C
2C
1
12 =
LC

where

r 2 =

1
LC

12 = r 2
relating the half-power frequencies with the resonant frequency.

Resonant frequency is the geometric mean of the half power

frequencies.
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The half-power frequencies are obtained by setting Z equal to 2R, and

writing

Solving for , we obtain

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VR, VL, VC, and I versus frequency for a series resonant circuit.

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As the bandwidth is taken between the two -3dB points, the

selectivity or sharpness of the circuit is a measure of its ability to
reject any frequencies either side of these points.
A more selective circuit will have a narrow bandwidth whereas a
less selective circuit will have a wide bandwidth.
A "quality factor" Q is a measure of selectivity or sharpness, and
a circuit has "high Q" if it is more narrowly selective (i.e narrow
bandwidth).
At resonance, the reactive energy in the circuit oscillates
between the inductor and the capacitor. The quality factor relates the
maximum or peak energy stored to the energy dissipated in the circuit
per cycle of oscillation:

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It is also regarded as a measure of the energy storage property

of a circuit in relation to its energy dissipation property.

1 2
In the series RLC circuit, the peak energy stored is LI ,
2
while the energy dissipated in one period is

Hence,

o L

The
quality
factor
is
dimensionless.
The relationship between the
bandwidth B and the quality factor Q
is,

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1
Q=
=
R
o RC
R o
B= =
L Q
B
B
1 o , 2 o +
2
2
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The selectivity of a series resonance circuit can be controlled by

adjusting the value of the resistance only, keeping all the other
components the same, since Q = (XL or XC)/R.

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Inductor and capacitor voltages can be much more than (Q times)

source voltage.

Vm
VL = o L = QVm
R
V 1
= QVm
VC = m
R oC

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Q=

o L
R

1
oCR

72

PARALLEL RESONANCE
Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive and
inductive reactances are equal in magnitude, resulting in a purely resistive
impedance.
Parallel resonance circuit behaves similarly but in opposite fashion compared
to series resonant circuit.
The admitance is minimum at resonance or impedance is maximum.

o =

1
LC

I 1
1
1
1

= + jC +
= + j C
j L R
L
V R

Resonance occurs when admitance is purely resistive

Y = H ( ) =

Im(Y ) = L
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1
1
= 0 o L =
C
oC

o =

1
rad/sec
LC

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V=V =

IL =

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Im R
= QI m
o L

Im
2

1
1 )2
(

C

L
R

I C = oCI m R = QVm

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The half-power frequencies can be obtained as:

2

1
1
1
+
1 =
+
2 RC
2 RC LC
2

2 = +

1
1
1
+
+

2 RC
2 RC LC

1
o = 1 2 , B = 2 1 =
RC

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PARALLEL LR-C RESONANT CIRCUIT

Current at resonance,

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Summary of series and parallel resonance circuits:

Characteristic

Series circuit

1
LC

o L
1
or
R
o RC

B
1, 2
Q 10, 1, 2

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Parallel circuit

1
LC
R
or o RC
o L

1 + (

o
1 2
)
2Q
2Q

B
2

1 + (

1 2
) o
2Q
2Q

B
2

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o L
1
or
o RC
R
This formula is applicable to series resonant circuits, and also parallel
resonant circuits if the resistance is in series with the inductor.

R
or o RC
o L
This formula is applicable to parallel circuits, for a large value of R in
parallel with C and L.
In a parallel LC circuit where the main loss is the resistance of the
inductor, R, in series with the inductance, L, Q is as in the series circuit.
This is a common situation for resonators, where limiting the resistance of
the inductor to improve Q and narrow the bandwidth is the desired result.

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P47.
In the given parallel RLC circuit, R = 8 k, L = 0.2 mH, and C = 8 F. (a)
Calculate 0, Q, and B. (b) Find 1 and 2. (c) Determine the power
dissipated at 0, 1, and 2.

Solution:

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a)

b) Due to the high value of Q, we can regard this as a high-Q circuit.

Hence,

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c)

Since the entire current flows through R at resonance, the average

power dissipated at = 0 is

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P48. Calculate the resonant frequency of the circuit

Answer: 2.179 rad/s.

Derive impedance or admittance function of the given circuit and equate
imaginary part to zero.

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P49.
The impedance Z1=5+j3 and Z2=10-j30 are connected in parallel.
Find the value of X which will produce resonance at the terminals a and
b
(R j X)
a

(5 + j 3)

(10 j 30)

Ans: 2.07

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P50.
It is expected that a parallel RLC resonant circuit has a midband
admittance of 25 103 S, quality factor of 80, and a resonant
frequency of 200 krad/s. Calculate the values of R, L, and C. Find the
bandwidth and the half-power frequencies.

P51.
Find the resonant frequency, Quality factor

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P52. challenging problem

For the circuit in Fig, find: (a) the resonant frequency 0 (b) Zin()

Ans:

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P53.
An a.c. network consists of a coil, of inductance 79.58 mH and resistance
18 , in parallel with a capacitor of capacitance 64.96 F. If the supply
voltage is 250, 0 V at 50 Hz, determine (a) the total equivalent circuit
impedance, (b) the supply current, (c) the circuit phase angle, (d) the
current in the coil, and (e) the current in the capacitor.

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P54.
A series-connected circuit has R = 4 & and L = 25 mH. (a) Calculate the
value of C that will produce a quality factor of 50. (b) Find 1, 2, and B.
(c) Determine the average power dissipated at 0, 1 and 2. Take Vm =
100 V.
Answer: (a) 0.625 F, (b) 7920 rad/s, 8080 rad/s, 160 rad/s, (c) 1.25
kW, 0.625 kW, 0.625 kW.

P55.
The circuit shown in Figure dissipates an
active power of 400 W and has a power
factor of 0.766 lagging. Determine (a) the
apparent power, (b) the reactive power,
(c) the value and phase of current I, and
(d) the value of impedance Z.
Ans: 522.2 VA, 335.7 var lagging,
5.222 A, I = 5.222, -10 A.

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In physics, resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate

at a greater amplitude at some frequencies than at others. Frequencies
at which the response amplitude is a relative maximum are known as
the system's resonant frequencies, or resonance frequencies. At
these frequencies, even small periodic driving forces can produce large
amplitude oscillations, because the system stores vibrational energy.
Resonance occurs when a system is able to store and easily
transfer energy between two or more different storage modes (such as
kinetic energy and potential energy in the case of a pendulum).
However, there are some losses from cycle to cycle, called damping.
When damping is small, the resonant frequency is approximately equal
to the natural frequency of the system, which is a frequency of unforced
vibrations. Some systems have multiple, distinct, resonant frequencies.
Resonance phenomena occur with all types of vibrations or
waves:
there
is
mechanical
resonance,
acoustic
resonance,
electromagnetic resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), electron
spin resonance (ESR) and resonance of quantum wave functions.
Resonant systems can be used to generate vibrations of a specific
frequency (e.g. musical instruments), or pick out specific frequencies
from a complex vibration containing many frequencies (e.g. filters).
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Three-phase systems
Advantages of three-phase systems over single-phase supplies
include:
(i) For a given amount of power transmitted through a system, the
three-phase system requires conductors with a smaller cross sectional
area. This means a saving of copper (or aluminium) and thus the original
installation costs are less.
(ii) The instantaneous power in a three-phase system can be constant
(not pulsating).

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A three-phase generator.

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Three phase source

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Three phase load

93

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Star connection
VR = VP 0
VY = VP 120
VB = VP 240

(i) The three line conductors are connected to a load and the outlets
from the loads are joined together at N to form the neutral point
or the star point.
(ii) The voltages, VR, VY and VB are called phase voltages or line to
neutral voltages. Phase voltages are generally denoted by Vp.
(iii) The voltages, VRY, VYB and VBR are called line voltages.
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(iv) The phase currents (generally denoted by Ip) are equal to their
respective line currents IR, IY and IB, i.e. for a star connection:

(vi) The line voltage, VRY,

VRY = VR VY (VY is negative since it is in the opposite direction
to VRY).

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Delta connection
I RY = I P 0
IYB = I P 120
I BR = I P 240

(i) It can be seen that the line voltages VRY,VYB and VBR are the
respective phase voltages, i.e. for a delta connection:
(ii) IR = IRY - IBR = IRY + (- IBR)

= I P 0 I P 240 = 3I P 30
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POWER IN A BALANCED SYSTEM

For a Y-connected load, the phase voltages are
Vp has been defined as the rms value
of the phase voltage.

the phase currents lag behind their corresponding

phase voltages by . Thus,

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The total instantaneous power in the load is the sum of the

instantaneous powers in the three phases; that is,

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The total instantaneous power in the load is the sum of the

instantaneous powers in the three phases; that is,

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The average power per phase Pp for either the -connected load
or the Y-connected load is p/3, or

The total average power is the sum of the average powers in the phases:

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Similarly, the total reactive power is

and the total complex power is

or

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102

P56.
Calculate the line currents in the three-wire Y-Y system of Fig.

where
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103

Since the source voltages in Fig. are in positive sequence and the line
currents are also in positive sequence,

P57.

Load impedance
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P58.

P59.

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P60.
Determine the total average power, reactive power, and complex power
at the source and at the load.

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UNBALANCED THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

An unbalanced system is due to unbalanced voltage sources or an
unbalanced load.

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P61.
The unbalanced Y-load of Fig has balanced voltages of 100 V and the
acb sequence. Calculate the line currents and the neutral current. Take
ZA = 15 , ZB = 10 + j5 , ZC = 6 j8 .
The line currents are

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The current in the neutral line is

P62.
The unbalanced -load of Fig. is supplied by balanced source of voltage
200 V in the positive sequence. Find the line currents. Take Vab as
reference.

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P63.
For the unbalanced circuit in Fig, find: (a) the line currents, (b) the
total complex power absorbed by the load.

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P64.
Three identical coils, each of resistance 15 and inductance 50 mH are
connected (a) in star and (b) in delta to a 415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply.
Determine the total power dissipated in each case.

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Phasor diagram for star connection

119

Phasor diagram for star connection

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Measurement of power in three-phase systems

(i) One-wattmeter method for a balanced load

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(ii) Two-wattmeter method for balanced or unbalanced loads

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The power factor may be determined from:

P1 P2

tan = 3
P1 + P2

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Proof:

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Phase angle between Vab and Ia = 30+

-Vbn

Vcn
120
-120

Vab

30

-120

Ia

Van

Vbn

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Phase angle between Vcb and Ic = 30-

Vcb
30-
30
Vcn

-Vbn

Ic

120
-120
-120

Van

Vbn

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Similarly, we can show that the average power read by wattmeter 2 is

Shows that the sum of the wattmeter readings gives the total average
power,

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shows that the difference of the wattmeter readings is proportional to

the total reactive power, or

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the total apparent power can be obtained as

Thus, the two wattmeter method not only provides the total real and
reactive powers, it can also be used to compute the power factor.
we conclude that:
1. If P2 = P1, the load is resistive.
2. If P2 > P1, the load is inductive.
3. If P2 < P1, the load is capacitive.

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(iii) Three-wattmeter method for a three-phase, 4-wire system

for balanced and unbalanced loads.

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P65.
Two wattmeters connected to a 3-phase motor indicate the total power
input to be 12 kW. The power factor is 0.6. Determine the readings of
each wattmeter.

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P66.
Two wattmeters indicate 10 kW and 3 kW respectively when connected
to measure the input power to a 3-phase balanced load, the reverse
switch being operated on the meter indicating the 3 kW reading.
Determine (a) the input power and (b) the load power factor.
Since the reversing switch on the wattmeter had to be operated the
3 kW reading is taken as 3 kW.

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