As the incumbents are new in the field of analysis of geological

materials, they need to be exposed to all types of analytical

techniques. After the beginning of NGCM programme and induction
of new instruments, the fresh recruits need to be oriented to all
modern instrumental as well as classical methods of analysis
available with the laboratories of GSI. Hence, the Orientation
training course is proposed to impart desired knowledge and skills in
the methodology of analysis of various geological samples (both
theoretical & practical).
3: MODULE-II GENERAL GEOLOGY (2 weeks at Wajrakarur)
3.1. Introduction to geology
3.1.1. Common Rock types
3.1.2. Mineralogy of common rock types
3.1.3. Introduction to Geochemistry
3.1.4. Geochemical Surveys
3.1.5. Geological sample collection
3.1.6. Preparation of sample for chemical analysis
3.2. Field visit
4: MODULE-III COMPUTER MODULE (1 week at Hyderabad)
4.1. Practical training on Computer Applications
4.2. Entry of analytical data in Excel Sheet
4.3. GSI Portal Applications, Laboratory Management System (LMS) etc
5: MODULE-IV ANALYTICAL METHODS (3 weeks at each Laboratory)
5.1. CR, Chemical Laboratory, Nagpur
5.1.1. Wet chemical method of analysis of geological samples. (Classical as well as other
instrumental techniques both theoretical and practical)
5.1.2. Flame and GF-AAS analysis: both theoretical and practical training on Flame and GFAAS analysis; Handling of NGCM samples and protocol of operations
5.1.3. Analysis of mercury and hydride forming elements like As, Sb, Bi, Se etc in NGCM
samples
5.2. ER, Chemical Laboratory, Kolkata
5.2.1. XRF analysis: Theoretical and practical training on XRF analysis
5.2.2. Estimation of fluoride in NGCM samples using ISE technique
5.2.3. Estimation of major and trace elements in marine sediments and sea water etc
5.3. SR, Chemical Laboratory, Hyderabad
5.3.1. ICP-MS analysis: Theoretical and practical training on ICP-MS analysis
5.3.2. Fire Assay analysis: Theoretical and practical training on Fire Assay analysis
5.3.3. Estimation of gold by lead fire assay cum GFAAS and Pt, Pd, Rh, Ru and Ir by NiS fire
assay cum ICPMS

Overview

Protection of life and properties from landslide disaster is indispensable in creating a safe
environment for the society. The national imperative towards safety due to landslide initiation
is increasing in view of the higher rate of human settlement in the mountain slope across the
country. Landslides are significant amongst those hazards that can easily be disastrous to
human life and property. It is estimated that economic loss due to landslides may reach
between 1-2% of the gross national product in many developing countries. Evaluating and
mitigating the landslide hazard and risk is a major challenge for the technocrats and decision
makers in the developing world as 80% of the reported fatalities due to landslide is within the
developing countries.
In India, about 0.42 million sq. km or 12.6% of land area, excluding snow covered area, is
prone to landslide hazard. Out of this, 0.18 million sq. km falls in North East Himalaya,
including Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalaya; 0.14 million sq. km falls in North West Himalaya
(Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir); 0.09 million sq. km in Western
Ghats and Konkan hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra) and 0.01
million sq. km in Eastern Ghats of Aruku area in Andhra Pradesh. The landslide-prone
Himalayan terrain also belongs to the maximum earthquake-prone zones (Zone-IV and V; BIS
2002) where earthquakes of Modified Mercalli intensity VIII to IX can occur, and thus, are
also prone to earthquake-triggered landslides. The most recent example is the aftermath of 18
September 2011 Sikkim Earthquake in the Sikkim-Darjeeling Himalayas.

Regional perspective of landslide prone areas of India

In India, the risk to landslides is high due to ever increasing hill population and growth of
hydropower and related infrastructures. Apart from the above, the 21st Century- India is also at
the cross-roads of a steep curve of infrastructure development that is continuously focused in
connecting remote and morphometrically difficult places by constructing new roads, bridges,
railway lines, tunnels, etc. in both the peninsular and the fragile extra-peninsular regions.
Despite our great demand of such development, the growing constructional activities in these
sectors do bring some unavoidable ecological imbalances in our environment (e.g., landslides
and debris flows), which if not mitigated properly, can cause/trigger various geoenvironmental hazards and result in obvious loss of lives and property.
Since it is practically impossible to prevent landslides, therefore, task before the scientist,
planner and administrator lies with the identification of hazard-prone areas and their zonation
in different scales for preparedness and mitigation. The primary contribution of earth-scientists
dwells in the area of evaluating the hazards, whereas, the engineers, planners, public officials
and social scientists are more concerned with evaluation and mitigation of risk. To combat and
effectively minimise the impact of landslide related disaster, need for a rational and objective
understanding of the cause and processes of earth system science is very much necessary.
Landslide studies by GSI

GSIs contribution to landslide studies dates back to 1880 with the study of problem of slope
stability in Nainital, Uttarakhand by Sir R.D. Oldham. In 1890, subsequently, C. S.
Middlemiss re-investigated the Nainital area. In 1893, T. H. Holland investigated Gohana
landslide, a massive rock fall that blocked the river Birahi Ganga at Gohna in Garhwal

Himalaya and landslide disaster in Darjeeling town in 1899. In 1945, with the establishment of
specialised Engineering Geology and Ground Water Division, GSI started undertaking
landslide investigations primarily based on the requests from various stakeholders along with
some departmental investigations including R&D. Since 1980, GSI initiated landslide
susceptibility mapping following the prevailing systematic approaches. Between 1980 and
2004, landslide susceptibility studies were carried out, as a part of the regular field season
programmes, using probabilistic and statistical methods. Since 2005, a semi- quantitative
heuristic method indicated in the BIS guidelines and its modified version as proposed by GSI
was followed for landslide susceptibility mapping.
GSIs approach in Landslide Risk Mitigation:
Pre-Disaster study: a) Landslide susceptibility mapping on different scales as per the demand
of users agencies, b) Landslide inventory mapping.
Post Disaster study: a) Detailed site specific study of landslide for identifying causative
factors and most suitable remedial measures, b) Landslide monitoring by instrumentation and
threshold modeling for the development of an Early Warning System.
Responsibility of GSI as Nodal Agency:
Government of India has declared the Geological Survey of India as the Nodal Agency on 29
January 2004. Geological Survey of India as a Nodal Agency is responsible for undertaking
and coordinating landslide investigation and formulation of mitigation measures pertaining to
the

Formulation of strategy/methodology for any type of landslide investigation in the

country

Implementation of the proposed action plan on landslide risk mitigation of MHA

Formulation of a landslide hazard and risk mitigation code to be followed by all the
Govt./non govt. and other user agencies

GSIs achievements in landslide studies

GSI has covered major part of the accessible vulnerable hilly terrain in India through
macro scale landslide susceptibility mapping. Till 2013 more than 50,000 km2 area has
been covered through landslide susceptibility mapping on 1:50,000 scale

GSI carried out research and interaction with national and international institutes for
development of terrain specific methodologies for landslide mapping

GSI at the request of road maintaining authorities undertakes site specific landslide
investigation and provide inputs for formulating both short and long term mitigation
measures

GSI regularly update the landslide data base of the entire country through landslide

inventory work

GSI launched National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping (NLSM) programme w.e.f. FS

2014-15 with an aim to produce seamless landslide susceptibility database for the
country. Data integration and susceptibility modeling for generation of the desired
output in NLSM is to be done in GIS following appropriate methodologies. The
national programme was launched with the purpose to prepare a nation-wide landslide
inventory and susceptibility database which can be easily retrieved, updated in future in
the event of large scale landslide initiation and changes in geo-environmental
parameters.

Ongoing Projects of GSI

Macro scale (1:50,000) landslide susceptibility mapping (LSM) under NLSM Programme

36 items of Macro scale LSM under NLSM project in Assam (TS 78N/11, 12, 15, 16 &
83B/4, 83G/1, 2, 3, 4), Meghalaya (TS 78 O/14, 15, 83 C/2, 3), Tripura (TS 79 M/13,
14, 83 D/4, 8, 84 A/1, 2, 5, 6), Mizoram (TS 84 A/10, 14), Manipur & Nagaland (TS 83
K/2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 83 G/15, 16, 83 J/8, 11), Sikkim (TS 78A/7, 8, 11, 12), West Bengal
(78B/1, 5, 9, 13, 78A/12), Karnataka (48J/1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 48P/15, 16), Goa
(48E/15, 16, 10, 13, 14), Kerala (49M/14, 58A/1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 58D/13, 58H/1, 2, 5,
6), Tamil Nadu (54G/5, 6, 58A/7, 11, 12, 15), Himachal Pradesh (53E/1, 2, 53A/13, 14,
52D/16, 52H/4, 53A/15, 53E/3), J & K (43P/1, 2, 5, 6, 43O/4, 8), Uttarakhand (53F/9,
10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 53J/4, 10, 14), and Maharashtra (47G/2, 3, 4, 8, 47H/11, 15,
47L/2, 3) covering about 27,000 km2 areas.

Macro scale LSM under NLSM project in Darjeeling (TS 78A/12, 16; & 78B/5, 9),
Tamil Nadu (TS 58G/5, 6), Kerala (TS 49M/14, 58A/3), Karnataka (TS 48J/11), Goa
(TS 48E/15, 16) and Nagaland (TS 83K/2, 6) covering about 2400 sq. km area.

Macro scale LSM of Ratnagiri districts (TS 47G/12), Maharashtra.

Landslide Susceptibility Mapping (LSM) on Meso (1:10,000) scale

Meso scale LSM mapping of Mangan Urban area, North district, Sikkim.

Site-specific Landslide Mapping on Micro (>1:2000) scale

Detailed geological mapping of Wariya village (NH-134), Uttarkashi district,

Uttarakhand.

Threshold modeling and Early Warning System

Geotechnical assessment and instrument-aided monitoring for developing EWS (a RP

based Joint collaboration with DTRL)

Research and Development

GHRM Cell is carrying out research in Mandakini valley, Uttarakhand to develop

method for Macro scale (1:50,000) Landslide Hazard and Risk analysis, and rainfall
threshold modeling for the development of EWS for catchment area.

Compilation works

GHRM Cell is carrying out compilation of all landslide work carried out by GSI to
bring out a Compendium of Landslides for NW Himalaya during FS 2014-16, and
Western Ghats (FS 2014-16).

Additional works

Meso scale (1:10,000/ 5,000) landslide susceptibility zonation of Chibo-Pasyor village,

Kalimpong, West Bengal.
GSI - ACTIVITIES

Technical Committees
TAC constituted by Ministry of Mines: On advice from the National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA), Union Government constituted a high- level Scientific and Technical
Advisory Committee (TAC) FOR LANDSLIDE MITIGATION AND MANAGEMENT IN
INDIA vide the Gazette of India Notification dated 25 September 2012. The TAC is to act as an
Apex Body of the Government of India and is to serve as Think-tank to nurse landslide
sector with cutting edge science and technology, fresh ideas and stimulus. Secretary, MoM is
the Chairman and several Secretaries of other crucial Ministries of Central and State
Governments are made Members of the TAC. The Deputy Director General and Head, M-IV is
the Member Secretary of TAC. The committee would look into all matters pertaining to
landslide mitigation and management including a) recommending suitable techniques and scale
for landslide hazard mapping, b) monitoring of landslides, c) research and development, d)
human resource planning and e) capacity development. The 1st meeting of the TAC on
Landslide Mitigation & Management in India under the chairmanship of the Secretary, MoM
was held on 24th May 2013 at Shastri Bhavan, New Delhi. Being the apex technical body of
the Government of India on landslides, TAC, in its 1st meeting stressed on focused planning in
landslide mitigation and management, synergy, cooperation, and coordination amongst all the
stakeholders and Vision-Mission matrix mode of functioning. As the outcome of the meeting,
on advice of NDMA, a GSI established a Cell for Geohazards Research & Management in
Kolkata to coordinate both of its normal and research-oriented landslide projects in the country.
The Cell is also tasked to prepare a road map for constituting a full-fledged Institute for this

purpose in future. The Secretary (Mines) and the Chairman, TAC also remarked that there is a
need for coordination between all the 55 ministries in the union government in both inter and
intra ministerial mode for tackling and managing hazards and disaster of the country.

Steering Committee for screening landslide projects: On recommendation from TAC, GSI
constituted a five member internal Screening Committee for screening landslide projects being
funded by Government of India. The aim is to create a repository of all landslide studies being
carried out in India and make it available for public viewing on GSI portal. The first meeting of
the Screening Committee was held in the chamber of Addl. Director General & National Head:
Mission IV on 22 January 2015 under the chairmanship of then Dy. D.G. & National Head:
Mission IV, GSI, CHQ, Kolkata. Addl. Director General & National Head: Mission IV is the
Chairman of the Screening Committee and the Members include Shri M. Raju, Addl. Director
General; Dr. M. S. Bodas, Director; Dr. Saibal Ghosh, Suptdg Geologist; Dr. Pankaj Jaiswal,
Suptdg Geologist and Dr. Timir Baran Ghoshal, Suptdg Geologist.
National Collaboration
MoU between GSI and NRSC on landslide studies: A framework MoU was signed between
NRSC and GSI on 20th December 2013 at central headquarters GSI, Kolkata regarding eventbased landslide inventory mapping and landslide susceptibility/hazard zonation in the landslide
vulnerable areas of India. Under this MoU, a project on landslide hazard and risk mapping of
parts of Mandakini valley (Kedarnath area) is being taken up as a two-year programme
commencing from 1 April 2014. By the end of March 2015, landslide susceptibility analyses
using multi-temporal landslide inventory dataset were completed.

MoU between GSI and DTRL on landslide studies: A Memorandum of Understanding

(MoU) was signed on 5th September 2014 between Defense Terrain Research Laboratory
(DTRL), DRDO, Ministry of Defense, Metcalfe House, Delhi and Geological Survey of India
(GSI), Ministry of Mines, 27 J.L. Nehru Road, Kolkata on Development of Instrumentation
and Monitoring of Landslides for Early Warning System in India at GSI, Central Headquater,
Kolkata. This MoU aimed to achieve the objectives to develop technology for an Early
Warning System of a landslide based on instrumentation and empirical relation of rainfall and
ground displacement. The project will also lead to development of a Standard Operating
Procedure (SOP) for instrument based landslide monitoring. The necessity of having R&D on
landslide monitoring and development of Early Warning System was felt aftermath of
Uttarakhand Disaster of June 2013. With DTRL having expertise in instrument based
monitoring of landslide and GSI having expertise in geological/geotechnical modeling of
landslides, this MoU forms a god platform for combining both the knowhow to develop a real
time landslide warning system in India

International Collaboration
GSI-NRSC-ITC collaboration on landslides: A joint collaboration among GSI, NRSC and
ITC, The Netherlands was initiated in the year 2007 to carry out advanced research in landslide
domain. As part of this programme, two researchers from GSI focused their work on the
development of innovative landslide hazard and risk management methods. One researcher
from NRSC focused on the creation of landslides inventory from high resolution IRS satellite
data using automatic image classification methods. The GSIs work on landslide hazard and
risk analysis in Darjeeling Himalaya and Nilgiri hills of Western Ghats resulted in more than 15
publications in International peer-reviewed Journals.

GSI-NRCan, Canada collaboration on landslides: In order to evolve a methodology and to

have a better understanding of the landslide problem, an attempt have been made for the first
time by the Geological Survey of India and Geological Survey of Canada to develop an early
warning system by installing instruments in slide area and monitor their movement through real
time analysis between 2003 and 2008. To fulfill this objective a memorandum has been signed
between Government of India and Government of Canada for monitoring/mitigation of
landslides at selected sites in India in 2008. The pilot landslide sites selected for this IndoCanadian Collaborative program on landslide mitigation are 9 mile Slide in Sikkim, Hospital
Slide in Nilgiris and Surbee Slide in Mussorie area.
As part of Indo-Canadian collaboration under Landslide mitigation programme w.e.f 26.03.08
to 15.05.08 the training schedule divided into two phases: 1st Phase (26.05.08-09.04.08) - A
GSI team comprises of three Directors (S/Shri D. N. Bhattacharya, V. Balachandran and R. K.
Awasthy) and three field geologists (S/Shri C. Thanavelu, Niroj K. Sarkar and Pankaj Kumar)
were exposed to the landslide problems existing in Canada, and were taken to the landslide
sites and also shown the mitigation measures taken. Also during the first phase there had been
several deliberations and discussions with the companies like RST, DGSI, TRE and Roc Test
mainly dealing with the instruments which can be used in real time monitoring of landslides.
2nd Phase (11.04.08-15.05.08) - three visiting geologists were given training on Map Server
training at DM solutions, Ottawa, Geomatica 10.1 at PCI Geomatics, Gatineau, Quebec and
Geostudio 2007 modules at Geoslope International, Calgary to have much for better
understanding of the technology and techniques being used by them in dealing with landslide
studies, in particular.
In 2012, the umbrella MoU between Natural Resources, Canada and MoM/ GSI was extended
for another 5-year Term till 2017 and an attempt is being initiated by both the countries to carry
out/ continue landslide monitoring and early warning studies in some selected landslide sites in
India using satellite-based (using RADARSAT 2 and RISAT II data) SAR Interfermetry
techniques. For this, soon a joint site visit by the Canadian and GSI experts will be held
(expected in November 2015) to fix the modalities of studies at two selected landslide sites
(14th Mile/ Gayabari landslide, Darjeeling District, West Bengal and Hospital landslide,
Conoor, Tamil Nadu). NRCan has already supplied five corner reflectors to GSI for this

purpose.

Workshops & Awareness Programmes

Regional Workshop on Landslide Disaster Management: GSI in collaboration with NDMA
have organized three regional workshops (Shimla, Shillong and Conoor) during 2013-14 where
issues regarding effective management of landslide hazards were discussed in detail amongst
planners, scientists, academicians to derive relevant action-points. The aim was to sensitize the
State Departments and other stakeholders for a better co-ordinated management of landslide
hazards. The workshops held are i) on 19-20 June, 2013 at Shimla for the states of
Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir; ii) 22-23 November, 2013 at Shillong
for North Eastern States (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur,
Mizoram, Tripura and Sikkim) and West Bengal and iii) on 17-18 January, 2014 at Wellington,
Nilgiri district, Tamil Nadu for the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Union Territory of Puducherry. The workshops brought out
recommendations/ action-points for effective mitigation and management of landslides in the
country.

Awareness Workshop and Contact Programme: GSI, till date has participated in the contact
programme in the 15 States and one Union Territory along with local government officials,
State Disaster Management Authorities, NGOs, and other stake holders for a people level
interaction on landslide issues. The recently concluded contact programmes include at
Thiruvananthapuram (on 25 August 2014 jointly with KSDMA, Kerala); at Aizawal (on 22 July
2015 jointly with Mizoram Government); at Darjeeling (18-19 September 2015 jointly with
WBDMD, West Bengal).

Sunderban Delta Complex

GEOTECTONIC BACKGROUND

The Sundarban Delta Complex, having geo-genetic link to the tectonic Bengal Basin,
geographically extends over the eastern India and Bangladesh. It is characterized by prolific
growth of rich and diversified mangrove vegetation and forms an integral down drift coastal part
of the Bengal Delta Complex that overlies huge thickness of Tertiary marine sediments of the
actively subsiding Bengal Basin.
The Bengal Basin, being one of the worlds widest, deepest and most tectonically active basins,
extends over parts of eastern India, Bay of Bengal Sea and Bangladesh and represents a classical
asymmetric pericratonic basin, which originated through different phases of the Tertiary
Himalayan orogeny. Being bordered all around by tectonic fabric, the basin has a relatively
stable shallow (1-8 km thick sediment) shelf part in the west and northwest facing the Indian
shield and a tectonically active southern and eastern fore-deep part centered below the present
Ganges Brahmaputra river mouths. These two parts are separated by a hinge zone marked by
high gravity and magnetic anomalies. The Bengal Basin got filled up through the Tertiary marine
geosynclinal and shelf sedimentation (>16km thick) followed by gradual progradation of the
Quaternary Ganga - Brahmaputra delta fronts towards the southern sea producing the Bengal
Delta Complex, the mangrove vegetated Recent subRecent part of which is popularly known
as the Sundarban Delta Complex. Ever since the advent of mangrove ecosystems on the earth in
the tropical subtropical coastal land masses after the breakdown of Gondwanaland, the
temporal as well as geographical distribution of mangrove plants are largely controlled by
continental drift and Pleistocene glaciation-related environmental and physiographic changes.
The present Sundarban mangroves have their widespread ancient counterparts buried under
deltaic sediment cover further inland.

Satellite imagery showing Holocene vs. modern extensions of Sundarban Mangroves in relation to
submerged delta front & Bay of Bengal Sea
Physiography and Geomorphology

Intertidal Bakkhali beach, a dwelling ground of thick population of red crabs

Mud bank exposed along the eroding beach sector between Bakkhali and Frazergunj

The Sundarban Delta Complex and its surroundings have a dynamic physiographical and
geomorphological evolutionary history. The region, being a part of the Bengal Basin, represents
coalesced multi-generation deltas that have prograded in phases during the positive interglacial
eustatic sea level changes occurred during the Plio-Pleistocene time towards the Bay of Bengal
leaving behind distinctive multilevel delta surfaces, terraces, palaeochannels and
palaeoshorelines and migrating the successive coastline towards southern sea. The Sundarbans
represents the mangrove-vegetated Recent-Holocene down drift coastal part of the Bengal Delta
Complex. The Ganges and Brahmaputra river systems mainly drain the area that includes
estuaries, few hundreds of delta lobes and islands of latest generation with network of rivulets
and tidal creeks or inlets. Towards north the deltas coalesce together to form relatively flat
terrain with narrow, scanty and meandering tidal channels. Extensive thick blanket of floodplain
deposits, low ridges of natural levees, abandoned channel courses, small pockets of swampy and
marshy areas and channel bars characterize a part that constitutes a lower estuarine zone. In the
southern part that constitutes a coastal zone, the delta lobes fan out and are separated from each
other by wide drainage systems. Here the islands are elongated mostly in north-south direction.
The conspicuous coastal landforms include back dunal mudflats-backswamps-saltmarshes and
tidal creeks with mangrove vegetation, coast-parallel older stabilized dune ridges & younger
mobile dunes and sand sheets, low gradient supratidal and intertidal beaches with mud bank,
berms, runnels, tidal flats etc. and offshore bars from land to sea. Biomats are developed locally
in patches in the moist and depressed areas. Due to rising sea level, the present coastline is

retreating at alarming rate.

Ancient Metal Mines of Rajasthan and Gujarat

Metal mining is practiced in India since time immemorial. Gold, silver, copper, lead zinc, iron
metals and alloys are mentioned in old religious Hindu literature. Finding of metal objects from
the archaeological sites of Indus Valley Culture (3500 BC; Harappan/ Pre-Harappan) e.g.
Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, Lothal etc., is well known. Kautilya (400 BC) in his Arthashastra
described the metal mining and metallurgical activities on different metallic ores. In Rajasthan
metal mining is being conducted since ancient past, the testimony of which are numerous mine
sites, mine waste dumps, slag heaps and remains of furnaces or retorts. The great historian
Colonel James Todd (1829) adorned the autonomy of Rajput Kingdoms with a triple figurative
of Aan-Daan-Khaan indicating the importance of mining in these states. He mentioned
working mines of silver-tin in Zawar, copper in Dariba and lead near Gwalior. From Zawar and
Dariba, Mewar Kingdom was getting Rs. 300,000/- annually. Study of the old metal mines,
which are popularly known as old workings, started in Rajasthan and Gujarat by Geological
Survey of India during British period.
Based on physical characters and use, the ancient metal mines of Rajasthan and Gujarat are
classified into three main categories:

The first category mines are open in nature and occur as irregular pits to trenches, and
show shallow to moderate depth of half a metre to 15 m or so. Some of these might be
trial pits. Generally these are filled-up by rubble, soil or vegetal material. Such workings
are present in almost all metal prospects.

Second category of mines occurs as vertical shafts with circular openings, narrow in
diameter (0.75 to 1.5 m) but deep (upto 80 m). These are mostly situated close to the
mine debris and seen in cluster of more than one, to upto 40 or 50 in numbers. These are
sub-classified as lined with stone mortar and lime, or un-lined. The lined shafts were
used for haulage of ore or dewatering the mine when working below the water table.
Evidences of dewatering of mines are best preserved at Bhagoni and Naldeshwar (Alwar
district); Matasula and Kalajoda areas (Jaipur district); and Dhanaota (Sikar district) in
the form of sloping floor at individual shaft and joined with drains. The un-lined shafts
were meant for mine ventilation.

The third category of mines are inclines or tunnel-like openings meant for entering into
underground mine as seen at Khetri (Jhunjhunu district), Satkui (Sikar district), Matasula
(Jaipur district), Naldeshwar (Alwar district), Bhukia ((Banswara district)) and Hinglaz
Mata (Udaipur district) areas.

The ancient metal mines can be classified based on the metal excavated:

The copper mines present in Khetri belt at Madan-Kudan, Akwali, Satkui, Dhanaota etc;
Alwar-Jaipur belt at Kho-Dariba, Naldeshwara, Pratapgarh, Gol-Badshahpur etc.; and
Salumbar-Banswara belt at Anjani, Bedawal, Chari-Manpura etc.

Multi-metal mines (lead-zinc-copper) found mainly in central Rajasthan at Sawar,

Rajpura-Dariba, Hirakhera etc. (Pur-Banera-Bhinder belt); in south Rajasthan at
Basantgarh, Pipela, Golia, Watera, Deri etc. (Pindwara-Watera-Deri belt); and in north
Gujarat at Amba Mata.

Iron workings present in Tonda, Luhakana, Rajgarh and Nimla areas in north Rajasthan;
Kanti, Manoharpur etc. areas within BIF in Jahazpur/ Pur-Banera-Bhinder belts in
central Rajasthan and in Natharia Ki Pal, Parsola, Kanpura-Bhuwere etc. areas in south
Rajasthan.

Gold mines identified recently at few places viz. Bhukia-Jagpura, Hinglaz Mata,
Dogecha, Vasu etc. (southeastern Rajasthan), Satkui, Kalajoda, Gor-Pahari, Sonara,
Dhani Basri (north Rajasthan) and Devtalai, Pipela, Danva-Ajari (south-central
Rajasthan) etc.

Silver mines identified near Jodhawas (Alwar district) and Bharak (Bhilwara district) in
Rajasthan.

In Khetri copper belt in north Rajasthan forty prospects have ancient copper mines. The
important sites are at Madan-Kudan, Kolihan, Akwali, Satkui and Dhanaota. In Dhanaota,
gossan hill near Udaipurwati there are 52 ancient shafts. Evidences of mine collapse are seen in
this area. Most of the Udaipurwati village is built over large slag heaps. In Alwar-Jaipur belt
about 30 areas show ancient copper mines. The important ones include Pratapgarh-Raisar,
Matasula-Maliawas, Kalajoda, Naldeshwar, Bhagoni, Todi/ Gola Ka bas, Bhangarh and KhohDariba etc. In Pratapgarh-Raisar area, there are about 500 old mines, majority of which are in
the form of deep (upto 60 m), lined shafts. In Naldeshwar area 123 ancient copper mines exist.
Evidences of dewatering of mines exist in this area, indicating that the mining was being carried
out below the water table. Near Bhangarh the mines near Todi Ka Bas show 45 m collapse. The
shafts are upto 60 m deep in Kalajoda area near Virat Nagar (Bairat). At Bhagoni more than 50
ancient shafts of 1 to 1.5 m diameter, lined with stone show depth between 50 and 80 m and
spread over 200 m.
The Kishangarh-Ajmer base metal belt has 30 ancient mines for iron, copper and lead-zinc, out
of which Loha Khan and Tara Khan located near Ajmer, are famous. Ancient metal mines are
also seen near Chitar, Kalabar, Birantiya and Borwar. Punagarh hill has old mines with shafts
upto 60 m deep. In Sirohi belt 15 multi-metal prospects exhibit ancient mines, mostly in the
form of shallow pits or trenches e.g. Basantgarh and Deri.
In central Rajasthan around Agucha there are 20 prospects, of which 15 bear testimony of
ancient mining. At Agucha there is a large (largest in Asia) open cast zinc-lead mine. From
archaeo-metallurgical studies it is confirmed that our ancestors had mined the oxidized part of
lead ore for extraction of silver out of it. About 15 multi-metal prospects exist in Jahazpur belt
and almost all have ancient mines e.g. around Sawar-Bajta and Devtalai. Besides, several old
mines are seen near Ummedpura-Sujanpura, Manorgarh-Itaunda, Umar and Gardari within BIF.
In Pur-Banera and Rajpura-Dariba belts about 50 metal prospects and impressive old mining

sites are located. In Dariba area the ancient prospectors had carried out mining upto a depth of
260 m, which makes it the deepest ancient mine in Rajasthan.
In southeastern Rajasthan i.e. Udaipur-Zawar-Dungarpur belt about 40 ancient multi-metal mine
areas including the world famous Zawar mine for zinc-lead-silver are located. For industrial
zinc production the name of Zawar comes first in the world. Zawar area was active for mining
till 1820 AD. Native silver occurs here associated with lead. There is an old mine known as
Pratap Khan because Great Warrior Maharana Pratap had taken refuge in it during war with
Moguls. Between Zawar and Dungarpur, ancient copper mines are present near Parshad,
Paduna, Bara, Deval, Metali, Mando Ki Pal, Sarkan etc. Around Udaipur these are seen near
Bemla, Lal Madri etc. In Salumbar-Ghatol belt about 70 localities have ancient metal mines for
iron, manganese, copper, lead, zinc and gold. In Mewar, only the Chief of Salumbar was granted
permission to produce its own copper coins during Rajput Kingdom. Near Salumbar the old
mines are in the form of trenches or shafts viz. at Anjani, Bedawal, Balicha, Chari, Jambura,
Rajpura, Boraj, Kukra, Manpura-Sanjela, Lohagarh, Ambav, Parsola, Hinglaz Mata, Bharkundi
etc. In Bhukia-Jagpura area there is a cluster of more than 400 old mines (small, large,
underground etc.). Earlier these mines were thought for iron and then for copper. The recent
surveys, however, revealed that these were mainly for gold associated with copper. Tamba
Dungri near Jharka is an old copper mine site. Near Talwara deep mines for iron and manganese
are present. Lead mining sites are seen near Goj-Parla, Matia and Karbalia etc.
The old multi-metal mines exist near Ambaji or Amba Mata and Mala, (Banaskantha district),
Khandia, Barkunda and Jaban in north Gujarat. Ancient metal mines are identified at Pipli, Mal,
Anas and Lakai in Panchmahals district. The extensive metal mining activities carried out in
Amba Mata area during the past has been referred in Jain religious texts.
Based on the available information it is inferred that the metal mining continued in Kho-Dariba,
Rajpura-Dariba, Zawar and Khetri areas in eighteenth century AD. Archaeological studies
conducted in different parts of Rajasthan indicated that the initial metal mining activity in the
area is of great antiquity. Carbon dating showed a maximum age of 3040 150 years BP for
Rajpura-Dariba. Zawar (2360 50) and Agucha (2350 40) mines came later. Presence of
metal artifacts and equipments at Chalcolithic site of Ahar (Ayyad) near Udaipur bears its
testimony. Finding of ancient copper objects in Baleshwar area (east of Khetri) confirmed that it
was one of the copper sources during Indus Valley Culture (3000-1500 BC).
A NOTE ON RARE EARTH ELEMENTS
INTRODUCTION

Rare earth elements or rare earth metals are a group of seventeen elements in the Periodic Table
including Scandium, Yttrium and 15 Lanthanoids with Z ranging continuously from 57 to 71
( La Lanthanum, Ce-Cerium, Pr- Praseodymium, Nd-Neodymium, Pm- Prometheum, SmSamarium, Eu Europium, Gd Gadolinium, Tb-Terbium, Dy-Dysprosium, Ho-Homium, ErErbium, Tm- Thulium, Yb-Ytterbium and Lu- Lutetium) . Scandium and yttrium are considered
rare earths since they tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanoids and exhibit
similar chemical properties.
The term "rare earth" arises from the minerals from which they were first isolated, which were
uncommon oxide-type minerals (earths) found in Gadolinite extracted from one mine in the
village of Ytterby, Sweden. However, with the exception of the highly-unstable prometheum,
rare earth elements are found in relatively high concentrations in the earths crust with cerium
being the 25th most abundant element in the earth's crust at 68 parts per million.
USE IN INDUSTRY

Rare earth elements are used in many modern technological devices, including superconductors,
samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron high-flux rare-earth magnets, electronic polishers,
refining catalysts and hybrid car components. Rare earth ions are used as the active ions in
luminescent materials used in optioelectronics applications, most notably the Nd-YAG laser.
Erbium-doped fibre amplifiers are significant devices in optical-fibre communication systems.
Phosphorus with rare earth dopants are also widely used in cathode ray tube technology such as
television sets. The earliest color television CRTs had a poor-quality red; europium as a
phosphor dopant made good red phosphors possible. Yttrium iron garnet (YIG) spheres have
been useful as tunable microwave resonators. Rare earth oxides are mixed with Tungsten to
improve its high temperature properties for welding, replacing thorium which was mildly
hazardous to work with. Many of these are essential ingredients in mobile phones, video game
machines, computers and even green technologies. Tiny amounts of rare earths dysprosium or
terbium might soon be used in electric cars as these let batteries work at high temperatures.
WORLD PRODUCTION SCENARIO

Rare earth elements are used in many modern technological devices, including superconductors,
samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron high-flux rare-earth magnets, electronic polishers,
refining catalysts and hybrid car components. Rare earth ions are used as the active ions in
luminescent materials used in optioelectronics applications, most notably the Nd-YAG laser.
Erbium-doped fibre amplifiers are significant devices in optical-fibre communication systems.
Phosphorus with rare earth dopants are also widely used in cathode ray tube technology such as
television sets. The earliest color television CRTs had a poor-quality red; europium as a
phosphor dopant made good red phosphors possible. Yttrium iron garnet (YIG) spheres have
been useful as tunable microwave resonators. Rare earth oxides are mixed with Tungsten to
improve its high temperature properties for welding, replacing thorium which was mildly
hazardous to work with. Many of these are essential ingredients in mobile phones, video game
machines, computers and even green technologies. Tiny amounts of rare earths dysprosium or
terbium might soon be used in electric cars as these let batteries work at high temperatures.
A few sites are under development outside of China, the most significant of which are the
Nolans Project in Central Australia, the remote Hoidas lake project in northern Canada and the
Mt. Weld project in Australia. The Hoidas Lake project has the potential to supply about 10% of
the $1 billion of REE consumption that occurs in North America every year.
PROCESSING TO OBTAIN RARE EARTHS

Due to the phenomenon known as lanthanide contraction, yttrium, which is trivalent, is of

similar ionic size todysprosium and its lanthanide neighbors. Due to the relatively gradual
decrease in ionic size with increasing atomic number, the rare earth elements have always been
difficult to separate. Even with eons of geological time, geochemical separation of the
lanthanides has only rarely progressed much farther than a broad separation between light
versus heavy lanthanides, otherwise known as the cerium and yttrium earths. Rare earth
minerals, as found, usually are dominated by one group or the other, depending upon which
size-range best fits the structural lattice. Thus, among the anhydrous rare earth phosphates, it is
the tetragonal mineral xenotime that incorporates yttrium and the yttrium earths, whereas the
monoclinic monazite phase incorporates cerium and the cerium earths preferentially. The
smaller size of the yttrium group allows it a greater solid solubility in the rock-forming minerals
that comprise the earth's mantle, and thus yttrium and the yttrium earths show less enrichment
in the earth's crust, relative to chondritic abundance, than does cerium and the cerium earths.
This has economic consequences: large ore bodies of the cerium earths are known around the

world, and are being actively exploited. Corresponding ore bodies for yttrium tend to be rarer,
smaller, and less concentrated. Most of the current supply of yttrium originates in the "ion
adsorption clay" ores of Southern China. Some versions of these provide concentrates
containing about 65% yttrium oxide, with the heavy lanthanides being present in ratios
reflecting the Oddo-Harkins rule: even-numbered heavy lanthanides at abundances of about 5%
each, and odd-numbered lanthanides at abundances of about 1% each. Similar compositions are
found in xenotime or gadolinite.

OBJECTIVES:
Meeting the gap between academic knowledge and field practices to create
efficiency
Knowledge enhancement by exposing practicing geoscientists to new
developments in fields related to their specialization to create excellence
Knowledge pooling by enabling direct or indirect interaction amongst related
fields to create synergy
Human resource development related to attitudinal issues, cooperative
behavior, goal-orientation, quality consciousness, etc to create esperit-de-corps

The Geological Survey of India (GSI), established in 1851, is a

government organisation in India which is an office attached to
the Ministry of Mines of Union Government of India for conducting
geological surveys and studies. It is one of the oldest of such
organisations in the world and the second oldest survey in the
country. The GSI is the prime provider of basic earth science
information to the government, industry and the general public, as
well as responsive participant in international geoscientific fora,
the vibrant steel, coal, metals, cement and power industries.

Geological parks[edit]

Life-sized model of the extinct Elephant of Siwalik Hills at the Saketi Fossil Park. Its tusk measures 18 feet.

Saketi Fossil Park[edit]

Saketi Fossil Park is 5 km from Kala Amb, (its 85 km from Chandigarh, 65 km from Ambala, 22 km fromNahan, 110 km
from Dehradun) There is a small fossil museum showcasing fossilised remnants (skulls, teeth, jaws etc.) of various animal
groups like mammals, reptiles, fishes and esp mammals that lived aroundSiwalik Hills area about 2.5 to 1 million years ago.
The park also displays (in open) nicely made life size fibre glass models of six pre-historic animals which roamed around
Siwalik Hills area, including 18 feet tusked elephant, 3 metre giant land turtle among others.

Nehru Park[edit]

Sathanur fossilised tree trunk,18 meter in length

Nehru Park is located in Hyderabad, Telangana. The park displays life size figures of dinosaurs like T-Rex.

National Fossil Wood Park - Tiruvakkarai[edit]

National Fossil Wood Park in Tiruvakkarai is dedicated to wood fossils (petrified wood). The fossil trees are scattered over
nine separate enclaves that cover 247 acres (1.00 km2). A small portion of the park is open to the public.

National Fossil Wood Park - Sathanur[edit]

National Fossil Wood Park,[3] Sathanur, is located in Kunnam Taluk, Perambalur District, inTamil Nadu. The park has
a fossilised tree trunk, which was discovered in 1940 by Dr. M. S. Krishnan of the GSI. The petrified 18 meter tree trunk is
believed to be over 120 million years old, and is considered to be evidence for the presence of a sea during the Cretaceous
period in what is now Tamil Nadu. This national park is open to public.

Chemistry is exciting and meaningful. Chemists work on complex challenges to improve peoples lives through better
medicines, cleaner technologies and safer materials.

Chemistry is always trying to improve what is already known and is constantly trying to find new knowledge,
new discoveries that improve and transform the quality of life. Through new discoveries and a better understanding of

what is affecting our quality of life, including health, the environment and energy, chemists have sought and will
continue to produce solutions to all these problems.
- Ingrid Montes, ACS Member

The most rewarding aspect of chemistry is the possibility it gives for us to exert our creativity. The synthesis of a
new compound or the improvement in an existing technology requires a lot of creativity. I am proud to be a chemist
because I know that chemistry can help humankind solve many of our problems, such as global warming, diseases,
energy and many others.
- Claudio J.A. Mota, ACS Member

I dont know of many disciplines that open up the world the way chemistry does because it touches everything. I
would be hard pressed to think of something where chemistry isnt playing a role in the advances that we benefit from
today from breakthroughs in medicine, to nutrition, to more sustainable energy sources, to personal care products,
to biodegradable packaging, and so on.
- Mary Carmen Gasco-Buisson, ACS Member

We have to think in terms of the great promise of chemistry in the future. We must continue building on the
success of all scientists to cure disease and do other things that will help all of us as human beings, not just in the
United States, but throughout the world.
- Tom LeBon, ACS Member

"I am proud to be a chemist. Chemistry has done more to reduce the death rate and improve the quality of life than
has any other profession. In the 70 years between 1920 and 1990, life expectancy in the U.S. increased 50%, much
of that increase due to the discoveries of chemists and to products of the chemical and pharmaceutical industries.
Chlorine disinfection of water has virtually eliminated cholera and dysentery in Western countries. Insecticides control
and eliminate debilitating tropical diseases. Fungicides and artificial fertilizers allow farmers to feed an Earth that long
since would have starved, condemned to a Malthusian catastrophe. Polymers clothe and house us. Catalysts make
usable the energy that transports and warms us. Refrigerants free us from daily shopping, minimize food spoilage,
and facilitate productive settlement in warm climates. Contraceptives have changed forever women's lives. Medicinal

chemicals improve the quality of life for the infirm, and often make the difference between life and death."
- Paul Walter, former ACS President