CHAPTER

EARTHS
GRAVITATIONAL
FIELD
Remember
Before beginning this chapter, you should be able to:
recall and apply Newtons Second Law of Motion:
F = ma.

Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
make a comparison between the acceleration due to gravity at
various places over the Earths surface as well as at other
locations throughout the solar system
dene weight as the force on an object due to a gravitational
eld
explain that work done to raise or lower a mass in a
gravitational eld is directly related to a change in the
gravitational potential energy of the mass
calculate the weight of a body on Earth, above the Earth or on
other planets
dene gravitational potential energy as the work done in
moving an object from a very large distance away to a point in
a gravitational eld.

Figure 1.1 The Earth rising as seen from the Moon

Gravity is a force of attraction that exists between any two masses. Usually
this is a very small, if not negligible, force. However, when one or both of
the masses is as large as a planet, then the force becomes very signicant
indeed. The force of attraction between the Earth and our own bodies is
the force we call our weight. This force exists wherever we are on or near the
Earths surface (although, as we shall see, with some variation). We can say
that a gravitational eld exists around the Earth and we live within that eld.

1.1 THE EARTHS GRAVITY

The Earth is surrounded by a gravitational eld. This type of eld,
discussed in more general terms in chapter 4, is a vector eld within
which a mass will experience a force.
(Other vector elds include electric
and magnetic elds.) The gravitational
eld around the Earth can be drawn as
shown in gure 1.2. Note that the
direction of a eld line at any point is
the direction of the force experienced
by a mass placed at that point.
Figure 1.2 The gravitational eld around
the Earth

The eld vector: g

A eld vector is a single vector that
describes the strength and
direction of a uniform vector eld.
For a gravitational eld, the eld
vector is g.

A eld vector is a single vector that describes the strength and direction
of a uniform vector eld. For a gravitational eld the eld vector is g,
which is dened in this way:
F
g = ---m
where
F = force exerted (N) on mass m
m = mass (kg) in the eld
1
g = the eld vector (N kg ).
Vector symbols are indicated here in bold italics. The direction of the
vector g is the same as the direction of the associated force.
Note that a net force applied to a mass will cause it to accelerate.
Newtons Second Law describes this relationship:

1.1
Using a pendulum to
determine g

F
a = ---m
where
2

a = acceleration (m s ).
Hence, we can say that the eld vector g also represents the acceleration due to gravity and we can calculate its value at the Earths surface
as described below.
The Law of Universal Gravitation (discussed in more detail in
chapter 4) says that the magnitude of the force of attraction between the
Earth and an object on the Earths surface is given by:
mE mO
F = G -------------rE 2

CHAPTER 1 EARTHS GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

where
mE = the mass of the Earth
24
= 5.97 10 kg
mO = mass of the object (kg)
rE = radius of the Earth
6
= 6.38 10 m.
From the dening equation for g, on the previous page, we can see
that the force experienced by the mass can also be described by:
F = mOg.
mE mO
Equating these two we get: mOg = G -------------.
rE 2
m
This simplies to give: g = G ------E2
rE
11

24

( 6.672 10 ) ( 5.974 10 )
= ------------------------------------------------------------------------- .
6 2
( 6.378 10 )
2

Hence, g 9.80 m s .
The value of the Earths radius used here, 6378 km (at the Equator), is
2
an average value so the value of g calculated, 9.80 m s , also represents an
average value.

Variations in the value of g

Variation with geographical location
The actual value of the acceleration due to gravity, g, that will apply in a
given situation will depend upon geographical location. Minor variations
in the value of g around the Earths surface occur because:
the Earths crust or lithosphere shows variations in thickness and
structure due to factors such as tectonic plate boundaries and dense
mineral deposits. These variations can alter local values of g.
the Earth is not a perfect sphere, but is attened at the poles. This
means that the value of g will be greater at the poles, since they are
closer to the centre of the Earth.
the spin of the Earth creates a centrifuge effect that reduces the effective value of g. The effect is greatest at the Equator and there is no
effect at the poles.
As a result of these factors, the rate of acceleration due to gravity at the
surface of the Earth varies from a minimum value at the Equator of
2
2
9.782 m s to a maximum value of 9.832 m s at the poles. The usual
2
value used in equations requiring g is 9.8 m s .

Variation with altitude

The formula for g shows that the value of g will also vary with altitude
above the Earths surface. By using a value of r equal to the radius of the
Earth plus altitude, the following values can easily be calculated. It is
clear from table 1.1 that the effect of the Earths gravitational eld is felt
quite some distance out into space.
mE
The formula used is: g = G ------------------------------------.
2
( r E + altitude )
Note that as altitude increases the value of g decreases, dropping to zero
only when the altitude has an innite value.

SPACE

Table 1.1 The variation of g with altitude above Earths surface

2

ALTITUDE (km)

g (m s )

COMMENT

9.80

Earths surface

8.8

9.77

Mt Everest Summit

80

9.54

Arbitrary beginning of space

200

9.21

Mercury capsule orbit altitude

250

9.07

Space shuttle minimum orbit altitude

400

8.68

Space shuttle maximum orbit altitude

1 000

7.32

Upper limit for low Earth orbit

40 000

0.19

Communications satellite orbit altitude

Variation with planetary body

The formula for g also shows that the value of g depends upon the mass
and radius of the central body which, in examples so far, has been the
Earth. Other planets and natural satellites (moons) have a variety of
masses and radii, so that the value of g elsewhere in our solar system can
be quite different from that on Earth. The following table presents a few
examples.
m planet
-.
The formula used here is: g = G ------------r planet 2

1.2
Weight values in the solar system
and g

Table 1.2 A comparison of g on the surface of other planetary bodies

BODY

MASS (kg)

Moon

7.35 10

Mars

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1.1

SOLUTION

RADIUS (km)

g (m s )

22

1 738

1.6

23

3 397

3.7

27

71 492

24.8

22

1 151

6.42 10

Jupiter

1.90 10

Pluto

1.31 10

0.66

Determining acceleration due to gravity above the Moon

For each of the Apollo lunar landings, the command module continued
orbiting the Moon at an altitude of about 110 km, awaiting the return of
the Moon walkers. Determine the value of acceleration due to gravity at
that altitude above the surface of the Moon (the radius of the Moon is
1738 km).
mM
-2
g = G -------------------------------------( r M + altitude )
11

22

( 6.67 10 ) ( 7.35 10 )
= ------------------------------------------------------------------6
5 2
( 1.738 10 + 1.1 10 )
= 1.4 m s

That is, the acceleration due to gravity operating on the orbiting command
2
module was approximately 1.4 m s .

CHAPTER 1 EARTHS GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

1.2 WEIGHT
Weight is dened as the force on a
mass due to the gravitational eld
of a large celestial body, such as
the Earth.

Weight is dened as the force on a mass due to the gravitational eld of a

large celestial body, such as the Earth. Since it is a force, it is measured in
newtons. We can use Newtons Second Law to dene a simple formula
for weight:
Newtons Second Law states:
F = ma
and hence:
W = mg
where
W = weight (N)
m = mass (kg)
2
g = acceleration due to gravity at that place (m s ).

W
W
F

Figure 1.3 There is always a gravitational force between any two masses. When one of the
masses is as large as a planet, the force on a small mass is called weight.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1.2
SOLUTION

Many numerical HSC questions

allocate marks for working. These
marks are earned at the substitution
line; that is, the line following the
formula into which data values are
correctly substituted. Usually no
marks are awarded for a formula on
its own. You should develop the habit
of showing all your workings,
especially the substitution line.

Determining the weight of an astronaut

What would be the weight of a 100 kg astronaut (a) on the Earth, (b) on
the Moon and (c) in an orbiting space shuttle?
Use the values of g shown in tables 1.1 and 1.2. Note that the astronauts
mass does not change with position but weight does.
(a) On the Earth

WE = mgE
= 100 9.8
= 980 N

(b) On the Moon

WM = mgM
= 100 1.6
= 160 N

(c) In orbit

WO = mgO
= 100 8.68 (at maximum altitude)

= 868 N
There is an apparent contradiction in this last answer. The astronaut in
orbit still has a considerable weight, rather than being weightless. However, the answer is correct because, as we have already seen, the Earths
gravitational eld extends quite some distance out into space. Why then
do space shuttle astronauts experience weightlessness? As we shall see
later, the weightlessness they feel is not real but only apparent, and is a
consequence of their orbital motion around the Earth.

SPACE

1.3 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

ENERGY
Gravitational potential energy, Ep,
is the energy of a mass due to its
position within a gravitational
eld. On a large scale,
gravitational potential energy is
dened as the work done to move
an object from innity (or some
point very far away) to a point
within a gravitational eld.

Point x

Work done = Fr = mgh

Ground

Figure 1.4 Gravitational potential

energy, Ep = work done to move up
to the point from the ground (the
zero level)

Gravitational potential energy, Ep, is the energy of a mass due to its position
within a gravitational eld. Here on Earth, the Ep of an object at some point,
x, above the ground is easily found as it is equal to the work done to move
the object from the ground up to the point, x, as shown in gure 1.4.
Gravitational potential energy Ep = work done to move to the point
= force required distance moved
(since work W = Fr)
= (mg) h = mgh
Hence, in this case Ep = mgh. We chose the ground as our starting point
because this is our dened zero level; that is, the place where Ep = 0. Note
that since work must be done on the object to lift it, it acquires energy.
Hence, at point x, Ep is greater than zero.
On a larger, planetary scale we need to rethink our approach. Due to the
inverse square relationship in the Law of Universal Gravitation, the force of
attraction between a planet and an object will drop to zero only at an innite
distance from the planet. For this reason we will now choose innity (or
some point a very large distance away) as our level of zero potential energy.
There is a strange side effect of our choice of zero level. Because gravitation is a force of attraction, work must be done on the object to move it
from a point, x, to innity; that is, against the eld so that it gains energy, Ep.
Therefore, Ep at innity > Ep at point x
but Ep at innity = 0
so that Ep at point x < 0
that is, Ep at point x has a negative value! (see gure 1.5)

Planet

Work must be done to move a mass against a gravitational field.

Point x
Ep at surface

<

Ep at x

<

Ep at
(= 0 by our definition)

Figure 1.5 Different levels of Ep.

If we choose a planets surface as the
zero level, Ep at x has a positive value.
If innity is chosen as the zero level,
Ep has a negative value.

CHAPTER 1 EARTHS GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

Using the same approach as earlier, the gravitational potential

energy, Ep, of an object at a point, x, in a gravitational eld is equal to
the work done to move the object from the zero energy level at
innity (or some point very far away) to point x. It can be shown
mathematically that:
m1 m2
Ep = G -----------r
where
m1 = mass of planet (kg)
m2 = mass of object (kg)
r = distance separating masses (m).
Figure 1.6 graphs this relationship to show how Ep varies in value in the
space around a planet.

Ep

rp

G mmp
rp

Figure 1.6 A graph showing how the negative value for gravitational potential energy, Ep,
increases with distance up to a maximum value of zero

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1.3

Gravitational potential energy in the SunEarthMoon system

Given the following data, determine the gravitational potential energy of:
(a) the Moon within the Earths gravitational eld
(b) the Earth within the Suns gravitational eld.
24

Mass of the Earth

= 5.97 10 kg

Mass of the Moon

= 7.35 10 kg

Mass of the Sun

= 1.99 10 kg

22
30
8

EarthMoon distance = 3.84 10 m on average

EarthSun distance

SOLUTION

(a)

11

= 1.50 10 m on average (one astronomical

unit, AU)

mE mM
Ep = G -------------r
11

24

22

( 6.67 10 ) ( 5.97 10 ) ( 7.35 10 )

= --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
( 3.84 10 )
28

= 7.62 10 J
That is, the gravitational potential energy of the Moon is approxi28
mately 7.62 10 J. Put another way, the work that would be done in

SPACE

moving the Moon from a very large distance away from Earth to its
28
current distance would be 7.62 10 J.
(b)

mE mS
Ep = G -----------r
11

24

30

( 6.67 10 ) ( 5.97 10 ) ( 1.99 10 )

= --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
( 1.50 10 )
33

= 5.28 10 J
That is, the gravitational potential energy of the Earth is approxi33
mately 5.28 10 J. The negative sign indicates that this would be
work done by the system (not on the system) in moving the Earth
from a very large distance away from the Sun to its present orbital distance. This negative work represents potential energy lost by the
system as the Earth and the Sun are brought together (converted into
other forms of energy, most probably kinetic). Since the Ep is reduced
below the zero level (see gure 1.6), it is quite appropriate that it
should appear as a negative value.
This missing energy actually lends stability to a system, since the Earth
would need to get this amount of energy back from somewhere if ever it
were to separate from the Sun. It can be thought of as binding energy,
since the lack of this energy binds a system together.

CHAPTER 1 EARTHS GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

SUMMARY
The eld vector g describes the strength and
direction of the gravitational eld at any point.
At the surface of the Earth it has an average
1
2
value of 9.8 N kg or m s .
The value of g at any specic point on the Earths
surface can vary from the average gure due to
a number of factors. It will also vary with altitude.
Weight is the force on an object due to a signicant gravitational eld (W = mg).
The gravitational potential energy of an object
at some point within a gravitational eld is
equivalent to the work done in moving the
object from an innite distance to that point.
m1 m2
Ep = G -----------r

QUESTIONS
1. Dene weight.
2. In general terms only, describe the variation in
g that would be experienced in a spacecraft
travelling directly from the planet Mars to its
moon, Phobos, 9380 km away.
3. The gravitational eld vector g has an average
1
value, on the surface of the Earth, of 9.8 N kg
2
or m s . Show that the two alternative units
quoted are equivalent.
4. Complete the following table to calculate the
acceleration due to gravity and weight force
experienced by an 80 kg person standing on
the surface of each of the planets or moons
indicated.

MASS
(kg)

CHAPTER REVIEW

BODY

RADIUS
(km)
23

2440

24

6052

22

1821

23

2410

Mercury

3.30 10

Venus

4.87 10
8.94 10

Io
Callisto

10

1.08 10

SPACE

g ON
SURFACE
2
(m s )

WEIGHT OF
80 kg
PERSON
THERE (N)

5. The moon of Pluto, Charon (pronounced

Kair-on), discovered in 1978, is one of the
largest moons, in proportion to its planet or
dwarf planet (as Pluto is), in the solar system.
21
(a) The mass of Charon is 1.62 10 kg while
22
the mass of Pluto is 1.31 10 kg. Calculate the ratio of the mass of Charon to the
mass of Pluto.
(b) The radius of Charon is 593 km and the
radius of Pluto is 1151 km. Calculate the
ratio of the radius of Charon to the radius
of Pluto.
(c) Calculate the ratio of the density of
Charon to the density of Pluto.
(d) Calculate the ratio of g on Charon to g on
Pluto.
6. Identify four different factors that cause the
value of g to vary around the Earth.
7. Construct a graph that shows the value of g
each 5000 km above the surface of the Earth
up to an altitude of 40 000 km (which corresponds to the altitude of communications
satellites). The mass of the Earth is
24
5.97 10 kg and the radius of the Earth is
6378 km at the Equator.
8. Dene gravitational potential energy Ep.
9. Explain the reason for the selection of innity
as the place of zero gravitational potential
energy.
10. Explain how this selection of zero level results
in any point within a gravitational eld having
a negative gravitational potential energy.
11. Calculate the gravitational potential energy of
a 1000 kg communications satellite orbiting
the Earth at an altitude of 40 000 km. Use the
data provided in question 7.
12. Use the following data to calculate the gravitational potential energy of (a) Callisto as it
orbits within Jupiters gravitational eld, and
(b) Jupiter as it orbits within the Suns gravitational eld.
27
Mass of Jupiter = 1.90 10 kg
23
Mass of Callisto = 1.08 10 kg
30
Mass of the Sun = 1.99 10 kg
9
JupiterCallisto distance = 1.88 10 m
on average
11
JupiterSun distance = 7.78 10 m
on average

Aim

Results

To determine the rate of acceleration due to

gravity using the motion of a pendulum.

Copy the table below into your practical book to

record your results, and then complete the other
columns of information.

Apparatus
retort stand
bosshead and clamp
approximately 1 metre of string
50 g mass carrier or pendulum bob
stopwatch
metre rule

Theory

TRIAL

TIME FOR 10
OSCILLATIONS
(s)

PERIOD
T (s)

PERIOD
SQUARED
2 2
T (s )

LENGTH OF
PENDULUM
(m)

1
2
3

When a simple pendulum swings with a small

angle, the mass on the end performs a good
approximation of the back-and-forth motion called
simple harmonic motion. The period of the pendulum, that is, the time taken to complete a single
full back-and-forth swing, depends upon just two
variables: the length of the string and the rate of
acceleration due to gravity. The formula for the
period is as shown below:
l
T = 2 -g
where
T = period of the pendulum (s)
l = length of the pendulum (m)
2
g = rate of acceleration due to gravity (m s ).

Method
1. Set up the retort stand and clamp on the edge
of a desk as shown in gure 1.7. Tie on the string
and adjust its length to about 90 cm before
Bosshead
attaching the 50 g mass
and clamp
carrier or pendulum
bob to its end.
Pendulum
2. Using the metre rule,
carefully measure the
length of the pendulum
Retort
String
stand
from the knot at its top
to the base of the mass
carrier. Enter this length
in your results table.
Mass
3. Set
the
pendulum
carrier
swinging gently (30
maximum
deviation
Figure 1.7 Apparatus for
from
vertical)
and use
practical activity 1.1

4
5

Draw a graph of period squared versus length of

2
the pendulum. Plot T on the vertical axis and
length on the horizontal axis.

Analysis
1. Your graph should display a straight-line
relationship. Draw a line of best t and evaluate
the gradient.
2. Rearrange the pendulum equation given earlier
to the form, T 2 = kl, where k is a combination of
constants.
3. Compare this formula with the general
equation for a straight line: y = kx. This com2
parison shows that if T forms the y-axis and
length, l, forms the x-axis, the expression you
derived for k in step 2 should correspond to the
gradient of the graph you have drawn. Write
down your expression:
gradient =
(complete).
4. Use your expression to calculate a value for g,
the acceleration due to gravity.

Questions
1. This method usually produces very accurate
results. Can you suggest a reason why it should
be so reliable?
2. What are the sources of error in this experiment?
3. What could you do to improve the method of
this experiment to make it even more accurate?

CHAPTER 1 EARTHS GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

11

PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES

1.1 USING A
PENDULUM TO
DETERMINE g

the stopwatch to time 10 complete back-andforth swings. Be sure to start and stop the stopwatch at an extreme of the motion rather than
somewhere in the middle. Enter your time for
10 swings in the results table.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 at least ve times, after
shortening the string by 5 cm each time.

1.2 WEIGHT
VALUES IN THE
SOLAR SYSTEM
AND g
Aim
To research g and weight values throughout the
solar system.

Theory
The value of g on the surface of a planet depends
upon the mass of the planet and its radius. The
equation relating these variables is:
m planet
-.
g = G ------------2
r planet

Method
The table below lists the 16 most massive objects in
our solar system, excluding the Sun, in descending

order of mass. However, the mass values and radii

have not been provided. Conduct research to determine these gures and then perform the calculations to complete the table as shown.

Analysis
Draw a bar graph of your results, with the bodies in
their mass order along the horizontal axis, and
acceleration due to gravity on the vertical axis. You
may be surprised at some of the results.

Questions
1. How does g on Jupiter compare with the rest of
the plotted results?
2. How does g on Saturn, Neptune, Uranus and
Venus compare with g on Earth?
3. How does g on Uranus compare with g on
Venus?
4. How does g on Mars compare with g on
Mercury?
5. How does g on all of the natural satellites
(moons) listed compare with g on Pluto?
6. There is some debate over whether Pluto
should be downgraded in ofcial status from a
planet. Can you provide one good argument

Results
A comparison of gravity throughout the solar system

PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES

BODY

CENTRE OF ORBIT

Jupiter

Sun

Saturn

Sun

Neptune

Sun

Uranus

Sun

Earth

Sun

Venus

Sun

Mars

Sun

Mercury

Sun

Ganymede

Jupiter

Titan

Saturn

Callisto

Jupiter

Io

Jupiter

Moon

Earth

Europa

Jupiter

Triton

Neptune

Pluto

Sun

12

SPACE

MASS (kg)

RADIUS (km)

g ON SURFACE
2
(m s )

WEIGHT OF
100 kg PERSON ON
SURFACE (N)