Orff-Schulwerk Applications in Greek Settings

University of Reading
School of Education
ORFF-SCHULWERK APPLICATIONS
IN GREEK SETTINGS
Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Dimitris Varelas
2002
ABSTRACT
This research studies the applicability of the Orff-Schulwerk principles to Greek culture. Orff-Schulwerka well known creative music
and movement teaching approach which strongly supports the use
of folk musicmeets a worldwide popularity among primary
schools and kindergarten syllabuses.
Through a qualitative approach, the research focuses on issues that
emerged from an extensive literature review. Data were collected
through observations of Orff-Schulwerk classes at the Orff-Institute
in Salzburg and in three Orff classes in Athens; through interviewing
eminent Orff teachers both in Salzburg and in Athens; and the examination of transcriptions of Orff-Schulwerk practices both in Salzburg and in Athens.
Generally speaking, the findings from the observations and interviews indicate that some aspects of the Greek Orff-Schulwerk's adaptation, such as the nature of Greek language and Greek traditional
music, which would form the basic Orff-Schulwerk teaching material
in Greece, have not been studied adequately.
The study recommends a fundamental reexamination of the teaching
material which must derive from the special cultural idiom of each
district of Greece; a review of movement activities in the light of the
nature of folk dances; an enrichment of the Orff instrumentarium
with folk instruments; an exploration of the potential for creativity
through improvisational activities involving all the above new teaching material. All these changes will eventually lead into freeing
Greek Orff teachers from reproducing the German model of OrffSchulwerk.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I realise, of course, that I will never be able to adequately express my
gratitude and admiration to my supervisor, Professor Anthony
Kemp for his patience and guidance throughout this study. I am
grateful to him for his supervision but also for his kindness and wisdom.
I would also like to thank the three eminent members of the Orff Institute in Salzburg, Professor Hermann Regner, Professor Barbara
Haselbach and Professor Ulrike Jungmair for their willingness to
share their vast experience on Orff-Schulwerk.
I must also thank the three Orff teachers and their students for their
collaboration in the project. Without them this study would not have
been possible.
Moreover, I sincerely wish to thank my friends Panagiotis Kanellopoulos and Pam Burnard for their advice and assistance. Also, I
feel deeply obliged to Pat Parry and all of the staff in the Library for
their assistance.
Finally, I wish to thank my wife Efi whose ongoing encouragement
and inspiration I truly value.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Chapter One: The psychology of children's musical development and learning
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
10
12
18
23
28
33
Imitation
Movement
Rhythm and speech
Improvisation and creativity
Instrument playing
Summary
Chapter two: Orff-Schulwerk
37
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
37
40
44
45
48
50
53
53
55
55
57
58
History
Philosophy and pedagogy
Elemental music
Movement
Improvisation and creativity
Speech
Singing
Using instruments
Ostinato
Folk music
Other applications
Summary
Chapter three: World wide adaptations of Orff-Schulwerk

3.1
3.2
World wide adaptations

Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, Malta, Czech Republic,
USA, Canada, Argentine, Brazil, Colombia, Australia, Japan, Taiwan,
Thailand, India, Indonesia, Philippines, South Africa, Ghana, Iran
Summary
59
61
71
Chapter four: Orff-Schulwerk in Greece
75
4.1
4.2
75
76
76
77
78
80
80
84
85
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.2.1
4.2.2
The introduction of Orff-Schulwerk

Orff-Schulwerk and Greek music education
The public sector
The private sector
The Moraitis School
The Mathy School
Music for Children Greek adaptation
Analysis of song arrangements
Summary
Chapter five: Greek music and oral tradition
87
5.1
87
89
95
96
97
98
99
102
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
The nature of Greek traditional music

Melody, rhythm and accompaniment
Folk songs and dances
Oral tradition
Oral tradition and the function of folk songs
Oral transmission
Language and rhymes
Summary
Chapter six: The research process
105
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
105
107
109
112
113
117
119
The focus of the research

The research design
Participant observations
Interviews with members of the Orff Institute
Non-participant observations
Interviews with Orff teachers
Data analysis and interpretation
Chapter seven: The Orff-Institute seminar: experiencing Schulwerk in action
123
7.1
7.2
7.3
123
124
126
126
127
130
132
134
135
137
138
142
146
148
151
154
7.4
7.5
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.6
7.4.1
7.4.2
7.4.3
7.4.4
7.4.6
The site
The beginning
Participant observation of workshops
Dance and voice
Movement and senses
Instrument playing: a form of communication
Improvisation and communication
Creativity in team work
The "elemental" in personal improvement
Interviews with Schulwerk tutors
Interpreting the teaching of Schulwerk
The adaptation of Schulwerk
Instrumentarium
Indigenous culture
The Greek adaptation
Summary
Chapter eight: School A: A private dance school
157
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
157
158
159
161
161
161
165
167
170
171
174
178
181
8.6
8.7
8.5.1
8.5.2
8.5.3
8.5.4
8.5.5
8.5.6
The setting
The teacher
The children
The teaching material
Schulwerk practices
Movement improvisation in 9/8
The dramatization of a custom
Towards a rhythmic improvisation
Background music to a poem
Playing small percussion instruments in 7/8
Rhythmic improvisation in 9/8
The teacher's perception
Commentary
Chapter nine: School B: A municipal music school
187
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
187
188
188
189
190
190
193
197
198
202
204
207
9.6
9.7
9.5.1
9.5.2
9.5.3
9.5.4
9.5.5
The setting
The teacher
The children
Orff-Schulwerk practices
Using xylophones to teach a tune
Movement and dancing in simple and compound beats
Teaching the accompaniment of a tune on the xylophones
Exploring 7/8 through visual and audio stimuli
A poem set to music by the children
Commentary
Chapter ten: School C: A state primary school
213
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
213
214
215
216
217
217
219
223
225
226
228
230
232
234
237
10.6
10.7
10.5.1
10.5.2
10.5.3
10.5.4
10.5.5
10.5.6
10.5.7
10.5.8
The setting
The teacher
The children
Schulwerk practices
Hand gestures as a means to conceive rhythm and melody
From movement improvisation to round dancing
Using interactive learning to introduce a custom
Accompanying a song with unpitched percussion instruments
Another way into movement improvisation
Rhythmic development through speech games
The dramatization of a song
Creative listening through pantomime
Commentary
Chapter eleven: Orff-Schulwerk practices compared
243
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
244
246
248
250
252
254
Movement activities
Speech activities
Opportunities for creativity
The use of instruments
The use of indigenous material
Summary
Chapter twelve: Discussion and conclusions
257
12.1
12.2
259
259
262
264
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.2.1
12.2.2
12.2.3
12.2.4
The Orff principles

Orff-Schulwerk in practice
Tracing the inherent nature of movement
Speech and the unexplored capacities
Improvisation as an inherent component of musical
development
Playing technique and the education of the senses
Material from indigenous culture
Summary
Implications for music education
An appraisal of the study
References
APPENDICES
266
268
271
276
278
281
283
APPENDICES
Appendix A
Speech activities from a book by Lebesi and Tsaftaridis
Appendix B
Training course of the Moraitis school
Appendix C
Sample lesson from the Moraitis schoolrhythmic arrangement
Appendix D
Sample lesson from the Moraitis schooltraditional song
Appendix E
Arrangement of a traditional song by Mathy Chortarakia
Appendix F
An activity from a book by Mathy and Slavic
Appendix G
Arrangement of a children song by Zervoudakis
Appendix H
A children folk song from a book by Tsaftaridis
Appendix I
The list of questions from the interviews with the three Orff teachers
Appendix J
The list of questions from the interviews with the children
Appendix K
The programme of the Salzburg seminar
Appendix L
The list of questions from the Salzburg interviews
Appendix M
Sample lesson from a session with AtesoglouPirpirouna
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Movement explorations
A rhythm pattern on children's names
46
51
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
A folk melody in Souzinak mode

Sub-units of traditional modes
A Hijazkar mode
A tempered and an untempered tetrachord
Laouto fingerings
A traditional melody and the accompanying chords
90
91
91
91
92
92
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5
Figure 7.6
Yons rhombus of human behaviour

An Arabic macamHijazkar
The song of colours
A picture representing routes of everyday life
A line representing changes of volume in time
A traditional song arranged by Mathy"Militsa"
126
127
128
129
130
152
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
Figure 8.7
Figure 8.8
The rhythm of a folk song in 9/8Niktolouloudo

The Niktolouloudo and the accompanying movements
The pirpirouna a song in 7/8
A rhythmic canon for two groups
The first two lines of a Christmas poem and its accompaniment
Words of percussion instruments matched to a rhythmic pattern
Words adapted to a rhythmic pattern in 9/8
Canon for xylophones
162
163
165
169
171
173
175
177
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.2
Figure 9.3
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.5
Figure 9.6
Figure 9.7
Figure 9.8
Figure 9.9
A Christmas children song"The sheep are sleeping"

Rhythmic patterns played on the bongos
Words adapted to a rhythmic pattern
A new year carol from Ikariaan Aegean sea island
Words adjusted to a rhythmic pattern
A kind of rhythm notation invented by a child
A phrase matching a rhythmic pattern
A traditional song"A crab is married"
Children's collective composition on a poem
190
194
195
196
199
200
201
201
204
Figure 10.1
Figure 10.2
Figure 10.3
Figure 10.4
Figure 10.5
Figure 10.6
An Athenian Christmas carol

Rhythmic patterns played on a hand drum
A rhythmic pattern played on a hand drum
A new year carol from Thrace
A traditional children song
A song about snow
218
220
221
224
231
233
LIST OF TABLES
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
The most common Greek folk music modes

Rhythms and rhythmical patterns from different regions of Greece
88
94
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
The methodology of the study

The dates of the observed lessons in the three Orff schools
108
115
Table 8.1
Table 8.2
Table 8.3
Table 8.4
Table 8.5
The content of the first lesson in School A

The content of the second lesson in School A
The content of the forth lesson in School A
The content of the fifth lesson in School A
The content of each lesson in School A
161
167
172
174
182
Table 9.1
Table 9.2
Table 9.3
Table 9.4
Table 9.5
The content of the first lesson in School B

The content of the second lesson in School B
The content of the third lesson in School B
The content of the fifth lesson in School B
The content of each lesson in School B
190
193
198
202
208
Table 10.1
Table 10.2
Table 10.3
Table 10.4
Table 10.5
The content of the second lesson in School C

The content of the third lesson in School C
The content of the fourth lesson in School C
The content of the fifth lesson in School C
The content of each lesson in School C
217
223
228
232
238
Table 11.1
Table 11.2
Number of children and instruments in the three Orff schools

Similarities in the use of teaching material of the three teachers
251
255
TABLE OF CD TRACKS
Track
Title
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Niktolouloudo
The Niktolouloudo and the accompanying sound gestures
The pirpirouna
A rhythmic canon
Christmas poem
Words of percussion instruments matched to a rhythmic pattern
Words adapted to a rhythmic pattern in 9/8
Canon for xylophones
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
"The sheep are sleeping"

Rhythmic patterns played on the bongos
Words adapted to a rhythmic pattern
A new year carol from Ikariaan Aegean sea island
Words adjusted to a rhythmic pattern
"A crab is married"
Children's composition
16
17
18
19
20
21
An Athenian Christmas carol

Rhythmic patterns played on a hand drum
A rhythmic pattern played on a hand drum
A new year carol from Thrace
A traditional children song
A song about snow
Introduction
Introduction
"One should not expect any significant development of the Schulwerk in a given culture in less than twenty-five years. In western-oriented cultures, where rapid change
is expected and better models in every field are constantly sought, the Schulwerk
pedagogy may well be discarded as outdated before even a small portion of its potential has been realised". (Regner, 1984 in Shamrock, 1988, p. 269)
The motivation for this study arose from an awareness of music curriculum
changes in Greece which included issues relating to teaching method. In broad
terms, these changes included a shift from music theory to music making. As a
result, such terms as creativity, moving to music and active listening emerged
to the foreground. As a result of my teaching, in primary schools in particular,
I became increasingly aware of the difficulties for teachers who needed to adjust to the requirements of the new school syllabus in order to meet the needs
of their students. In 1994, a newly-issued book (Lebesi and Tsaftaridis, 1994),
aiming to facilitate the teaching of music in primary schools, attracted my attention; a book overtly influenced by Orff's pedagogical ideas. The publication
of this book contributed to my growing interest in the impact of OrffSchulwerk on Greek schools.
Orff-Schulwerk is a pedagogical approach to music teaching created and developed in the thirties and forties by Carl Orff. It is a model for the teaching of
music and was never conceived as a method for a particular standard or age
group. With Orff-Schulwerk, children experience satisfaction by creating their
own music. Schulwerk is schooling through working (Jungmair, 1996), that is,
through being active and creative. Orff-Schulwerk is based on activities that
children like to do; they learn music by hearing and making music, while
Introduction
reading and writing comes later. Therefore, it seemed to me that OrffSchulwerk, as a music teaching approach, could meet the current demands of
the Greek curriculum.
Of particular influence, at that stage, was Regner's claim, cited above, that
Orff-Schulwerk, as a music-teaching pedagogical idea, is transferable to any
country, although this may take some time. Accordingly, the first question
that came to me was whether Orff-Schulwerk as it is applied to Greece is successfully adapted to the Greek culture. To answer this, I started a preliminary
literature review on the dissemination of Orff-Schulwerk. Greece is one of approximately forty countries where Orff-Schulwerk is currently practised. In
the early nineteen sixties, after the initial international expansion of OrffSchulwerk, it became clear that a direct translation of Schulwerk materials into
other languages would not do justice to Orff's educational ideas (Haselbach,
1992). Any adaptation of Orff-Schulwerk had to come through a deep understanding of the culture for which it was to be adapted. Many countries had
problems in applying Orff-Schulwerk, because (a) they wished to maintain
their individual ethnic cultural identity, (b) they could not afford to buy the
Orff instruments, or (c) they had difficulties in accepting an integrated approach to music teaching through the unity of music, speech and movement,
which is one of the basic Orff-Schulwerk principles (Shamrock, 1988).
In Greece as well, ever since its initiation in the early 1960s, Orff-Schulwerk
has been taught in a private school in Athens. Only during the last ten years
have other music schools in Athens and Thessaloniki incorporated it into their
curriculum. Searching for the reasons that delayed the spread of OrffSchulwerk in Greece, I was led into a broader exploration of Orff-Schulwerk
applications in Greece. In Greece, the model presented at introductory OrffSchulwerk workshops always assumes western musical forms. Accordingly,
as an examination of the Greek publications on Orff-Schulwerk may reveal,
Orff teachers themselves have to find their own ways of incorporating Greek
traditional music into their teaching. Since the influences on western culture
have been present in Greece for the last century, one might make the case that
the western model is as appropriate for Greek children as for children in other
parts of Europe. However, if we assume that Orff-Schulwerk in Greece is
westernised with some elements of traditional music, then a number of questions will emerge, given the fact that Greek traditional music has completely
Introduction
different characteristics compared to western forms of music. Does this mean

that Orff teachers have successfully adapted Orff-Schulwerk or, following the
needs of folk music, have departed from the Orff principles? On the other
hand, if they keep close to the original model, does this mean that they have
failed to incorporate Greek traditional music?
Consequently, I had to explore the factors that affect Orff-Schulwerk applications in Greece, including (a) Orff-Schulwerk principles, (b) the nature of
Greek traditional music, (c) techniques used by Orff teachers in Athens and in
Salzburgthe "headquarters" of Orff-Schulwerkand (d) teachers' perceptions about Orff-Schulwerk principles. This research investigated the teaching
of Orff-Schulwerk in a small number of music education institutions in
Greece. The purpose of the research was not to study every Orff-Schulwerk
application in Greece or the efficiency of certain Greek Orff teachers, but
rather to examine the applicability of the basic Orff principles in the Greek culture. In order to provide a context for the research, a brief description is given
of those aspects of the Orff principles which are considered relevant to the initial outline of the purpose of the research.
The study began with a literature review examining the nature of Greek traditional music, the principles of Orff-Schulwerk and cases of countries where
Orff-Schulwerk has been adapted. Then selective aspects of Schulwerk were
chosen for examination through the field study that took place in the Orff Institute in Salzburg and in three schools in Athens. The field study consisted of
participant and non-participant observations, as well as interviews. The results
of observations and interviews in both Salzburg and Athens were analysed
and juxtaposed. This analysis aimed to detect any possible mismatch between
the original Orff-Schulwerk and its adaptation in Greece.
The structure of the thesis is as follows. The first five chapters are concerned
with reviewing relevant aspects of the literature. Chapter 1 explores different
psychological facets related to children's music learning. The rationale that
underlies this chapter is to provide a psychological background for the OrffSchulwerk approach. Music learning, in modern music education, takes into
consideration parameters like movement and language that have been proved
to play a vital role in childrens musical development. Imitation and improvisation are also examined because of their principal role in the teaching of Orff
Introduction
Schulwerk.
Chapter 2 aims to show the nature of Schulwerk as it appears in many documents written by Orff himself and Orff's adherents around the world. It also
includes perspectives of some Orff teachers, who in their attempt to understand what they do and why, write articles and short accounts about their
work. Notwithstanding, the available sources are limited as most Orff teachers
are people of action, not theory.
Chapter 3 examines cases of Orff-Schulwerk adaptations, by focusing on the
problems of Orff-Schulwerk applications in different western and non-western
countries. The results from Schulwerk's application, in some of these countries, are significant for the case of Greece, as well.
Chapter 4 investigates the status of Orff-Schulwerk in Greece. In particular, a
critical presentation of the Orff courses and workshops and the relevant teaching material available is attempted. This chapter will also supply the necessary
background information for chapters 8, 9 and 10 where the teaching of OrffSchulwerk in Greece is examined in detail.
Chapter 5 aims to describe Greek folk music with occasional references to the
circumstances and social phenomena that generated it. A special emphasis is
placed on those characteristics which are not discernible at a glance but play
such an important role when it comes to the teaching of this music. The importance of language in traditional music and the importance of the songs' context
are especially emphasised. It appears that these parameters of music, gradually regain the place that they rightly deserve in modern music teaching methods.
Chapter 6 analyses the methodology used in each phase of the investigation
and justifies the choice of each research tool in relation to the research questions. In general, the chapter examines various aspects of qualitative research
and explains the techniques adopted for the investigation.
Chapter 7 is the first chapter of the fieldwork and includes observations and
interviews that took place in Salzburg. Although there are some particular
elements of Schulwerk that preoccupy the study, this chapter documents the
Introduction
teaching activities of the tutors throughout the seminar, because, in fact, each
one of them covered a specific area of Schulwerk. The three interviews that
follow are dominated by the issue of adaptation which is a central issue of this
study.
The next three chapters, Chapters 8, 9 and 10, present three cases of OrffSchulwerk applications in Greece. In the first part of each chapter, specific
characteristics of the school, the music programme, the teacher, and the setting
are delineated. In the second part, the researcher attempts an objective, unbiased description of teaching situations in each of the three schools as it revealed itself through observations and video analysis of the lessons. A commentary that discusses the profile of each case concludes the chapters.
Chapter 11 attempts an in-depth analysis of the data, following the same categorisation of activities that were adopted in chapter 7: movement, speech,
creativity and use of instruments. The use of indigenous material is also examined as it is of the utmost importance for the applicability of Orff-Schulwerk.
Chapter 12 reexamines the research questions in the light of the findings, analysing the given answers. The findings from the literature review on the psychology of children's musical development and Greek traditional music are
also discussed in the wider context of Orff-Schulwerk's application in Greece.
Some recommendations for the future of Orff-Schulwerk in Greece and for
music education in general are proposed at the end of the thesis.
Introduction
Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning
Chapter one: The psychology of childrens musical development and learning
Although, as Hargreaves (1986) remarks, the days of grand theories that

embrace all psychological aspects have long since gone, nevertheless, there is
still a considerable diversity of theoretical approaches concerning musical development. A recent surge of interest in developmental psychology is noted,
partly because it permeates other areas of studies, such as the biological and
cognitive. Musical ability has been acknowledged as a more discrete area of
ability than general concept formation, problem solving or social learning, and
consequently was not well suited for inclusion in global theories of child development (Rogers, 1990). Most of the research that has been carried out in
music psychology has been rooted in the tradition of westernmainly Europeantonal music. Even within the premise that the explanations of childrens musical behaviour are not necessarily universal but western-oriented,
there are still controversial approaches. For example, and as Rogers (1990)
states, the majority of these theories do not deal with music learning for very
young children, often in western culture there is neither the expectation nor
the practice of teaching specific music skills to these ages; the expectations
though are higher for children of the primary school.
Because of its applicability to music education the cognitive-developmental
branch of psychology has many advocates. According to this theory the individual child is seen as interacting with the environment; interactions that
stimulate and trace the cognitive elements of the developing child (Davidson
and Scripp, 1989). Therefore, the cognitive component of this theory is traced,
in the proposition that children make sense of their environment by means of
internal schemas which, according to Piaget, form the internal framework on
which the child assimilates new knowledge and experience (Bamberger, 1982).
According to maturational theory the child has a set of desirable traits that
should unfold together with some undesirable traits that should be brought
under control (Davidson and Scripp, 1989). The behavioural approach to music learning is also extremely practical as it pays attention to overt, externally
observable behaviour (Hargreaves, 1986). This theory can therefore be used as
a link between theory and practice, as behavioural techniques have been used
to modify musical behaviour in various practical settings. Another theory of
musical development that gains more and more ground is the cultural transmission theory which is related to the social nature of learning. Vygotskys notion of the zone of proximal development, according to which there is a distance between the actual development level and the potential development
under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers, is a typical
example of this theory. Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976) used the term scaffolding in order to describe the forms of support that an adult provides to help a
child to perform a task.
Longitudinal studies of young children, such as those of Moog, Davidson,
McKernon and Gardner, have contributed much to our understanding of
development. Until now, however, only a few researchers, like Bamberger,
Pflederer, Dowling, Davidson, and Serafine, have focused on major qualitative
changes, for the majority of research is focused on a specific domain of musical development, such as singing or composing, ignoring that various aspects
of musical behaviour have different courses of development. According to
Koopman (1995), the only comprehensive view is offered by Swanwick and
Tillmans spiral developmental theory together with Gardners two stage
theories, in which several stages are distinguished. Koopman, amongst other
researchers, severely criticises the above-mentioned theories as far as their incontestable applicability to all areas of musical development is concerned.
The educational processes, procedures and evaluations are strongly influenced
by the view that one adopts to childrens musical development. The maturational theory, for example, avoids the use of rote learning and other highly
structured drills as they impede the independent development of the child.
The cultural transmission theory, on the other hand, maintains that the child
should receive conventional valued skills, whilst learning in the cognitivedevelopmental approach occurs with the development of problem-solving
strategies (Davidson and Stripp, 1989). Another important contribution of social learning theory in particular, is the encouragement of observational learning as children learn from watching others (Wilson and Roehman, 1990). Piagetian theory also underscores the value of teaching techniques that rely on
motor, imaginative and perceptual experiences instead of verbal or conceptual
ones. According to Papousek (1996), children can be taught sophisticated music skills through focused play that exploits their intrinsic motivation for exploration; it is a biological need of children which is clearly demonstrated in
vocal play.
Perhaps the major contribution of developmental psychology is the acknowledgement that even the young childs mind is developmentally quite adept at
using imaginative activity to express emotions since, as Vygotsky (1971) remarks, music emotion is generated by the perceptual and not the cognitive
content. Therefore, music curricula should provide enhanced musical experiences through singing, dancing and instrument playing in order to allow the
connections between ones feelings and their expression through music to develop more fully (Rogers, 1990).
From what has been already mentioned the introduction of activities that
promote the development of childrens expressive and perceptual character
are psychologically well justified. It is interesting to note that even though
most pedagogical approaches originate from practical music learning, in fact
they do correlate with psychological theories. The purpose of this report is to
state the major theories on children's musical development in order to provide
a theoretical framework for the Orff-Schulwerk practices. However, an examination of plausible congruencies between Orff-Schulwerk and current psychological theories will be attempted at a later phase of the research (see Chapter
12). In this chapter, the activities that permeate Orff-Schulwerkrhythmic
chanting, imitating, moving to music, playing instruments and improvising
are examined with a developmental psychological perspective focused on the
qualitative changes that occur in every stage of development.
1.1 Imitation
Imitation is a natural response in children and it is manifest in a number of activities. Children may repeat words or phrases, spoken or sung, that they hear
and they may imitate body movement that they see. In a way, children are
born with the ability to adapt to their culture. They first learn the basics that
will help them to achieve their intentions and with every little step they take
their self-confidence grows ever greater. Humphrey (1986) has proposed that
peoples readiness for culture may depend upon some differential "tunedness"
to others. Every achievement of social practice lends stability to the child's social life. According to Bruner (1990), this "readiness" for social life that children
show is a product of the human race's evolutionary past. Children seem to be
highly malleable as they use adults as models for most of their activities. Artistic skills, linguistic capabilities and many of children's thinking routines
emerge out of sheer imitation. In other words, every aspect of human behaviour is included in children's imitation of adults. Imitative learning is an obvious fact of human existence as we learn the most basic things such as walking
and talking via the imitative process. It is a precondition acquiring all types of
knowledge.
Starting with Piagetian theory, imitation occupies an important place in psychological literature. Piagets thinking concerning imitation is thoroughly explored in his book Play, dreams and imitation in childhood (1951). According to
Piaget, imitation is characterised by a predominance of the accommodation
and not the assimilation process as the childs thinking is subordinated by external models (Hargreaves, 1986). Gordon (1989), on the other hand, distinguishes two stages in the child's development of imitation ability which form
the transition from the acculturation type to the assimilation type of the child's
preparatory audiation. In the first stage, usually between two and four years of
age, children must discover that their singing and moving is not like that of
someone else. In the second stage, usually between three and five years of age,
children begin to imitate with some precision the tonal and rhythm patterns
and movements that the parent or teacher performs. Through these stages of
music imitation children profit greatly, irrespective of whether they imitate
correctly or incorrectly. According to Rogers (1990), the refinement of an initial
crude imitation is a basic music learning theory concept. The parent or teacher
must be patient with children during this period of musical development, or
they may never understand the difference between accurate and inaccurate
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imitation. Through a trial-and-error process children approach performance

and movement. With regard to movement, body-balance and kinaesthetic
sense provide the child with the means for error detection and correction during trial-and-error practice (Kohut, 1985). With regard to musical performance,
children are trying to duplicate the performance of another musician. Since
music is a nonverbal form of artistic expression, imitation of teacher's playing
helps the student more than any verbal description and analysis (Kohut, 1985).
Examining the power of the peer group, Rogers (1990) attributed much of
childrens observational learning to their tendency to imitate other children.
He also employed social learning theory to explain the impact of older childrens behaviour on younger ones and how older children become role models for younger children. As an application of this, Rogers underlined the
strong motivation for young children to acquire the skills being taught, when
music training is provided in group situations.
The strong influence of the environment is also emphasised by Bruner (1966),
who distinguishes three different ways in which the child represents the
world: (a) when a child comes to know something through doing it; (b) when
a child comes to know something by means of a picture or image; and (c)
when a child comes to know something when action and image are translated
into language. Levinowitz (1989) maintains that every child should establish
an aural/oral sense of the music of his or her culture by means of listening to
music, performing songs and dancing to music. This imitation-enculturation
process that takes place spontaneously and effortlessly, extends beyond classrooms and homes into the community and into the world outside. Musical
events taking place in churches, regional arts associations and so on, constitute
a form of musical education. These events in the community are a powerful
educational stimulus that makes children feel creative while they contribute to
the richness of musical possibilities in their society (Wilson and Roehman,
1990). However, the acquisition of musical knowledge varies from child to
child due to differences in motivation, or experiences at certain critical periods
(Sloboda, 1985).
The basic criticism concerning imitation is that it stifles creativity. However, as
Kohut (1985) suggests, many creative musicians and composers initially
learned to perform by listening and imitating other musicians. Imitating
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adults does not hold children back from creating their own original style later.
According to Kohut, what really stifles creativity is the training in schools that
is focused on visual, scientific, verbal and cognitive directions while musical
performance is focused on aural, aesthetic, nonverbal, and perceptual-motor
skills. As Cernohorsky (1989) stresses, imitation is a natural skill that helps
children to develop other skills such as audiation and motor skills. According
to Swanwick (1988), it is the activity by which we enlarge our repertoire of action and thought as it is not mere copying and therefore not hostile to creative
imagination.
1.2 Movement
Children can know so much more about music through their bodies than we can ever
reduce to verbal or written symbols. (Young, 1992, p. 193)
In our culture there is a tendency to separate body from mind, that is the activities of reasoning from the activities of the physical part of our nature,
while, in fact, there is a mutual action of mind upon body and body upon
mind which is often neglected. The movement of the body is a significant factor in tone production as well as in maintaining the performance ritual in a
number of societies, such as Chinese and African society (Campbell, 1991). Recent changes in educational philosophies have adopted the notion that body
and mind are closely related to each other and this notion provided a solid
background for a justification of the place of body movement in music education. A number of pedagogues, Jaques-Dalcroze with his Eurhythmics system
being among its pioneering proponent, favoured the use of movement in order to encourage children to develop a sensitive response to music
Many cognitive psychologists emphasised the fact that the basis of knowledge
lies in sensory-motor experience. Though he was not directly interested in
body movement, Piaget maintained that, in order that cognitive skills become
internalised, sensory-motor experience should precede the cognitive operation
(Piaget, 1951). Teaching techniques for young children should not rely on verbal teaching but rather on motor and perceptual experiences. Gardner (1983)
maintains that we should perceive the whole body as a thinking mechanism.
According to him, and based on his theory of multiple-intelligence, "bodilykinaesthetic intelligence is the ability to use ones body in highly differentiated
and skilled ways, for expressive as well as goal-directed purposes" (p. 206).
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Aronoff (1988) maintains that the interaction between music and body movement represents the back and forth translation between the two ways of knowing suggested by Bruner (1964): inactive, iconic, symbolic-doing, imaging, notating. This interplay of sound and motion liberates young children from any
inhibitions and allows them to show how music makes them feel.
Certainly there is a need for more research providing information about how
movement-based instruction is related to the development of musical cognition. There are studies which have reported that teaching movement makes a
significant difference in achievement or aptitude (Blesedell, 1991, Moore, 1984,
Mueller, 1993) while others have reported that no effect resulted from movement instruction (Cernohorsky, 1991; Lewis, 1989). According to OHagin
(1998), a lack of ability to reflect the music they heard in movements might be
an indicator of low musicality. The body movement involved in action songs,
singing games and free rhythmic movement, is also related to the philosophy
of learning through play (Campbell, 1991). Thus, many music teachers are assured of the importance of movement for musical understanding.
Physical movement therefore provides a musical understanding that could not
be captured through verbal or written symbols. Kinaesthesia and its overt
manifestation through bodily movements and gestures are more capable of
communicating musical nuance than any other means (Kemp, 1990). Body
movement and gestures can be manifested in various ways; they can be the
raw material of dancingGardner defines dancing as culturally patterned sequences of nonverbal body movements that are purposeful, intentionally
rhythmic and have aesthetic valueconducting, performing and listening.
Kinaesthesia or proprioceptionthat is the perception of muscular movement
in which the sound is imagined (Taylor, 1989), is anticipated as a direct response to the gesture itself (Kemp, 1990), and plays a vital role in instrumental
and vocal performance. A whole sequence of highly skilled, "preprogrammed"
activities is performed by an instrumentalist whilst, in the case of singers,
sounds with the voice can also be considered as motor activities. Listeners, on
the other hand, through an empathetic motor sensation, move to music. Of
course, it depends on the social setting of the performance whether listeners
overtly manifest a motor response to music or not (Young, 1992). According to
Lee (1932), to comprehend music is to perceive kinetic qualities in movement
or motion. Stinson (1990) states that "awareness of movement is made possible
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by the kinaesthetic sense. This sense tells us what our body is doing" (p. 2).
Orff insisted that the relationship between music and movement embraces a
type of kinaesthetic activity that helps children to internalise feelings and experiences of rhythm, pulse and pitch (Kemp, 1984).
Shiobara (1994) interprets musical understanding as a development of "sequential schemata", that is, forms or shapes stored in mind, which one can retrieve to ones will. Moving-to-music activities help children gradually build
up a vocabulary of musical gestures by matching their movement to music, in
other words help them to develop a kinaesthetic sense. Consequently, kinaesthesia demands a more advanced level of motor perception in which movement can be present or imagined, and for this to be achieved gestural/musical
activities should have been experienced from early childhood (Kemp, 1990).
However, in order to develop this kinaesthetic ability which is so important to
both music and movement instruction, one should adopt a systematic approach to teaching. To a large extent, kinaesthesia functions in the realm of intuition, therefore, as OHagin (1998) claims, that kind of kinaesthesia cannot
enhance the process of music learning. Jordan (1989) addressing the problem
of inadequate vocabulary of kinaesthesia, insists that particularly unusual metres can only be taught when the body can experience the special kinaesthesia
of every metre. The awareness of space and movementthe motor-tactile consciousnessmust be cultivated and trained if motor development is to be possible.
At this point a distinction should be made between two different kinds of human movement. The first of these is whole or gross body movements, for example, stamping, clapping, running which are appropriate for younger children, as these movements create a more vivid kinetic trace upon the memory
and they are more natural to them (Young, 1992). Another term for these
movements, which are used in physical education, is "fundamental" movements. Gardner (1983) defines as gross body movement the capacity to control
ones bodily motions. The second kind of body movement is more defined body
movements, like hand gestures and finger movements. The capacity to handle
objects skilfully or to play an instrument is an example of fine body movement. According to Beck (1978) there are ten basic elements in movement:
body awareness, use of space, use of locomotion, use of non-locomotion,
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variation of time, variation of weight, variation of level, variation of shape,

variation of flow, variation of group.
Movement and music can be defined as a two-way process. On the one hand
there is movement which initiates sound (Kemp, 1990), when music is created
upon existent patterns of movements, and on the other hand there is movement in response to sound. Both have an important place in music education.
Consequently, music plays a dual role with movement, as a stimulus and as
accompaniment. Young (1992) proceeds to a subtler differentiation and underlines the differences between creating music to fit movements, which is a visual exercise deprived of any direct experience of moving and creating music of
what you have moved, in which the sound comes out from kinetic impressions. Through the second way, that is through a direct experience of movement and dance, children can better internalise the structure of musical forms,
as via muscular activity they can study detail elements of music such as tone
quality, dynamics, sounds and silences. When movement is used properly the
entire body becomes an instrument of understanding.
Apart from the role of movement as an "ever-present incentive for learning
and practice" (Findlay, 1971, p. 58), movement has a multi-functional role in
childrens musical development. Especially whole-body movements are a
powerful medium providing children with the experience of sharing music
which leaves a strong trace upon the memory. An understanding of music
through body movements is closer to the living quality of music which retains
its structural elements intact.
Movement and music share the same fundamental elements: time, energy,
space and flow (Shiobara, 1994). In movement there are changes in speed,
changes in direction, changes in focus and changes in energy. Laban, a great
exponent of movement, also defined exertion in movement as the interrelationship of flow, weight, space and timewhat he called "effort" elements
(Jordan, 1989). Time factors in particular, those being pulse, tempo, duration,
rhythm, phrase, and rest, have the most direct correlation to movement. In order to perceive these elements children must cultivate a motor-tactile consciousness. Movement can be of particular value to the a-rhythmic child. Elliott (1995) remarks that, as there are many correlations between musical patterns and patterns of movements, the most obvious analogue to body move
15
ment in music is, of course, rhythm. According to Campbell (1995), together

with speech, movement is a natural means by which children can develop an
understanding of rhythm. Their movement to an underlying pulse, to subdivisions of the beat, and to rhythmic patterns almost guarantees their understanding of these musical elements. Therefore, as Mueller (1993) suggests, by
both creative and structured movement instruction, children learn in a natural
way to perceive and conceive musical elements.
A further rationale for the integration of body movement with the learning of
the fundamental musical elements is that it incorporates a number of senses
and enhances not only the overall musicality of children but also their enjoyment of music, as children of all ages enjoy physical activity. Music and body
movement are always present in childrens games. As Aronoff (1988) states,
children relate music and body movement naturally; physical activity is always involved when they sing. Movement can furthermore reduce pupil tension and make learning much more pleasant. We should never forget that it is
unnatural for young children to sit quietly for long periods of time (Nye and
Nye, 1985).
Movement concerns the development of the whole child. Lunz (1982), cites
several skills that can be acquired through movement activities, such as: (a)
identification and isolated movement of body parts, for example, simple directives to move one foot, or to raise a leg, focusing on isolated movement of
body-parts; (b) development or ability to cross over the midline , for example,
when children use one hand to show the flight of an aeroplane; (c) awareness
and recognition of left and right, strengthening the sense of balance; (e) combining and coordinating the simultaneous use of two body parts; (f) orientation in space, group and solo; (g) facility in gross-motor activities.
Apart from childrens physical development and muscular control, movement
activities encourage the development of the mind and social consciousness,
promote the emotional health as well as the understanding and appreciation
of music (Nye and Nye, 1985; Chacksfield et al., 1975). Moreover, movement
combined with music promotes childrens creativity, artistic self-expression
and aesthetic response. Music is frequently used to stimulate creativity in
movement and, when the reverse process is involved, motor imaginary can inspire children to improvise sounds in particular movement patterns (Brockle
16
hurst, 1971). Moreover, as Taylor (1989) states, "kinaesthetic imagery" promotes musical memory. At least in the early stages of learning, the internalisation of the sound needs support from sensory-motor imagery as more than
one senses are involved; one can feel the sensation of wishing to move, one
can see oneself moving, one can hear the music to which one is tapping ones
foot, conducting and so on.
Movement mediates between the inner self and the outer world and through it
music can become a shared and participatory experience. As Young (1992)
states, the common vibrations of performers and listeners moving to music
generate group empathy and reinforce social-bonding, so movement in music
has also a social role. According to Salmon (1999), the brain works differently
and becomes aware of self and others when there is a bodily response to music; as they move around a shared space, children finally achieve a better
awareness of themselves and others.
For all the above reasons many music teachers incorporate body movement in
their lessons. However, it must be noted that even though it is generally accepted that very young children are able to imitate spontaneously the character of a piece of music with their bodily movements, the opinions about
movement in music teaching practices differ critically. Nevertheless, regardless of the method and approach one adopts, there seems to be agreement concerning the principal role of movement which is to encourage children to develop a sensitive response to music. Rhythmic movement is a very efficient
and valuable form of musical appreciation for children because it encourages
them to express what they hear. Therefore, as Jordan (1989) stated and from
the work of Laban and Gordon, movement instruction must precede rhythmic
instruction. It is clear then that teaching content and method should be adjusted to childrens maturation levels. Muscular development will help to determine the teachers approach to movement. Gordon (1990) agrees by stating
that younger children should be encouraged to respond to music by using
large muscle movements. Progress will be gradually made to differentiated
and refined movements involving the use of the smaller muscles (Brocklehurst, 1971).
Reviewing literature on the subject, we can assume that most children can
walk and skip at two years of age. At three to four years of age, they can run,
17
improve their walking, and hop. At four to five years of age, they can walk
forwards and backwards; throw and hold, run changing direction; hop, clap,
and balance legs, trunk, arms, and head. Jumping, throwing, and holding with
good performance comes at six years of age. At seven years of age, children
have acquired the perception of space. Perception of time comes at seven to
eight years, with the understanding of relationships of order and duration.
Musical and motor development is not accomplished independently; music is
space and time, movement is the same (Magno Prim, 1995).
The teacher should be aware of the fact that there are three levels of movement
in response to music. The first level is imitative: the students imitate rhythmic
patterns imposed by the teacher; the second level is qualitative: the students
respond to dynamics, harmonic texture or style of the teachers playing; and
the third one is affective: the students correspond the expressive elements of
music to movement patterns (Stone, 1986). Children are born with certain
movement pattern characteristics and by noticing these patterns the teacher
can help children to develop their full personality.
If we accept the notion that the internalisation of the sound lies at the heart of
music learning, then body and mind should be perceived as a whole and be
equally trained from an early age. Early music learning should be essentially
sensory-motor so that the kinaesthetic ability develops at a more advanced
level.
1.3 Rhythm and speech
Rhythm is an essential component of all musics, whether it be music of primitive societies, music of traditional Western styles, or music of a contemporary popular style
(Radocy and Boyle, 1997, p. 67).
That the role of rhythm is not only important in musical understanding but
also in the life of children has long been acknowledged. As Campbell (1995)
observes, children show their natural attraction to and fascination with
rhythm in everyday activities, at play or at work. Rhythm provides the life to
music and a sense of rhythm facilitates the childs interactions with every aspect of music (Radocy and Boyle, 1997). Despite its musical importance, the
study of rhythm, not as a phenomenon but as a vital component of young
childrens training, has been to a large extent neglected. Usually, children de
18
velop rhythmic perception without training, as rhythmic behaviours generally

increase with age, some advanced abilities, however, like performing music by
reading notation, is dependent on instruction and a long experience in hearing
certain rhythms.
The development of rhythmic behaviours is related to the ability to perceive
rhythmic structures, that is to keep time with the beat and repeat a given
rhythmic pattern, and to perform rhythmic movements (Radocy and Boyle,
1997). The majority of developmental research is based on the empirical testing of the above-mentioned rhythmic behaviours. According to Radocy and
Boyle (1997), developmental research does not provide any answers to the
study of developmental rhythmic behaviour. Most of the studies on rhythmic
perception have required children to match their bodily movements to the
rhythm of the music, which is considered to be the most essential approach to
rhythm (Lundin 1967). A typical example is Thackrays (1968) research in
which children were asked to reproduce rhythmic patterns through movements in order that he could measure their ability to count and discriminate
time. The results showed no significant difference in the ability to synchronise
body movements with rhythmic stimuli between children who had, and those
who had not, received rhythmic training (Radocy and Boyle, 1997). The explanation according to Seashore et al., (1960) an exponent of instinctive theory, is
that the rhythmic trait is inherited, not learned.
However, Foley (1975) claims that the conservation of tonal and rhythmic patterns can be accelerated through training. Training can also contribute to the
improvement of motor or muscular factors which, according to Moore (1984),
is the main prerequisite of complex rhythm behaviours. Radocy and Boyle
(1997) therefore see music as a totality in which the brain and the central nervous system control all movements. The clarity of childrens perceptual responses is reflected by motor rhythmic responses. Lundin (1967) agrees, arguing that rhythmic response involves more than voluntary muscle movement.
Therefore, rhythmic responses cannot be explained independently of learning
as rhythmic response is a learned response facilitated by voluntary motor activity.
From what has already been said it is understandable that the numerous vari
19
ables in the different studies and the lack of standardised tests, due to the existence of divergentinstinctive, motor, and physiological theories of rhythm
ability, make it difficult to clearly interpret the status of rhythmic behaviours
at different ages or developmental levels (Radocy and Boyle, 1997). However,
most researchers agree that rhythmic behaviours generally increase with age.
Fraisse (1982) compares childrens stages of musical growth with the stages of
their cognitive development. According to Warrener (1985), the development
of rhythm skills begins during the concrete operations period when children begin to develop rhythmic clapping and patting and becomes set around the age
of nine. It has been noticed that regularity of rhythmic structure appears earlier in spontaneous behaviour than with novel materials and in tests, but the
overall trend is one of increasing control over rhythmic organisation (Zenatti,
1985).
Nevertheless, childrens understanding of how music is organised rhythmically can be influenced by their exposure to activities that promote feeling,
hearing and moving to the rhythm. Warrener (1985), for example, proposes
games that help children to think symbolically, as when they walk in rhythm
as animals to a song about animals. Likewise, programmes including songs in
mixed and unusual metres could enhance childrens rhythmical perception
(Radocy and Boyle, 1997).
Addressing the problem of establishing the more efficient way to develop
rhythmic behaviour, many researchers have paralleled music learning to language learning. A number of researchers have repeatedly stressed the relationship between language and music (Fraisse, 1982). As children spontaneously learn to repeat an unlimited number of sentences so, in the same way,
they seem to learn to make music. While speaking and listening in their daily
lives, children use words to relate better to the world around them, while in
music children use words to create rhythm and lyrics (Huffman, 1999). Children learn the rhythmic patterns of speech by listening to their relatives and
their neighbours. They are involved in an oral process of reciting words and
word-phrases which is part of their enculturation but it is also part of their
daily lives as they comfortably express phrases of language rhythmically
(Aiello, 1994). Children do not merely repeat the sentences they hear, but create new sentences by applying the rules they have abstracted from their language (Campbell, 1995). Thus, the claims of psycholinguistics influenced
20
many music psychologists. The essential common feature of both music and
language is their rhythmic organisation; a grouping of their elements in both
production and perception. The rhythm of spoken language provides children
with every component of rhythmic-form (Campbell, 1995). Engaging language
as a tool for learning duration and accent, children can be made aware of musical rhythm. Indeed, accents and stresses are the means used to define linguistic and musical patterns (Patel and Peretz, 1997). However, there seems to
be a disagreement on how phrase or melodic rhythms are organised. Radocy
and Boyle (1997) assert that the basic structural level for melodic rhythms is
the rhythmic grouping of units. While Patel and Peretz (1997) claim that the
intonation marking of phrase boundaries, which also communicates the
childs intention, is more significant. They distinguish between "stress-timed"
languages such as English, which produce stresses at roughly equal temporal
intervals and "syllable-timed" languages, such as French, which produce syllables at roughly equal intervals.
Aiello (1994) examines both music and language as two modes of communication, with different goals. As she maintains, all cultures worldwide express
themselves verbally and musically, and children interact musically and verbally from a very young age. Exposing children to musical experiences can
help them to learn more easily the regular rhythmic patterns of spoken language and to use expressively the accents of language in ways that parallel
musical expression (Campbell, 1995). Many researchers suggest that music
and language are not independent mental faculties, but they share some processes. Through her study, Chen-Hafteck (1996) showed that the relationship
between music and language, text and melody in songs, are close in childrens
cognitive processes and, therefore, these elements should be intertwined in
music education. She proposes that the learning of various qualities of sound
can be enhanced through both language and music because certain elements
in sound, such as pitch, rhythm, tempo and loudness, are shared by both media. Verbal language and the musical mother tongue concern every level of the
childs identity (Bjorkvold, 1990). This musical mother tongue which, passed
down through generations, is of fundamental importance especially in the
childs first years.
Some music educators suggest the use of special syllablesthe most widely
21
used is the Kodaly systemwhich help children understand the inherent logic
of the rhythm patterns. Children can respond accurately, even to quite syncopated patterns, when these patterns follow the inflections of the natural speech
(Aronoff, 1988). According to Walters and Taggart (1989), when children are
able to achieve an inner hearing of metre they are also able to master a vocabulary of rhythm. In the same way that words help one to classify in the environment, rhythm syllables enable children to classify and remember a large
vocabulary of rhythm patterns. Walters and Taggart explain what makes a
rhythm syllable system efficient: (a) syllables must be associated with how
music is audiated; (b) the organisation of the system should be based upon
how beats function within music; (c) each kind of metre must have its own syllables, including unusual metre. Some other educators use words to express
rhythm patterns which are known as mnemonics. Deriving rhythms from
words can be fun but without the prior development of verbal association
skills, rhythm speech can be confusing. As Cernohorsky (1989) points out,
young children especially become confused when they find out that the same
pattern may be represented by words with different meaning. Walters and
Taggart (1989) also challenge the value of associating mnemonic words with
rhythm patterns because they relate only to specific patterns and not in any
way to how those patterns function within a metre. However, Radocy and
Boyle (1997) suggest that the use of words as a system of mnemonics is helpful
in the learning of phrase rhythms.
Related to speech is the issue of teaching a song. Feierabend et al. (1998) argue
that children recognise melodies easier when songs are presented with lyrics;
while some argue in favour of the integration of words and music in memory
(Serafine et al., 1984). Feierabend found that young children demonstrated a
poorer recognition of tunes, perhaps due to greater attention given to text.
Therefore, as Patel and Peretz (1997) argue, there is a need for more systematic
investigation before we can draw any conclusions about the relation of musical and linguistic mental codes in songs because, as they assert, some studies
in the available literature suggest separability between melody and text.
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1.4 Improvisation and creativity

Any discussion concerning improvisation inevitably dwells on the concept of
musical creativity, as improvisation is an overt manifestation of creative thinking. We should bear in mind, however, that the theories of creativity discussed
below are only selective and in no way exhaust this complex issue. A clear
landmark for the understanding of creative thinking was Guildfords (1959)
well-known cube-like Structure-of-the-Intellect model in which creativity is seen
as a process that involves divergent, as opposed to convergent, thinking
(Campbell, 1991). Included in the divergent thinking category are the factors
of fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration. Focusing on the definition
and measurement of mental abilities concerned with creativity, Guildford fostered the psychometric approach to psychological research. As Hargreaves
(1986) states, Guildfords theory is the major explanatory model within the
psychometric approach; creativity is explained as the product of a particular
pattern of cognitive abilities, closely related to intelligence. A number of researchers around the 1960s and 1970s, such as Torrance (1962), Getzels and
Jackson (1962), and Wallach and Kogan (1965), have centred on psychometric
tests of the parameters that define creativity. Much debate, however, aroused
around the validity of those tests and nowadays they are considered out of
date.
Recent researchers claim that creativity is a multifaceted phenomenon that can
take many forms. Some people will have more of the intellectual attributes,
and still others more of the personality attributes (Sternberg, 1988). Gardners
(1983) theory of multiple intelligences provides the framework for a concept of
creativity that is context-specific, or domain-specific. As Elliott (1995) states,
we can no longer speak of individuals "being creative in any general sense.
People who achieve creative results do so within specific domains, within the
musical domain for instance. There are some cognitive characteristics, however, that are shared by creative people regardless of domain. These characteristics fall into the category of traits, abilities and processing styles that creative
individuals use and possess. The four traits that are more commonly associated with creative persons are relatively high intelligence, originality, articulateness and a good imagination (Sternberg, 1988).
In the field of music, Sloboda (1985) and Serafine (1988) adopt the cognitive
23
approach to the musical domain as they examine the inner mental processes
which occur in such activities as composition, performance, improvisation and
listening. Other researchers, however, such as Harr and Gillet (1994) disregard the cognitive approach and the existence of hidden mental processes.
Many recent studies have focused on how creativity occurs in everyday settings, therefore these studies have significant educational implications. Gorder
(1980), Kratus (1991), Webster (1979) among others, used musical measures of
creativity, whilst other researchers preferred a qualitative approach to gain insights of childrens creative growth patterns (Rohwer, 1997).
Generally speaking, creativity is approached in two different ways: (a) the traditional approach that focuses on the notion of genius, that is of people who
possess an exceptional human capacity to make music and (b) the innovative
approach which has been developed after the second World War and is process-oriented instead of product-oriented. The emphasis is therefore placed on
everyday creative acts, such as the acquisition of language. Within this concept
a new product begins as an extension of earlier work, it is a kind of problem
solving activity. Nothing particularly extraordinary occurs from a psychological point of view, that is the cognitive processes involved are not extraordinary
(Weisberg, 1988). According to this approach every person and every child
possesses an inherent musical creativity and its first demonstration is spontaneous singing. This creative ability is further nurtured through training
(Campbell, 1991). Furthermore, Elliott (1995) substantiates this notion by stating that every person has the conscious powers necessary to make music and
to listen to music competently. On the other hand, Feldman et al. (1994), believe that we have an innate drive to change the world and learn by using it.
This correlates with Csikszentmihalyis (1988) definition of domain as the
place where innovation is possible (Custodero, 1996). In consequence, this
concept has major educational implications as it assumes that all children are
creative, and therefore education should provide the opportunities for this
creativity to foster. In order to satisfy childrens psychological need to innovate, teachers should foster the problem finding approach instead of the problem solving one.
The description of the third element in Csikszentmihalyis model (see quotation, p. 27), that is the person "typically falls into three general categories: cognitive characteristics; personality and motivational qualities; special events or
24
experiences during ones development" (Sternberg,1988, p. 433). As with cognitive characteristics, there are major controversies amongst the writers with
personality characteristics, as well. Nevertheless the most commonly attributed personality traits to creative persons are: a willingness to confront hostility and take intellectual risks, perseverance, a proclivity to curiosity, being
open to new experiences, a driving absorption, high intrinsic motivation, discipline and commitment to ones work, being task-focused, a freedom of spirit
( Sternberg, 1988). According to Kemp (1996), creative persons, in general, and
musicians, in particular, are by their sense of independence. Independence is a
personality characteristic strongly linked to such person qualities as originality, imagination and a preference for complex ideas.
In summary we could adopt Delorenzos (1987) remarks drawn from an overview of selected research on musical creativity: (a) musical creativity is a separate dimension of musical thinking and therefore capable of definition and
measurement; (b) musical creativity possesses similar traits to divergent creative thinking; (c) there is no significant relationship between musical creativity
and musical aptitude, age, grade, performing medium and cognitive style dimension of reflection; (d) researchers have not yet agreed on the existence of
relationship between musical creativity and musical aptitude and IQ.
By improvisation we define a number of activities involving the exploration,
imitation, experimentation and manipulation of sounds produced by our
voice, our body, our mouth, and musical instruments.
Improvising is the instantaneous thinking and performing of organised sound, silence and rhythm, which is open to the unexpected, to the impulse and the influence
of the moment, to the influence of other people (performers or not) and of instruments themselves, and as such, it absorbs thoroughly the people who are involved in
it". (Kanellopoulos, 1994, p. 37)
According to Elliot (1995), "what distinguishes an improvisation from a

performance is the human effort to compose in real time" (p. 169). At this point
it should be stressed that the act of composing in improvisation has different
levels; it can fluctuate from simple embellishments to the creation of an entirely new work, according to the nature and the goals of the improviser.
25
Creativity and improvisation are for Gordon (1989) two distinct but related
terms. Gordon believes that a child creates when he or she experiments with
sounds without conforming to any externally imposed restrictions. In improvisation external restrictions are, usually, imposed by the teacher. Therefore creativity is a readiness for improvisation. Both Harper (1989) and Cernohosky (1989), in comparing creativity to improvisation, define improvisation
as a more difficult task as the improviser is bound by restrictions that are externally imposed whilst in another creative act these restrictions are internal.
Sloboda (1985) also speaks about the preexistence of formal constraints that
form the skeleton for the improvisation. It is clear that all these researchers refer to structural improvisation, such as jazz improvisation, and not to free improvisation. In the case of childrens improvisation, however, special attention
should be made to the educational concept of improvisation. Teachers should
regard any attempt made by a child to produce his or her own music, as genuine even if it is not original. According to Burnard (1999), teachers should encourage children to become real improvisers and composers rather than act
out a pre-defined model.
The educational value of improvisation rests on the notion that during the act
of improvisation the child is involved as a whole: personality, musical experience, thinking and training. By involving the total personality of the musician,
improvisation fosters musical independence as well as a sense of confidence
(Addison, 1991). Furthermore, and as Kanellopoulos (1994) remarked, improvisation presents a number of similarities with childrens play; it creates
play situations itself. The use of play as an educational tool has already been
stressed by many educators and psychologists following the pioneering work
of Piaget, Montessori, and Steiner amongst others (Bennett et al., 1997). Here it
suffices to stress some of the features that both improvisation and play share
such as: (a) they manifest a ritual based on repetition with variation which fulfils peoples deep need for stability and integration (Kemp, 1992); (b) they
have a symbolic dimension as they demonstrate in the most vivid way human
feelings and thoughts; (c) they demonstrate a kinaesthetic procedure through
meaningful gestures closely related to Gordons "audiation"; (d) they provide
a kind of musical knowledge by acquaintance, without intending to do so
(Kanellopoulos, 1994).
As far as kinaesthesia is concerned, improvisation is the most overt manifesta
26
tion of the inner hearing process, that is of coming to think in sound (Kemp,
1990). Even the way the hand moves on an instrument during improvisation,
often reflects a particular musical meaning; it is a musical gesture. As Taylor
(1988) puts it, "improvisation is first of all a body language, it is a communication of each muscle of the body in harmonious discord" (p. 59).
Many researchers, however, place improvisation in the first levels of musical
development through the process of free exploration. Swanwick and Tillman
(1986), for example, propose a spiral-like developmental sequence, the first
stage of which is the mastery of materials and range of sounds through sensing and manipulating. At this stage experimentation is quite unstructured and
free and becomes more and more elaborate as we proceed to the next stages of
the spiral, that is imitation and imaginative play. Flohr (1985) and Kratus
(1991) also adopt an hierarchy of improvisation ranging, according to Flohr,
from free exploration that lacks musical syntax but is highly individualistic to
guided exploration which is more structured but less original. Kratus (1991)
adopts a more refined way of categorisation suggesting seven levels in learning to improvise: exploration, process-oriented improvisation, productoriented improvisation, fluid improvisation, structural improvisation, stylistic
improvisation and personal improvisation.
Though the above as well as other theories can be used as models of the
growth of creativity and therefore empower teachers to provide appropriate
material at the correct stages for each child, it should be stressed that their validity has not yet been tested extensively. All of them adopt a linear approach
to musical development as opposed to the proximal development suggested
by other researchers such as Vygotsky. For Vygotsky, the actual level of development, that is what the child can achieve without assistance, is one of the
axes, whilst the other is the potential level of development, that is what the
child can achieve with the assistance of others (Bennett et al., 1997). Considering improvisation as a zone of proximal development we have imitation at one
end and invention at the other (Kanellopoulos, 1994). Many researchers have
focused on the dual character of improvisation consisting of imitation of a
model and of invention on the instrument or on the voice (Priest, 1989). This
dialectic nature of improvisation also fulfils childrens already mentioned
need to innovate, to change the world. Feldman describes innovation as pushing the established boundaries, and defines creativity as a balance between
27
preserving and transforming the domain (Custodero, 1996). Therefore, imitation preserves the musical model, whilst invention transforms it.
No matter which developmental theory one adopts, it is important to stress
the importance of the environment in any improvisational process. Creativity
in general and improvisation in particular exist through a larger social system.
According to Csikszentmihalyi (1988),
"creativity is a phenomenon that results from the interaction between three systems: a
set of social institutions, or field, . . . a stable cultural domain that will preserve and
transmit the selected new ideas or forms to the following generations; and finally the
individual, who brings about some change in the domain . . . ." (p. 325).
This does not mean that a child cannot improvise alone but that he or she cannot improvise in a social vacuumin isolation. If we accept that creativity can
only be defined as an interaction between an individual and his or her environment, then childrens creativity is shaped by their classroom, school, and
home environment "in the form of opportunities and judgments offered by
peers, teachers, and parents" (Custodero, 1996, p. 37). Then a more holistic
model of creativity should be proposed. A model in which the child is creatorin-context, the one who finds and solves a problem instead of being the receptor of tasks proposed by the teacher. This social dimension of music learning
should recognise the significance of children's perspectives, promoting their
reflective thinking (Burnard, 1999). As Kanellopoulos (2000) stressed, children
themselves should define what their music means to them.
1.5 Instrument playing

When children's memory has been sufficiently developed they become ready
for more organised musical activities which could be considered as musical
performances. According to Kohut (1985), musical performance is "the act of
producing aesthetically organised sound and silence within time and space. It
involves reproduction of musical ideas or conceptsmental imagesthat are
conceived within the musical mind of the performer" (p. 109). Whether it involves singing or playing a musical instrument, a musical performance requires a minimum of physical and intellectual abilities.
Until a person is nine years of age, the level of music aptitude that he or she
was born with is affected by the quality of his or her environment (Gordon,
1989). Sloboda (1985) advocates that instrument or vocal performance which
28
shows technical and expressive mastery provides better evidence of musical

ability than any music aptitude test. Many recent researchers, however, disagree with that point of view arguing that one cannot reliably estimate a students music aptitude on the basis of that students music achievement. As
Walters and Taggart (1989) state: "although a student who is achieving at a
high level necessarily has high music aptitude, a student who is achieving at a
low level does not necessarily have low music aptitude" (p. 46).
The proficiency with which all young children learn nursery songs and
rhymes, and the ease with which young children can be taught sophisticated
music skills has led to a new set of premises concerning young childrens musical aptitude (Gardner, 1983; Rogers, 1990). Sloboda (1985) claims that in music an early motivation is often the wish to be able to reproduce the musical
sounds of the culture. In more cases than one might expect, the mere presence
of a musical instrument in a home can allow a child the opportunity to learn
some idiosyncratic music makingpicking out combinations and sequences
which sound familiar or interesting. However, there are some prerequisites for
the development of successful performance which are not related to the notion
of musical ability, such as: motor skill development in relation to the level of
maturation, neuromuscular co-ordination, aural skillstonal and rhythm
and verbal ability (Cernohorsky, 1989, Radocy and Boyle, 1997).
The ability to play pitched and unpitched percussion instruments requires aural and kinaesthetic skills. Music teachers have long recognised that children
with a heightened feeling for rhythm tend to learn music easily and to perform
successfully. Good musical performance, of course, requires a high level of
neuromuscular coordination (Kohut, 1985). Neuromuscular coordination has
to do with harmonious function between the nervous and muscular systems
as used in musical performance, dance and sports. When a given type of neuromuscular coordination becomes highly developed we call it a skill. If a child
cannot move his or her body in a coordinated manner, he or she will not be
able to play instruments in a coordinated manner. According to Cole (1998),
beaters are extensions of the arms, striking a target away from the body requires more concentration and skill than making contact with the body. If a
child cannot perceive metre and tempo, he or she will not be able to maintain a
steady beat and a consistent tempo while playing percussion instruments. An
instrument should function as an extension of the body and that is possible
29
only if the development of coordination skills and rhythmic perception skills

through movement instruction and learning sequence activities precede instruction of the instrument. Kemp (1990) would agree, arguing that processes
involving neuromuscular sensation, should be the central and unifying component in any psychological model for music learning (p. 223).
While studying children and adults, Camp (1990) observed that there is a
strong relationship between success in learning and performing music and the
ability to perceive music in metrically-grouped pulse patterns. Accordingly, he
argues that motor skill development is dependent upon sensing and understanding many rhythmic variables and he grouped these variables into two
categories: (a) metreed rhythmsthose inferred by patterns of strong and
weak beats; and (b) motivic rhythmsthose consisting of various durational
patterns that can be seen on the score.
Most music teachers have some theoretical knowledge of the childs intellectual development, but many are limited in their understanding of the bodys
neurophysiological system as it relates specifically to playing musical instruments. Cole (1998) claims that teachers need to know how to diagnose and
solve performance problems accurately. There are various cases in which research findings can assist the music teacher to determine the appropriate action: for example, young children may play an octave pedal point more readily than the 5ths, simply because the octave is more aligned with the width of
the shoulders than is the interval of a fifth. Larger instruments provide larger
targets for striking than do smaller instruments. Clearly tempo determines
whether simple 5ths or broken 5ths is easier to perform. In a synchronous use
of beaters, movement having the same time interval between pulsations,
seems to be easier to perform than rhythmic patterns which require memory
as well as motor skill.
As far as motor skills are concerned, developmentalists maintain that the fundamental motor skills emerge before the age of five and are stabilised in subsequent years (Gilbert, 1979). Piaget and Bruner also supported a sensorymotor learning as a foundation of later conceptual development. Motor development is therefore progressive and age-related. Capability for movement
complexity also increases with maturation, and is related to the number of
elements and the attentional demands involved in task performances (Fitts,
30
1954, Stelmach, 1976). Skills in musical and motor performance seem to influence each other because, as Kemp (1990) explains neuromuscular sensations
involved in the making of sounds, or responding gesturally to sounds, become
fused with the actual memory traces or image of the sounds themselves (p.
224).
Some of the more challenging patterns students are asked to perform on tone
bar instruments require hands to play in a coordinated bi-manual manner
with the movement of each limb considerably different from the other. Let us
consider motor skill development in relation to the types of patterns that students are asked to perform. Scientific studies seem to support what most music teachers have learned through observation: motor skills gradually improve
with maturation and practice. Cole (1998) described some young childrens
characteristic abilities: (a) five-year-old children can be taught to label right
and left but the ability to make right-left discriminations may not occur fully
until as late as age ten; (b) alternately tapping the hands seems to be in place
by age five and can be performed more rapidly than using both hands simultaneously; (c) performing tasks which require a limb to cross the midline improves during the elementary school years, for example, between ages four
and ten. A factor that seems to influence motor skill development is childrearing practices while other factors like gender do not seem to play a role.
However, researchers have paid little attention to the study of motor skill acquisition as it relates to the acquisition of instrument skills. It is not easy investigating the dual-task problem of learning to read music from a score and simultaneously making music on an instrument. Reading music puts the acquisition of instrumental skill into a context, in which the individual must transfer into sound what he or she reads (Wade, 1990). Research in all aspects of
motor skills must achieve a better understanding of the relationship between
cognition and coordinative structures; being conscious of body-mind integration can provide other dimensions for the whole experience of playing a musical instrument. If, as Sloboda (1985) maintains, the performance of music
represents the integration of a physical and a mental plan, then it is sensible to
believe that kinaesthesia plays a fundamental role in this integration.
A childs life that is rich with movement experiences encourages the integra
31
tion of sensory information which will lay the foundation for playing musical
instruments. A teachers understanding of motor skill development, basic
knowledge of neuromuscular physiology and careful planning of motor skill
activities is essential in developing performance skills. The simple act of walking, which is an innate human ability, involves the interaction of countless
sub-coordinated actions, most of which occur at the unconscious level. Playing
a musical instrument is a far more complex endeavour. Playing a musical instrument involves the accurate execution of fine motor movements which are
highly dependent upon kinaesthetic information reaching the central nervous
system. There is evidence to suggest that control and perception of movements are very weak when the kinaesthetic channel is not working adequately
(Bahrick, 1970).
A further problem concerning the existing literature on musical performance
is that it is "limited in scope and tends to concentrate on the capacity of an instrumentalist to recreate a pre-existing composition from notation" (McPherson, 1995, p. 142). Like playing music from memory, the importance of developing the ability to play by ear has been a topic of general interest, yet the subject of few scientific investigations. Cummings-Persellins (1992) study revealed that first graders had difficulty decoding and then remembering the
iconic notation. Even after they successfully memorised and performed the
demonstration patterns, they had great difficulty with the visual test. Gordon
(1989) went so far as to suggest that unless an individual can audiate, he or she
cannot truly read notation. Unless one can audiate what is seen in notation
before it is performed he is not reading notation; he is simply following notation and giving music no more meaning than he would a manuscript in a language unknown to him (p. 68).
By continuing to delay the reading of music rhythms, teachers may replace
that time with additional aural activities. By doing so, a larger vocabulary can
be developed that will allow students to have more aural models to identify
with visual icons when reading is introduced. Unlike playing music from
memory, playing by ear involves the recreation of an existing piece of music at
the same pitch level as the original learnt mode, or transposed to another pitch
level (McPherson, 1995). According to Walters and Taggart (1989), aural discrimination processes must always predominate over visual discrimination
processes at all levels of music learning and music performance. Moreover,
32
students encounter with music notation should not occur until aural readiness increase in the use of music notation.
McPherson (1995) has shown that the skills of playing by ear and improvising
were most closely associated with variables which require an ability to "think
in sound" (p. 157). As Camp (1990) suggested, the ability to create aural imagesthe pre-hearing of musical ideasis a skill of fundamental importance
to any musician, because you have to know what sounds you want before you
can judge the quality of the sounds you actually produce. Encouraging children to image in advance of producing sounds in performance is clearly an essential aspect of developing musicianship and of imaginative performance
(Kemp, 1990, p. 225).
1.6 Summary
In this chapter, a reference to major theories on musical development was attempted, focusing on the impact of these theories on educational thinking. In
order to contextualise the research area and namely Orff-Schulwerk practices,
the literature review focused on the following areas of interest: imitation,
movement, rhythm and speech, improvisation and instrument playing. As we
shall see in chapter 2, all these areas hold a substantial part in the teaching of
Orff-Schulwerk.
The term 'imitation' is often used synonymously with the term echo in musical games and activities such as echo-clap, and echo-sing. The theories on
imitation provide a solid theoretical background for terms such as group
teaching, oral learning and teacher modelling. Notably, the oral musical traditions have acknowledged this long before the claims of psychologists, for, due
to lack of notation, imitation of the master player forms the basic way of teaching.
As far as movement is concerned, there are a number of reasons for incorporating movement into music instruction. As movement and music share the
same fundamental elements, movement can improve a child's rhythm. Movement is addressed to the whole child, it promotes motor development, rhythmic development, development of the mind, as well as creativity and social
awareness. However, the principal role of movement is to develop a sensitive
33
response to music. What is of particular interest for music teaching is that

there are three levels of movement: imitative, qualitative and affective;
teacher's role is to lead the children to the third level. Development of kinaesthesia should, furthermore, be the ultimate goal of movement and music instruction.
Even if there is not a single theory for the acquisition of rhythmic ability, a significant number of researchers seem to agree to the notion that rhythmic
ability can be accelerated through training. Rhythmic learning is furthermore
related to theories of language learning. Of particular importance to this thesis
is the notion that language and music share the same rhythmic elements, such
as accents and stresses, therefore, speech can enhance rhythmic learning. In
this connection, some educators favour the use of special syllables for the
teaching of rhythmic patterns, whilst others suggest the use of mnemonic
words.
As we shall see in the next chapter, Orff-Schulwerk falls to the second category, using everyday words to get children accustomed to a rhythm pattern.
Therefore, the issue of respecting the physical impulse of the language used, in
our case Greek language, is of utmost importance and it will be examined in
chapter 5.
In contrast to the traditional notion that views creativity in the light of genius,
the current theories promote the notion that creativity can be traced in everyday acts, and can be therefore traced in every person. In consequence, this
concept has major educational implications, as it assumes that all children are
creative, and therefore education should provide the opportunities for this
creativity to foster.
Children's improvisation, in particular, has an important educational value, as
it involves the whole child, that is his/her personality, musical experience,
thinking and training. Moreover, it shares many similarities to play, which is a
generally accepted educational tool. However, in order to foster improvisation, teachers should create an environment that lets children free to improvise
without imposing external rules on them.
The study of the efficiency with which young children learn nursery songs
34
and rhymes as well as sophisticated musical skills, led the scientists to a reconsideration of the notion of musical ability. However, for a successful performance, some prerequisites should exist, such as motor skill development, neuromuscular coordination, aural skills and verbal ability. In order for these
skills to develop, sensory-motor instruction should precede instrument playing. The same applies to aural training; the skills of playing by ear and internalising the sound should precede the teaching of notation.
Though these findings are derived from literature review, many pedagogical
approaches have long ago successfully tested their validity. In the following
chapter, the presentation of Orff-Schulwerk practices furthermore contributes
to this notion.
35
36
2.1 History
Orff first came to wide attention through his "Carmina Burana" in 1937, an
early composition establishing an impressive kind of musical theatre. Clearly,
his fame as a composer inspired confidence in his educational work, as well.
Although many consider his music education work as more important, Warner (1991) maintains that it only occupies a small fraction of his life's work.
However, Orff's two different identities, as music educator and composer,
were mutually influential.
Orff was born in Munich in 1895, into a family that encouraged his interest in
music and the theatre. First, he was taught the piano by his mother and later
he studied at the Munich Academy of Music. As a boy he had also developed
a deep interest in classical languages, which explains some of his later interests. Orff was fortunate to have grown up in a city which was a cultural centre
of the time and as he was searching for his musical identity, inevitably he met
many gifted artists who gathered in Munich at that time. During the years after the First World War, there was a search for new content in art and education and an emancipation from prevailing restrictions. According to Keetman
(1985), there was also a closer contact with the music and art of exotic cultures
such as Indonesian dances, Gamelan orchestras and African drums.
In 1924 Orff and Gnther founded the Gntherschule for gymnastics, music
and dance in Munich; Orff was responsible for the musical training of the stu
37
dents. In this institution students were taught a combination of music, dance

and speech, unified into one approach. The idea for such an integrated training first came to Orff when he met the founder of the modern-dance movement in Germany, Wigman, who was a student of Jaques-Dalcroze and Laban
(Orff, 1976).
The years in the Gntherschule were a period of experimentation. There, Orff
met Keetman and Lex, two gifted musicians and dancers who joined the
school as students but very soon became his close collaborators in his work on
elemental music. Keetman, especially, played an important role in developing
the playing techniques for most of the Orff instruments and exploring their
musical possibilities. She was very enthusiastic with the assignments that Orff
gave them, like searching for new sounds and experimenting with new instruments. Notwithstanding, Keetman (1985) criticised the training in gymnastics, which she described as a teaching "without any particular individuality"
(p. 5). In her view, the combination of music and movement needed greater
emphasis. Later, however, new practices of student training were developed
in which short music pieces were used for movement studies. Alternatively, a
movement study generated a music piece that was improvised and composed.
The coordination of music and movement became a unique experience for the
students, as they were uncommonly well-trained in both disciplines (Keetman,
1985).
Haselbach (1992) reveals that the most important task for Orff and his colleagues was to match the music and its inherent rhythms to the dance. For this
purpose he chose instruments that had originally been used to accompany
dance; believing that music and dance formed a stylistic unity (Keetman,
1985). He experimented with a large African xylophone that he had received
from two Swedish sisters in 1926, who worked with puppets. This instrument
initiated a new stage in his educational work and also influenced many of his
subsequent compositions. What emerged from the experiments with xylophones was an unusual music with primitive strength which Keetman (1985)
regards as an ideal medium to teach children to respond to music wholly, with
body and soul. This fruitful work lasted until the Second World War and hundreds of students were trained in the Gntherschule while people worldwide
had the opportunity to enjoy performances of the school's dance group.
38
The next challenge for Orff and his educational work came in 1948 when the
Bavarian Radio asked him to compose music that children could play themselves. Orff realised that this was an opportunity to renew his dream of music
educational reform. With the help of his collaborators from the Gntherschule,
he prepared a series called "Music for childrenMusic by Children", to be
broadcast to schools. In stark contrast to the prevailing music teaching of the
time, this approach offered an integrated education. Haselbach (1992) distinguishes five points of integration: (a) a connection between voice, movement,
language, instrument and dance; (b) an emphasis on creative activities, improvisation and group work; (c) use of instruments for ensemble playing or
individual musical expression; (d) encounter with traditional texts and fairy
stories (p. 4).
During the five years of the broadcasts, Orff and Keetman documented some
of the preliminary exercises, folk songs and improvised structures, used in the
radio programmes. As a result, between 1950 and 1954 five volumes of thick
oblong books, Music for children appeared. However, Orff became aware that
as "elemental music" was born out of improvisation, the Schulwerk books
could be easily misunderstood and their basic principles misused. To counteract any distortion of Schulwerk, courses for teachers were instigated at the
Mozarteum Music Academy in Salzburg, and Keetman was appointed as the
basic instructor for the courses. Thomas (1985) described 1949 as a landmark
for Schulwerk: at last it could now fully develop its movement aspect that had
been neglected during the radio broadcasts. Soon, apart from the Mozarteum's
classes, new courses were established for interested outsiders.
The year 1953 saw the beginning of the actual dispersal of Schulwerk, with
participants who, after their training, went back and introduced it to their own
countries. The expansion of Schulwerk intensified with the opening of the Orff
Institute, an international training centre, as well as the foundation of the OrffSchulwerk Forum in 1984, to develop the collaborative work of all those involved in the adaptation of Schulwerk into other languages. Schulwerk experienced an unforeseeable international expansion, and as Haselbach (1992)
reports, today it is practised in about forty countries. In many of them, the circle of interested people grew in such numbers that national associations were
formed ranging from fifty to several thousand members, and in many cases
producing a regular newsletter or magazine.
39
2.2 Philosophy and pedagogy
Pedagogy is like a river. As it flows, principles continue to be rediscovered. One can't

interfere with the flow of these ideas or contain them in any way. (Orff, in Frazee,
1977, p. 19)
Orff-Schulwerk has an important role to play in the future. Kemp (1984)

would agree, suggesting that the materials of Orff's approach offer "essential
and invaluable insights into curriculum structure and learning which are fundamental and universal" (p. 63). Because of its elemental nature, OrffSchulwerk offers a framework within which any culture can take part and yet
have space for individual differences. As Shepherd (1985) claims, the population of the largest cities of the world are no longer willing to be Europeanised
but wish to retain their own identity and culture. Orff-Schulwerk can be used
in such a way, that all cultures may find musical and linguistic expression that
can be organised to provide a framework for children's musical development
and self-expression (Hutchinson, 1969).
As a principle, Schulwerk demands a free and creative adaptation for the present day. Although, Orff often declared that Schulwerk has no ambition to be
modern, all he meant was to keep Schulwerk clear of fashionable trends
(Orff, 1962b, p. 11). The model nature of the examples, given in the original
volumes of Schulwerk, presupposes that it must be constantly reworked day
by day in improvisation and in recreation (Thomas, 1985; Haselbach, 1992). As
Orff (1963) remarks, "every phase of Schulwerk will always provide stimulation for new independent growth; therefore it is never conclusive and settled,
but always developing, always growing, always flowing" (p. 3). Orff believed
that the individuality of Schulwerk lays not in being up-to-date but in its elemental character which corresponds to the development of the child and the
growth of music in history.
Frazee (1977), an Orff specialist who once had a discussion with Orff himself,
explained why Orff felt that technology offered limited opportunities for children to explore on their own. To illustrate his point, Orff took her little finger
and as he was dropping it on an imaginary key to produce a fortissimo sound,
he said: The more the instrument does for you, the less opportunity you have
to explore and control it (p. 19). In the same discussion he also criticised other
40
music teaching systems of being "too contemporary" and particularly, for the
Dalcroze method, he had criticised to Frazee that "its piano works are Swiss
music-hall pieces, and therefore, not closely related to the world of children"
(p. 19) .
The Schulwerk avoids the pitfalls of progress; yet it would be a mistake to call it
primitive because of its kinship with early stages of music and language. The pieces it
contains are simple, elementary if you will, yet always meaningful, each one having a
Gestalt of its own. It is the treatment of musical elements that set the Schulwerk
apart from other systems. (Orff, 1962b, p. 11)
Schulwerk offers much flexibility in designing a way of achieving pedagogical

goals according to situations. Orff (1962b) describes it as an idea that one
could adopt or adjust to meet his or her teaching needs. "Those who look for a
method or a ready-made system, are rather uncomfortable with Schulwerk;
people with artistic temperament and a flair for improvisation, are fascinated
by it" (p. 14). As a pedagogical approach that could not be taught mechanically, Schulwerk demands creative instincts, fantasy and improvisation skills
on behalf of the teacher, as well (Walter, 1969a). Most Orff teachers experience
the extent of children's creativity as they explore new ideas with their students
through everyday improvisations and experiments. Erion (1996) offers a helpful example, characterising the teaching of Schulwerk as the most exciting and
challenging experience. "It is a real stretch of my own creativity to design body
percussion exercises and movement experiences that make a seamless flow
into Domine fili unigenite from Vivaldis Gloria for my chamber choir" (p.
12). While others enjoy the risk-taking element of Schulwerk and their students responses to it:
I enter into these experiments with the same excitement as do the students. I try to lay
the potential for discovery near their feet, without handing them a predetermined formula. When I allow spontaneity and intuition to guide my work in the classroom, the
students witness my own risk-taking as a teacher; they begin to sense that the search
itself is the primary matter of our work. (Kennedy, 1996, p. 17)
Orff developed techniques for teaching improvisation in classrooms and helping students to trust their own ideas. Day by day, the students learn to find
satisfactory solutions through a trial and error procedure. People who have no
clear conception of these aspects of Schulwerk can easily misunderstand it and
treat it as one more method (McNeil Carley, 1978). In one of his speeches, Walter (1969a), a pioneer of Canadian Orff-Schulwerk, criticised those teachers
who changed and mechanised Schulwerk: I attended an Orff demonstration
41
where the children performed beautifully, drilled like Prussian soldiers in the
time of Frederick the Greatand this in the name of improvisation, of fantasy
and freedom(p. 14).
In Schulwerk there is nothing fully developed ready to be applied, no exercises that can be done mechanically. This makes teaching very difficult for
some kinds of teachers and even more demanding for them to remain consistent to their tasks. The Orff approach is a child-centred onethe teacher is
merely a facilitator who leads children to new discoveries. In each lesson the
children experience music through speech, body percussion, singing, playing
instruments and movement.
These are the tools that Schulwerk employs and none of these is taught in isolation but as a whole; the way a language is taught. De Frece (1990) attributes
the effectiveness of Schulwerk to its "whole language approach". While most
methods interfere with the natural process of assimilation, Schulwerk follows
a natural process of assimilating music that activates a childs spontaneous capacities. But the cornerstone on which Schulwerk is based, is the childs innate
capacity to accomplish language tasks, which also is the basic reason that
Schulwerk should be taught in the childs mother tongue (Walter, 1969b).
If the child has an innate hereditary capacity to recapitulate the development of language and if it also has an innate hereditary capacity to recapitulate the development
of musicthere exists then a natural way of assimilating music. (Walter, 1969b, p. 25)
In music, as in most of the arts, it is the final product that is of most importance. Unfortunately, as Bruner (1996) holds, when the emphasis is placed on
content, the students function passively and less independently. In contrast, in
Schulwerk, it is the process that is of greatest importance. Burkart (1977) explains that, this emphasis on learning process equips students with the tools
necessary for further acquisition of experiences after leaving school. Orff
teaching lies on a continuum that follows a progression of imitation, exploration and improvisation, reaching from what is already known into the unfamiliar. Musical activities precede discussion, and conceptualisation is based
not on verbal exchange but upon experience (Wry, 1985). The word "Schulwerk" itself, is representative of Schulwerk's philosophy.
Schulwerk is schooling through working, namely, through being active and creative.
One might also call it an apprenticeship in music or one might express the meaning
42
through an equation: Schooling through working = learning by doing. (Warner, 1991,

p. 8)
Orff (1932) remarks that, for a child, musical instruction does not begin in the
music lesson, but rather in playtime, where learning takes place continuously
and spontaneously from the inside out, and that, in this way, skills develop
organically and at the child's own pace. For Orff, the starting point of this
learning by doing, is active music-making as the vital experience. He believed
that, only through an innate drive to play, practise and achieve and movement
originating from within, can lead to the development of a sense rhythm
(Jungmair, 1985, p. 62).
Play with melody has arisen out of play with movement, and the children practise
melody and words for themselves without consciously fulfilling a particular task;
these are the basic requirements for the awakening of creative activity. (Orff, 1932, p.
3)
Jungmair (1985) asserts that, as soon as a child is capable of using sounds and
giving names to things, he or she can experience in himself or herself the moment of the "birth of music", which according to Orff has its beginnings in the
human being. "The child's world of play can be likened to the early archaic
stages in the development of mankind" (Orff, 1962b, p. 11). According to Walter (1955), Orff believed that a child must be led through the various stages
which man passed, before music reaches the level on which we find it now.
The developmental theory behind the Orff approach to music education
evolved from the European educational philosophies of the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries. Dolloff's (1993) work explored many points of
congruency of the approach with current educational theories like schema
theory, play theory, music as intelligence and music as a cognitive process.
Notwithstanding, Dolloff stresses a remarkable weakness of the Orff approach. This is the lack of opportunities for listening to music performed and
composed by others. However, as Dolloff herself admits, Orff specialists are
currently exploring the role of directed listening activities. Schulwerk does not
teach all about music but lays a firm foundation for studies yet to come; it can
actually, serve as a basis for every kind of musical activity (Walter, 1969a).
Schulwerk avoids introducing concepts and notions prematurely into a child's
play-world. It also avoids false simplification, for a child's world is neither
primitive nor transitory; it is a world that can be rediscovered by adults. Orff
43
(1962b) would agree, suggesting that young people can profit greatly by it, but
it can also be of assistance to the future professional (p. 11).
The introduction to the world of written music, in a Schulwerk context, comes
from children themselves. As children derive pleasure from their drawings
and paintings, so they desire to keep a record of the melodies they invent. In
their first attempts to write down their music, children also include words and
pictures and so "the unity of the world of the senses remains protected and abstract music is not prematurely cultivated through notation" (Orff, 1932, p. 3).
In the long run, knowledge of notation is useful for the progress of children
but it must not be used for reading music from the Schulwerk volumes, as
these pieces are not compositions but music models. As Haselbach (1992)
stresses, "Orff would hardly have been pleased if, after forty years, the same
xylophone pieces were being played all over the world" (p. 5).
2.3 Elemental music

The word "element" is usually used for something that is fundamental and
central. From the basic three materials of music, which are considered to be
the rhythmic, the melodic and the harmonic, Walter (1955) has shown that
rhythm and melody are treated by Orff as germ cells out of which all music
grows. The word elemental was used in Orff's Schulwerk to describe music
"made in a natural way which one can recognise in a child's play" (Orff, 1932,
p. 3). Orff had observed that children express themselves in personal ways all
together using primal media like speech, movement and music. Thomas (1977)
speculates that when children's activities are unstructured and they feel free to
act spontaneously, then instinctive movement is directed and formed through
music.
In Schulwerk, children are asked to go through the different phases of music's
historical development and learn by their rediscovery; they make music without the constraint of purpose and live the experience to the full. Keller (1962)
took the view that elemental music is, in fact, "music that comes to meet the
children, in a way that they can experience it and respond to it as their own
music" (p. 35). The simplicity of materials in elemental music, through the
creative process, helps children to experience music actively. Music-making in
elemental music is a procedure that can be carried out by persons of all ages
44
and classes and which does not depend on their talent or degree of education
(Regner, 1982).
Elemental music education encourages the 'original encounter' between man and music in that it brings the essential structure of the musical object into a relationship that
corresponds to the motivation, the level of understanding and the maturity of the person concerned. (Regner, 1975 in Shamrock, 1988, p. 29)
In addition to the connection between elemental rhythmic expression and the

dance, there is a close relationship of processes in elemental music to the basic
forms of pantomime and scenic play and to their media of word, gesture,
mask and picture (Keller, 1962). Interestingly, folk music often, but not always,
has the characteristics of elemental music.
The instruments used in elemental music remain those which are in accord
with the human body, while the form of elemental music is restricted to combination of the basic elements of music (Jungmair, 1985). After these elements
have been experienced, they can be memorised without the aid of written music. The history of music shows that in countries where a system of notation
was developed, the abandonment of elemental music was inevitable (Orff,
1962a). Orff used the term "elemental music", to describe a basic material
which, as Keller (1962) explains, is a centre of energy for musical developments and music that is not written down and comes to life when it is played
or performed for first time, as happens with improvised music. Orff was
probably, prompted to explore his pedagogical ideas by an awareness of a neglect of music's basic materials.
2.4 Movement
The relationship between Schulwerk and movement is obviously very close
and there are many reasons for this. For example: (a) most of Orff's first collaborators, Gnther; Keetman; Lex and Wigman, were great advocates of
movement and dance (Thomas, 1988); (b) the rudiments of Schulwerk were established as Orff worked with a female group of gymnastic and dance students; (c) the Orff instrumentarium and sound gesturessounds made by
body movements such as clapping, finger snapping and so on, were designed
to meet the needs of "organic dance" in the Gntherschule (Shamrock, 1988).
45
Schulwerk philosophy holds that children must have the opportunity to develop their imagination and their need to express themselves. Haselbach
(1972) even suggests that music education needs to make up for past restrictions, for many children are denied the joys of movement. Children practise
their body as a musical instrument, which makes them capable of expressing
themselves consciously. Movement exercises lead to a sequence of movements
and finally to a short dance form, then comes an accompaniment, like clapping
the rhythm of the movement or by making different body-sounds. These are
later transferred to unpitched percussion or melodic barred percussion instruments. To these activities, a recorder or a solo voice adds a melody. The
children are guided through a problem-solving method to improve the quality
of their own movements, experimenting in tasks which involve time and
space. (Fig. 2.1)
Figure 2.1. Movement explorations (Sommer, 1973, p. 104).
Such an approach aims to help children discover the potential of movement, to

develop their imagination and a self-awareness, which as Haselbach (1972)
maintains, presupposes that the children show a willingness to experiment, as
well as to cooperate with a partner or a group. In a typical lesson taught in the
Orff-Schulwerk style, musical activity precedes discussion. The teacher follows consequent activities like doing a patschen (thigh slapping) pattern, playing the xylophone and singing a simple melody which are then imitated by the
students. After the teacher perceives that the children are imitating the
rhythm, singing the song and playing the barred instruments accurately, he or
she asks the students to verbalise what happened (Haselbach, 1978). The experience is the basis of any conceptualisation. As Wry (1985) suggests, the experience of their bodies helps children to understand the experience of the
46
teacher's body; it is a wordless dialogue between persons, followed by a verbal

one.
Schulwerk offers the child the early musical experiences that will enhance his
or her development. Traditionally, sound is used to start and stop movement
and to give it its rhythm, tempo and shape. However, the opposite often happens, as movement directs sound and establishes its rhythm, tempo, intensity
and melody (Jones, 1977). Through motor involvement, the child acquires the
complex motor skills necessary for the creation of music. Any normal child
feels the need to be active which is very obvious especially with younger children. This need for physical activity is recognised by Orff-Schulwerk (Warner,
1991). As Kemp (1984) points out, the integration of music and movement in
the Orff-Schulwerk approach "testifies to his [Orff's] special understanding of
young children's learning strategies" (p. 63).
While children run, jump or just walk, they become familiar with basic concepts of music, like tempo and all its possibilities. Using the vehicle of movement, children gain significantly in motion vocabulary and reinforce musical
concepts, while the materials of music are absorbed for further refinement and
development (Gillespie, 1981; Aaron, 1985). Schulwerk follows a child's development, from general to specific action, through a progression from spatial
movement to body rhythms and then to unpitched and pitched percussion instruments which require fine muscular control. Haselbach, a pioneer of
movement education, has developed what she calls "sensitivity training".
Haselbach's (1985) work focused upon the impulses that the human system of
perception receives both from the body itself, as well as, from the environment
within our milieu. As she explains, through sensitivity training children become able to perceive these impulses correctly and learn to interpret them.
Folk dance is a type of dance often encouraged in Schulwerk classes. However, these dances are not original and elemental any more, basically because
of the refinement they have undergone through the years (Nketia, 1969). Similarly, ballet lessons, developed for the training of professional dancers, are not
necessarily the right means for shaping dance forms which are appropriate for
children. 'Elemental' dance, as the term is used in Orff-Schulwerk, can only be
likened with dances of primitive cultures, which basically are games of
movement. In elemental and primitive dances, it matters "what the dancer
47
himself feels and realises; the importance of both lies in the creative activity"
(Gnther, 1962, p. 39).
Many Orff teachers are wary and uncertain when they face the prospect of introducing movement activities. Aaron (1977) speculates that, this is the result
of their own lack of first-hand experience with dance. Some of them use dance
and particularly its visual elements, only to elicit musical understanding
(Goodell, 1997), while others encourage improvisational experiences and make
use of the intrinsic qualities of dance. Orff viewed music, dance, speech and
drama as interrelated art forms and pursued an integration and transference
of concepts among the media of voice, movement and instrumental play. "The
unity of word and melody for small children also includes the associated
movement, the game, the round dance, above all expression through their
bodies" (Orff, 1931, p. 3).
2.5 Improvisation and creativity

Music-making grows directly out of improvisation, consequently, all invention
and improvisation activities prepare children for it (Keller, 1962). Improvisation in speech, in movement, in melody, in instrumental play and in the art of
teaching, is the heart of the Orff approach. Orff (1931) himself claimed that
improvisation is an essential part of the process of learning and making music
and a unique characteristic of his way of teaching music. The philosophy of
Orff-Schulwerk holds that children can progress easily to their first attempts at
creation or improvisation, provided that they experience an environment rich
in the elements of the natural play and appropriate inspiration for musical expression initiated by the teacher. The Schulwerk approach elicits and supports
creativity as it is found in children's daily work and renounces creativity as an
act reserved only for the gifted (Gilpatrick, 1996).
The learning process employed in Schulwerk is very similar to the activities of
children at play; an imitative learning process providing them with raw materials and tools for further creative development. Children usually are free and
inventive in exploring any materials which appeal, but they need a teacher to
provide the appropriate stimuli for children's imaginative responses. According to Nichols (1977), a teacher should offer the challenge of a defined creative
problem; an aesthetic goal within their understanding and the appropriate
48
tools for solving it.

A prerequisite to any creative activity, is a music programme which gives
children a vocabulary of spoken, rhythmic, melodic and movement patterns.
In the beginning, improvisation may mean only adding a word or a line to
make a new verse for a favourite song, or finding a word to match a familiar
rhythmic pattern; it may mean finding a new body rhythmic ostinato to accompany a favourite rhyme. "It is the imagination that should be awakened
and trained" (Orff, 1962b, p. 12). The paths to improvisation used in the
Schulwerk context are many and varied but most Orff teachers select their
teaching material from the following kinds of activity: (a) improvisation with
body instruments; (b) improvisation with small percussion instruments; (c)
melodic improvisation with voice, over an ostinato; (d) melodic improvisation
with melodic instruments; (e) cadential improvisation: tonic-dominant and
other harmonic progressions, with or without a song; (f) modal improvisation;
(g) rondo form (Nichols, 1977).
At this point, it may be useful to include a progression of improvisation activities employed by Kennedy (1996), an Orff specialist. These activities employ
elements of speech, sound gestures, movement, melody, separately or in combination:
Question and answer-after many experiences in imitation or echoing.

Free improvisation over an ostinato.
Free improvisation within an elemental formA B A, rondo, theme and variations.
A frame of words or a rhythmic phrase with which to improvise melodically.
The transferring of a text into sound gestures, untuned percussion or melody.
Free play with vocal sounds and /or words.
Realisation in sound of children's abstract art or graphic notation.
Composition by committee. (p. 16)
In a Schulwerk context, music making is often associated with pentatonic music. Within the confines of pentatonic music it could be easier for a child to express him or herself through improvisation. Using a five-tone scale makes the
first attempts at improvisation easier, as there are no dissonances created by
semitones to contend with (Orff, 1962b).
Excluding leading tones, and thereby differing from major, pentatonic music is both
strange and familiar to the child and encourages creative work, however modest it
may be at first. It is the very purpose of improvisation to teach a child to express himself in music as easily as in language. (p. 12)
49
The main purpose of pentatonic training is not to seal children off from all
other musical influences, but as Orff (1962b) suggests, "to help them to find
and to use a form of musical expression of their own" (p. 13). Through improvisation, children learn to follow the musical dictation of their own minds,
to listen and adjust to the ideas of their classmates. Improvisation can serve as
a key to the early and rapid development of musical skill and sensitivity on
any musical instrument beyond the typical Orff instrumentarium. As a music
teaching approach Orff-Schulwerk enables the inner musical voices of children
to be heard (Webster, 1996). McNeil Carley (1977), an Orff teacher specialising
in the use of improvisation in recorder teaching, stressed the importance of
building confidence by not interrupting or criticising until any improvisation
was finished. However, when the improvisation is over, asking questions that
provoke self-criticism and peer judgment, is equally important. Orff teachers
bring creativity as a matter of principle to the core of their teaching, placing an
emphasis on personal music-making that comes from personal investment in
music's construction, by asking students to think about problems and trying to
find solutions that work for them.
A prerequisite to familiarise children with improvisation is a regular exposure
of children to improvisation activities and a careful preparation on the part of
the teacher (McNeil Carley, 1978; Orff, 1962b). Otherwise, as Gulda (1971)
claims, children would be given the impression that what is written is far
more valuable than what is only heard and experienced, which also follows
from the traditional kind of music teaching, that playing what is written and
organised is more important than anything else in music.
2.6 Speech
Language is at the centre of Schulwerk, as every instruction begins and ends
with musical speech. In the first volume of Schulwerk's original edition, it is
written explicitly that all music exercises must be preceded by exercises in
speech (Orff and Keetman, 1950). In the latest edition of Schulwerk, however,
speech is the very foundation of music education. It is interesting the way Orff
(1963) referred to this issue: "It was clear to me what Schulwerk had so far
lacked. Apart from a few painful experiments, we had never allowed the singing voice and the spoken word their rightful place" (p. 6). In the five volumes
50
of Schulwerk that followed, Orff and Keetman included many old rhymes and
verses from the German tradition. Starting from the basis that, music in its
origin was closely associated with speech and related to movement, Orff's idea
was to follow the history of music to lead the children to music and then combine it with speech which will lead to singing and later, playing rhythms and
melodies on the instruments (Walter, 1969a).
Often, the experience of sounding words gives children pleasure as they can
enjoy speaking as much as painting and drawing. Words, and particularly
names, are suitable for rhythmic exercises. As Thomas (1985) stresses, starting
with the often discredited and derided names and street cries through to the
great poetry, the aim is to employ the whole of the body in speaking. Schulwerk provides children with an immediate contact with proverbs and sayings
by means of a kind of "sound direction" which makes a more striking impression than a superficial reading. It is a kind of interpretation of the language by
means of sound which intensifies the penetration of the proverb or sayings
into the imagination of the child (Thomas, 1963). For example, while using the
names of flowers and trees it is stressed in turn the rhythm of the words, the
sound and the meaning.
In Schulwerk, nursery rhymes, calls, chants and traditional sayings, are turned
into musical experiences. Pline (1982) suggests that nursery rhymes exert a
kind of magic upon children which she attributes to the fact that nursery
rhymes happen in the realm of fantasy. As Thomas (1977) points out, through
nursery rhymes and using the physical impulse of the words, children are introduced into metrical speech experiences and acquire a basic relationship to
speech. Their repetitive quality and the variety of rhythmic scheme present
children with "clear models of form, from which formal principles can later be
made conscious" (Pline, 1982, p. 73).
A characteristic example of a natural progression from speech patterns to
rhythmic activities and then to songs is given by Carder and Landis (1972):
Teachers list the first names of some of
the children, and the class organises
these in an order that produces
interesting rhythms, then set them to
music. Alternately, short phrases may
be built from the rhythm patterns of
some of the names. (p. 147) (Fig. 2.2)
51
Hearing their names spoken rhythmically, can sometimes help children to feel
more at ease with the school and the music lesson itself, while they become
familiar with different aspects of music. Through speech, children may come
to experience all complexities and polyrhythms in a more natural way
(McNeill Carley, 1978). Rhymes, for example, can be used to stimulate an improvisation, or the rhythm of the words can be transferred to instruments and
developed. Speech patterns are also very helpful in connecting music with
other school subjects. These activities in the form of play can be used to assist
the learning of names of places, colours, days of the week, flowers, and so on.
A very critical point though common to all these activities is that notation
must follow the natural flow of language and not the opposite.
Given the model nature of Schulwerk, a careful examination of the local language's characteristics must take place before it is applied into another country (Thomas, 1963). Every language has its own special qualities which have
powerful educative influences when they are taught properly (Cronmueller,
1969). Hutchinson (1969) made a comparison between the American and the
German language and found that the American language reveals (a) more sixteenth notes; (b) upbeats; (c) that three is more common than the four; (d) and
that syncopation is very common. Flower (1969), a language specialist, searching the American literature for Schulwerk material, formulated a series of criteria which should be taken in account in order that any American translation
to be consistent to the Orff principles. These were: (a) to use the germ cells of
words and meanings; (b) words and phrases must be short; (c) the substance
of the language must imply movement; (d) language must appeal to primary
senses; (e) it must have a boldness and directness; (f) it must be charming, urging and inviting (p. 252). Teaching rhythm, in any cultural setting of the
world, one must inevitably examine its relationship to language in order to
support a pedagogical sequence. Keetman (1970) draws our attention to the
danger of misused speech patterns that distort the natural rhythms of a language especially, in cases that these patterns are related to notation. For example, if one-syllable words are used to illustrate whole-note durations, they lose
their natural, spoken duration.
52
2.7 Singing
In the Schulwerk context, after movement and rhythmic recitation of a text, the
next step in children's musical development is singing. Amongst others,
through singing children are helped to express their personalities (Kemp in
Gray, 1985). According to Salmon (1998), voice and body are both used not
only for singing and dancing but for effects as well, and music becomes alive
in children's minds through the vehicle of their bodies and voices. In Schulwerk, singing is also a vehicle for improvisation, although this is very difficult
for children who are asked to use their voices for the first time in a way different than in speaking. Orff advised music teachers not to attempt any vocal
improvisations until children had mastered pentatonic space (Orff, 1962b).
Notwithstanding, there are many Orff teachers who believe that vocal skills is
the neglected area of Schulwerk and that singing should not be merely a vehicle for teaching rhythms and encouraging improvisation (Bate, 1985). Goodell
(1997) contributes to it by declaring that, the beautiful playing of xylophones,
recorders and body percussion is cultivated, at the expense of beautiful singing.
2.8 Using instruments

Since the beginning of the Gntherschule, Orff was in search of rhythm instruments that were also capable of carrying melody, so that dance students
could accompany themselves. Given the emphasis of Schulwerk on rhythm,
the development of specially designed percussion instruments was something
expected (Carder and Landis, 1972). So, in cooperation with Maendler, Orff
designed melodic percussion instruments like xylophones, metallophones and
glockenspiels. As these instruments can so easily be learned, children soon feel
secure with the musical environment and attempt all sort of creative activities
(Frazee, 1987). One could even say, that there is a kind of enchantment with
the sound of the Orff instruments which provides the necessary framework
for children's musical development. Some Orff teachers go as far as to discern
social functions for the Orff instrumentarium, as well. Smith (1996) asserts,
that while children produce quality sounds with Orff instruments, these
sounds are quite separate from the world of adult tonal colour but still give
them an authentic musical expression. Consequently, children feel free to explore their distinctly child-like ideas, unmeasured by adult music-making
53
standards.
Orff teachers, often concerned about their own understanding of motor system
psychology, invest in careful planning of motor skill activities that would result in children's success in playing musical instruments. Cole (1998) offers a
helpful example of the way in which Orff teachers prepare children for playing percussion instruments with beaters. First the children practise the patterns on the floor surface using their hands. Following this, they use chopsticks and pencils to practise target objects like Frisbees or poster board shapes
and finally they start playing patterns on tone bar instruments.
Basic sound resources used in Orff-Schulwerk classes could be organised as
follows: (a) voice and body: use of voice for effects, body percussion; (b) unpitched percussion: wood, metal, rattles, scrapers, skin; (c) bar instruments:
glockenspiels, metallophones, xylophones; (d) recorders and other instruments: guitar, bowed psaltery, 5ths cello and dulcimer. In parallel with
movement, children learn to use sounds produced by their hands and feet, isolated or in combinations. In this way, children's bodies serve as percussion instruments, for example, snapping fingers, stamping feet, slapping knees, and
clapping hands. Therefore, body sounds function as a bridge unifying music
and movement as it appears in children's play (Smith, 1996).
In Orff-Schulwerk, the children's physical coordination and auditory sense are
developed before any teaching of written sound symbol is attempted. Besides,
it is virtually impossible for young children to read music whilst at the same
time rendering a fluent interpretation on Orff instruments (Warner, 1995b).
Before notation, children learn to reproduce the movement of pitches with
some degree of precision in singing and on instruments. For years they are exposed to unconscious assimilation of music through singing, playing and
dancing. However, music literacy becomes important when the recorder is introduced into the classroom. The recorder is a necessary complement to the
Orff instrumentarium that can be used to accompany with an ostinato or improvise on a few tones. Hutchinson (1969) holds that many teachers who are
concerned about the initial expense of the Orff equipment provide their students with recorders. The expense problem of the Orff instruments is not a
new one in the Schulwerk approach (Haselbach, 1992). As a solution, Orff
suggested the use of many other instruments like guitars, lutes, dulcimers and
54
even soft bamboo flutes. But above all, as Orff (1962b) strongly recommended,
when Schulwerk is applied in other countries, indigenous folk instruments
must replace the Orff instrumentarium or be included in it.
2.9 Ostinato
Ostinato, the indispensable characteristic of all elemental music, is the basic
form of accompaniment in Schulwerk. It is characterised as a persistent repetition of a rhythmic, melodic or harmonic structure and often it has the form of
a drone. Its role as accompaniment for pentatonic and modal melodies is very
important. In the original volumes of Music for Children (Orff and Keetman,
1950) one can find many characteristic features of the style known as ostinati,
pedal or 5ths. In Volume One there are many examples of repeated rhythmic
or melodic patterns. In this volume one can distinguish four types of ostinati:
1. Movement ostinati: in solo or groups, usually accompanied by speech activities.
2. Speech ostinati: usually in groups and in different layers.
3. Sung ostinati: providing a vocal independence.
4. Instrumental ostinati: body percussion, unpitched percussion, and pitched percussion.
Keller (1974) claims that ostinato offers a unique opportunity to children who
want to sing or play in ensemble at an early age. It appears that children find a
kind of security in repeating the same motif time and again and as they do it,
they become familiar with basic principles of music, and develop a sense of
coordination, musical memory and rhythmic independence. In terms of teaching, ostinato can be seen to be very useful, as children learn their parts very
quickly without using notation. However, it still takes a lot of attention and
concentration when it is used with very young children (Regner, 1982).
2.10 Folk music

Looking deeper into the philosophy of Schulwerk, we discover that folk music
meets the requirements of the so called 'elemental music', as well as, children's
enculturation (Walter, 1955). A music education approach such as Schulwerk
which stresses creativity needs to include folk music. According to Lomax
Hawes (1969), two premises of the Schulwerk bring it very close to folk music:
55
(a) the production of sound precedes the reading and writing process; (b) the
child has already had some experience in both making and hearing sounds before he or she enters the classroom. Orff teachers pay attention to the young
child's musical capabilities which are the result of the child's invented and perfected forms, rhythms, melodic patterns and so forth. Traditional rhythm
games and songs can be used to connect children directly with the essence of
life. Orff attempted to demonstrate this connection by making the music of
Schulwerk correspond to the textual material of folk-song, fairy story and legend, in their appeal to the child's fantasy world (Liess, 1966, p. 61). Folk music
is closer to primitive and simpler forms of music, similar to those used in children's plays. Orff teachers find in folk music resources of raw materials for
classroom use, such as repetitive patterns and musical dialogues, as many folk
songs employ a question-answer form which is easily applicable in the classroom. These resources of authenticity and high pedagogical value can be used
for cross-curriculum connections, such as music-story connections and musicmovement connections (Shamrock, 1986).
Notwithstanding, Orff teachers' opinions about the use of folk music in school
vary widely. Nketia (1969) asserts that folk music cannot apply equally everywhere because its importance varies from place to place; while in some
places it could provide a basis for selection and grading for school use, in most
cases it is no longer the expression of a living community. Some teachers feel
that they have a professional obligation to find and use intelligently the best,
most characteristic examples of their culture (Trinka, 1995; Lomax Hawes,
1969), while others feel that the pop and folk values found in their culture
could beset Schulwerk (Hutchinson, 1969; Cronmueller, 1969). As Hutchinson
(1969) puts it "Educators tend to think of folk songs as automatically "good for
children"; I would caution that they are often too sophisticated in their economy of expression' (p. 249).
Warner (1995a) sees the choice of traditional music for classroom use as a sign
of love towards children. He considers that Orff's intention was to ensure the
survival of the Bavarian culture while enculturating young children.
The accumulated treasures of traditional rhymes and songs seemed a natural point of
departure: they are the source from which all texts are taken. Some are in dialect - In
nursery rhymes as in folk songs, dialect is a guarantee of authenticity. (Orff, 1950, p.
2)
56
Nevertheless, most music teachers agree that one of the aims of music education is to instil in children an appreciation for their musical heritage. Employing folk music into classrooms provides a link between music in school and
the musical life outside; the child and its culture; music and life itself.
2.11 Other applications

The Orff-Schulwerk philosophy of music and movement, as it involves all the
senses with which children learn, offers an excellent potential for children's
creativity and emotional growth but it also has an indirect influence on their
academic learning (Beck, 1978). Wagner (1985) maintains that the process
through which children are taught musical skills reinforces the skills necessary
to read. Moving the body rhythmically and performing physical tasks helps
teachers identify reading problems caused by physical difficulties. On the
other hand, McCoy (1985) suggests that Schulwerk training assists the development of children's expression and communication. Particularly, improvisational ability in music and participation in musical ensemble activities, can
transfer to better verbal communications. Parker (1977), an Australian Orff
teacher, attempted an integration of subjects at pre-secondary level. She describes an example of maths/music integration in which children move round
to the beat of the tambour and when it stops, the teacher calls a number and
the children form groups of that number as quickly as possible.
Because of the "elemental" nature of the Orff-Schulwerk approach, the practice of music becomes a practical possibility for each child. The modified versions of the xylophone and metallophone that Orff developed, provide every
child with opportunities for being involved in making his or her own music
and achieving some measure of success on these instruments. According to
Baxter (1967), educationally backward and handicapped children's response to
music is no different than that of normal children, and they need it to develop
physically and mentally. Emphasising a step-by-step sequence of skills and
encouraging participation instead of perfection, the Orff approach helps learning-disabled children to co-ordinate mind and muscle and achieve a selfexpression through their body.
57
2.12 Summary
"Schulwerk" is schooling in music through working, that is through being active and creative. The model character of Schulwerk and its emphasis on improvisation encourages both individuals and groups to be freely creative. OrffSchulwerk, as a way to teach and learn music, is designed for all children, not
just the privileged. Children are directed into making music in the same way
we all learned our language. Given the use of basic materials such as poems,
rhymes, games, songs and dances, Schulwerk should be taught in the childs
mother tongue. Its original content from the South German region, the homeland of its author and the people for whom it was originally intended, opened
out to include texts in other languages. Now translated into eighteen languages, Orff-Schulwerk is based on the traditional music and folklore of each
country in which it is used.
However, the international expansion of Schulwerk is not a simple issue. The
process of integrating the ideas contained in Orff-Schulwerk into the framework of the present cultural situation and living conditions of each country,
reveals a number of problems. Firstly, the folk music that could be used in
Schulwerk, is frequently not within the everyday experience of the children,
which renders the use of folk music pedagogically futile. Secondly, some musical cultures lack tonalities with pentatonic scales which are important in the
early stages of Schulwerk. Lastly, countries with such a style as in Greek traditional music, with very simple harmonic structures based on a moving bourdon, need some special requirements in order to use Schulwerk. These are
some of the problems that have not been addressed in the literature and, therefore, prompted the author to visit the Orff-Institute in Salzburg in order to
have a first-hand experience of Schulwerk and interview some of Orff's close
collaborators.
58
59

"Today there are many countries in which a practical involvement with OrffSchulwerk has occurred. Where this has resulted in earnest, where, after preliminary
courses, workshops and studies expert musicians, teachers, ethnologists, language
and dance teachers have undertaken the work of creating, from original sources, their
own independent conception; where this has happened the publication of their editions has led to innovations in the music and movement teaching of the countries
concerned." (Regner, 1978, p. 2)
The year 2000 was a landmark for Orff-Schulwerk as 50 years of Music for Children were completed. The event was celebrated with an international symposium in Traunwalchen in Bavaria, Germany with participants from over 35
different nations. Amongst other issues, the influence of Orff-Schulwerk as
well as its future in many parts of the world were examined. The fact that
Orff-Schulwerk stretches over the entire planet like a network is apparent just
from the international participation in the symposia and the summer courses
in Salzburg. Over 17 nations offer Orff-Schulwerk music and movement education not only to children but to young people as a whole, adults and seniors
in the field of dance education and music therapy (Schmerda, 2000). As
Regner (1975) claims, the worldwide dissemination of Orff-Schulwerk shows
the validity that Orff's fundamental educational ideas had.
The issue of a method's dispersion is closely linked to the way this method
was designed in the first place. We know that the original Orff-Schulwerk for
children was designed for a Bavarian cultural setting; Orff's initial plan was
merely to help the children of his home country to approach music through its
own local folk music (Regner, 1978). However, the flexibility of the model together with its simple structure, is what makes Schulwerk so widely applica
60
ble (Jungmair, 1985). The musical material gathered through the years of experimentation and the way that they are documented in the original OrffSchulwerk volumes make Schulwerk applicable even in non-western cultures
(Hutchinson, 1969). In the USA, for example, Orff-Schulwerk has long been
firmly established and is thoroughly organised. In Austria and in Germany, on
the other hand, as Schmerda (2000) points out the first signs of fatigue are
beginning to show, people are not as flexible as in other countries and Orffs
ideas are implemented in a very schooled way (p. 6). The lack of imagination
and of inspired teachers that will move on beyond Orff-Schulwerk as a
method, is to a large extent due to the deficiencies in teacher training that
would nourish further improvisation instead of dogmatic directives. According to Burger (2000)President of Orff-Schulwerk Association in Germany
after the reunification of East and West Germany, two different and contradictory trends can be traced: pedagogues from the new states are becoming more
and more interested in Carl Orffs ideas, whilst a decrease of the initial interest
has been noted amongst their colleagues in the west.
Furthermore, the issue of the successful adaptation of a foreign pedagogical
idea is closely related to the political, social and cultural background. Even
within Europe, the educational systems display many differences between the
countries. The varying gaps between the affluent and the poor also pose differential problems for the education systems in the extent to which the influence of widely varying social backgrounds will have to be offset within the
schools (Schmerda, 2000). However, in countries with European background,
a minor adjustment of Schulwerk has been proven sufficient in most cases. On
the other hand, in cultures in which a non-western musical system is still viable, it remains to be seen whether Schulwerk can be modified sufficiently to
transmit the indigenous musical structures. As Unwin (1998) remarks, these
countries have only theoretical assurance that Schulwerk can be adapted; they
have no successful adaptations to emulate.
The relationship between speech and rhythm, for example, which forms a
fundamental element in Orff-Schulwerk, may present a problem in certain cultural settings. According to Shamrock (1990),
The Schulwerk model develops rhythm from a language based on stress accent.
Languages based on tonal variance, including a number of Asian languages, if explored for strongest musical implications would likely engender a melodic rather
than a rhythmic progression (p. 51).
61
Shamrocks opinion about tonal languages coincides with Chen-Hafteck's

(1996) view that in many cultures, such as in Asia and Africa, speech melody exerts a considerable influence on singing. Therefore, if Orff-Schulwerk
was to be successfully adapted, the speech-to-rhythm progression of the original model should be reexamined.
Another problem in connection with Schulwerks adaptability rests in the nature of the teacher/student relationship. That is, in cultures where strict
teacher-directed teaching is the norm, the idea of the instructor becoming a facilitator, as Orff-Schulwerk advocates, is unacceptable. Moreover, some societies are not receptive to the elements of movement and exploration. Notwithstanding, Orff instruments in some cultures may need retuning or simply be
inappropriate (Shamrock, 1990). For example, in Taiwan and Thailand the
pitched Orff instruments can not been used in arrangements of folk songs,
unless they are specially tuned to match to the modes of local music (Shamrock, 1988).
A documentation of the successfulness of Orff-Schulwerks adaptation can be
partially traced in the relevant editions of each country, such as the case of
Portugal, Africa, Brazil, England, USA, Canada. Therefore in this chapter,
wherever possible, a special reference to these editions is attempted.
3.1 World wide adaptations:

Great Britain
The first volumes of the English Orff-Schulwerk version appeared in 1958 and
the English Orff-Schulwerk society was founded in 1964. Since then, the "Orff
UK Society" runs an annual Easter introductory course and two short summer
courses with tutors from England, Salzburg and USA. The "Orff UK Society"
also issues a magazine called The Orff Times. The growth of Orff-Schulwerk
in England has been greatly helped by the close ties of this society with the
Orff Institute in Salzburg and particularly by the participation of teachers and
lecturers from England in the intensive English-speaking training courses offered by the Institute (Murray, 1975). According to Lane (1990) the fact that
today the majority of primary music teachers in England know something of
62
Orffs ideals is attributed to the work of Margaret Murray, the initiator of OrffSchulwerk in Great Britain, who managed to defeat the indifference and disbelief that she met during the first years. Murray is also responsible for the majority of translations and adaptations of Orff-Schulwerk publications, such as
the English version of the five volumes of Music for Children (issued in 1958
and in 1966), Eight English nursery songs, Eighteen pieces, Wee Willie Winkie, Nine
carols. As far as the successful adaptation of the five Orff volumes is concerned, Murray (1990) herself found the adaptation successful although she
admitted that the second volume of Music for Children is the only one which
could be more successfully adapted as the area covered is not representative
of British folk songs.
Spain
In 1966, the year of its foundation, the Association Orff Espana numbered 220
members. Interest in the Orff approach grew considerably after the establishment of the new educational law which requires music to be a compulsory
subject at the primary level taught by a music specialist. Elisa Rocheone of
the first Spanish students at the Orff Instituteplayed a decisive role in the
new, Schulwerk-oriented, curriculum of Spain (Maschat, 2000b). However, a
number of factors render the implementation of Orff-Schulwerk quite difficult.
As Maschat (2000a), President of the Association in Spain, points out, the main
factors are the quality of teachers, the lack of space or designated area for music and dance activities, the poor quality of instruments and the poor quality
of textbooks and publications.
Portugal
Portugal was one of the first countries in which Orff-Schulwerk was introduced in the early sixties. APEM (Associacao Portuegese de Educacao Musical) was created in 1972 by Professor Maria de Lourdes Martins, who was also
responsible for the adaptation in Portuguese of the Orff-Schulwerk volumes.
Due to a constant exchange between the Orff-Institute and Portugal, the Portuguese adaptation of Orff-Schulwerk kept very close to the German model
(Gomes, 1990). To this contributed the attendance of long-term courses in
Salzburg by Portuguese students and teachers and the visit of Orff to Lisbon
in 1959. Starting from 1971 the Portuguese ministry of education established
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pedagogical experiments in which many Orff teachers of Portugal were involved thus influencing their syllabus. In 1972, the Orff-Schulwerk society in
Portugal numbered 840 members.
Malta
Orff-Schulwerk was first introduced in Malta in 1974 by Verena Maschad who
held in-service courses for kindergarten and primary school teachers. Through
seminars and radio broadcasts the Orff teachers of the island helped both parents and the educational authorities to realise the importance of the work done
in the Orff classes and to appreciate the sound of the recorder which was disregarded as an instrument. So, from 1988 Orff-Schulwerk was also introduced
in GozoMaltas sister island. In one of her letters to Orff-Schulwerk forum,
Bugeja (1990) mentions 130 children attending Orff classes in Gozo and over
150 in Malta. However, she criticises teachers ignorance and lack of knowledge which result in deficient movement activities in their classes.
Czech Republic
The Czech Orff-Schulwerk Association was founded in 1995 under the umbrella of the Czech Music Association and at present it numbers 520 members
(Jurcovic, 2000). However, the first seminars and courses in Orff-Schulwerk
took place long ago, in 1965. Of particular interest is the Czechian publication
of two volumes of Orff-Schulwerk by Lija Hurnik and Petr Eben with which
Orff was very satisfied.
It was in the sixties when five or six people, amongst them Orff himself, listened at
the Orff Institute to the record that supplemented the first volume. Orff was at first a
bit upset but at the end he said that it was very different but very good . . . This was
the first use of Schulwerk where no original piece had been used. (Interview with
Regner, 1996)
USA
Orff-Schulwerk brought about major changes in the area of elementary music
instruction. The foundation of the American Orff-Schulwerk Association
added momentum to these changes. This Association which started in 1967
now numbers over 5,000 members from 41 states in USA, from Canada and
from foreign countries. Through the association and its three annual issues of
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the Orff-Echo, the publication of articles and demonstration of quality teaching through the annual conferences, teachers and curricula are influenced and
these affect thousands of children attending music classes in American
schools. As Saliba (1975) asserts, this rapid dissemination of Orff-Schulwerk
was due to its ready adaptability to American culture and the sound backing
of a quick-growing American Orff-Schulwerk Association. The numerous
short and long-term courses that are held each year in American universities
reveal a widespread use of Orff-Schulwerk in the USA. There are teacher
training courses scaled into three levels. Graduates of level three are considered to be qualified Orff teachers. Also, at least fifty Orff teacher training
courses are held at colleges and universities throughout the USA for intensive
two-week sessions. One could therefore conclude that Orff-Schulwerk has significantly impacted postgraduate music education. Furthermore, an annual
Orff conference takes place in a different USA region each year whilst an international Orff-Schulwerk symposium takes place every five years; the 2000
symposium involved three different countries: USA, Germany and Finland.
The American version of Music for children differs from the original German
one as well as from all other editions of Orff-Schulwerk. As Regner (1982), the
coordinator of the three volumes of the American Orff-Schulwerk edition explains, the basis for the organisation and continuity in the volumes is not the
tonal material, that is pentatonic, major and minor, but the age of the specific
group to which each one of the three volumes is directed: preschool, primary
and upper elementary. Furthermore, the American volumes offer a systematic
sequence of material which could be used as comprehensive lesson plans.
However, one could argue that these sample lessons can suppress teachers
creativity and function as guidelines that should be followed to the letter,
something that is contrary to the Orff principles.
Canada
Orff-Schulwerk was first introduced in Canada in 1954 by Hall (Otto, 1985)
who attempted to adapt the original German volumes of Schulwerk. The five
volumes of the Canadian edition, except from volume one, failed to adapt
Orff-Schulwerk due to an inadequate treatment of accompaniments in Orff's
elemental style and the fact that most materials in volumes two to five were
reprinted from the original German edition (Osterby, 1988). However, within
65
a short period Orff-Schulwerk had become part of the music programme in

Toronto schools and courses were offered at the Royal Conservatory. In 1962
Orff and Keetman visited Canada and helped to spread the understanding of
Orff-Schulwerk throughout North America. Canadian Orff teachers stress the
uniqueness of Canadian music which, according to Otto (1985), is often confused with the American folk music which could lead to a destruction of its
identity. Nowadays, the Carl Orff Canada Society numbers 1500 members, although a decrease in membership has been noted (Berarducci, 2000).
Argentine
Orff-Schulwerk started in Argentina in 1955. The first instruments were imported from Germany and the first Latin American version of Orff-Schulwerk
by Ypes and Greatzer appeared in 1963. According to Greatzer (1990) OrffSchulwerk in Argentina is complemented with Kodalys approach because
Orffs pentatonic starting point met with opposition. More recently OrffSchulwerk has been accepted into the curriculum of the state schools and is
permanently taught in teacher seminars.
Brazil
Brazil is a rather underdeveloped country that suffers from significant levels
of illiteracy amongst its population. Orff-Schulwerk was first introduced in
1963 by Regner who organised the first seminars in Sao Paolo and Brasilia;
Regner is also the editor of the first Orff-Schulwerk publications in Portuguese. In 1964 Ellen Klohsan Orff specialiststayed for three months in the
state of Porto Alegre where she organised lectures and seminars. For the last
twenty years, in the same state, she runs a summer course in which children
aged 8-11 participate. From 1971, in the state of Santa Catarina, OrffSchulwerk is part of the syllabus of the Blumenell music school. OrffSchulwerk has also penetrated schools in the state Paran and since 1969 it is
taught in the Lavignac conservatory in Sao Paolo. Since 1988 an Institute of
Education runs a postgraduate Orff-Schulwerk course for teachers (Samways
et al., 1990).
66
Colombia
In 1967 Regner and Haselbach visited Bogota for an introductory seminar
which was attended by teachers and musicians from all over Colombia. The
pedagogical ideas of Orff created enormous interest in the participants and led
some of them visiting the Orff-Institute in 1968. In the following years the
German Pedagogical Mission offered one-year teacher training courses and a
set of Orff instruments for every institution. Colombian music teachers were
taught to adapt Orffs ideas but also to use their own folk material. However,
several folk music specialists criticised the introduction of such foreign methods (Reyes, 1990). Nowadays, Orff-Schulwerk is introduced in teacher training as one of the basic pedagogical concepts.
Australia
The Orff-Schulwerk association of Queensland was formed in 1966 with support and practical help from England, Canada and USA. In 1975 the first Australian summer school was held, which was attended by teachers from all over
Australia (Smith, 1975). Gradually, the education department was persuaded
to provide financial support for schools wishing to buy instruments. Today,
Orff-Schulwerk associations have also been formed in other cities like Sydney,
New South Wales and Victoria. For the last 12 years the Australian Catholic
University has provided activities, courses and academic encounter with music and movement education based on Orff-Schulwerk. Australia does not
have an easily definable cultural tradition, and its cultural identity is still developing. As Richards et al. (1990) assert, the multicultural background of the
Australian society has shaped its aesthetic awareness. The teachers see their
role as music teachers as one of awakening the aesthetic sensibilities of children and incorporating the many diverse cultural contributions. The use of the
Orff approach at the secondary level together with the interest in community
music making and instrument building, testify to the successful application of
Orff-Schulwerk in Australia (Moore, 2000). However, in Australia, as in many
other countries, a shortage of qualified teachers is apparent. Postgraduate certificate and diploma courses in Orff music education have been developed
aiming to eliminate this shortage.
67
Japan
Japan was the first non-European country to become acquainted with OrffSchulwerk. In 1953 Fukui visited Salzburg, took the original Schulwerk volumes and prepared a Japanese three-volume edition. Unfortunately, this edition used much of the material of the German edition and included only a few
Japanese songs. However, in 1984 and 1985, two Japanese music educators,
Hoshino and Igushi, collaborated in publishing three small volumes entitled
Orff-Schulwerk: Musik fr KinderJapanische Adaptation. According to
Shamrock (1988), these volumes illustrate the transition to a more indigenous
Japanese orientation in terms of the folk songs arrangement, use of indigenous
instruments such as Kodo, use of the Japanese modal system, and modification of the accompaniment to accommodate the dissonances of a nonwestern melody.
Orff and Keetman visited Japan in 1962 for a lecture tour and several workshops with children. Three years later the first Orff study group was started,
which branched out quickly. Today in Japan Orff-Schulwerk is practised in
Kindergartens, elementary schools, middle schools and academies. The initial
high enthusiasm was followed by an equally strong waning of interest (Hoshino and Iguchi, 1985). The institutions that carried on developed and
adapted the pedagogy to suit their own needs. As Shamrock (1988) comments,
the musical environment of many Japanese schools is dominated by westerninfluenced styles and, not surprisingly, many teachers choose non-indigenousbased Schulwerk directions.
Taiwan
Orff-Schulwerk came to Taiwan in 1970 when Father Su, a Belgian Catholic
priest, commenced teaching children at Kuang Jen with the Orff approach. In
1972 he published the first volume (Volume I: pentatonic) of the Chinese
adaptation of Orff-Schulwerk which actually was a translation of the texts and
the German songs. In 1985 Tsen took up the position of Father Su and in 1987
she prepared the third printing of Volume I of the Chinese edition in which
she added twelve arrangements of indigenous folk songs. In recent years,
Orff-Schulwerk in Taiwan gained considerable impetus. As more parents seek
out special musical training for their young children, Orff-Schulwerk is
increasingly being offered to meet this demand in private schools (Shamrock,
1988). Therefore, in Taiwan the most usual age for a child to begin an Orff
68
Therefore, in Taiwan the most usual age for a child to begin an Orff course is
four years, and the class training is most often seen as preliminary to the study
of an instrument.
Generally speaking, there is a growing interest in the Orff approach. In the
1980s there were no training courses for perspective Orff teachers whilst now
most teachers colleges offer complete training courses (Teng, 2000). Moreover,
a reawaking of traditional music, away from the Japanese influence, is noticeable. As it is based on individual cultural differences, Orff-Schulwerk is being
used for the creation of teaching material based on Taiwanese language, music
and culture.
Thailand
In Thailand Orff-Schulwerk has a twenty nine-year history but it is less dispersed compared to the previous two countries. In 1971 Regner and Haselbach
of the Salzburg Orff-Institute presented a workshop in Bangkok which was
sponsored by the Goethe Institute. Orff-Schulwerk already had some history
in Chiang Mai where Dyke and Gaston from USA had taught at a seminar in
1970. In both presentations the resemblance of the Orff instrumentarium to
Thai traditional instruments was of special interest (Regner and Haselbach,
1974). Nowadays, certain Thai institutions are strongly committed to OrffSchulwerks development and application but unfortunately music teachers
are familiar almost exclusively with western music and have scant, if any,
knowledge of Thai tradition (Shamrock, 1988).
India
In a vast and varied culture such as India's, western music runs side by side
with the practice and performance of purely Indian music. When the Schulwerk approach was introduced in 1969, it basically affected the area of western
music which is performed and appreciated in some areas of the major cities.
Some schools in Bombay like the J. B. Petit School for girls the Bombay International School and the Bombay School of music, adopted Orff-Schulwerk into
the regular school curriculum (Jansen-Madon, 1990). As there is no India-wide
Schulwerk Association, it is difficult to know what is happening in the rest of
the country. So far, there has been no formal study to evaluate the extent to
69
which the idea of Schulwerk has penetrated the teaching methods of music
teachers. Notwithstanding, according to Jansen-Madon (1990), Orff's idea, to
use music, movement and speech as an integrated whole, is a concept that
could be adapted to the Indian needs. In her report she visualises folk songs in
the Indian language and folk dances to replace the original German ones and
an Indian raga to be used as a starting point instead of the pentatonic scale.
Indonesia
The first Orff-Schulwerk seminar in Sumatra in 1973, which was sponsored by
the Goethe institute, attracted about 60 participants in movement and instrument training. During the 1981-83 period the growth of Orff-Schulwerk activity in Jakarta and Medan led to the establishment of teachers courses. A
document from Medan (1990) reports that more and more teachers feel concerned about creative music education within the general educational context
(Lemye, 1990). However, as Lemye (Lemye in Schmerda, 2000) remarks OrffSchulwerk was never really able to take roots in Indonesia as in every school
and in every village people have gamelan instruments, so they probably consider the Orff instruments to be copies of their own (p. 8).
Philippines
In 1971 Regner and Haselbach conducted a seminar-workshop on OrffSchulwerk in the University of Philippines. One representative from each
school of the country was invited to participate. This resulted in a positive response and high degree of enthusiasm from among the participating teachers.
Nera (1990), who leads Orff-Schulwerk courses at a college of music, asserts
that the basic negative factor for the schools who attempted to implement
Orff-Schulwerk was the cost of the instrumentarium. Noteworthy, the Philippine traditional music and instruments are used in the classroom only to enrich childrens experiences while the school system uses western music scales.
South Africa
The Orff-Schulwerk Society of South Africa which recently celebrated its
twenty-fifth anniversary, is a very small organisation of approximately 250
members country-wide, with branches in Johannesburg, Cape Town and Pre
70
toria. Among other problems the society has to encounter a large variety of
languages and cultures. The problems of language are especially enormous
considering that South Africa has eleven official languages. The OrffSchulwerk Society organises multi-racial courses but they are attended mainly
by white teachers, while music teachers of most races find it difficult to see
how Orff concepts could make sense in their educational context (Schiff, 1997).
The problem of using African music in the classroom situation where it is divorced from its cultural context, or using any music in this way, is a worldwide problem. Because Orff-Schulwerk is basically used by white teachers
originating from Europe and Britain, there has been no characteristic changes
in the basic concepts of Orff-Schulwerk. On the other hand, the tribal music of
the African races undergoes a phase of experimentation in order to be used
within the Orff-Schulwerk programme (Cunnington-Walker, 1990). Schiff
(1997)president of the societymaintains that the local interpretation of
Orff's work has always been a western one and western classical music always
enjoyed the central position in South African music education in "white"
schools.
However, teachers in South Africa have every opportunity of attending a
training course in Orff-Schulwerk, as courses for all three levels do exist. The
problem is that the public education is not very advanced whilst the trained
teachers usually prefer the private schools where the working conditions are
better (Schiff, 2000).
Apparently, the basic problem in South Africa has remained the same for the
last twenty years. In her 1975 report from Johannesburg, Hudson concluded
that: " . . . on the side of the Whites, Orff-Schulwerk is growing rapidly and is
proving to be an exciting success, but the major problem is: How to approach
and adapt Orff-Schulwerk for the Black people in South Africa" (p. 47). The
Society is currently trying to redress this situation and motivate music teachers of all races to use their traditional resources and instruments. To this end
they are working on a syllabus for Orff-Schulwerk teacher training courses
that does not involve the Orff instrumentarium, only body percussion, drums
and small non-melodic instruments. Recently, some universities have shown
increased interest in Orff instruction as an approach to music teaching and
many music teachers of all races expressed a renewed interest in Schulwerk.
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Ghana
The only available report from Ghana comes from Opoku-Oare (1975) who attended the one-year special course in Salzburg. He explained how OrffSchulwerk contributed in the field of literary work. Formal education in
Ghana, despite its revolutionary development in the last fifty years, only used
parade songs and hymns and had no connections with indigenous music.
Opoku-Oare appeared excited with the creative aspect of Orff-Schulwerk and
particularly with improvisation which makes him feel at home. The introduction of western education in Africa brought with it the gradual breakdown of
traditional learning processes and their replacement with a system that emphasises an institutionalised approach to learning (Amoaku, 1997).
Iran
Orff-Schulwerk was first given attention in 1967, in the Centre for Children's
Music established at Tehran University. Two years later, Orff instruments
were utilised alongside traditional ones in a number of workshops sponsored
by the National Radio and Television. In 1977, there were 24 Orff classes in
Tehran and 40 classes in the provinces, whilst after 1979 hundreds of privately
run Orff music schools were established (Nazar, 2001). In an attempt to adapt
Orff-Schulwerk to the Iranian culture, Naser Nazar composed many pieces
and wrote textbooks for recorded and Orff instruments.
3.2 Summary
There was a boom of Orff-Schulwerk all around the world in the 1960s, in
combination with seminars that Orff and his colleagues presented in many
countries. These seminars gave the impetus to many music educators to attend
some of the introductory summer courses in Salzburg; the first international
seminar in Salzburg was held in 1961 (see Section 2.1), whilst the OrffSchulwerk Association Music and Dance Education was founded in 1962.
As a consequence, a number of Orff-Schulwerk societies were founded in
countries such as Great Britain (1964), USA (1967), Australia (1966) and South
Africa (1970). This worldwide interest in Orff-Schulwerk was in many cases
accompanied with relevant publications and the import of the Orff instruments. Therefore, some of the original five volumes of Music for Children were
72
issued in English, French, Danish, Spanish, Japanese, Portuguese and Norwegian (Schmerda, 2000). Amongst the English-speaking countries, the most successful adaptation of the original volumes is considered to be that of Great
Britain, as Murray was the only one who included English folk songs instead
of the German ones used in the original volumes (Regner, 1978).
Apart from these publications, a number of supplementary booklets with traditional songs and dances were also published in Great Britain, Brazil, France,
Denmark, Canada, Latin America, Spain, Holland, former Czechoslovakia, Japan, South Africa and Greece. In the non-western societies, however, for a
publication to be considered successfully adapted, the inclusion of traditional
songs does not always suffice. As it has already been stressed in the introduction to this chapter, the use of indigenous instruments together with the necessary adjustment of the harmonisation is in many cases necessary in order to
add a flavour of a countrys indigenous music in these publications. Notwithstanding, Orff himself urged the authors of non-western editions to use indigenous material. A characteristic example is the case of the South African
edition. As Amoaku (1999), the author of the edition, admits
When Carl Orff asked me to compile African songs for children, I was using all these
western theories like harmonic structures and counterpoint. When I gave the manuscript to him, he wrote back and said: How many African kids can play the piano?
So he wanted me to adapt this for African instruments. (Amoaku, 1999, p. 6).
In most cases, however, the authors of Orff-Schulwerk publications were either of western origin, like Keetman (in Japan) and Regner (in Brazil), or western-oriented. Characteristic is the case of the Japanese songs which were compiled in the 1960s by Kato and Keetman. In Keetmans arrangements, the use
of western string instruments and small western percussion identify the arrangement timbrally with western tradition (Shamrock, 1988), whilst in the
most recent Japanese adaptation of the five volumes of Music for Children by
Hoshino and Igushi (1984, 1985) is revealed a transition to a more indigenous
Japanese orientation.
Closely related to this remark is the consideration of the successfulness of
Orff-Schulwerks adaptation as a whole. The majority of music teachers in
Asian and African countries, irrespective of whether they have been trained
abroad or not, admire and teach western music; the available music graduates
are familiar almost exclusively with western music.
73
Generally speaking, most applications of Orff-Schulwerk in non-western

countries are within the parameters of the western model and the main reasons for this are the following: (a) the individuals that introduced OrffSchulwerk in these cultures had a disposition toward western musical tradition; in this sense Orff-Schulwerk was just one more transplanted pedagogical
idea; (b) teachers who are apt to develop an interest in Orff-Schulwerk tend
not to be knowledgeable or competent in indigenous folk and art traditions; (c)
children and young people have grown up with the elements of western music; (d) some countries have deliberately chosen to adopt and adapt western
cultural patterns. In these countries, the instrumental and vocal folk repertoire
has been superseded by the modern form of commercial and art music; (e)
teachers of the old traditions, on the other hand, see no need for adapting a
new pedagogy; in some countries experimentation can be viewed as a violation of tradition.
Cultural preconditions are also a prerequisite for a successful adaptation. In
Spain, for example, Orff-Schulwerk harmonises well with the Spanish way of
making music, which includes clapping and moving in every musical activity.
The same can be said about African countries, where the native music is so
rhythmic and based on improvisation. Apart from these cultural preconditions, the political situation is also critical for the expansion of Orff-Schulwerk.
In countries where schools do not even have the luxuries of running water
and electricity, such as in Africa, the cost of Orff instruments is prohibitive. In
these countries, however, homemade instruments could replace the expensive
Orff instruments. In this vein, the Orff-Schulwerk Society of South Africa
promotes courses on homemade and traditional instruments as substitutes to
the Orff instruments.
The issue of adaptation seems to concern the Austrian and German Associations as well. Since 1995 the Carl Orff Foundation in Munich initiated a meeting with colleges from the Eastern countries (Czech, Hungary, Slovenia, Poland) in order to estimate the adaptation of Orff-Schulwerk in these countries
(Jungmair, 2000). Moreover, in the last years, there is a growing concern about
poor and underdeveloped countries and how training courses on OrffSchulwerk could be implemented. Nowadays, for example, the American
Orff-Schulwerk Association tries to establish a musical corporation of ap
74
proved level course teachers who would be willing to give lectures around the
world in countries which desperately seek teacher trainers (Ahlstedt, 2000).
In conclusion, after the initial rapid expansion that took place in the 1960s in
almost every country in which Orff-Schulwerk was introduced, there was a
decline of interest and a slower degree of dissemination of Orffs ideas. The
main reason for this was that most countries did not manage to adapt OrffSchulwerk successfully, thus failing to create a teaching approach specific to
each countrys characteristics. There were some fortunate cases in which the
Orff philosophy penetrated the structure of the curriculum in public education
as well, such as in USA, Australia or in Spain where Orff-Schulwerk has become a fixed part of primary school curricula and Orff specialists work in
schools for further education. According to Moore, President of the Australian
Orff-Schulwerk Association,
the Orff approach appears to fit very well into the context of the three process curriculum . . . the use of the Orff approach in music teaching at the secondary level, from
Grades 7 through to 12, is a particular strength of the Orff movement in Australia.
(Moore, 2000, p. 6).
In most cases, however, Orff-Schulwerk was restricted to private education,

mainly to private schools, conservatories and dance schools. Moreover, the
scarcity of funds makes the introduction of the Orff instrumentarium to public
schools quite impossible. Even in Germany, the native land of Orff-Schulwerk,
there are only two schools that can bear the title Orff School, one in Traunwalchen in Bavaria, and one in Munich. As Hauwe (2000), the president of the
Orff-Schulwerk Association in Netherlands remarks, Throughout western
Europe they do not devote adequate attention to the issue of music in the
schools, especially elementary musical teaching for children, because it is here
that music education must begin! (p. 5).
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4.1 The introduction of Orff-Schulwerk

After Germany, Greece was the first country to become acquainted with OrffSchulwerk and to begin its own application. This was basically due to an inspired Greek music teacher, Polyxeni Mathy (1902-1999) who lived in Europe
as a concert pianist. Her studies in the Gnther-Schule in Munich (1935-36)
and her apprenticeship with Orff himself was a milestone in her life. In 1957
Orff visited Greece initiating a close collaboration with Mathy (Alexiadou,
1997). Since then, Mathy instructed in international Orff-Schulwerk seminars
in Salzburg (1962-68), Canada (1963-4), Holland and Paris and in 1990 she was
honoured with a Pro Merito award by the Orff-Foundation in Munich
(Mathy, 1999). The Mathy School in Athens was first established by Mathy
in 1938 as an innovative gymnastics and Eurhythmics school but it was not
until 1962 that an Orff-Schulwerk course was incorporated into its syllabus
(Antonakakis, 1996). One of the first students that became acquainted with
Orff-Schulwerk in Mathys school was Danae Apostolidou-Gagn, a dance
student who continued her studies in the Orff-Institute. Apostolidou-Gagn
continued Mathys work, teaching in seminars around the world, until she
was appointed as an Orff instructor in Denver University in USA. Her presence in the United States resulted in the Greek tradition becoming known
within the American Orff Society (Apostolidou-Gagn, 1994)
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Mathy tried to spread Orff-Schulwerk throughout Greece, by means of seminars (1969 / 1971 / 1974). However, there was nothing like the so-called Orff
boom that took place in mid-60s in Japan and until the 1980s the story of
Orff-Schulwerk in Greece had been one of an enthusiasm restricted to a small
number of individuals and institutions. In 1986, on Mathys initiative and in
close cooperation with the Orff Institute and the Orff-Schulwerk Forum, a
two-year training course was founded in the Moraitis Schoola private institution in Athens.
Another important landmark in the history of Orff-Schulwerk in Greece was
the establishment of the Hellenic Orff-Schulwerk Association Carl Orff in 1990
in Athens with approximately 800 members. The Association publishes a
quarterly magazine, named Rithmi (Rhythms) and organises workshops and
seminars. Traditional music and dance cover a considerable part of this magazine. It also includes articles concerning the construction of musical instruments, collections of verses, nonsense poems and children games from all
over Greece, as well as, presentations of Greek folk dances.
Since the establishment of the Association, seminars aiming to familiarise
teachers with the Orff-Schulwerk approach take place regularly in Athens and
other large cities of Greece. In 1991 and with the contribution of Regner, an International Easter Course in Music and Dance Education was run in Sounio,
near Athens (Sarropoulou, 1993). However, due to the minor attendance of international participants, this was the only international Orff-Schulwerk seminar that took place in Greece. In recent years, it has been exhibited an increase
of interest in the Orff-Schulwerk approach; remarkably Greece has the most
numerous representation in every international seminar in Salzburg (Antonakakis, 1996).
4.2 Orff-Schulwerk and Greek music education

4.2.1 The public sector
In Greek primary schools, music, art and drama compose the unity of "Aesthetic education". Usually, these topics are taught by specialists but in case of
absence of a specialist, class teachers take over to incorporate these topics into
their teaching. Music, in particular, is taught in the last four years of primary
76
school, two hours per week in years 3 and 4 and one hour per week in years 5
and 6. According to the national curriculum, published in 1990, the musical activities can be divided in four broad categories: musical meanings, singing,
learning a musical instrument and other occasional musical activities. Musical
meanings and singing share most of the suggested time allocation (Chrysostomou, 1997). Although, one of the objectives for music education in primary schools is to activate and encourage a childs personal creativity (Government Gazette, 1990) one could not help noticing that the above-mentioned
four categories do not include any creative activity, such as composition or
improvisation.
There is a generally accepted divergence in the teaching approach amongst
music teachers which is attributed to the rather abstract directions of the national curriculum and the shortcoming of teaching material. The only book
that has been published so far to facilitate the teaching of music in Greek public primary schools is "Music training 1: games of sounds, rhythms, melodies"
by Lebesi and Tsaftaridis (1994). Although, it is not a declared 'Orff publication', there are good reasons to examine it, because the influence of Orff's
pedagogy is apparent throughout the book; for example, the numerous speech
activities (Appendix. A).
In the beginning of the book it is advocated that no music theory should be
taught in primary schools, however, there is a number of French-type solfge
exercises allegedly for melodic interval practice. Moreover, the aspect of
movement is restricted to those of games and folk dances while the actual opportunities for improvisation and creativity are rather small. Generally speaking, despite its flaws, the book covers some vital needs of primary music education in Greece and initiates some of the latest music training aspects in the
Greek educational system. The book which is not sequenced in lessons of increasing difficulty, basically is addressed to creative teachers who will find in
it many ideas for further development.
4.2.2 The private sector

Private primary schools run in parallel with the public ones. Although the fees
are quite high, these schools flourish more and more, especially in Athens. In
broad terms, private schools follow the curriculum of the public schools, how
77
ever, devoting more time to aesthetic education and including other additional lessons, as well. Therefore, music is taught to all levels, from kindergarten to high school, usually one hour weekly. Another popular institution in
Greece is the conservatories which constitute the only venue to gain a specialised professional qualification in music, either in an instrument or in voice and
theory (Chrysostomou, 1997).
In recent years the Orff approach has gained considerable impetus amongst
private schools and conservatories. Solely in Athens, for example, OrffSchulwerk is currently being taught by teachersgraduates of Moraitis school
coursesin 61 venues, including kindergartens, conservatories, dance and
private schools (Gaoutsi, et al., 2000). It should be mentioned, however, that
apart from these places, the Orff approach is included in the syllabus of a
number of institutions, although the lessons are not taught by qualified teachers. One could therefore notice that the Orff approach is both fashionable and
in danger of being misunderstood: Often teachers working with preschool
ages are considered Orff specialists, although they have little or no experience
in the teaching of Orff-Schulwerk. It is unacceptable to maintain that OrffSchulwerk is being taught in a school merely because this school possesses a
few metallophones as a show-off for the school festivities (Xydis, 1978). Furthermore, it seems that usually Orff-Schulwerk in Greece is addressed to children aged from four to eight, neglecting the international expansion of OrffSchulwerk to other ages, as well. As Schmerda (2000) points out . . . by now
the onetime target group of children [worldwide] has extended to young
people as a whole, adults and seniors in the field of dance education and music therapy(p. 6).
4.3 The Moraitis School

Apart from the Orff-Institute in Salzburg, Moraitis School was the first European institution offering an Orff-Schulwerk training course for music teachers.
The syllabus, that was designed with the assistance of RegnerOrff's close
collaboratoris taught on a daily basis, offering 700 hours per year. The candidates of the course are examined in music, movement, ensemble, teaching
and pedagogy. Following the basic Orff principle that Orff-Schulwerk should
not be transplanted into a foreign educational system, but rather adapted to
the tradition of each country, a number of lessons have been introduced to the
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syllabus, in order that the students become acquainted with Greek traditional
music. Features of these are: (a) enrichment of the Orff instrumentarium with
Greek folk instruments, mostly percussion (toumbeleki and santouri); (b) reconstruction of Greek traditional instruments such as the Pythagorean monochord, mantoura (a kind of flute), tamboura (a long-necked string instrument),
rattles and acquaintance with the old playing techniques, as well as, the function of these instruments; (c) dramatisations that are based on traditional
songs, ancient fables, proverbs, children games, customs, etc.; (d) acquaintance
with Karagiozis, the Greek traditional shadow puppet which can be used as a
model of a folk art form that combines speech, music and craftsmanship (Kiminou-Printakis, 1996).
Students are obliged to attend the lessons regularly and to write essays on the
taught subjects (Flitner, 2000) (Appendix B). Visiting instructors from the Orff
Institute, such as Haselbach, enrich the syllabus of the course with additional
sessions that take place two or three times every year. Flitner, the coordinator
of the course, is a qualified music teacher from Austria and a graduate of the
Orff-Institute.
The example cited briefly here, comes from personal notes from a seminar,
and is a typical lesson taught by Nefeli Atesoglouand Orff teacherto the
students of the two-year course in Moraitis school. The lesson was designed
for children aged eight to ten. The main goal of the lesson was the acquaintance with the 7/8 rhythm which is very popular all over Greece. The students,
with the help of the teacher, find any known word that is related to sea (thalassa in Greek), for example shore, waves, seagulls, wind, etc. Next, they say in
a rhythmical 7/8 speech the word thalassa, accompanying their speech with
clapping (Appendix C). Gradually they add other words as well, playing in
7/8. Also the children strike small pebbles and make hand gestures to accompany their speech. Later the hand gestures may be replaced by pebbles of different sizessmaller pebbles for the rhythm and larger pebbles for the beat.
In the next phase the children learn a traditional song in 7/8 which is called
To gialo gialo pigaino (Walking by shore) (Appendix D). Having learned the
song, they dance freely to the song whilst some of them accompany with the
pebbles or with the xylophones. In the next lesson, the children move on to a
free dramatisation that could be entitled Games by the sea. What do the
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children do when they go to the sea? For example, swimming, sun bathing or
building sand castles. Whilst children dramatise this scene, the teacher plays
the song again To gialo gialo pigaino on the recorder.
Apart from this course, a number of workshops and informative courses are
taking place during the school year. For example, the Moraitis School offers
such an informative course that runs in parallel to the two-year training
course. This lasts one year and consists of 90 teaching hours. However, graduates of this course are not considered as qualified Orff teachers.
4.4 The Mathy School

After Mathy, her son Alexandros and her granddaughters Anna and Xenia
continued her work. Nowadays the "Mathy Dance School" has a certain reputation in the wider Athens area as a specialist dance school. Its syllabus includes
dance and gymnastics for children from four years old, gymnastics for adults,
classical ballet, jazz and modern dance and music and movement education
(Mathy, 1992). The Mathy School runs a similar course to the Moraitis oneyear course. It is an approximately 40-hour introductory course to OrffSchulwerk addressed to teachers, dancers and musicians.
4.5 Music for Children The Greek adaptation

In Greece Orff-Schulwerk was disseminated through the work of Mathy. "In
1961 Orff himself asked Mathy to develop a Greek edition of Schulwerk but
he was against a five volume translation-adaptation (Tsaftaridis, 1994). The rationale for such a decision was the wide differences in terms of language and
music between the Bavarian and the Greek culture.
So instead of a five volume edition, like the Canadian and English ones, and in
the vein of the national Orff-Schulwerk collections of children songs, Mathy
published two booklets with songs and dances. These booklets were published
by the same publishing company, the B. Schotts ShneMainz, that published the Music for Children edition of various countries, such as UK, France,
Sweden, Portugal, therefore certifying the validity and authenticity of these
editions. The title "Greek children's songs and dances", in both books could be
misunderstood as music especially composed for children. In fact, as Mathy
80
herself admits in the foreword of the first book, these are only folk songs that
can be easily played by children older than ten years. The first book written in
1963 includes fourteen songs arranged for Orff instruments in a way very
close to those in the German edition. The second book by Mathy was published in 1968 and contains twelve more songs, and two fables by Aesop
rhythmicised by Mathy herself. In the foreword the author strenuously emphasises the importance of speech as it occurs in the modern or ancient literature of children's musical training.
Mathy, being a student and a close collaborator of Orff himself, was perhaps
the most suitable person to attempt an adaptation of Orff-Schulwerk in the
Greek culture. Therefore, she tried to unify the elements of rhythm, movement
and music by respecting the particular characteristics of Greek music. As she
emphasises in the foreword of the first book, while arranging these songs she
made a special effort to retain their individual colour. The instruments used,
however, belong solely to the Orff instrumentarium, such as, melodic percussion, recorders, a bass string instrument (cello or double bass), small percussion and/or sound gestures, identifying therefore more with the timbre of the
western tradition. One could not help comparing it with an analogous case in
Japan, where a number of indigenous drums and flutes were used alongside
the Orff instruments (Shamrock, 1988). In many songs in Mathys booklets,
namely, in thirteen songs, melodic percussion instruments and/or the recorder play the melody alongside the voice in unison or an octave higher
or/and lower and occasionally in parallel thirds (Appendix E). As Tsaftaridis
(2000) points out, the songs follow the original melody with slight alterations;
only in one case, Mathy modifies the original melody by raising the pitch
level of a few notes. However, merely the fact that uses melodic percussion instruments, is enough to alter the character of the folk songs. Adding a recorder
or a metallophone to double the melody, especially in the case of Greek traditional music, deprives the voice from a freedom so necessary in such an ornamental and micro-intervalic singing. Discussing this issue and commenting on
Orff's parallelism of Schulwerk with a wild flower Harwood says:
I end with a plea to retain the wild character these songs have in their natural environment. To gentrify them with pentatonic accompaniments on the Orff instrumentarium, or to clean up the singing quality to bring it more in line with polished performance practice, I believe is to dose the garden with weed killer. (Harwood, 1994, p. 25)
81
One should, however, mention that Mathy preferred a plain instrumentation

which discretely underlines the melody of the songs. It is interesting to notice
that the parallel fifths, the so-called bordun, a common practice in Orff instrumentations, is also very close to the character of Greek music. Therefore,
Mathy, by choosing to accompany the songs with 5ths and drones, in many
cases she succeeded in giving a Greek character to the arrangements. Regarding the rhythm of the songs, Mathy attempted to include as many as possible
of the wide diversity of irregular time signatures found in Greek folk music
(see Section 4.1.1) which would also be a useful source for Greek and international students.
During the last ten years, many Orff teachers have published collections of
songs and texts of their countries aiming to enrich the Orff-Schulwerk musical
library. The Schott publishing company advertises four sets of supplements:
(a) supplements to the original edition; (b) supplements to the Murray Edition;
(c) supplements to the Hall/Walter Edition; (d) supplements to the American
Edition. Following their example, twenty five years after the 1968 publication,
Mathy cooperated with Panagopoulos-Slavik, an Orff teacher from Austria
living in Athens, and published a third booklet titled "RRRRRO" (Appendix
F). This book, in accordance with other international Orff-Schulwerk publications, has the subtitle "A supplement to Music for Children" and contains a variety of texts: four from ancient literature, two from medieval and eleven
modern Greek texts (five folk and six literary texts), plus seven songs selected
from the first two booklets but now followed by detailed dancing instructions.
The texts, including English translation as well as Romanized transliteration of
the original texts, are adapted for rhythmic reciting and are accompanied by
percussion and other instruments. Therefore, this book elaborates an idea that
was firstly introduced in Mathys second publication of Greek songs and
dances where two fables by Aesop were rhythmisised by Mathy. In the foreword the authors stress the importance of rhythmic speech to the musical
development of children.
In most cases the accompaniment discretely supports the voice and the chosen
instruments are in accordance with the meaning of the text. It should be mentioned here that in this booklet, the Orff instrumentarium is extended with
two percussion instruments which are widely used in Greek traditional music
(daouli, which is a type of bass drum and toumbeleki, an Arabic vase drum).
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Furthermore, on page fifteen the authors propose the use of two hand-made
instruments, alongside some basic instructions for their construction. In order
to render the texts with the best interpretation, various musical forms are applied: a free recitation (piece 4), a mirror form, in accordance with the specific
characteristics of the text (piece 5), a canon in two voices (piece 6) a two-voice
recitation (piece 11), an interactive form between a chorus (tutti) and a voice
(solo) (piece 14).
The only objection one could raise to this material concerns the selection of the
texts. Although Orff himself supported the use of literary texts, he also
stressed the importance of everyday speech. When Orff spoke about "the singing voice" and "the word" at the 1962 conference in Toronto, he meant children
rhymes and speech patterns that make children feel at home. "Starting with
nursery rhymes and tales and continuing with musical games and songs, one
comes to appreciate the value of repetitive patterns, so much in use in the
Schulwerk" (Walter, 1955, p. 4). One could not help wondering, therefore,
whether the sole inclusion of literary texts, seven of which belong to the ancient Greek literature, alienates children from the spoken word and its relation
to rhythm and music.
In the same vein lies another book by Mathy and Alexiadou which has not
yet been published, although it was almost completed before Mathys death.
Extracts of this book have been published in the Rithmi magazine. Its title is
Hellines Kalounte (they are named Greeks) and contains extracts from ancient
texts of Xenophon, Aeschylus, Aristophanes and Archilochus as well as extracts from Old and New Testament in an arrangement with Orff instruments.
One could therefore notice Mathys adherence to ancient Greek literature, in
order to introduce children of all ages to the ancient Greeks. As she asserts,
children have no difficulty with the language and on the contrary they find it
amusing to speak the way our ancestors did(Mathy, 1990).
Among Greek Orff-Schulwerk publications there are also two theoretical
booklets by Mathy. The first one, Rithmiki (Eurhythmics) (Mathy, 1986), is
a study concerning the content, the history and the various Eurhythmics
methods. As Mathy says in the forward, she wrote it because she felt obliged
to resolve the misunderstandings surrounding the specific educational profession of Eurhythmics teachers. The second one, Rithmos (rhythm) (Mathy,
83
1992), was published by the Greek Orff-Schulwerk Association and contains a

seven-page essay on rhythm and one of Mathys older articles concerning art
and education. In the forward Mathy explains what prompted her to start
writing about rhythm. I used to ask people, either amateurs or professionals,
who dealt with speech, music and movement, what is music? and almost
none gave me a clear and precise answer(p. 5).
4.6 Analysis of song arrangements

Apart from the above publications, a number of song collections are currently
published in Greece in the spirit of Orff-Schulwerk publications. Although
these books are not officially entitled Orff-Schulwerk publications, they are
influenced by Orff-Schulwerk, especially as far as the instrumentation is concerned. A characteristic example is the booklet From a journey in time by
Zervoudakis published in 1992. This book, split into two parts, contains 32
songs which the author composed and arranged for xylophone, glockenspiel
and small percussion. The songs in the first part have a simple accompaniment
(ostinati) which can be played easily, even by children unacquainted with notation (Appendix G). The second part addresses older children, familiar with
the reading and writing of music.
Instruments from the Orff instrumentarium have also been chosen to accompany the songs in a booklet entitled Traditional songs for children by
Tsaftaridis, published in 1996. The 21 songs included in the book are traditional songs originating from various districts of Greece. The rhythm, the
tempo and the range of the songs are appropriate even for young children.
Every song is accompanied by several bars suggesting a possible accompaniment for the songs, as opposed to the full scores featured in Mathys publications (Appendix H). Compared to the related booklets by Mathy, "Greek
children songs and dances", this booklet contains a much more representative
variety of traditional songs which are well-known in most regions of Greece.
As Kiminou-Printakis (1996) states, there is a shortage of Greek publications
that could be used as comprehensive Orff lesson plans offering a systematic
sequence of material, similar to that of American editions. This inadequacy is
to a large extent responsible for the insecurity that Greek Orff teachers feel,
especially those who are less experienced, as they are called to improvise a lot
84
in their teaching . . . . This shortage protects, on the other hand, the Orff approach of becoming too systematised (p. 3).
4.7 Summary
The "boom" of Orff-Schulwerk that occurred in the 1960s throughout the
world also affected Greece. Although, Orff-Schulwerk was introduced rather
early (1962), its development was not what one would expect. For many years,
and until recently, Orff-Schulwerk was taught in a single private school. Over
the last ten years, however, there has been a tendency for a wider use of the
Orff approach and especially of the Orff instrumentarium. Nowadays, almost
every kindergarten, private school and conservatory possesses a number of
these instruments, especially the smaller and cheaper rhythmic percussion instruments.
Often Orff-Schulwerk is reserved for children aged four to eight, whilst its
more structured aspects, designed for older children, are left unexplored. On
the other hand, in many cases the public schools were too disorganised, conservative and inflexible to include something so revolutionary as OrffSchulwerk in their syllabus. Indicative of the situation is the absence of any
creative activity, such as composition or improvisation in the curriculum design.
However, with the establishment of the Greek Orff-Schulwerk Association
(1990) and the foundation of the two-year training course in the Moraitis
School (1986), a new era seems to be beginning for Orff-Schulwerk in Greece.
What a closer examination of the syllabus of this course reveals is a congruence with Orffs ideas and an attempt to adapt Orff-Schulwerk with respect to
the Greek culture.
As it has already been stressed, the issue of Orff-Schulwerk's adaptation is a
complex one. Particularly, the Greek Orff-Schulwerk publications appear to
have problem of adaptation, for none of them succeeded to incorporate the
special characteristics of Greek music. Both, the instrumentarium and the accompaniments proposed, follow the German model. Furthermore, the issue of
a Greek Orff-Schulwerk edition-adaptation has not been revised. The last publication by Mathy and Slavic (1993), being in the same spirit with the old ones
85
written by Mathy (1963, 1968), did not cast any new light and the only exception with regard to Greek Orff-Schulwerk publications may be considered the
collection of traditional songs by Tsaftaridis. Obviously, Mathy was able to
teach without the assistance of a guide book, but her apprentices and the new
generations of Orff teachers would probably appreciate an Orff-Schulwerk
method-book. Some light upon this issue will hopefully be shed through the
data analysis of the observations of three Orff classes, examined in Chapters 8,
9 and 10.
86
As it became obvious in Chapters 3 and 4, the adaptation of OrffSchulwerk is quite a complex issue. Prevalent in this issue is the role of
indigenous material. In this context and given the fact that this study is
concerned with the application of Orff-Schulwerk in Greece, an examination of Greek traditional music was considered necessary. This chapter, therefore, focuses on those elements of Greek traditional music that
will be proved useful for a further discussion on issues of adaptation.
The structure of Greek language is also briefly examined for, as we
have seen, speech holds a central role in the original Orff-Schulwerk.
5.1 The nature of Greek traditional music
During recent years, a new generation of ethnomusicologists has
aroused a renewed interest in folk music, perceiving it as "traditional",
and who place emphasis on genuine and original styles of performance.
There is no real difference between the terms "traditional" and "folk"
music. During recent years, the term "traditional" has prevailed when a
change of attitude towards this music also took place (Athens Publishing Company, 1977). The term "folk" in Greek music is mainly associated with clarinet music from Epirus and Peloponnesus, which is
played mainly in outdoor festivities around Easter and other church
holidays in spring and summer.
Texts on the theory of Greek traditional music were rather scarce until
recently. Researchers who sought information about the nature of
Greek traditional music, resorted to Turkish or Arabic music documentation which have much in common with Greek traditional music. Tra
87
ditional music is monophonic, and in contrast with western classical

music, employs a variety of modes instead of major and minor scales.
Apparently, these modes have their origins in ancient Greek music and
have found their way into modern styles, not through Byzantium, but
via the Arabs. The latter borrowed modes from ancient Greek music
which were, in turn, taken up by the Turks who reintroduced them into
Greece during the Ottoman occupation (Farmer, 1970). This explains
why Greek musicians of folk and popular music use Arabic names for
these modes, for example, Rast, Hijaz, Beyati, Usshak, Husseini, and instead of the term "modes" they use the Arabic word macam or the word
dromi which in Greek means "roads". Although the musics on which
traditional music is based existed before classical styles, in my attempt
to describe traditional music and for the needs of this study, I will borrow terms from western music theory.
88
While the ecclesiastical modes used in medieval Europe are merely a

form of scale, traditional music's modes include other parameters involving the song's interpretation. The variety of modes and their versions, originating from the East and from ancient Greece, allow different music to be played for every different occasion, generating different
feelings for the audience (Mavroidis, 1994).
Modes, rhythms and verses in combination create a unique musical
identity for every region of Greece. In the music of the mainland,
modes without semitones and texts without rhyme are most commonly
used (Soulakelis, 1998). However, in the music of the Greek Islands
modes make use of semitones and verses are rhymed (Society: the
friends of music, 1999).
5.1.1 Melody, rhythm and accompaniment

Apart from European-like modes such as the mode called minor, based
on scales similar to the descending form of the European melodic minor, the most common Greek folk music modes begin on the note "D"
(Table 5.1):
Hijaz, characterised by an interval of an augmented 2nd between
the 2nd and 3rd degree, raised 2nd and 6th degree and making
use of a minor 7th;
Hijzazkar, with two intervals of an augmented 2nd between the
2nd and 3rd degree and between the 6th and 7th degree and
raised 2nd and 6th degrees;
Zegiulach, characterised by an interval of an augmented 2nd between the 2nd and 3rd degree, with a raised 2nd degree and making use of a minor 7th;
Neveser, with two intervals of an augmented 2nd and with a raised
6th degree;
Sambak, characterised by an interval of an augmented 2nd between
the 4th and 5th degree, raised 2nd and 4th degree and making use
of a minor 7th;
Ousak, with a raised 2nd degree and making use of a minor 7th;
Ciurdi, starting with an interval of a minor 2nd and making use of
a minor 7th;
Most folk songs are monophonic and modal. The progression of melodic intervals differs from those of major and minor scales. Although
89
we often find intervals of the fourth and fifth and occasional dissonances, especially in the playing of instruments, this does not adulterate
the monophonic character of this music (Mavroidis, 1991); Figure 5.1
shows a typical monophonic melody in Souzinak mode. As in all monophonic music, traditional music is sung and played in the natural
(untempered) scale and not in the western well-tempered scale.
Figure 5.1. A folk melody in Souzinak mode.
In traditional modes there are fixed and movable degrees, affecting the
intervals to which they belong. The movable notes vary in pitch according to the direction of the melodic line. According to Mavroidis (1999),
this case is similar to the seventh degree of the European melodic minor, only that in traditional music the semitones may be somewhat larger than a western music's semitones. Also, in traditional music there is
no leading note serving the function that exists in western music, and
some modes have two tonal centres each with its own characteristic melodic formulae and prominent notes. Thus, the modes shown in Table
5.1, actually, could never be played on well-tempered instruments.
While major and minor scales comprise groups of eight notes, the
modes of traditional music are constituted from sub-units of three note
groups (trichords), four-note groups (tetrachords) and five-note groups
(pentachords). As we can see in Figure 5.2, in Greek folk music, a semitone is divided into six microtones called commas but often we find
semitones with more than six commas. In such cases, instead of the con
90
ventional accidentals are used special signs:

E to flatten a note 30%,
to flatten a note 40%.
Figure 5.2. Sub-units of traditional modestrichords, tetrachords and pentachords.

(Mavroidis, 1992, p. 12)
In Figure 5.3 we can see a mode which employs two Hijaz tetrachords (see Fig. 5.2); the first begins on "D" and the second on "A".
Figure 5.3. A "Hijazkar" mode. (Signel, 1986. p. 36)
There are three types of modes: diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic.

Following a categorisation by Signel (1986), the first two are divided in
two sub-categories: "harsh" diatonic and "soft" diatonic, "harsh" chromatic and "soft" chromatic. Harsh modes use the common tones and
semitones of the traditional European tonality, while soft modes use
tones smaller than usual and larger semitones. In Figure 5.4 we can see
the difference between a "harsh" (tempered) and a "soft" (untempered)
tetrachord.
Figure 5.4. A tempered and an untempered tetrachord.
91
Greek traditional music makes use of various intervals, the most common being the intervals of fourth (la-re) and major second (do-re). However, as far as childrens traditional songs are concerned, such as lullabies, tachtarismata (knee rhymes or songs), group games, lachnismata
(yard rhymes or songs), the majority of them make use of the wellknown sol-mi and mi-sol-la melodic patterns, that can be met worldwide
in children songs (Damianou-Marinis, 2000).
In traditional music the accompaniment is usually monophonic, for example, a violin plays the same melodic line sung by the voice, but
elaborated melismatically. It also fills
any breaks in the vocal line, usually
at the end of phrases with short motifs. When an accompanying instrument uses chords, they are very simple and the harmonic progression is clearly a matter of the musician's
aesthetic awareness. Most laouto players use the chords called 'pseudochords' (fake chords), which are chords omitting the movable notes of
the mode (Anoyanakis, 1991). In Figure 5.5, showing a typical laouto
fingering, "Cf" stands for "C fake chord"; a pseudochord which in this
case does not include the 3rd (E) of the "C triad" in order to avoid any
conflict with the somewhat flattened "E" of the melodic line (Fig. 5.6).
Figure 5.6. A traditional melody and the accompanying chords.
According to the most modern ethnomusicologists, the basic variation

in style between the mainland and the islands of Greece is considered
92
to be the scales. In the islands most common are seven-tone scales with
semitones while in mainland there is a wider variety of scales. Likewise, there is a variation in the rhythm of the melody in relation to the
tempo which affects dances, as well. Almost all the dances of the islands are in double beat and their tempo varies from 80 to 130.
Apart from the 2/4, 3/4 and 7/8 metres that are usually found on the
mainland, traditional music employs many other compound and irregular time signatures like 5/8, 6/8, 9/8, and even 10/8 and 11/8 (Table 5.2). Some songs tend to lack a fixed rhythmic pattern because, to a
certain extent, this was determined by the mood of the singer and the
gathering to which they were performed (Liavas, 1987). Characteristic
examples of songs without a fixed rhythm are the kleftic songs, some of
the historic songs, some of the laments of the underworld and the songs
'of the table'. The last of these take their name from the fact that singers
perform from their place round the table in the course of feasting at
celebratory events. Basically though, most folk songs were not only
sung but also meant to be danced.
The musical instruments used in folk music are western or indigenous
instruments and sometimes made by the musician him or herself. Folk
instruments used in the mainland are the clarinet, violin, laouto (a fretted lute), the santouri (an extremely difficult type of zither with over a
hundred strings, played with little wooden wands), the oud, the
canonaki (a zither-like instrument related to santouri but plucked instead
of struck), and occasionally the tambourine or a small drum. In the islands, are used instruments like the violin, the lyra and the laouto.
Before the development of electrical amplifiers the choice of instruments was a matter of the place where the various activities took place.
In open-air festivities, singing and dancing were not accompanied by
instruments. Only some double-reed wind instruments of the oboe type
called zournas could be heard in such cases and big double-headed
drums (Anoyanakis, 1991). But when activities took place inside, only
string instruments were used.
93
94
In many cases, folk instruments were replaced by European instruments like the guitar, the mandolin and the accordion. Later, the bouzouki and the baglama (a kind of long-necked lutes with brass wire frets),
became very popular when refugees from Asia minor brought them to
Greece.
5.1.2. Folk songs and dances
The vast majority of Greek folk songs are anonymous in the sense that,
in the form in which they have been committed to paper and handed
down to us, we have no knowledge of their creator's identity (Athens
Publishing Company, 1977). Obviously, they are the creation of single
but talented individuals who at various times were prompted to compose songs as a response to a given situation. Others might later use the
same song in similar circumstances but making almost imperceptible
changes to it, adapting it to suit themselves and their particular audience. In this way the song became common property.
As it has already been mentioned, Greek folk songs are monophonic:
they are sung by one singer or a group of singers performing in unison.
The only exceptions to this are the songs from some regions of Northern Epirus which are sung in parts. The vocal range of folk songs, influenced by the playing range of home-made wind or string instruments,
is no greater than an interval of a sixth. In general, except from some island songs, the usual range of the voice in most songs is no greater than
an octave (Liavas, 1987). There are cases, though, where the singers attempt vocal explorations of the mode of a specific song, improvising
simple melodic lines. In these cases they often go beyond the range of
an octave, adding a sub-unit of the mode (trichord or tetrachord) on the
top of the octave and occasionally one under it (Michaelidis, 1989). This
technique of "exploratory" improvisation is also used in an unaccompanied style of music called aman, sung usually by two or more singers
who improvise on a verse in a form of dialogue.
Folk music often employs a kind of drone (ison or kratima) which is also
an indispensable element of Byzantine music. In this technique some
singers sustain a tonic drone while the others perform the melodic line.
95
Dance songs constitute the largest category of folk music. There are
many types of folk dances in a variety of metres, styles and tempi. Most
of them are a survival of the classical Greek dance (Anoyanakis, 1991).
Village dances are usually formed in an open circle, the dancers moving
counter-clockwise and linked to one another in a simple hand hold.
Although a few are flirtatious or humorous, most Greek dances are serious. The dancers move as they walk. According to a description by
Soulakelis (1998), mountaineers move proudly and use simple, firm
steps combined with leaps whereas the inhabitants of the plains and
valleys use stamping, and running steps with a tendency to lean forward or backwards in the direction of movement. Islanders are bouncy
and lilting in their movements; city folk have a stealthy character to
their steps.
Within a local area, differences can occur between country and
townspeople, with the townsfolk moving in more refined ways. In
addition, men are expansive in their movements and women restricted
(Soulakelis, 1998). One can readily see, therefore, that location, terrain,
the dancers' occupation, social rank and, of course, costume are factors
which influenced, and still influence, the dance. Folk dancers usually
perform the dances of their own particular region, and as members of a
traditional society, they accept the social tenets together, of course, with
those concerning the dance.
Folk dancers can choose among a variety of kinetic motifs and themes
with which they will finally compose an improvisation with regard to a
particular dance (Tirovola, 1992). The final arrangement of every dance
is based on the sum total of improvisatory elements and variations
which the "composer-dancers" compile according to their preferences.
5.2 Oral tradition

The word "tradition" seems to include all the elements of a nation's cultural heritage which have been created in the past but have survived
until our times and now incorporated in the nation's present culture
(Kiourtsakis, 1989). Habits and customs and the music accompanying
96
them, follow the changes taking place in the society where they belong.
For example, while wedding songs still exist, wine-making songs and
all associated activities have disappeared because wine-making is no
longer a social event.
5.2.1 Oral tradition and the function of folk songs

The earliest written records we have of a Greek folk song tradition are
the various manuscripts of the Epic of Digenis Akritas of which the earliest dates back to the fourteenth century. These songs were inspired by
the life and battles on the frontiers of the Byzantine empire before the
tenth century.
Greek folk songs that were probably being sung hundreds of years earlier, belong to oral tradition in the sense that they appear to have been
composed, performed and transmitted orally, without being written
down and given a fixed form (Evagelatos, 1977). Their texts were in the
vernacular as opposed to the stylised written and literary Greek of the
educated classes.
Amongst other features of culture, oral tradition transfers specific idioms of language in the unique way in which they are transferred while
incorporated in folk songs. Folk music springs from everyday occupations in which people use colloquial language. Through the study of
folk songs one discovers an interaction between the vernacular and
songs, as songs cause a slow change of the vernacular and visa versa.
The survival of folk songs through the middle ages might be attributable to their entertainment value amongst the general populace. The
fact that many of the songs were danced to as well as sung, reinforces
not only their value as a form of entertainment but also points us toward a further valuable function they have for their participants. This
function is linked to the use of myth which provides the necessary fictional vehicle through which social or family relationships can be explored (Chatjiiosif, 1999).
97
Folk songs were not created and sung as a means of keeping records of
events or even for establishing the significance of major incidents, either
in a historical perspective or in the lives of the common people. Common people trying to understand and come to terms with whatever calamity or good fortune life brought upon them often found it necessary
to draw inspiration and indeed consolation by idealising certain situations and individuals.
Oral tradition sometimes involves cultural exchanges between
neighbouring countries. The music of the islands of the Ionian sea for
example, is strongly affected by Italian music which was transmitted
orally by islanders studying in Italy or working on Italian ships (BaudBovy, 1935). Incorporated in local songs now, those sounds are part of
the oral tradition which is transmitted from one generation to the other.
Lullabies, children's songs, engagement songs, wedding songs, table
songs, epic ballads and laments in various forms and kinds, show the
variety of traditional music. In addition to these, the various feast days
of the liturgical year, including saints' days and the national holidays of
political significance, are occasions for music and dance.
5.2.2 Oral transmission

The word "tradition" in Greek is "paradosi" which also means delivery,
deriving from the verb "paradido" which means "give". This is not accidental, that every generation delivers its cultural heritage to the next
generation (Mavroidis, 1992). Every community passes down all its customs to the young and most children have the opportunity to experience elements of cultural heritage throughout their early childhood. In
a typical folk music lesson in Greece a musician merely plays a tune
again and again while the pupil tries to imitate or rather "steal" his or
her teacher's skill. Often, a teacher prompts the pupil by saying: "learn
to steal" (Anoyanakis, 1991).
In his research, Kilpatrick (1975) describes how the young children of a
village in Macedonia were introduced to music.
Often the student simply works on his own motivation until he achieves the
sound he has heard. Imitation may involve the students bringing a lyra to the
taverna and playing along softly in the background, but more often the stu
98
dent and teacher play together in the afternoon at home or at a taverna. (p. 96)
A significant change in the transmission of oral tradition in Greece

came after 1913, when an improved road network facilitated travelling
from one area to another. As musicians could travel easier, the way and
speed in which songs were disseminated from one area to another
changed dramatically. Another consequence was that musicians now
had the opportunity to perform in many different cities, therefore they
had to adjust their repertoire in order to satisfy audiences of various areas. For example, people of Thrace learned songs of Macedonia and
visa versa, however, this dissemination did not happen in a "natural"
way, as it would through learning new songs in weddings or festivals
(Anoyanakis, 1991). Living in the big cities, the musicians who still performed in village feasts, gradually lost their modal "feeling" and their
ears were "tuned" to major and minor scales. This unavoidably affected
folk music, altering its melody and harmony.
Remarkably, folk music never entered the official school curriculum
and always remained the "poor relative" in any Greek radio broadcast
(Holst, 1977). Nevertheless, during the last ten years there has been an
increase of interest in Greek traditional music, whilst most conservatories, music schools, as well as the music departments of the universities
have included Greek traditional music in their syllabuses. This tendency towards folk music is furthermore promoted by record companies, research centres and other institutions. Notwithstanding, quite recently many public schools hired PE teachers for extra curriculum activities which actually include folk dances.
5.3 Language and rhymes

In ancient Greece, music, being the aggregate of poetry, music and
rhythmical gesture, had to adjust itself to the needs of prosody, marching, and dances. 'Metre' and 'rhythm' distinguished from each other
metre being in words, and rhythm in the motion of bodies. A word
comprised within itself a firm musical component. The syllables of each
word were by nature long or short and they could be neither extended
nor abbreviated. Accordingly, the speaker had to perceive them as stable, inflexible elements. This substantive aspect of the ancient Greek
99
language was its musically conceived rhythm; an element which is

missing from modern western languages (Georgiades, 1982). Recurrent
groups of two three, or four syllables, formed the elemental pattern of
musical metre which the ancient Greeks called "poetical pous". In a musical setting the poetical pous or verse foot carried one single note each.
Such feet were used in the great majority of vocal music which intended to follow the text as closely as possible (Sachs, 1953).
Despite the developments through the centuries the basic characteristic
of the language remained intact. Until the early 19th century, in modern
Greek poetry, folk or not, prevailed 'decapentasylavos'a fifteen syllable verse which after the 8th syllable had a stable structure and at least
two metrical accents on specific even syllables. All the rest of modern
Greek verses are either evolution of older forms like 'decapentasylavos'
or attributed to novelties of
Iamb
>
> >
>
> >
> >
certain poets or originating
ap tin perifnia tou kiap ti leventi tou
from
European
verse
traditions (Kopidakis, 1999).
Trochaikos
Modern Greek metre system is
>
>
based on a syllable stress.
pios tha rixi pios tha pri
>
>
Verse is constituted of a stable
tasimnio to fegri
number of syllables and
obtains its particular metre
Anapestos
type from the positioning of
>
>
>
melet ta labr palikria
the accents (West, 1982).
>
>
>
According to the positioning
ke stefni sti kmi fori
of the accents, verses are distinguished into iambs, trochai Dactyl
>
>
>
>
kos, anapaistos and dactyls:
makarismnos esi pou meltises
This metre system applies to children's songs as well. The most common lullaby is iamb decapendasyllavos in which each verse has fifteen syllables sequenced in short and long sounds (Christara, 1987). The
rhythmic base in children's songs is a verse which regardless of the actual number of syllables they are counted as eight (Baud-Bovy, 1994). In
the following example this is achieved by extending some of the syllables and replacing others with pauses: pame sta mantrakia gia na fame
100
pa - me
pa -
pa me
1
me
gala kai tirakia (Let's go to the fold to
have some milk and cheese).
sta ma -ntra - kia Z
When
gia na
fa me ga
la
ga
la
kai
ti
ra
kia Z
the
stress
goes
to
odd
syllables the verse is called

trochaikos and when the even syllables are stressed the verse is called
iamb.
Stress in modern Greek language has a discreet function because it distinguishes otherwise similar words and phrases: (a) the placement of
accent (b) the existence or not of accent. Each word of the common new
Greek language has an accent on one of its last three syllablesexcept if
there are two accents (Setatos, 1974). The main characteristics of stress
in standard modern Greek are: (a) one main stress per word, (b) constraint to the last three syllables, and (c) the placement of the stress is
considered to be largely unpredictable. Rhythm in the Greek Language
is regulated by the grouping of stressed syllables (Allen, 1973). However, the optionality of rhythmic stress is not unique to Greek, but reported from other languages too.
>
ksilofgos (wood-eater)
>
pedtopos (children-place)
Greek compounds are not characterised by having uniform stress. In

some cases the stress is located on
either the penultimate or the antepenultimate syllable, independently of
the location of stress on the
compound's members in isolation:
>
pefkodsos (pine wood)
>
chartopetsta (tissue)
>
According to Drachman and Malikouti-Drachman (1992) the location of

stress depends on the internal
>
zni asfalias (safety belt)

>
>
nmos plsio (frame-law)
structure of the compound. In other

cases, it is situated on the syllable that
bears primary stress on the com-
pound's second member:
101
Yet, in other cases, the compound bears two stresses, one on each syllable that bears primary stress when the two members are pronounced in
isolation:
The modern approach to language teaching makes considerable efforts
to place an emphasis on oral and written communication. According to
Babiniotis (1993), the main aim of teaching the mother tongue at school
is to make children able to: (a) comprehend the structures, functions
and mechanisms which make linguistic communication possible
through a particular language; (b) cultivate and enrich an 'individual
language'; (c) develop creative abilities in the reception and processing
of tests, at both oral and written levels.
Language teaching requires rich resources of material and teaching
aids, and, most importantly, rich language material. In the past, children songs were not considered sufficiently worthy to be included in
serious folk song collections (Koulentianou, 1994). However, today,
there are many lullabies included in collections of folk songs coming
from every corner of Greece. One can find linguistic material for children in various types: lullabies, tachtarismata, protovadismata-penemata
(first steps songs), xelidonismata (spring carols), wishes, games, carols,
riddles. They use simple and tender words aiming to put children
asleep but also, to educate them. While singing to her child, a mother
could pass onto him or her all her beliefs about life and people, all her
thoughts, expectations and ambitions; teach him or her the secrets of
nature, the vices of human beings, history and traditions.
5.4 Summary
During the last ten years there has been a surge of interest in traditional
music not only worldwide but in Greece, as well. In consequence, a
number of texts on various aspects of Greek traditional music have
made their appearance, whilst Greek traditional music has become a
part of the music syllabuses in conservatories, music schools and universities.
102
Greek traditional music, which has much in common with Arabic and
Turkish music, has two basic characteristics: (a) it is consisted of modes
instead of scalesusually, is used the term macam or dromi. As the
structure of modes is completely different to the structure of western
scales, the character of Greek traditional music would change on a welltempered instrument such as the guitar or the piano. The main reason
is that in Greek traditional music: (a) untempered intervals are used;
(b) is monophoniceven the accompaniment is usually monophonic,
following the melody in a rhythmical way.
Greek traditional music exhibits a great diversity of modes and
rhythms: almost every region, in the mainland or in the islands, has its
own special characteristics. Compound and irregular time signatures,
such as 7/8 and 9/8, are very common, especially in the northern parts
of Greece. The most commonly met traditional instruments are the
clarinet, the violin, the laouto, the lyra and the toumbeleki. The same diversity is noticed in Greek traditional dances as well. Notably, the majority of traditional music is constituted of dance songsround dances
being amongst the most popular ones.
Even though, Greek traditional music makes use of various intervals,
such as the intervals of the fourth and major second, traditional children's songs, use the well-known sol-mi and mi-sol-la patterns.
Traditional music was always transmitted by ear; young musicians imitated the older experienced musicians. This oral transmission affected
also the language of the songs for specific idioms of each region were
incorporated in it. This was a two-way process: songs affected the vernacular and vice versa.
Greek language is based on syllable stress. Greek words can have an accent on one of their last three syllables. Stressing in Greek language,
however, is rather unpredictable and this affected the rhythmic intonation of the language, as well. The absence of uniform stress is largely responsible for the prevalence of compound rhythms in music. Verses are
named according to the positioning of the accents. The most commonly
found metre in children's songs is iamb decapentasyllavos, in which each
103
verse has fifteen syllables sequenced in short and long sounds. In the
last years, children's songs have gained a place in education as a vehicle
for the preservation of the tradition for they enrich children's language
through their idiomatic language.
104
This chapter outlines the general theoretical framework within which research
proceeded, identifying a qualitative-interpretative approach as being the most
appropriate in the light of the research questions addressed. It also explains
and justifies the particular techniques adopted for each of the three phases of
the investigation. Following an outline of the chronological development of
the study, concerns with regard to each research technique selected are explored in detail.
6.1 The focus of the research

The initial focus of the research questions evolved from the literature review,
as well as from informal discussions with music educators and personal reflection on the emergent issues. Gradually, I came to realise that the most fundamental question I was trying to probe, was this: can Schulwerk be applied to
the Greek culture? In an attempt to answer this question, documents concerning Schulwerk and Greek traditional music but also the psychology of children's musical development were examined (see Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5). In
the light of the data collected, issues such as the applicability of Orff principles
and Orff's own ideas about the adaptation of Schulwerk, emerged and formed
a set of questions:
105
1. How are the Orff principles applied today?

2. What was Orffs thinking about Schulwerk adaptations in other
countries?
3. What are the main considerations that should be borne in mind in
any Schulwerk application in Greece?
4. Is Greek language appropriate for use as a starting point in Schulwerk activities?
As the literature review could not assist in fully answering these questions, a
first-hand experience of the Orff-Schulwerk summer seminar in Salzburg was
considered necessary. Thus, the second phase of the investigation was concerned with Orff-Schulwerk practices as they were experienced in workshops
and seminars led by some of the most prominent Orff-Schulwerk teachers. At
the Institute some of Orff's close collaborators were also invited to discuss the
issues that had emerged from the literature review.
The experience of Orff-Schulwerk in Salzburg addressed most of the questions
that stemmed from the literature review but, at the same time, generated new
questions that required further investigation. From the initial broad interest,
the research began to focus increasingly on the Orff teachers' teaching techniques and their perceptions of the Orff-Schulwerk principles. Obviously, Orff
teachers in Greece had to be flexible in their attempt to adapt Orff-Schulwerk
to the Greek culture. Some of them might have departed from Schulwerk
principles for particular reasons. Thus, the third phase of the investigation was
concerned with classroom processes and, in particular, with the teaching techniques through which Orff-Schulwerk teaching and learning takes place. The
following questions were addressed:
1. How do Greek Orff teachers use the Greek language to assist children's rhythmic development?
2. How do they relate their teaching to the Orff principles?
3. How do they use folk rhythms?
4. What is the balance between the use of the original Orff instrumentarium and the use of indigenous folk instruments?
Data collected through video-taped observations of a small number of lessons
and tape recordings of the discussions with teachers and children formed the
basis for analysis. During the period of data collection and, again as data were
analysed, the focus of the investigation was clarified. Despite all the restrictions accruing from the expectations of the schools where the teachers worked,
106
the observations revealed a dynamic interpretation of Orff-Schulwerk.

Clearly the conduct of any research is dependent on the nature of the research
problem. It was therefore important that before the collection of evidence, I
should establish a tentative theoretical model aiming to explore the nature of
the research problem within a wider context (Wolcott, 1994, Denzin, 1994).
Whilst my prior knowledge and experience might have led me to have certain
expectations concerning the way in which Orff teachers were teaching OrffSchulwerk, and certain theories about how teachers would use resource materials of Greek origins to support their teaching, it was envisaged that the investigation into what was actually occurring in Greek Orff classes would provide evidence which would form the basis of descriptions upon which interpretations and insights could be developed (Bryman, 1988).
6.2 The research design

Although I would have liked to investigate every manifestation of OrffSchulwerk application in Greece, I refrained from such an endeavour for it
was unrealistic for an in-depth analysis of the data. Finally, I decided to reflect
on the need to understand individual instances of Orff-Schulwerk teaching before attempting to draw inferences about Orff-Schulwerk teaching generally in
Greece.
Taking place in a natural setting, this research required flexibility and a tolerance for adjustment as it progressed. It has been suggested that only a qualitative approach can provide a methodology flexible enough to allow for new
ideas to emerge (Mason, 1996). Having identified a set of initial questions
relevant to the research problem, I came to believe that I should collect the
data through observations and interviews. Observations would provide me
with details of events involving a minimum of intervention in the natural
classroom setting (Erladson et al., 1993). Interviews, on the other hand, would
help me gain access to interpretations and understandings of people involved
in the research.
Qualitative research provides a detailed understanding of other people's perspectives and a potential for interaction between researcher and subject. This
proved to be very useful in helping to identify my own perceptions and as
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sumptions during the various stages of the research process. It should be

noted that several aspects of the qualitative and naturalistic approach selected
for this investigation are also identified as characteristics of ethnography: (a)
the small number of cases taken for study; (b) the rather unstructured approach to data collection; (c) the study of behaviour in everyday contexts
(Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983). Nevertheless, the concern in this research
was not with the whole way of life of the teachers who participated, which
ethnography usually implies, rather in the teachers as teachers of OrffSchulwerk. The next sections are concerned with a clarification of the particular qualities of qualitative approaches and their specific advantages and disadvantages.
The research approaches utilised in the fieldwork of the study were: (Table
6.1)
1. Observations
(a) participant (Orff Institute in Salzburg)
(b) non-participant (Orff schools in Athens)
2. Interviews
(a) with members of the Orff Institute in Salzburg
(b) with Orff teachers in Athens
Table 6.1. The methodology of the study.
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In general terms, the study was interested in the applicability of a western

music teaching methodOrff-Schulwerkto a culture with non-western
characteristicsGreece. The purpose was to document and attempt to understand rather than to assess the application of Orff-Schulwerk. Thus, the kinds
of research questions which were developing led to qualitative, naturalistic
paradigms. Accordingly, I was led to the need to understand individual instances of Orff-Schulwerk practices: (a) the international Orff-Schulwerk
seminar in Salzburg, which offered an insight into the basic Orff principles
and (b) a small number of Orff schools in Athens which offered an insight into
the way Orff-Schulwerk is currently applied in Greece.
6.3 Participant observations

The purpose of my visit to Salzburg was to identify the way the original
Schulwerk is taught in the Institute according to the Orff principles and explore some of the research questions concerning issues of Orff-Schulwerk applications and adaptations. Accordingly, I studied the techniques and materials adopted by the members of the Institute in the teaching of Orff-Schulwerk
so that, later, I could use them as "tools" for understanding the techniques
used by Orff teachers in Greece.
A deep understanding of Orff-Schulwerk was of utmost importance for understanding its various applications. The review of literature related to OrffSchulwerk and its application indicated the importance of a first-hand experience of Orff's pedagogical work. The Orff Institute, an international educational centre, at which well over a thousand students from as many as fifty
countries have completed their studies, was considered to be the best place for
acquiring such an experience. Although there are many Universities and Colleges offering Orff-Schulwerk courses and certification at every levelmainly
in Australia and the Statesthe Orff Institute in Salzburg remains the undisputable metropolis of Orff's pedagogical ideas.
So, in 1996, I visited the international Orff-Schulwerk summer course in Salzburg where I spent two weeks learning more about the Orff-Schulwerk process through dancing, singing, playing, talking and living with people from
twenty-eight countries. The programme included six morning courses, obligatory for every participant, and eight afternoon courses from which the partici
109
pants had to choose two, one course for each week (Appendix K).
To achieve a better understanding of the teaching of Orff-Schulwerk, I chose a
participant observation approach which has proven to be of undisputable
value in providing a first-hand account of a phenomenon (Fox, 1969). As a
participant observer, I was able to develop a close relationship with instructors
and students which provided me with an additional source of information
(Cohen and Manion, 1994). This information included the instructors' personal
perceptions of the Orff principles and their thinking in the choice of teaching
materials.
To obtain contemporary interpretations of the Orff-Schulwerk principles beyond the conventional ones, it was necessary to achieve a familiarity with the
Institute environment. Familiarity with a field allows access to versions of reality beyond public and official ones (Hargreaves, 1967). The participant observer gradually acquires an insider knowledge of a situation, which supplements previous external knowledge and occasionally, because of his or her
continuous attempts to understand, the observer acquires an objectivity not
available to those being observed (Schutz, 1967). While watching, listening
and asking questions, the participant observer comes to assimilate the knowledge and perspectives of the subjects concerned (Lofland, 1971). The only
problem in the case of this research was that the participant role required too
much attention relative to the observer role and occasionally there was not
sufficient time to take observational notes. Besides, being both a participant
and a researcher can lead to role conflict (Hargreaves, 1967). However, the
value of the acquired experiences justifies my choice to participate in this
course.
The regulations of the Institute did not allow the use of video cameras during
the lessons but we were allowed to take photographs occasionally. Taking advantage of some short breaks during the lessons, I kept detailed notes of the
workshops and discussions during the workshops and my reflections. The result was two hundred pages of handwritten notes plus additional information
found in the library of the Institute.
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Throughout most activities taking place in the Institute, students were encouraged to employ as many senses as possible, always linking music to language,
dance and other arts and life itself. It was clear that the Orff-Schulwerk concepts had been developed and supplemented with new ones which reflect the
needs of modern life; often, instead of a folk song, a modern "rock music" song
was the starting point for a Schulwerk activity. In parallel to musical communication, special emphasis was also placed in establishing a non-verbal communication between students; a unique experience for the participants as individuals.
Through numerous examples during the course, it was emphasised that children's active participation is fundamental from the very first steps of music
learning, and that creative music making is not the reproduction of music
pieces, but basic activities of improvisation and composition from the very beginning. Children should learn to play music from memory and by ear before
they use notation to write down their own compositions or reproduce the music of others. In some respects, such aspects of the Orff-Schulwerk approach
could only be revealed to those participating in the course.
On my return to Reading, I began the analysis of the observational notes by
classifying all the activities under four broad categories: (a) movement activities; (b) speech activities; (c) creativity and improvisation; (d) use of instruments. Following the analysis of the data collected in Salzburg, certain decisions were taken regarding the pilot study and the observation of Greek
teachers work that would follow: (a) the observations should be on lessons
that involved folk songs, because the use of indigenous music is fundamental
for every Schulwerk adaptation; (b) the use of language should be highlighted
during the next phase of the research, as the use of spoken language has a salient role in every Schulwerk adaptation; (c) experienced Orff teachers should
be selected as participants, in order to observe the Orff principles being applied; (d) the children should be aged about eight, at a point where their ability to play instruments had developed sufficiently to meet the aspect of instrument playing.
While analysing the data from Salzburg and in parallel with an on-going review of relevant literature, a pilot study was conducted which helped me to
clarify the study's rationale and to "refine the data collection plans" (Yin, 1994,
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p. 74). This led to the main phase of the fieldwork.

Before leaving Salzburg I pursued interviews with three staff members of the
Orff Institute, in order to obtain their comments on issues such as the use of
Greek language and Greek traditional music in various Schulwerk activities
and the use of Orff instruments to accompany Greek traditional music.
6.4 Interviews with members of the Orff Institute

The interviews conducted in this study should probably best described as
"semi-structured": while they were structured around the issue of OrffSchulwerk's adaptation, the questions were not worded in any specific way
and the course of the conversation was directed mainly by the interviewees'
responses (Powney and Watts, 1987). These interviews were of an open-ended
focused type, assuming a conversational manner in order to allow interviewees to feel relaxed and to encourage communicativeness. Each interview
aimed to elicit the interviewees' beliefs about Schulwerk principles and
Schulwerk's adaptability. In order to facilitate a comparison of the responses
and a later analysis of the data (Patton, 1980), the three interviewees in Salzburg were asked the same kind of questions. However, the topics covered and
the questions posed were not exactly the same, apart from a core group of
more general questions included in all the interviews (Appendix L). The collected data addressed issues concerning Orff-Schulwerk's adaptations in nonwestern countries like Greece. The interviews were analysed in relation to the
data collected during the participant observations.
During the first week in Salzburg some preliminary investigations were conducted in order to decide who would make the best interviewees. The criteria
for choosing the interviewees were their relation with Orff himself and their
long experience in themes of Schulwerk adaptation. Three eminent members
of the Institute, Professor Hermann Regner, Professor Barbara Haselbach and
Professor Ulrike Jungmair (see Chapter 7, p. 137) were selected and interviewed during the second week of the seminar. These interviews, each lasting
about one hour, were tape-recorded. In general, it appears to be an agreement
regarding the advantages of tape-recordings over the field notes: (a) the data
is more complete and accurate; (b) it contributes to a more relaxed conversational atmosphere and ; (c) it allows a deliberate analysis (Erickson, 1986).
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It was intended that the interviews would inform the research questions concerned with the spread of Orff-Schulwerk, the importance of the Orff principles and the role of folk music in Orff-Schulwerk teaching. As my interviewees had known Orff personally, their opinions about issues that I had already
read in the literature, were important. These interviews provided an important background to a number of issues: (a) how close the Greek Orff teachers'
practices were to Orff's principles in the employment of movement and folk
music in their classes; (b) how they used speech and improvisation activities
and what use they made of the Orff instruments. It is remarkable that during
the interview, Regner (1996) explicitly stated the importance of using indigenous instruments when Schulwerk is applied in non-western countries.
The results of the analysis informed the third phase of the research which was
(a) to conduct observations of Orff classes in Athens where the overall teaching approach followed the Orff principles; (b) to interview the Orff teachers
and ask them to comment on issues of creativity and improvisation and the
use of indigenous music in the light of the Orff principles; the observational
data showed a partially distorted interpretation of what Orff used to call "music for children". Their responses are included in Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 11 to illustrate aspects of their teaching strategies and choices of teaching material,
thus, enabling readers to reach independent conclusions and make connections to wider issues (Wolcott, 1994).
During the preparation of the field study several music teachers were approached in order to find a school which would accept the project. This short
investigation led me to a teacher who for most of the previously contacted
Orff teachers was a leader of the Orff-Schulwerk movement in Greece. She
was directing a dance school where Orff-Schulwerk was taught for many
years, affecting every aspect of the school's syllabus. Soon after the telephone
contact, I was invited to visit the school and discuss the matter closely.
6.5 Non-participant observations

Entering the third phase of the research, a pilot observation was carried out
which was found to be an extremely useful exercise. The two lessons observed, offered the opportunity to practise focusing, and ensuring that as
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much as possible of what took place was documented appropriately. Also,

during the pilot observation, the location of the video was noted as was the introduction and use of other materials during the course of the lesson; anything
which I felt might be relevant to my subsequent analysis of data was documented.
The site of the pilot study was a private school of dance where Orff-Schulwerk
was an inherent part of the children's dance training programme. While carrying out the pilot study it was noted that the class was all female. The whole
setting was quite polished and the activities were very carefully planned giving the impression of a ready-made product. This prompted me to search for
an additional occurrence of Orff-Schulwerk teaching, in order to have something with which to compare it. Eventually, a municipal school of music was
found, where Schulwerk had been taught for several years as part of music
theory lessons that supported recorder lessons, and a primary state school,
where Orff-Schulwerk was taught in the afternoons.
Accordingly, the third phase of the research was designed to undertake observations in selected schools of Athens where Orff-Schulwerk was taught by experienced music teachers. As stated in Section 6.2, non-participant observation
was chosen as a method of data collection for several reasons. These included
the need to go beyond the kinds of data which it had been possible to collect
with the interviews and the literature review. The data selected in Athens by
means of video taped observations of three classes and audio taped interviews
with the teachers. There is also background information regarding children's
musical experiences which was selected by means of informal discussions with
the children.
In the private school of dance Orff-Schulwerk was taught as part of gymnastics, in the municipal music school Orff-Schulwerk was taught as part of recorder lessons; and in the primary state school Orff-Schulwerk was taught as
an after-school activity. (Table 6.2)
The criteria for choosing the three schools related to the teachers' experience in
the teaching of Orff-Schulwerk and the age of the children. Particularly, the selection was based upon the following factors: (a) music classes where the age
of the children was about eight; (b) Orff-Schulwerk music specialists with out
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standing qualifications who were willing to cooperate fully and get involved
in a research project conducted in the school over a five-week period; (c)
schools covering different aspects of the Greek social spectrum. The sample
was selected in ways that provided the broadest range of information possible.
Table 6.2. The dates of the observed lessons in the three Orff schools.
The field sites chosen for the research covered different areas of the Greek social spectrum, offering a more accurate assessment of Orff-Schulwerk's applicability to the Greek culture; the three cases represented the most common
places where Orff-Schulwerk is taught: (a) private schools; (b) municipal music schools; and (c) primary state schools. The three schools differed from each
other in terms of teaching policy and parents' expectations; differences which
make it more possible that the results of the study are also applicable to other
Orff schools and, accordingly, increase the validity of the findings (Mason,
1996). Obviously, there were many other Orff teachers and I cannot claim that
these three schools covered all the possibilities. This problem may well constitute one of the basic limitations of the study; on the other hand, if a larger
sample of cases had been chosen, the amount of data would be inhibiting for
any in-depth analysis.
Once the teachers expressed an interest in participating, I felt it was time to
present my research, my role and the commitment required from the teachers.
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This was a very important phase in the research process because, as Erickson
(1986) emphasises, it is important that research participants are as informed
fully as possible about the purposes and activities of research that will occur.
This involved me in further explanations concerning the research questions,
emphasising the non-evaluative and non-judgemental nature of the work, and
explaining how I proposed to collect data, using observations which would be
videotaped and interviews which would be audio-taped.
The use of video offered an alternative to the use of multiple observers, and
provided the opportunity for indirect observations which also increased the
reliability of the observational evidence (Denzin, 1970). Moreover, a video recording allows repeated hearings and in consequence, re-interpretation of
data, something that would have been impossible if I had merely taken notes.
Every evening I studied the video tapes and wrote summaries of each lesson's
activities. This proved to be invaluable in planning the next day's discussions
with the teachers and estimating the value of the collected data.
The main argument against the use of video is that it could be considered too
"intrusive" both by the teachers and the children, the camera becoming an "artificial eye" that would distract children's attention (Erickson, 1992). In order
to minimise this danger, I tried not to impose either myself or the camera, by
placing my equipment at the far end of the classrooms. Moreover, the camera
lost its importance after a while, as children became accustomed to its presence as well as to my presence. Indicative of this, is the fact that during the observed lessons only on one or two occasions did a child glance at the camera.
All three teachers, on the other hand, maintained that they were used to being
observed when I explained to them what I wanted and asked their permission
for video-taping their lessons.
During the field visits to the three sites in Athens I chose a non-participant
role for the observations. This kind of observation seemed more appropriate
as the phenomena of interest related to teachers' behaviours and teaching
conditions (Shimahara, 1988). Observation can be a valuable tool in educational research provided that the research is conducted in an as objective manner as possible. When observers go into the classroom with definite preconceptions of what they are looking for, the value of the observation can be seriously limited (Wolcott, 1995). On the other hand, focus can help researchers to
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achieve their goals. Teachers' choices of materials and particularly the use of
Greek traditional music within the Orff-Schulwerk approach informed the research questions concerning teachers' flexibility and interpretation of OrffSchulwerk principles.
Quite often music teachers adopt Orff-Schulwerk as it is taught in Salzburg
and apply it in their countries disregarding the real nature of their country's
indigenous music. Given the specialities of Greek traditional music (see Chapter 5), Greek Orff teachers are called upon to be very flexible in order to incorporate indigenous music into their teaching.
The main focus of the observations was on teachers' teaching strategies and
materials employed in the use of Orff-Schulwerk, but at the same time I was
open to whatever might emerge. Observing naturally-occurring lessons over a
period of three months, five lessons for each school lasting about an hour each,
provided teaching situations which were sufficiently representative of Greek
Orff teachers' practices to function as a vehicle for interpretation; the amount
of data collected from the observation, in combination with the interviews and
discussions also aimed to minimise possible errors and biases of the study and
increase its reliability.
The pressure of the coming Christmas festivitythe teachers had to prepare
some songs with their childrenobliged them to follow the scheduled lesson
plans despite the fact that they were videotaped: one could therefore conclude
that the observed lessons were not isolated examples of a polished way of
teaching but representative of their teaching. Moreover, the observed lessons
that followed Christmas gave the researcher the opportunity to observe their
teaching practices in a more relaxed situation.
6.6 Interviews with Orff teachers

Teachers' perceptions of the activities in which they and their students were
engaged, influenced significantly what they did. Certainly, there can be a distinction between a respondent's capabilities of action and his or her ability to
articulate that action but, as Patton (1980) suggests, the intensive, semistructured interview would appear to be one of the most powerful ways of allowing and promoting articulation of that action.
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A type of informal conversational interview was used with the Orff teachers in
Athens. The interviews explored research questions which could not be studied by means of observations, for example, teachers' perceptions of the OrffSchulwerk principles and the rationale of their decision-making in the choice
of teaching material and techniques. Their comments helped me to understand
how they comprehended the Orff-Schulwerk principles and explain possible
departures from them.
What people do and what they maintain that they do are often very different.
Because of this, there may frequently be a discrepancy between the actions
and accounts of those actions. Shulman (1986) asserts that one must look beyond the official facts, exploring the meaning that teachers ascribe to their actions. Through an exploration of the teachers' thinking and decision making I
came to know more about Greek Orff teachers' flexibility. Basically, the interviews with the teachers were designed to facilitate an analysis of the reasons
that might force some of them to depart from Orff-Schulwerk principles. In
addition, the interviews would illuminate the issues relating to the role that
Greek traditional music played in the teaching material that the teachers chose
for their classes. All this information formed the material to be compared with
the way Greek teachers interpret the Orff principles as it is documented in the
analysis of the observational data of their classes. Also, the interviews illustrated the rationale behind the techniques employed by Orff teachers in
Greece. These interviews with each teacher took place on a day before the observed lessons in order to discuss their teaching in a more general way. (see
Appendix I) Thus the teachers could not comment on any of the observed lessons which, however, they did in short discussions with the researcher soon
after each lesson. After every lesson there were informal discussions aiming to
clarify certain issues which had attracted my attention during the lessons.
In addition to the systematic documentation of music teaching, the researcher
gained background information regarding the students in the observed classes
as well as their teachers, in order to present a more complete description of the
setting. Discussions with the childrenusually carried out individually
aimed to examine their musical background (Appendix J). Following the descriptions of the observed lessons some children are presented more analytically in order to assist the reader's perception of the fieldwork context. In
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some instances, these data merely offered a hint which could be explored
more fully by observations.
6.7 Data analysis and interpretation

The main focus of this research is inextricably connected to the techniques that
each Orff teacher employed. As Orff-Schulwerk is not a systematised musicteaching method, teachers in Greece need to develop their own techniques according to the Orff-Schulwerk principles and their personal ability as music
teachers. Do they have common strategies and how does their teaching relate
to the Orff principles and the techniques used by the tutors of the Orff Institute? What are the aims of the activities that Greek Orff teachers organise for
their classes?
The observations that took place in Athens were the main source of data relating to most of the research questions. I began the analysis by focusing on the
techniques used by the Greek Orff teachers, directly comparing them with the
techniques used at the Orff Institute. Moreover, the examination of the teaching of Orff-Schulwerk in Greek schools was a vital source of information in
answering some fundamental questions concerning: (a) the use of Greek language in relation to children's musical development; (b) the possibility of employing Greek traditional music in the teaching of Orff-Schulwerk; and (c)
teachers' flexibility in the choice of materials and strategies. The conclusions
that arose out of the study of the Orff schools in Athens were also seen in the
light of issues emerging from the literature review which highlight characteristics of Greek traditional music that might cause problems in the teaching of
Orff-Schulwerk.
The first stage in the analysis focused on a description of the lesson structure,
while the second stage involved the clarification of the lesson content and
comparison between the three teachers and between observation and interview findings. It was considered that, through these stages of analysis, it
would be possible to create an outline of the three teachers' Orff-Schulwerktechniques. Accordingly, a selection of a small number of extracts was used to
illustrate the main themes which emerged in relation to the research questions.
A method for analysing the data was devised and this evolved as observational data were studied. The musical pieces included in the selected extracts
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were transferred into score. The majority of these pieces were also included in
the audio compact disc accompanying the thesis.
During the course of the observations I had been taking notes on what I observed and the significance of what I saw. From this, I acquired a considered
view of the various dimensions within which each teacher was working.
Nevertheless, the selection of representative excerpts for analysis proved to be
a very difficult and demanding task. According to the needs of the study, I
used certain criteria and selected excerpts which: (a) represented a range of
Schulwerk activities; (b) included pieces of both western and indigenous
music; (c) covered a variety of teaching techniques; (d) were relatively
complete within themselves.
Analysis was undertaken of the activities through which teaching and learning proceeded and the teaching materials used. The aim was to develop a perspective on the total activity of the lesson before focusing on particular sections. The gradual overlaying of different aspects of the lesson from repeated
readings of the transcripts and from field notes established the foundations
necessary for detailed analysis of excerpts of the process of music teaching observed. The focus of analysis was upon: (a) teachers' faithfulness to the Schulwerk principles; (b) teachers' flexibility in handling teaching material from the
Greek culture. The analysis of data revealed manifestations of various forms of
Greek folk music occurring in class lessons. The fieldwork findings were related to concepts of music teaching evaluation, psychology of music-making
and psychology of music-making in the context of Orff-Schulwerk in particular.
The observational data were coded under four broad categories of classroom
activities: movement activities, speech activities, opportunities for creativity
and improvisation, and the use of instruments. These categories derived both
from the Schulwerk principles and also from the teachers' practice. The data
could perhaps have been coded using only three categories, representing
movement activities, speech activities and the use of instruments, as creativity
and improvisation pervade all the other activities. However, it was thought
that a clearer picture could be obtained by adopting four categories, particularly since creativity and improvisation constitute a substantial part of all
Schulwerk practice.
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Data categorised under "movement activities" included all accompanied or

unaccompanied children's movements as well as any other dance elements.
Data coded under "speech activities" included activities of dramatisations and
the use of language as accompaniment. The "creativity and improvisation"
category included all other categories because improvising and inventing new
ideas was part of every activity in Salzburg. The "use of instruments" category
included the use of pitched and unpitched percussion instruments in most of
the observed activities.
The excerpts of the observations that were selected to be presented in the data
analysis chapters were those which provided evidence of Schulwerk practices,
offering a better insight into the teachers' decision-making and beliefs. The criteria for the selection of excerpts could be summarised as follows: (a) the transcriptions should reveal the different aspects of each teacher's style and techniques, (b) they should offer an insight into different Orff-Schulwerk practices,
(c) they should provide a basis for an examination of the use of indigenous
material. Therefore, in some cases two or more excerpts from the same lesson
are presented, whilst in other cases a whole lesson may be omitted (as in the
case of the third lesson in School A). On the other hand, there are transcriptions that highlight the same teaching material used by two different teachers,
or used by the same teacher in two subsequent lessons (as was the case with
the Athenian carol in school C or the new year carol from an Aegean island in
schools B and C). The transcriptions, however, attempted to reveal the
teacher's resourcefulness in approaching the same material through different
Orff-Schulwerk practices. Specifically, the data analysis examined the teaching
material used by the three teachers and the way this material was taught. The
focus of observational data is therefore the teachers, as, through an in-depth
examination of their teaching techniques, a better understanding of the way
Orff-Schulwerk is applied in Greece is attempted. Occasionally, children's reaction is also examined, but only as an indication of how successful an activity
was. For clarity of presentation both the teachers and the children were assigned pseudonyms.
The interviews served the purpose of extending the information gathered
through observation and provided opportunities to gain insight into what
teachers thought about the application of Schulwerk principles. In many in
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stances, data collected through observation was confirmed, whereas in other

cases questions were raised which required further investigation. The data collected, produced a substantial body of information about teachers' views on
the choice of teaching materials and about how they used these materials in
applying the Schulwerk principles. Any information about how the teachers
chose musical activities, where these activities led and how the teachers perceived the progress of their classes, was used in the analysis of the teachers'
perceptions of the Orff-Schulwerk principles and as a background information
during the analysis of the observational data.
Bearing in mind the research questions and the discussion thus far, the present
approach to analysis and interpretation attempts not only to illustrate the
Greek Orff teachers' choices and beliefs, but also to consider the outcomes in
the context of a more general framework. Thus, the next chapters will focus on
the teachers' practices, illustrating what they are teaching and how they are
teaching it. In particular, Chapter 7 documentates the Salzburg experience as
it was perceived by the participant observations, whilst the findings are continuously juxtaposed with the interviews data. Chapters 8, 9 and 10 consist of
the three cases in Greece. The first part of each chapter, which is a presentation
of the setting the teacher and the children, follows a detailed description of selected excerpts (19 excerpts on the whole). The information from teachers' interviews is used as a background information to the description of the lessons.
In Chapter 11 an understanding of the observed Schulwerk practices in the
three Orff schools is attempted, in order to correlate the findings into a more
general context. The last chapter of the thesis draws together the findings from
the data analysis and from the literature review for an understanding of OrffSchulwerk applications in Greek settings.
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122

In July 1996 I spent fifteen days at the Orff-Institute in Salzburg attending an
Orff-Schulwerk seminar. This report is an attempt to highlight what seems to
be the most important features of Schulwerk that emerged from interviews
and observations during the two weeks. Three individuals, Ulrike Jungmair,
Barbara Haselbach and Herman Regner, were selected for interviews based on
the nature of their involvement with Schulwerk.
They were contacted about cooperating and all three agreed to do so. The interviews were audio-taped conversations during which the interviewees were
asked about their experiences in the following general areas:
Their personal understanding of the basic Orff-Schulwerk principles.
Problems of Orff-Schulwerk adaptations in Greece and other countries.
The way Orff himself handled issues of adaptation.
7.1 The site

The Orff Institute in Salzburg, Austria, is the "world headquarters" for Orff
Schulwerk. People from around the world travel to Salzburg to study Schulwerk in the school conceived by Orff himself. Every five years the Orff Institute sponsors an international Orff-Schulwerk symposium. The Orff Institute
is a two-storey building on the outskirts of Salzburg, surrounded by yellowgreen fields and huge poplar trees. Officially it opened in 1963, when Schul
123
werk teacher training courses and children's classes taxed the already
crowded Mozarteum facilities. The interior decoration of the Institute is rather
simple, with a variety of ethnic instruments placed in glass cases located along
the corridors connecting the numerous classrooms of the Institute. During the
two weeks of the seminar I visited six different classrooms each the size of a
tennis court. The percussion instruments placed near the walls of the classroom outnumbered the participants in each class. There were also one or two
grand pianos and a guitar. In the built-in cupboards there were all kinds of
beaters for drums and barred instruments and the necessary sound reproduction equipment. The Orff Institute also houses a library that holds a collection
of Orff Schulwerk materials in many languages.
The Orff-Institute experience could easily be described as a seminar of endless
action. Some of the tutors used to elaborate their intentions and thoughts employing speech, while others taught through processes of imitation. Apart
from one tutor who came from England all sessions were taught in German.
However, this did not constitute a problem as most sessions involved little
talking and a lot of action, besides, given the fact that I had lived in Germany
for a year or so, I was able to understand German and even speak it occasionally. Personally, I found it more beneficial to my research to observe the seminar in its original language.
7.2 The beginning

On the first day of the seminar we all gathered in a big room where the evening concerts took place. To our astonishment, instead of the usual manner of
beginning a seminar, the person who supposedly would welcome us, kept
staring at us until we became silent. Then she began to swing. As she continued in this fashion we understood that we had to do the same. Gradually, she
introduced a combination of clapping, snapping and other sound gestures
whilst we imitated everything she was doing. Towards the end came the
words of a made up song wishing everybody a fruitful seminar and after a
short crescendo, the song faded slowly among endless applause and cheering.
Later, I discovered that she was Jungmair, the person in charge of the seminar.
When the necessary information and announcements had been given and before the participants separated to meet their classmates and tutors, there was a
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second example of how a song can be built up, taught by Beidinger. This time
the song was a simple rondo, about strong friendships made during summer
seminars at the Institute. In a class of one hundred and eighty people active
participation is not an easy task but both tutors had no problem in guiding us
into moving and singing activities in merely a few minutes. It was an impressive method of starting the seminar. We were instantly introduced to some of
Orff's basic ideas: making music in a group, not simply by playing or singing,
but kinesthetically and taking part not only as listeners but as participants as
well. This is what Orff called "elemental music". "Elemental music is an instance of time that has been fulfilled without constraint of purpose and thus
lived to the full. This music had to be discovered, not composed" (Keller, 1962,
p. 35).
Next, we moved around the building's corridors trying to locate the classroom
were we should be. As the participants entered the rooms where the sessions
took place, a variety of shoes was piled up in the corridors outside each door.
In my class there were twenty-four women and three men. I met them in a
ground floor room where they had just entered with bare feet. In the middle of
them stood our first teacher Keith Yon; fortunately he spoke English as he
came from a British University.
After a while we found ourselves standing in a circle, singing our names one
to the other with a circular gesture of the right hand, which supposedly channelled the sound of the voice all the way over the head to the next personthe
voice following the movement of the hand. Then we varied it, changing the
route of the hand and the pitch of the voice or not using our hands at all; each
one began singing his or her name when the voice of the person standing beside him or her faded away.
In this way the summer course at the Orff-Institute had already begun. This
was the first of the six morning classes that every group would experience
during the two weeks. Two of these classes took place every morning and
each one lasted 90 minutes with a half-hour break between the two. Each class
was completed in three consecutive days. In the afternoon classes there were
fewer students who had chosen two out of the nine different workshops
which they followed throughout the week.
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7.3 Participant observation of workshops

7.3.1 Dance and voice
Yon was an energetic middle-aged man who had a dark complexion and
strong Asiatic features. His lessons were about "voice discovering" and they
bore the subtitle "Voice as indication of social competence in speaking, singing
and moving". This could be any class but as we later realised it was just our
luck to start with the toughest of all the classes. All our inhibitions came forward when Yon asked us one after the other to walk to the middle of the classroom and recite a few words while the rest of the class watched. Pedagogically speaking, it was not the best thing to ask a student to perform alone in
front of the class but, as music teachers, we supposedly had to overcome such
problems. Surely, having attended this class first, we found the other classes to
be far more gentle.
Our reluctance to perform was the starting point for Yon who spared no effort
to illuminate the mystery of being human. Many students found his teaching
to be somewhat extreme
and they opted out for the
next two days while others
treated him as a guru.
Nothing discouraged Yon
though,
who
grasped
every opportunity to draw
on
the
blackboard
the
rhombus, depicting his

theory of human behaviour. (Fig. 7.1)
Flirting with each other with the eyes was common place for most of the activities with Yon. "Dance is in the eyes not in the feet" he shouted as he
prompted us to dance and sing spontaneously and in an erotic mood. "What is
this?" he protested "you act as if you have drunk only one glass of wine; I want
two or three at least". Although he overreacted sometimes, I believe that his
method helped us to discover some ways of using our inner energy.
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Yon had a restricted knowledge of Schulwerk, nevertheless, his theory overlapped with most Schulwerk principles. Apparently, at the beginning it was
difficult for most of us to "step in the middle of the room, breathe in our
classmates and scream out the energy we got from them". However, by the
end of the third day we were surprised by the ease with which we carried out
much more difficult tasks. We began with round dances which were combined with sound canons and movement canons. Then we proceeded to the
"peddler's voice" which was a vocal improvisation adjusted to an Arabic mode
(Fig. 7.2) (this resembled the "Hijazkar" macamsee Section 5.1.1). By the end
of the session we were screaming
and running around the room in
an attempt to imitate a gorilla's
behaviour.
In the Orff sense, movement and dance come from the music; it is not something separate like formal traditional dance. In Volume One of Music for Children there are many single-word speech exercises accompanied by rhythmic
gestures which are indicative of Orff's beliefs about a child's musical development (Thomas, 1960). According to Thomas, Orff believed that during their
first attempts in making music, children use a kind of music babble consisting
of sounds accompanied by movement. Gradually, music babble advances
from sensual play with sounds to melodies with form. In accordance with
Orff's ideas, Yon led us in group activities of speech and pantomime which
helped us to sense the sound of words and eventually the beauty of language
and dance.
7.3.2 Movement and senses
When you teach Schulwerk it must be different from my teaching of Schulwerk.

Schulwerk values very much the personality of the teacher and when he brings in his
creativity, his conviction to the children, then my Schulwerk is different from his.
(Interview with Regner, 1996)
Unterholzer characterised a very personal teaching style. She was a Schulwerk

teacher who never mentioned the name "Orff". When she was asked about it,
she explained that like every tutor of the Institute, she covers a part of OrffSchulwerk and all tutors together complete the Orff approach. Unterholzer
was a young woman, always smiling and friendly. One had the feeling that
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she was a student who merely led that day's session. She meticulously followed some guidelines that she kept in a note pad and stayed close to the title
of her class "Music and movementMusic and painting". Unfortunately, she
was unable to perform much movement herself, for her left leg was in splints.
After a short warm-up, Unterholzer asked us to form groups of two or three
and prepare a short performance presenting the first letter of our name in
sound and movement. After every performance she carefully chose a few
words of praise and comment on it, offering an excellent teaching example.
Then she spread out a roll of white paper as long as the classroom and placed
many paint-boxes on it so that we all could find the colours we liked. We were
asked to react spontaneously in this activity and paint our responses to a recorded music, using a variety of colours and shapes.
Next, Unterholzer invited us to spread ourselves all over the room and stay
there with eyes closed while she played some relaxing music on the stereo. After a while we felt something very soft in our hands which actually was a silky
scarf. When we opened our eyes we saw all the scarves in an amazing variety
of colours and we spent some time improvising movements, using the scarves
to symbolise raindrops, a rainbow or the sun, while we sung a childrens song.
(Fig. 7.3) It was the song of colours: Yellow, yellow, yellow, tell me what is yellow. Yellow are the lemons; beautiful is the world; full of colours is the world.
Yellow are the lemons, just the way I like it.
Figure 7.3. The song of colours.
Starting from the songs' lyrics, Unterholzer attempted to awaken all our
senses. Employing various games, she moved from sight to hearing and from
hearing to touch. First we had to follow our partners with eyes closed during a
walk around the room, listening to the sounds that they made on a percussion
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instrument. Then, in an attempt to discover those areas of our bodies that

could produce sound, we had to give them a "sonorous" thrashing; an activity
encouraging the use of tactile senses and improvised body-sounds. Also, these
activities, taking place in an enjoyable play-like environment, were very important for the development of communication skills within a group. The
model of music as a group effort was evident here as in many traditional
communities (Sparshott, 1988). In the Orff approach music is meant to be a
community effort: there is virtually no solo repertoire in the Orff literature.
Usually, working with a partner we explored different senses. Unterholzer
asked us to translate the sounds of a drum that our partner played, into
movements first and then into paintings; an activity requiring quick responses
and an alert mind. Next, we began imitating our tutor as she went through a
detailed narrative of a day break, miming the whole process. After a while we
found ourselves driving cars through the imaginary streets of the "townclassroom". Then, while we were listening to the music, we began walking repeatedly
forward
and
backward on an imaginary
"route" on the floor that we
chose, until we came to
know it so well that we
could draw it on paper.
When we saw our "routes"
drawn in different colours,
inevitably we associated the
lines of the drawing with
the routes that we follow
day after day to and from
our job or the market place
(Fig. 7.4). In this activity,
Unterholzer led us through
various senses
exploration of
to the
a path
connecting life with rhythm

and music and reflecting
the connection between
teaching material and the
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child's world which is attempted in most Schulwerk activities (Liess, 1966).
7.3.3 Instrument playing: a form of communication

Jungmair was a well-known Orff teacher. Her classroom was packed with
timpani and drums of every size. She taught us to appreciate the pedagogical
value of the vibrations made by a big drum. She vividly described the unbelievable big drums that Orff himself used with very small children. Orff valued the experience that the children had when they sensed the vibrations of
these drums through their whole body. Since then this idea has had many applications with hearing-impaired and learning-disabled children (Hofmarksrichter, 1962). Because of the vibrational sensations produced by percussion instruments, even totally deaf children are able to distinguish the different pitches from one another and participate actively, making music in group
activities.
Jungmair had two restless big eyes, sharp grimaces and expressive body
movements which contributed to stirring up our enthusiasm. Like the preceding ones, Jungmair's classes began with a movement activity aimed at helping
us learn each other's names but quickly she proceeded to her favourite drum
banging. First, she played the bongo and we had to translate every note and
pause into movements. Then each one of us chose a drum and we formed a
circle. She gave us three minutes to play as loud as we wished, which was followed by some organised activities examining the relationship between muscular energy and the sound
produced. Next, she drew
a dynamic sound envelope
on an imaginary blackboard
which
we
performed on our drums
from memory. (Fig. 7.5)
Afterwards, we attempted
to communicate by means
of drum-sounds which developed into a free improvisation and eventually
into short compositions based on made-up words.
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Jungmair used movement to present music to us through our visual and tactile senses, moving always from the simple to the complex. She used the
sound of words and the kinesthetic sense of rhythm. She also used dancing
and drawings to help us construct mental images of sounds in our heads.
Serafine (1988) would agree with this, suggesting that through systematic
training we can have a conception of a melody's contour, even in the absence
of sound. Jungmair used poems and jingles in carefully constructed echo activities to help us develop a sense of phrase which was completed by questionanswer activities. All these activities were performed in the different modalities of speech, body-rhythms, singing, instrument playing, and movement
which reinforced our communicative abilities.
As we imitated our partners' movements, we learned to observe tiny changes
in facial expressions or finger movements. Likewise, while playing every instrumental part of a certain arrangement, we came to have a global perception
of the songs' construction. It is part of the Orff pedagogy that each participant
learns every part, regardless of his or her role in the final ensemble rendition.
As Dolloff (1993) stresses, this aids children's development of greater awareness of the components in the finished texture.
In accordance with her position at the Institute, Jungmair seemed to adhere
closely to the Orff-Schulwerk principles. Most tutors of the seminar focused on
specific aspects of Schulwerk but Jungmair combined elements from every aspect. This is closely related to the fact that, Jungmair is a well-known Orff specialist who is often invited to other countries to give demonstrations reflecting
the full capacity of Schulwerk.
Jungmair supported every song with dance, theatrical play and even pictures
illuminating the song's story. However, the most memorable experience from
Jungmair's class, was an improvised dramatisation of a folk story which we
were asked to set to music. It was the age-old story of the man who was bitten
by the dog which was beaten by the stick which was burned by the fire which
was extinguished by the water which was drunk by the ox which was slaughtered by the butcher who was executed by the hangman who was killed by the
devil. Orff (1962) claimed that true folk texts are archetypes of art and they
should be included in education. The five original volumes of Schulwerk include many nursery rhymes, riddles and German folk songs but folk songs of
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other languages do not appear until the final volumes (Orff and Keetman,
1950-54). Orff's view was that a child should learn music as she or he learns a
language. Accordingly, the beginning has to be with the mother tongue.
Through an early exposure at home, children learn music as they would learn
their mother tongue.
7.3.4 Improvisation and communication

Demarmels was the type of teacher who talks a lot. He scarcely did anything
by himself. Basically, his talking was about the beginnings of elemental music
and how he himself discovered new aspects of it. He employed some threefeet-long wooden sticks in his class for, as he explained, wooden sticks were
the first companions of humans. Demarmels approached the elemental in music particularly using the dances of primitive peoples as a model. Highlighting
the importance of primitive dances, Gnther (1962) declared that, basically,
they are games of movement arranged rhythmically and dynamically into intervals.
The starting point was to find the balance point of the sticks, leave them for a
second and catch them again before they reach the floor. It seemed to be something simple but it put our reflexes to the test, especially when, instead of our
stick, we had to catch our partner's. Unexpectedly, this activity developed into
a play of mental communication. We had to transfer our thoughts to our partner by merely looking into his/her eyes and decide on a common action. In
the Orff sense, mental communication is an indispensable skill, as group activities and group improvisation, with or without instruments, and is the
norm. However, it seemed that the summer course as a whole placed special
emphasis on the development of communication skills. This particular lesson
proceeded in a instinctive manner and the only way for the achievement of a
synchronised movement was the attempted mental communication.
When we felt familiar with the sticks, we proceeded to more artistic endeavours. The first thing we all did, of course, was to use the sticks as weapons,
horses, brooms or whatever. However, Demarmels was not happy at all with
our improvisations and suggested that we should find new ways to use the
sticks. Discussing this reaction during the break, some participants complained that his actions did not coincide with his principles: "First he asks for
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free improvisation but when the results are not of his taste he introduces limits" they complained. When he was asked, Demarmels explained that it is part
of a teachers role, when necessary, to take leadership and put limits in order to
achieve the task of a lesson.
When we resumed the session, half of the class performed while the other half
watched carefully, because they knew that they would be asked to comment
on the result of the performance. Evaluating the results of a creative process
was part of the lesson. Demarmels believed that "critical evaluation of a work
of art should be carried out in a constructive manner without destroying the
child's creative spirit". He strongly criticised teachers who provide various
reasons for leaving out an objective view of creative processes. He suggested
that this reflection is necessary if the child is going to develop and not merely
continue to recreate similar works. Next, Demarmels asked us to move from
one side of the room to the other, involving the sticks in combination with
whole body movements and of course "using the sticks as sticks and our bodies as bodies". At the end when he asked for our comments, we all expressed
our surprise with the variety of ideas generated in just a few minutes.
Demarmels always emphasised communication. He asked us to improvise
situations in which we first laid on the floor and then began rising slowly in an
uninterrupted mental contact with our partners. Later, we repeated this activity starting from a sitting situation instead of lying on the floor. Actually, we
did not expect any advanced level of communication from people who we had
met just a day earlier, nevertheless, what we experienced was enough to
arouse questions regarding human relationships.
Demarmels was the teacher at the edges; he would have us lying on the floor
for two hours, in a patient examination of our internal world or running
around the room as fast as possible, increasing our tension to the maximum.
Constantly, he prompted us to observe everything that happened, aiming to
increase our awareness by elaborating his views on elemental music and the
basics of human interaction, with philosophical theories that he had discovered.
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7.3.5 Creativity in team work

Jungmair shared the leadership of the summer course with a competent young
musician from Germany. He had a talent for music and teaching and he did
not miss any opportunity to show it off. Notably, he was the only one using
the piano to accompany our dancing.
Beidinger was an expert in "delivering" a song to his students in such a way
that the whole process seemed very natural. The first song that we "built" following his instructions, was one by Nina Hagen, an eccentric German rock
singer. Later, we worked on a folk song using the same process. In the beginning, he invited us to dance to the beat of the folk song in question, which he
himself played on the bongo. After this, he initiated the words and while we
repeated them he prompted us to improvise movements related to the story.
Eventually, we learned the melody and the different parts of the song's accompaniment. When we were able to sing and play at the same time, we exchanged roles so that each one learned every part, including the dancing. Then
Beidinger gave us the score of the song so that we could see the parts that we
had already played. In this way the experience comes before the visual representation of music. Following the process of language acquisition, the children
learn to sing and play music before they encounter its written form.
A song often started merely with sound gestures and body percussion based
on a couple of steps forward and backward while we stood in a circle. After
the first attempts, we knew that the body percussion patterns that we learned
at the beginning were part of the song's complete arrangement. All these exercises came to be a great help when, soon after, we were asked to compose our
own songs. Beidinger gave us a long poem written on a piece of paper which
we had to set to music working in groups of five. While making our little
compositions we were free to use any instrument or material available, combining music, movement, theatre, even painting. Eventually, each group presented its work in such an order, that the whole class seemed to participate in
the same composition.
Beidinger had his method of helping us learn the lyrics of a song by heart. One
way was to lead us through the whole story of the song using pantomime; we
imitated every movement that he performed while singing or reciting the
134
words. Alternatively, he wrote the whole song on the blackboard and every
time we repeated it he erased a word. Through his teaching, Beidinger showed
us that even the most complicated Schulwerk arrangements could be learned
and played without the use of notation. Obviously, the Orff approach favours
the ear over learning notation. This stems from the belief that this is a more direct way of experiencing music (Dolloff, 1993). Nevertheless, Orff did not intend that students should not learn notation. Instead, notation should come as
a result of wanting to save and transmit musical creations.
7.3.6 The "elemental" in personal improvement

Deurer was an amiable person who stood by our side, ready to ease every discomfort we might feel. We were looking forward to her sessions because she
always began them with easy and relaxing activities. Each time she began with
a long period of lying down which lasted at least fifteen minutes during which
she explained what we were going to do. She used to ask us whether we were
tired or not and the answer was always: "yes"; we were tired. Being creative
hour after hour and day after day is not so easy, but some tutors were so preoccupied with the achievement of their tasks that they could not see it.
Deurer took advantage of our need for some rest and as we were lying down
she elaborated certain views related to her class's topic: How do we use our
energy? How do our relationships with classmates, friends and relatives
change in moving, speaking and miming? How can we use movement to come
to know our body and make better use of it?
Most of the activities that we came across in Deurer's sessions were at least
unexpected for a music class. Every day the first activity was to place a tennis
ball under our foot, squeeze it for ten minutes and then do the same with the
other foot. Next we had to spot an imaginary point in front of us, grasp it with
both our hands and pull it towards our body. According to Deurer, exercises
like these aimed to strengthen pupils' backs while directing their attention
away from it, which made things easier. A similar exercise was to pull or push
our partner using a stick or just our hands. Although, these practices seemed
to have little direct relevance to music, in time they helped us to control our
movements, irrespective of whether it concerned dancing or instrumental
playing.
135
Another task was to retain our balance as we walked over a row of ropes, balls
and planks which, later, became more difficult when we had to repeat it with
eyes closed. This seemingly irrelevant activity, according to Deurer, helped us
to develop a better sense of space and realise every little movement of our
limbs. Based on the same philosophy, we were asked to guide our partners
who strode blindfold by touching them softly on their shoulders.
The most popular of all activities was an endless massage that Deurer introduced to us. It took us about twenty minutes to apply the massage to our
partners, using small sticks or merely our hands. Then we changed roles and
the givers became receivers. By the end, we all felt more familiar with our
body and our partner's body which became obvious in all group activities that
followed. Deurer involved bodily contact and play-like activities in her teaching to activate the best of our locomotive skills. Her friendly and tranquil
manners were the best tools to achieve her goals and most participants in her
sessions felt that they benefited greatly from her teaching.
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7.4 Interviews with Schulwerk tutors

The following sections of this chapter are occupied with the interviews of the
three tutors of the Orff Institute. Their comments draw attention to many
technical and musical issues addressed in the literature review. They refer to
matters such as the teaching strategies chosen by the Orff teachers, the adaptation of Orff-Schulwerk in other countries, the alternatives to the Orff instrumentarium, the use of indigenous culture and some special problems of the
Greek adaptation. The quotations below are presented under the basic themes
that concerned our discussion.
Professor Herman Regner was a professor at the Orff Institute from 1964 to
1993 and nowadays he is its director emeritus. He is also executive director of
the Carl Orff Foundation since 1996 which sponsors projects relevant to OrffSchulwerk. He is the main creative force behind the American edition Music
for children whilst he holds lectures, seminars, articles and workshops worldwide.
Professor Barbara Haselbach was director of the Orff-Schulwerk Forum in
Salzburga non-profit organisation that aids the promotion of the Schulwerk
ideas on an international basis as it maintains contact with all Orff Schulwerk
Associations. Haselbach has also played an essential role in the activities of the
Orff Institute from its earliest years. She has presented papers and lectures
concerning Orff-Schulwerk throughout the world and is the author of many
books about the Schulwerk.
Professor Ulrike Jungmair is currently the vice-president of the Austrian OrffSchulwerk Association whilst she teaches at the Orff Institute in a number of
subject areas. She also teaches didactics of elemental music education at the
Musikhochschule in Vienna and she has given numerous international courses
and lectures.
All three interviewees played a vital role in the international spread of Orff
Schulwerk. Regner and Haselbach, in particular, were close collaborators of
Orff himself and therefore participants to the formulation of Orff Schulwerk
137
from the very beginning. Referring to Haselbach, Regner (1996) stated that
"the Orff Institute cannot be conceived without her" (p.1). What characterises
all three interviewees is their acquaintance with different cultures for they
worked and lectured with many people from around the world. What struck
me more during the interviews was their open-mindedness and their willingness to experiment. Primarily, they were teachers knowing how to combine
theory and practical work which was evident in their numerous publication of
books and articles on Orff-Schulwerk.
7.4.1 Interpreting the teaching of Schulwerk

Due to the practical character of the seminar there was no theoretical analysis
of Orff's ideas for those who might have been interested in such things. However, during our discussion Regner was keen to analyse in depth certain concepts of Schulwerk like the development of communicative skills, the connection between music, movement and language and the established sequence
imitation, improvisation, compositionwhich was literally followed by
Jungmair. Of course, Jungmair and Regner, being both members of the Institute for so many years, they had many experiences in common. Therefore,
talking about the basic Orff principles Regner underlined four points of
Schulwerk summarising in a way the teaching of Jungmair. Some words
"soil", "flowers"in his talking were clearly reminders of Orff himself.
Firstly, "Schulwerk" means not only playing the models [pieces from the original volumes] but also creating something. Improvising and composing is as important as
playing the models. They are starting points, they are the base and out of this soil
must come the flowers and the flowers are the improvisations and the compositions
of the children. Secondly, music is not a sitting occupation but music is always linked
to language, to dance and to other arts. Thirdly, music is not a thing which is divided
into practice and theory. Theory and practice follow each other. Sometimes the theoretical question is ahead, followed by practical exercises but more often the practical
need, to know more about the problem I have with my instrument, is followed by a
theoretical explication. So theory and practice belong together. Fourthly, you don't
make music alone but in a group of people. It is very seldom that we are alone sitting
in front of an instrument and play, which is also all right but normally, music means
communication and it means communication between music makers and it also
means communication between me as a doer and the receiver who is listening to my
playing.
As we discussed the problems of Schulwerk's adaptation, Regner stressed that

an emphasis must be placed on "the sickness of our timesthe isolation of the
mass media". Especially, he was concerned about countries like Germany,
England and the States where "people wear earphones and watch television
138
alone". Regner's words aroused questions regarding human relationships.

"People have all the information but they have no one to communicate it
with". The humanitarian side of Regner, as it reveals itself in this quotation,
brings together Demarmel and Jungmair for both these tutors emphasised the
aspect of communication in their teaching.
I think our children live in a world which suffers from isolation and therefore I think
that working together and listening to each other is important and becomes more and
more important in our times. I think music as a medium of non-verbal communication gets new weight, new importance in our times.
Beidinger was one of the tutors that had developed teaching techniques that
made music teaching to be a natural process. His teaching included movement
improvisation, part-singing, working in groups and combining music, movement, theatre, and painting. All these and some rather complicated Schulwerk
arrangements were learned and played without the use of notation.
During the interview Regner emphasised that although Schulwerk training for
children neglects notation in the beginning, it does not do so for teachers.
Teachers must know notation in order to prepare their lessons. In this extract
Regner used a simple and clear way to speak about notation through paradigms.
When you say to a child 'this improvisation was great' and you ask him to play it once
more and an octave higher or a fifth lower, he has played it three times. Now ask him
to try to write it down, so that he can remember it and next week make a piece of music out of it, then the child does not resist an introduction to notation. This is the right
moment, when the child wants to help the memory, then notation comes in and plays
a very important role.
Haselbach insists that children should learn to sing and play music before they
encounter its written form. She thinks that notation spoils children. Accordingly, her teaching is based on feelings and instincts. Haselbach's words come
to support Beidinger, a tutor of the course, who used notation merely as a
memory assistant.
Schulwerk works for a long time without notation to strengthen the child's memory;
to help him think and feel music not as little black points on a paper, arranged on
some lines but as a totality, a melody which he can feel, sing, play or dance. It was not
meant to neglect notation but before the child goes to notation, make all that musical
feeling and memory strong enough so it cannot be spoiled by notation.
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During our discussion about the fundamental Schulwerk elements, Haselbach

stressed the significance of helping each student to acquire a level of sensibility. This aspect came to support Deurer's teaching who aimed towards a thorough training of children. In her teaching Deurer took care of our body and
our soul and even our thoughts. She helped us to sense our body and the body
of our partner, this eventually would lead us to control our movements, irrespective of whether it concerned dancing or instrumental playing. In this extract Haselbach goes beyond a conventional music teaching and into the deepest goal of Orff-Schulwerk teaching.
Orff and his followers, namely people who cooperated or were inspired by him,
worked at "musiki" [the Greek word for music] as an educational goal and method
which is not just teaching songs or instrumental pieces or dances. The idea behind
what Orff said is "menschen buildung" which, translated, means not only educating
but also building people up, as a sculptor does. Schulwerk teaches social behaviour
and communication, it teaches awareness, it teaches sensibility, it teaches selfawareness and awareness of others and many many other things than just music.
'Elemental music', a term which Orff used in order to describe any music
made 'in a natural way', was a key issue during the discussion with the three
members of the Institute. In the following extract Jungmair tries to analyse this
term again and describe the nature of elemental music. The interpretation that
she gave to the word 'elemental' in a way explained the teaching strategies
which Yon had chosen. Also, she explained how Orff conceived the combination of music, movement and speech. Remarkably, Yon incorporated all these
features in his teaching although he was not an Orff teacher.
While discussing the basic Orff principles, Jungmair expanded to emphasise
the significance of our inherent music. She considered it to be very important
that everyone can find the music that he or she hides inside his or herself: "you
should not learn the music of another person or a composer before you have
found your own music deep inside." Speaking in a characteristic casual way in
this quotation she stresses every word manifesting her deep belief in OrffSchulwerk.
Music starts inside the human being and in the first volume of Schulwerk, Orff says
'Elemental music is always combined with speech and movement', so I asked myself:
"what is this combination, does it mean that you are dancing and I do the music or
does it mean that someone else is speaking and you make music and I dance or you
have a tape recorder and you dance yourself?" Well, Orff meant that you have your
own movement your own rhythm pattern, not as a [she sings] "ta ta ra ta ta ra" but as
a pulse and your pulse gives you your individual wave-length. You have an individ
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ual rhythm pattern, there is movement inside you that whenever you speak you
speak in that pattern, whenever you dance you create dance from your inside movement, whenever you improvise music it comes from that movement inside. Everything starts from the movement inside and it is you and yourself that comes out in
speech, in music, in dance.
Apart from the integration of music, movement and speech the Schulwerk
philosophy supports the combination of various senses. At a point when the
discussion was about the fundamental elements of Schulwerk, Jungmair
talked about "working with all the senses" and "learning from each other".
Jungmair herself integrated in her teaching the exploration of various senses.
However, she did it in a much different way than Underholzer. Underholzer
used the exploration of the senses in order to help us realise the connection between music teaching and a child's world. Jungmair used to quote great authors in her talking like the philosopher Keller that is mentioned in this extract.
The anthropologist, philosopher Almund Keller says: "go through all senses". When I
play an instrument I should sing what I have played, I should dance what I have
sung, I should draw what I have danced, I should make music, of what I have drawn,
go through all senses and start again. Go through your emotions and your feelings
and your paintings, try to get the whole body not only the head.
Orff's ideas about music education and children's musical development have
often been characterised as being affected by Pestalozzi's ideas. As Schulwerk
begins with sensual experiences of music which gradually develop into conceptual knowledge of forms, it fits very well into the developmental theories
as proposed by Pestalozzi (Dolloff, 1993). In Schulwerk children experience
the sound of words and the sense of rhythm through their visual and tactile
senses; all these using play which Orff considered as reflecting the early stages
in the development of humankind (Orff, 1962).
Jungmair had a philosophical and humanitarian touch in her talking which
was evident even when she tried to explain Orff's ideas. At a moment when
we discussed a possible translation of the original Schulwerk volumes, Jungmair said that Orff wanted every Schulwerk publication to start from the culture of the country concerned. She believed that people in every culture could
sing and dance if they had the opportunity to do so. In this aspect she coincided with Demarmels who spent a part of every lesson to help us communicate through music.
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Orff's pedagogical idea was that you are able to bring forth your own creative ideas.
He said that people are the same all over the world, they all have creative ability, they
can sing, they can dance, but in many cultures it is gone now. So I think he expected
people to rediscover their abilities.
7.4.2 The adaptation of Schulwerk

The Orff-Institute is the starting point for every music teacher willing to have
a first-hand experience of Orff-Schulwerk. Many of them who have been introduced to Schulwerk are encouraged by the Institute to spend a year or
more of study in Salzburg to experience the original model and to formulate
ideas for transfer and adaptation. In many instances this has been a decisive
experience both for these individuals and for the continuing development of
Schulwerk in their home cultures. The Institute provides every individual or
group of teachers interested in promoting Schulwerk with every possible aid.
The beginning of each Schulwerk adaptation has a special significance because
as Regner said, "Schulwerk is something that is not exactly defined and can be
misused and misunderstood".
It was still the beginning of the interview with Regner discussing the transplantation of Orff-Schulwerk, in general. He defended the Institute's policy to
maintain a neutral posture in the development of Schulwerk abroad. "In the
last thirty years there have been centres built up in different parts of the world
which now develop the Schulwerk ideas without the permanent contact to
Salzburg or to Orff himself or his followers." Regner continued reciting examples of countries like Australia, Japan and China where appears to be a growing interest in Orff-Schulwerk. Countries like Philippines, Thailand and other
Southeastern counties which send students to the Orff-Institute and "they ask
questions and they develop what they understand and what they have got in
summer courses".
Regner was concerned with cases of East European countries which had lived
behind the iron curtain and now, after the unification, they display an increasing demand for information. He mentioned teachers from many countries
Czech republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Rumania requesting the assistance of the Institute. Later, our discussion shifted to the most successful adaptations like the one in the United States which is always mentioned as an outstanding example.
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In America, for instance, we have such a big association; they have eight thousand
people and they have such excellent teachers. They have so many conservatories and
universities and colleges working in this field of music education, that they develop
these ideas in a specific way which is good for the inhabitants of America.
According to Regner, Orff knew people from England, Canada and Denmark
who had a competence, not as translators but as music educators and "they
did not translate, they used their own cultural base for it and Orff was interested in a specific country's musical idiom". At that time, Bartok and Kodly
had already been working in the same direction and they knew very well how
to discover the old tradition. However, as Regner admitted, the most successful cases of Schulwerk adaptations were those of western countries, while the
least successful ones were those of some Far East countries. "We cannot control the development of Schulwerk ideas in Thailand. This is not our task. It
has to be proved whether it works in Thailand or not and when it does not, we
are not disappointed." From the results of her research in Asian countries
Shamrock (1988) reported that "the Thai music educators who support Schulwerk, do so in the context of western musical tradition with certain features of
Thai music comfortably integrated" (p. 246).
Orff used to examine every case of adaptation very carefully and with the assistance of his colleagues to decide what should be done. After Orff, his relatives and partners took over all these duties. Being one of them, Regner knew
in detail the changes that followed Orff's death.
Frau Liselotte Orff, Orff's widow, has the right to follow him and his ideas and she
delegates of course to other people who know about Schulwerk. The publishers, like
the house in Schott Mains who accompanied Orff-Schulwerk from the very beginning, may also ask them [music educators who work on a Schulwerk publication]
questions and decide it together.
Regner remembered the impact of the first request to use Schulwerk abroad
"when an English lady came and said I would like to use it in England and
Orff said well, you cannot use it because it's Bavarian; you have to use your
own English ideas". Orff himself cooperated in certain cases of Schulwerk's
adaptation in other countries.
All three people who were interviewed knew about the case of Czechoslovakia which was the first non-western culture using Orff-Schulwerk success
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fully. Regner himself was working in the Institute when Orff received a longplaying record from Czechoslovakia.
It was in the sixties' here in Salzburg. Orff had a record from Czechoslovakia and
wefive or six teachers of the Orff institutehad listened to it and we had seen that
in the first book, that came out with a record, they used not one piece by Orff and
Keetman. The first moment Orff was a bit upset "they use Orff-Schulwerk, they do not
use our pieces". But at the end he said "it is very different but it is very good". This
was his conclusion. Two very famous Czech composers made that transposition. They
had style, they had taste, they had very good roots, they had advice from educators
and it was very well made. They made everything from the very beginning because
they said "our language is different, our rhythm is different".
Many years after the first successful Schulwerk adaptations Regner summarised his experiences in the field and cooperated with some eminent American
educators to create the 1982 American edition of which he felt proud.
The American edition is actually the first edition with a different style and a new
pedagogical position. We know that it is not good for the teachers to have a hundred
patterns for clapping and a footnote at the end saying "use these one hundred examples not one after the other but together" and so on. So, I made one body, writing together four clapping patterns and then a melody with the accompaniment and I said
"there you can dance", but also "this is the way you will dance". I also made suggestions for teaching because the original Orff-Schulwerk gives no explanations for the
teaching but only materials.
Discussing the issue of adaptation, Haselbach explained that there was not
such an issue as Orff-Schulwerk exportation but instead "people from other
countries and cultures came to Orff, they heard what he did with Schulwerk
and said they would like to import it". As an example Haselbach referred to
China and Taiwan saying "from these countries many students are coming to
the Institute so I suppose the interest at this instance, in these countries is a
very strong one ".
One of the very first things we say here at the Institute is that Schulwerk isn't to be
imported or exported, they [music teachers] have to adapt or work it out for their
country, for their culture. It has to be adapted to their culture, to their background
and we can't do it; must be a member of that culture, educated in that whatever different system. We give them help and we give them hints but we can't do it for them.
All three interviewees appear to agree on this issue, those interested in OrffSchulwerk should build it up by themselves and adjust it to their own culture.
However, the need for adaptation to other countries was so extensive, that
Orff himself was surprised. Haselbach claimed that this was inevitable for
"Orff himself had to learn this cultural change; our experience of intercultural
change is not that old, I think these things happened within the last ten twenty
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years". Later, discussing the would-be translator's competence, Haselbach said

that Orff did not accept anybody he didn't know and whose musical qualifications he didn't know. "Translator probably is not quite the right word because
translating would mean to put the same thing in an another language but of
course this was probably the way it was done the first time because they didn't
know it [Orff-Schulwerk]."
In a way Haselbach admitted that the first attempts of Orff-Schulwerk's adaptation, like the first English version, was more or less a translation. "Much
later, music educators realised that they had to look for examples, similar to
the German ones, using pentatonic scales or modes and what ever material existed in their country." However, Haselbach found the cultural difference between Austria and England to be less than that between Austria and Greece
for as she said "in Greece starts the orient and the other systems" and probably
she meant the use of modes and Arabic macams in the Greek music system.
Commencing our discussion, Jungmair went back to the fifties when OrffSchulwerk was created, to remind us that "it is not modern, and Orff himself
used to say that he never wanted to be modern". Jungmair criticised those who
say "I do Orff-Schulwerk" while they merely use the pieces from the original
volumes and those who do not use it because they think that "Orff-Schulwerk
is a very old thing". Jungmair defended Orff's decision to write the OrffSchulwerk volumes despite the later misuse they had from those who ignored
his ideas.
You have to see the pieces of the original volumes as a model, you can change it, you
can use it like model you can study it and you can exercise with it. Anyway, Orff's
thoughts were not just to play it. I think his Schulwerk cannot be understood as a
ready piece, a ready work. So there are exercises, pieces, ideas, rhythms and you have
to make something of it. You have to take it and try to assimilate it and then change it
so that you can work with it.
Compared to the other two interviewees Jungmair was more open in discussing the issue of Orff-Schulwerk's dissemination for as she said "the transportation of the pedagogical idea is still going on". Jungmair had constant communication with music teachers from abroad most of whom she met during the
seminar courses. She sounded very satisfied from the fact that many young
people were coming to the Institute "asking questions and looking for ideas"
while the previous years they only "wanted new songs and new material to
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work with". So I asked her to share with me her experiences from people who
applied Orff's ideas in their country and particularly in Czechoslovakia.
I've just been in Czechoslovakia and . . . of course, Czechoslovakia and all eastern
countries were cut of from western Europe. There were only a few people who
worked in a modern way because of the political situation. Orff's ideas were not
really transported into this country because everything was like this [she gestures
'censored']. Now, I think they start but there is the problem of going from one generation to the other. There are some young people who want to work with OrffSchulwerk and there is the old generation that had always been working without
Orff-Schulwerk and they do not accept the younger ones.
Nevertheless, many versions followed which did not avoid the mistakes of
Murray's version. Jungmairdirector of the summer seminarknew Orff
personally and having Thomas Wernera close partner of Orff to supervise
her doctoral work, she was well-versed in the issues of adaptations.
Orff never really wanted to have Orff-Schulwerk translated and he was not very
happy with the Japanese solution. In some countries there are people who tried to
catch the idea and start in their own way. In Czechoslovakia for instance, Pavlov Juncoviz has just published a new book which I think is complete Czech.
7.4.3 Instrumentarium
A main concern in employing Orff-Schulwerk in the teaching of indigenous
music is the use of the Orff instrumentarium. The tone colour of xylophones
and glockenspiels strikes so odd in some ears. Their sound is usually associated with Far East countries like Indonesia and Malaysia. Regner opposed the
use of these instruments in countries where "they do not belong". "I think that
neither the books nor the instruments which are linked to Orff-Schulwerk can
be used in other parts of the world but only the pedagogical idea which is behind these material". When Regner was asked to comment on the possibility of
an instrumentarium that would not use any of the Orff instruments he was reassuring that Orff-Schulwerk could exist without its instrumentarium.
Orff-Schulwerk made its first steps with the aid of the Orff instruments, but in different cultures we see that some times this instrumentarium hinders evolution. So these
instruments should be left where they belong. In Indonesia, Japan and some parts of
Europe there has been a certain historical use of these instruments but Orff-Schulwerk
does not have to sound like xylophones.
Later, our discussion became more specific, addressing issues like the read
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justment of basic principles and the use of instruments according to the needs
of each culture. Regner recited examples of countries in which the Orff instruments had been replaced by instruments of indigenous origin. "In Indonesia they play bamboo instruments. Most times there is a mixture of Orff instruments and oriental instruments or instruments and voice, which is a characteristic of Orff-Schulwerk."
Every country should use its own folk instruments. The world-wide popular
Orff instrumentarium, which usually is the first thing to be "imported" in
every Schulwerk adaptation, is something exchangeable. Once again, indicating that he was aware of the situation in Greece, Regner made suggestions for
a possible use of Greek popular instruments.
When in a class of fourteen year-olds you have some children who play the bouzouki
and some who play another popular instrument, then, of course, you can use them.
You can use Schulwerk ideas to use these instruments, for instance in dancing, speaking, music making or to accompany a puppet theatre. You can, of course, improvise
and compose, these are the ideas and the principles that can be brought to a different
world.
Haselbach when interviewed, agreed with Regner adding: "It's ridiculous to

use the metallophone in Africa for a song which would be accompanied by
some type of xylophone". Then she continued to explain the deeper reasons
that made melodic percussion instruments to be of great importance to
Schulwerk. "These instruments can be learnt in a relatively short time; you
don't need individual study for years and years, cut off from other musicians
as in the case of the piano, the violin or the cello."
The discussion with Haselbach extended to the African xylophones that are
made by the same people who actually play them and then the issue of instrument making surfaced which is related to the Orff instrumentarium.
I think you can make Orff-Schulwerk with things you can find outdoors, like sticks,
bricks, keys and whatever. There is no need to be a formal instrument of a certain
type. Some colleagues here build instruments, new instruments from rubbish and
they do the most lovely music from these instruments. So if you are a creative person
you can use your creativity to invent your own instruments or you can use those
instruments that you already have or you can even use instruments from the symphonic orchestra. I think it does not depend so much on the kind of instrument as
long as it fulfils three questions: to be not too difficult to be learned, to be playable in
a group and to let you sing alongside.
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Haselbach insisted that the instruments were absolutely exchangeable for as

she said "the instruments of another culture are other instruments". Working
for so many years with Orff, she was convinced that he could easily have
adopted other instruments instead of the xylophone. This is a very important
issue for the high cost of the Orff instruments is a barrier for countries, schools
and music teachers who would like to use Schulwerk.
It is not absolutely necessary to have these expensive instruments. You can do OrffSchulwerk with body percussion; you can work for along time and you can have
many many experiences of music and dance, just using voice, movement and body
percussion. This costs nothing because it is yours. Then you can make your own instruments. Some people think that if you don't use Studio 49 instruments then it's not
Orff-Schulwerk but I see Orff-Schulwerk in a wider context, in a wider view.
Jungmair revealed that Orff had a special affinity towards rhythmic and melodic percussion instruments. He used them to help his students understand
the rhythmic pulse and feel the pentatonic scale. Also, he used them to prepare his students before an improvisation activity. According to Jungmair,
Orff preferred vocal improvisations to be preceded by instrumental improvisations. Percussion instruments were "a medium to bring someone's own music forth".
In her lessons Jungmair used many drums of various sizes. She used them as a
starting activity for "you can play them without much thinking, at least at the
beginning", but she also used them because "the sound of these instruments
could bring out your movement" and finally because "I think this is Orff's
way", as she used to say .
First was the drum and then the big gongs, timpani and everything that you can feel
here on your stomach. Now, we use as pedagogical instruments tiny little drums
which are not really the instruments that Orff wanted. Orff would never use such
small hand drums, he had big drums like this (she demonstrates the size with her
hands) and they went phaaaa.
7.4.4 Indigenous culture

Regner believed that it is the duty of music educators and teachers in general,
to resist and "work against the mixture of cultures". Nevertheless, he believed
that there are many benefits when people come together and "we learn a lot
from each other when Greeks study in England and Austrians in Greece and
Japanese come to summer courses in Salzburg". His philosophy was that "we
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have to know all: old Greek music, rock music, classical music, Nikos Skalkotas and other Greek composers, etc.". These ideas are even more relevant today, bearing in mind the cultural agitations taking place in Greece after the recent influx of refugees from east Europe and the Balkans. Thus apart from the
diverse musics coming from different areas of Greece children also will have
to come to terms with musics from different countries. On the other hand the
children coming to Greece from other countries need some special care on behalf of their teachers in order to conciliate the musics that they bring from
their families with the new musics of the Greek community where they live
now.
Regner acknowledged that "it is a very difficult task to explain to the children
that there are other musics apart from rock music". However, he protested that
"it is our job and we must not do it through preaching but we should take our
bongos and congas and make some 'ba tu lu tu lu lu' and play rock music or
some kind of lively music".
We should lead children to a musical dialog through examples and then tell them
'look here, this music is Orff-Schulwerk but it also appears in a symphony by Haydn .
. . the oboe plays "tu, lu, tu, lu, lu" and the clarinet answers "ta, ta, la, la, pi, tam, tam"'.
So we take out several musical idioms that we find most necessary to make children
love this music even more.
Regner was also very concerned with music teachers who returned to their
countries after attending a seminar at the Orff-Institute and neglected to replace the teaching material presented at the Institute with material from their
own culture. He insisted that every music lesson should be based on material
from the indigenous culture music, language, expressions.
The pieces of the original volumes are models and nothing else, they are not sacred,
they are not untouchable, they are something to work with and you can adopt other
models instead of them and you can invent your own pieces, your own songs, your
own rhythms, your own accompaniments; they are just models.
When I mentioned Regner's words to Haselbach she remembered a time

some twenty years agowhen Regner taught in Brazil for several months and
he published a little booklet: "Brazilian songs". In that publication he used
every type of Brazilian percussion instruments. Haselbach supported the view
of an expanded, mixed instrumentarium which would include the indigenous
musical instruments of each country in which Orff-Schulwerk is used.
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It depends on where Orff-Schulwerk is used. In China and Japan they use a lot of
bells big and small and varied types of percussion. Also some of the supplements of
the American Orff-Schulwerk edition and "RRRRRO"a recent Greek supplement
use some indigenous instruments but also xylophones and other instruments.
Language particularly, as directly related to folk songs and children's first experiences, demands a careful handling in any Schulwerk adaptation. To show
the significance of this issue, Haselbach mentioned the problems she faces
when she teaches in schools abroad.
Being abroad and teaching in other countries, I am always very afraid to teach children. I can make myself understood in English, I can make myself understood in
Spanish but, of course, the accent and the flow of my language are so different that it
would be disturbing for the children because they are not familiar with them.
Haselbach spoke about an "impoverishment of culture" when teachers choose

their materials from "what is in fashion". Haselbach is a person who admires
the richness of her own culture but also the richness of other cultures and she
considers that a possible westernisation of these cultures would be a terrible
mistake.
That would be the end of the culture. The influence of the western culture is very
strong and, of course, there is a certain interest especially by adolescents because if
they are interested in others' or in their own old culture depends on how it is offered
to them. The motivation must be very strong, which reminds all us teachers to find a
way to attract their interest to Socrates or Fidias or what ever.
As a solution, Haselbach suggested that teachers should teach in a context "not

a song, not a tempo, not a few lines from an ancient tragedy but in a context so
that children understand the life of those people of that other culture". When
she was asked to explain why the model presented in introductory Schulwerk
workshops is always the western form Haselbach mentioned the case of Edward Gillespie; a black music educator and a leading Orff tutor in the United
States.
He studied music in the western way, but as he belonged to another culture, he had
also experienced black music, the way of making black music and the heritage of
black music. Those who came in connection with other cultures themselves, who, like
Gillespie, studied intensively the music or dance of other cultures, I think these people are not so much bound up with the Western way of teaching; it's a question of experience.
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7.4.6 The Greek adaptation

A salient point of the interview with Regner was discussing the problems of
the Greek adaptation in relation to the western model presented in introductory Schulwerk workshops. Regner attributed most of the problems to the
students who go to the Institute having some piano training or some classical
music experiences. As he said, the western form of music is the world wide
known language. However, he defended the Institute's policy saying "I cannot
introduce them with their country's musical idiom, I can only use mine but
they should use their own and not mine". As we continued our conversation,
Regner emphasised the importance of a proper adaptation. "You can take the
teaching, take the way of teaching, take the perfect method, the sequence, take
all this but change the way of singing."
I remember when I was teaching in Athens. I had a text, an old Greek text, I think it
was Heraclitus, such a small fragment. We spoke it and they [students] talked about it
in Greek and they interpreted it for me and we tried to make a melody out of this
speech. Of course, this melody was very Greek; I don't give them any tones, I give
them only the inspiration and let them sing . . . then what comes out is Greek and
Japanese.
As an example of music teachers utilizing their country's indigenous music in

the teaching of Schulwerk, Regner mentioned the case of the Moraitis school.
He considered that a Greek version of Orff-Schulwerk is already developed by
music teachers who work at the Moraitis school. Particularly, he mentioned
Zaropoulou, who taught dance and drama using Greek material and a man
(he could not remember the name) who used old Greek puppets accompanied
by original Greek instruments.
As the issue of a Greek edition of Orff-Schulwerk surfaced again, I could not
help asking him to guess the reply of the Institute to a likely request by
Mathy to make a Greek version of Orff-Schulwerk.
Five or six years ago I was in Athens and I asked Polyxeni [Mathy] to bring out a
new book and she said to me 'Regner do you really think I can do that?' and I had to
motivate her together with Angelica Slavik to publish this new book called
"RRRRRO". They made it and I think it is a very good contribution to education. It includes texts from Greek history and mythology and from poets who are still alive.
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152
According to Regner, nowadays, the need for appropriate music teaching is

more important than before for "the mass media change the minds of the children and make them to want to sing, to dance, to listen to music". Regner expressed his will to see a group of Greek music teachers working together to
find age-appropriate material for use in Greek schools. He thought that, the
Schulwerk material included in the existed books for children between six and
ten is not appropriate.
In the very first booklets by Polyxeni Mathy some arrangements hinder the development of the voice; that's true (Fig. 7.6). Therefore, in the future we have to think
that the voice must develop in its own way. The accompaniment must make a ground
like a drone, a bordun or some rhythmic accompaniment and leave the melody alone.
And if the recorder does not play the melody of the voice, things will be much easier.
The main issue, in any attempted Greek adaptation of Orff-Schulwerk, is the

special nature of Greek music and Greek language. Greek music is not structured in the modern harmonic way. Regner believed that Greek music is closer
to Schulwerk than the modern music which is more complicated. Also, he insisted that "a child could handle much easier a drone and one or two melodies
than the difficulties of the harmonic structure of a western music".
Towards the end of our discussion Regner introduced the idea of regional
song collections but "not in a form of a Greek edition but in smaller booklets
that show the whole variety and diversity of the Greek tradition".
A Greek version of Schulwerk should have at least two or three or four ethnic emphases because the roots of Thessaloniki are very different from those of Santorini or
Athens. So, I think there should be not one Greek version but a collection of small
booklets which represent the ethnic speciality of every region and show the whole variety and diversity of the Greek tradition.
Although Greek music is so close to Orff-Schulwerk, thirty years after OrffSchulwerk was first introduced to Greece, there is no Greek version of it.
Haselbach attributed it to some degree, to a lack of cooperation among Greek
Orff teachers. As she spoke about the case of the Greek adaptation, she examined the facts but she was very careful in her criticism of Mathy's work.
In Greece, as elsewhere, they made a lot of errors at the beginning, always the same
errors. When a group from a country comes [to Salzburg], they don't come all together but year after year, one or two and three and after a while there is a group of
people in a foreign country. They start working and they are probably very different
in themselves. Some are more inclined to do it [Schulwerk adaptation] the western
way, others have learned from us that it is most necessary to go back to their own cul
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ture, their rules of language, of poetry, of movement, of dance, of play, of tales, of

music, of musical terms, of melody, of instruments, of harmony, of rhythm and whatever they have and to built it up by themselves. With Polyxeni [Mathy] Greece had a
wonderful start, even if a slow one, I think she understood Orff's intentions in depth.
She probably stayed a little bit closer to the original version than younger people who
need to explore or to experiment or to look how the idea of Schulwerk can, for instance, be combined with oral music. I don't necessarily mean rock music but music of
our times. Mathy did a lot, helped a lot, and she is still helping.
Later, Haselbach talked about the accent of the Greek language and its difference to the German one. "The Greek language doesn't have the accent of the
German language, it only has the length and shortness and that's different and
therefore, rhythm examples given in German language are very unfamiliar to
you [Greeks] and vise versa." Accordingly, she advised that Greek music
teaching should consider this difference when they do speech exercises.
Jungmair had repeatedly stated that Regner and Haselbach were better informed on issues of Orff-Schulwerk's adaptation. However, as a tutor she had
visited Athens many times and she had an insight of the Greek OrffSchulwerk. Jungmair believed that "it is wrong to teach the German songs into
another country but teachers should adapt Schulwerk". As an example, she
mentioned Slavik who had studied at the Institute, then she learned the Greek
language and the songs and now she lives and teaches in Greece.
Recently, I went to Athens for a seminar, there I tried to work on the pedagogical idea
first and not on the material. I tried to find rhythms and other material like a poem, a
picture to show the use of the Greek language. They [the students] did lovely things
but I can't use the Greek material, I 'm sure I use it in the wrong way.
7.5 Summary
This chapter has reported the data collected by means of interviews with three
members of the Orff-Institute together with the initial stage of analysis of observational data from the seminar lessons. This stage of analysis aimed to establish as comprehensive an understanding of Schulwerk as possible before
the next stage of analysis is undertaken. Findings grounded in the data reported so far, suggested that there were some principles that were followed by
most tutors:
Theory always follows practice.

Active participation is a presupposition from the very first steps of music learning.
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Music making in groups is preferable to any individual music playing.
In every music making, dance and speech activity, students learn to follow their individual internal rhythmic pattern.
Throughout musical activities, students are encouraged to employ as

many senses as possible.
Special emphasis is placed on establishing a non-verbalmental

communication between students.
Apart from music Schulwerk also teaches behaviour, communication,

self awareness and sensibility.
Music is always linked to language, dance and other arts; to life itself.
Creative music making is not the reproduction of music pieces, but basically, activities of improvisation and composition.
Children learn to play music from memory and by ear before they use
notation to write down their own compositions.

Elemental use of speech.
The role of the teacher is to make himself or herself superfluous.
In summary, the interview findings confirmed that the Orff instrumentarium

and the pieces of the original Orff-Schulwerk volumes had to be adapted
while the unity of music, language and movement had to remain constant. The
issue of what principles can be adapted and what principles must remain constant is thoroughly discussed in the final chapter (see Section 12.1). The use of
instruments is also characteristic of the Orff-Schulwerk approach. However, it
is preferable that these instruments originate from the country where Schulwerk is used.
All interviewees agreed to the exchangeability of Orff instruments. Moreover,
given the fact that Orff-Schulwerk is so closely related to language by means
of speech patterns, rhymes and so on, the adaptation and not merely the exploration of Orff-Schulwerk is imperative. As far as Greece is concerned, both
Regner and Haselbach admitted that Mathy's publications have flaws, such
as her adherence to the original version or the prevalence of instruments that
inhibit the voice.
It would appear that the evidence presented in this chapter, in relation to
characteristics of Orff-Schulwerk teaching presented in Chapter 3, supports
the suggestion that music teaching does not necessarily have to meet all the
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needs of folk music. Notwithstanding, special care must be taken so that the
arrangements of songs do not hinder the development of their melody. Although the musical examples used in the classroom, derive from the entire
spectrum of music, the local cultural idiom of each area must be also incorporated in the teaching. In addition, it was proposed that special song collections,
from every region of Greece possessing a special musical idiom, should be regarded as priority.
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8.1 The setting

This private dance school is a three-storey modern building sited in Marousi,
a northern suburb of Athens; an area occupied by well-designed villas with
private pools and large gardens. Notably, the majority of the residents are
wealthy people. Within this context, a private dance school like this was welljustified. The classroom in which the observations took place was comfortably
large, with a sprung wooden floor which allowed for various arrangements of
instruments and open space. There was no kind of decoration and the bare
white walls echoed every sound produced in the room. However, one side of
the long walls hosted two conches painted in dark colours. There was an
abundance of instruments: a variety of unpitched instruments, a portable electronic keyboard, which was never used during the observed lessons, and 28
pitched Orff instrumentsmostly xylophones(see Table 11.1). There were
sufficient instruments for every child in the class, and these were usually kept
in low wooden boxes in one corner of the room. The children played the instruments in that location, especially when different instrumental parts were
used, whilst the rest of the room was left empty for movement and dance. A
stereo record player was placed on the floor next to the entrance.
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The school offered classes in dance and Orff-Schulwerk for adults and children who attended two lessons per week. The first was clearly a dance lesson,
while the second was largely made-up of Orff-Schulwerk activities preceded
by a short warm-up of gymnastics. According to the teacher, the children usually attended this school only for three or four years, either because the children did not like it any more or because their parents considered this as a side
occupation worthy only as short-term experience. However, of all three
schools, it was the only one in which Orff-Schulwerk had been taught systematically for many years.
8.2 The teacher

Matina, the music teacher, felt quite at ease being observed because she often
had student teachers observing her classes. She was an active Schulwerk specialist throughout Greece at local and national level, including presentations
in Salonica and Crete but also in Salzburg where she attended every Schulwerk summer course. Matina was introduced to Orff-Schulwerk in her childhood because her father was an Orff teacher himself. Therefore, even though
she was not a musician but a dancer, she was remarkably competent in handling all Orff instruments. She graduated from the National School of Dance
and attended several seminars with Mattox in Paris. Since 1984, she had
taught dance and Orff-Schulwerk in her own school in Athens. She was considered to be a leader of the Greek Orff-Schulwerk movement and this was the
reason that she was chosen to be the first contact for the fieldwork.
Matina adopted a relaxed but decisive teaching style. She had a parental attitude towards the children, smiling most of the time and instructed them in a
somewhat singing voice. She also had a characteristic way of addressing the
children with made-up rhymes. Even though she was uncompromising with
discipline matters, the children loved her and wanted to imitate her. She
walked and gestured like a ballet dancer even when she moved to the stereo
to replace a disc. She enjoyed demonstrating each new movement that she
suggested to the children in ways which reflected her training as a dancer.
However, by demonstrating each new movement pattern, she chose the easier
route towards a polished performance restricting the children to sheer imitation. According to Matina, scheduled performances helped in the best way to
encourage the children to work hard: "Children's mentality demands a certain
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goal in order to operate in a productive way". Notably, at least three times a

year she invited the parents to attend lessons which had been prepared to be a
kind of performance. Notwithstanding, performances were a key issue in a
dance school like this and one should not forget that Matina was the Manager
of the school as well.
In most of the observed lessons, Matina entered the classroom holding a certain number of CDs and audio tapes which indicated a minimum of preparation and lesson planning. She spent one or two minutes arranging her teaching material and reading her notebook and when she stepped to the middle of
the classroom to start the lesson, she usually had the stereo's remote control in
her hand. Matina was undoubtly an experienced teacher, however, it was evident that she had taught the same lesson many times in the past.
8.3 The children

In her class, Matina had sixteen girls aged seven to nine, dressed in tights and
leotardsMatina herself rarely wore leotards but preferred tights. Only from
the way they moved and walked, one could tell that they were Matina's students. They usually came before the starting time because they knew that the
room was free and they could play some children's games with their friends.
When Matina entered the room, the children rushed to replace everything that
had been removed; an indication of obedience, good manners and respect towards their teacher. During the lesson, they attended very carefully and they
rarely interrupted her. They enjoyed all movement activities, struggling to
imitate Matina's style whilst they seemed less enthusiastic for instrument
playing.
Arising from the study of the discussions with the children it is interesting to
note that twelve children found Schulwerk activities difficult, even though
this was their third year in the school. Most of the children had a brother or
sister who played an instrument and would occasionally help them to play a
tune; nine of them indicated they had formal training on an instrument and
this reflects of their social background. However, their experiences were not
so wide; only three of the children had attended a symphony concert and one
of them a ballet. In this section three children were chosen to be presented in a
more analytical fashion. Chloi, Stella and Mariangela distinguished among the
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others for they all participated energetically in most of the activities and volunteered their opinions either when they were asked or not.
Chloi's parents were co-founders of a growing medical firm, both with advanced degrees in the medical sciences. Chloi spoke with insightful observations that distinguished her from other children of her age.
I like the music class here. We do dancing in a really joyful kind of way with grownups' music. Grown-up music is probably harder to listen to, because you are supposed to sit there and not move. But some kids' music is pretty silly.
Stella was new that year to the school, having moved from a big city of the
Southern Greece. Her mother, a fourteen-year-old sister, and herself moved in
the area when her father, an economist, moved to Thessaloniki for a two-year
consultancy. She was small and graceful with her brown hair arranged in
many braided rows across the top of her head.
I like singing and dancing. I have a low voice, but I sing and dance a lot at home.
Usually, my sister is doing her homework, and she likes to play music while she
works. I might be reading or playing with my puppy or something, and then slowly, I
start getting into the CDs my sister is playing.
Mariangela did not live in the school's affluent neighbourhood but was
dropped off by her parents, who had selected this school for its reputation as a
centre for creative dancing. Her father was a technician at one of the area's
hospitals, and her mother was a civil engineer. She was explaining that her
name is Italian, because her dad and mum were born there, and she was
proud to note that she had lived in Italy for ten days. Mariangela volunteered
information relevant to her musical life and she seemed almost to anticipate
some of my questions.
They have a lot of music in Italy. There's lots of lights, food, and music. People listen
to music, and then they eat. We sing and play at our weekly visits to the church each
week. But there is this one very big instrument in Italy where there are many tubes
and can hear the music loudly. We do not have that here. But my dad used to play it
when he was young. I have tried it, too.
Her reference was to the church organ.
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8.4 The teaching material

Matina followed a carefully-planned programme for the development of the
children's kinaesthetic dexterity which was confined only due to time limitations. Usually, each lesson was based on two or three activities. During the
observed lessons there was always time at the end of the lesson which was
devoted to xylophone playing. A good amount of time was spent in dancing,
for officially the school was a dancing school. The recordings used for these
exercises were usually of a lively tempo originating from the ethnic music of
the Balkans or American Jazz music. The activities were a mixture of gymnastics, aerobics and ballet, which, as Matina explained, aimed at correcting any
incorrect postures that the children had developed earlier. The material used
in the Orff-Schulwerk activities basically originated from the Greek tradition.
Songs, customs, children rhymes and ancient sayings were used as a core for
activities which more or less were planned in advance. Usually, Matina introduced the song or the rhyme to the children before asking them to accompany
it with instruments or movements. The most common sequence in her class
was: speech or singing activities, movement or
dancing activities and instrument playing activities
(xylophones or small percussion instruments).
8.5 Schulwerk practices

The excerpts of the observations that were selected
to be presented in the following sections are lessons
or parts of lessons following a chronological order.
Each subchapter analyses one or more activities of a
lesson which, nevertheless, have some common
educative objectives.
8.5.1 Movement improvisation in 9/8first lesson

Some kind of movement is included almost in any
activity, even in instrumental playing activities or
singing.
Sometimes,
the
children
worked
enthusiastically, making up their own movements

and dramatic expressions to accompany a song or a
story. More often though, the children moved and
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acted out the words of songs imitating Matina. Usually, she demonstrated a
technically-polished exercise which was repeated by the class as many times
as necessary for the majority of the children to master it. Matina was very expressive, gesturing all the time and using numerous examples to illustrate
what she meant. Often, she engaged the class in whole-body movements in
order to teach a song, like the one in Figure 8.1. The following activity, ten
minutes in duration, is a characteristic example of the way Matina led the
children, firstly to imitate her whole-body movements, and to invent their
own.
This was the first of five lessons that were observed in Matina's class (see Table 8.1). After an extensive body warm-up, the children seemed ready to participate in movement activities. Matina and the children were seated on the
floor in a circle. When they were quite relaxed, Matina began intoning the lyrics of a folk song "To niktolouloudo" in 9/8 (Fig. 8.1, Track 01), performing silent hand-gestures, such as raising her elbows, to indicate any musical pauses
of the song.
Figure 8.1. The rhythm of a folk song in 9/8"To niktolouloudo".
Matina: "Anthise to niktolouloudo moschovolise ki lemonia" (The night flower

blossomed and the lemon tree gave off a sweet smell). The children imitated
her, but after the first verse, Matina stopped and added some more gestures
that could be made during the pauses. Because they were all seated, they
could only perform hand movements. Matina demonstrated again to make it
clearer.
Matina: "I want to see the pause" she insisted and gestured with her hands as
she talked. They tried again, playing repeatedly the first four bars of the song.
This time, their hand gestures throughout the song followed the 9/8 beat.
There was a silence during the first two bars of the song as teacher and children played the rhythm with silent movements. Gradually, the movements
faded out and the lyrics, spoken by the teacher and the children, faded in
again for the last few beats before the next verse, to support the rhythm of the
song.
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They repeated the piece twice and after the third repetition Matina stood opposite the children facing them and began speaking the lyrics while clapping
her hands, stamping her feet and swaying her body from right to left, she
counted a bar and asked them to start all over again. The children imitated
every little movement she did as they repeated the piecemovement and
singingthree consecutive times. With every repeat the class gained in selfconfidence and enjoyment. By the end of the third time all the faces were full
of joy and satisfaction.
Matina: "By now you should know this tune and be able to try it [through speaking
and gesturing] with your partners, mirroring them, as we did in the last lesson." Before they continued, Matina fetched an empty clay flowerpot, and asked a
child to be her partner, she placed the pot on the floor between them, saying
to the class: "Be aware of the pot with the night-flower. Imagine the night-flowers
mentioned in the song, standing here in front of you; between you and your partner.
So, think how this line of the song could be developed."
The children tried to find a choreography to fit the music according to Matina's guidelines. In fact, however, they imitated her own movements and style,
as it becomes obvious later in this section. At the same time Matina tried it
with her own partner. She watched the progress of each pair for a second and
asked them to stop in order to show what she meant. She gave some guidelines to her partner and together they begun intoning the lyrics while performing whole-body movements and a lot of stamping and clapping which strictly
followed a rhythm in 9/8 (Fig. 8.2, Track 02).
Figure 8.2. The Niktolouloudo and the accompanying movements and gestures.
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Matina: "Let's try it all together and remember that this is not a cactus but blossoming night flowers and lemon trees." Matina illustrated the issue of movement
quality by giving an example of how relaxed their hands and legs should be.
The children imitated every little detail in her movements and danced enthusiastically while Matina kept instructing them.
Matina: "I want to see your hands performing circles. I want circular, 'gentle' movements."
The children appeared to do their best. Still, there were pairs that had not
achieved any visible results. Matina approached Antigoni and Lida who had
an argument each one trying to impose her own ideas.
Antigoni: "She makes circles all the time and spins and does not listen to me at all."
Lida: "This is the second part . . . the first part is all her own ideas." Lida was complaining, demonstrating at the same time the difference between her own
ideas and those of Antigoni. Antigoni also demonstrated her own movement
ideas to prove that Lida altered all her suggestions to make them look worse
than hers. The rest children gathered around them but soon Matina asked
them to go back to their positions while she found new partners for Antigoni
and Lida. Apart from this case, all the pairs worked in a cooperative fashion;
there were some cases of "non-perfect" movements but Matina avoided focusing on them specifically and spoke to the whole class.
Matina: "Last chance, try to concentrate and . . . let your body be free to move as we
start the words now, slowly, slowly . . . keep going." Matina and the children sung
the piece three times employing some patterns of the movement improvisations they had just attempted; the result was largely an imitation of Matina's
movements. Until the last step, the children did not display any will to try
something newany inspiration of the moment. On the contrary, they displayed an ability to align their dancing to the whole.
As the children were leaving that part of the room to go back to their circle
again, Matina asked them to imitate the motion of the wind which the children translated into an endless twirling leading them to their sitting position
on the floor.
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8.5.2 The dramatization of a customfirst lesson

Apart from hand gestures and whole-body movements, the activities of the
observed lessons, included dramatisations of traditional customs. The reader
must be reminded that the inclusion of elements of the Greek culture is one of
the study's questions. Of course, in the context of Orff-Schulwerk teaching, it
is also important the way that these cultural elements were presented in terms
of creativity and children's participation in general. Matina, as we shall see,
deprived the children of any creative activity.
In the following activity, an unusual long one that lasted more than 20 minutes, the children had just finished a movement improvisation in 9/8 (see Section 8.5.1). They sat down in a circle and Matina showed them pictures from a
book featuring country customs. The custom that Matina chose was called
'perperouna' or 'pirpirouna' (Pirpirouna keeps walking and pleading God) and
explained the context of the custom. The pirpirouna is an ancient custom practised all over Greece in times of drought. When the summer was coming to an
end and if it had not rained, people were in despair. They used to get a little
orphan girl and dress her up in green, covering her with wild grasses and, together with twenty or thirty little girls they sang the 'pirpirouna' song in every
house. The housewife would come out with a pot of water and wet the grass
from above, to show that it was raining, so God could see and send rain on
earth.
After giving the context of the Pirpirouna song (Fig. 8.3, Track 03)a song in
Hijaz mode (see Section 5.1.1)Matina sang the first verse stressing the special idioms of the local accent.
Figure 8.3. The pirpirounaa song in 7/8.
165
Matina: "Pirpati please not perpati as you can see e turns into i in this local accent".
She sang again and the children sang with her and slapped their thighs to the
rhythm of the song. When after few repetitions the children felt secure with
the melody, the rhythm and the accent of the lyrics, Matina asked for their
ideas for a possible dramatisation of the custom.
Chloi: "We can use long blue clothes to be the sky having no clouds at all. Then Sonia
will come and start pleading to God for rain."
Stella: "I will play the drum and the rest . . . to be the trees in a village and . . . "
Chloi: "We could use the curtains to make long dresses like Pirpirouna's."
Another girl tried to say something, but she was interrupted by Matina. "Why
don't we use any instruments?" Influenced by the pictures they had just seen,
the children suggested the use of large hand drums to resemble the pots
which used the housewives to wet Pirpirouna.
Matina: "This is a very good idea, why don't you all take your hand drums." The
children wandered around the room until each one had a drum in her hands.
Matina: "Who would like to be the Pirpirouna?"
As it was expected, everyone did. Matina chose a girl to be the Pirpirouna and
the rest of them formed a 'snail' behind her and followed playing the hand
drums and singing the song, according to Matina's guidelines. Most of the
children had a facial expression like participating in a real ceremonial progression.
Matina: "Now, please form a circle and stay there where you are, for you are housewives waiting at the front door; Pirpirouna will knock at your door and you will come
out to pour some water on her."
Every time, the girl who was the Pirpirouna, chose a child who would be the
next Pirpirouna. In this way, the children walked slowly around the circle to
the sounds of the hand drums which repeated a 7/8 pattern and stopped in
front of the child who would be the next Pirpirouna. When most of the children had taken the role of Pirpirouna, they all sat down on the floor waiting for
the rain to come.
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Matina: "OK, now we are waiting for the rain to come."

Matina sat amongst the children pretending to be anxious for the rain to come.
Finally, the rain came: Matina showed them how to play a soft tremolo with a
hand finger on their hand drums.
Matina: "Not that loud, remember that the best rain for the plants is a calm rain."
Gradually, the soft tremolo became louder and when a recording of the pirpirouna song came in, the hand drums ceased. Matina went to the corner where
the stereo was to adjust the volume. When she returned to the circle amongst
the children she asked them to stand up while they were listening to the recording.
Matina: "Stay still now and enjoy the rain."
Two girls said something one to the other and were laughing silently.
Matina: "Imagine you were in a village thirsty for water; you were thirsty yourselves.
Stay there smiling maybe for you are happy."
Matina kept looking to the sky and gradually her
voice became audible as she sang alongside the
recording. She encouraged the children to sing
and waved her hands as if she were conducting a
choir. In fact, however, she conducted the
recording because the children could not follow
the tempo precisely and stood there listening until
the end of the activity.
8.5.3 Towards a rhythmic improvisationsecond

lesson
In the following eight minutes long activity,

Matina led two groups of children in independent
playing of rhythmic patterns. Given their brief
experience, the children succeeded quite well in
the imitation level but they failed in the suggested
improvisation; or was it the teacher's failure?
Nevertheless, the following transcript shows an
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increase of rhythmic exercises which could form a basis towards organised

improvisation.
This was the second lesson with Matina's class (Table 8.2). After fifteen minutes of modern dance and stretching exercises the children and the teacher
were seated in a circle having some rest. Matina asked a girl her name.
Matina: "Could you remind me of your name?"
Dionisia: "Sonia."
Matina: "What is your whole name?"
Dionisia: "Dionisia."
Matina: "Dionisia?" and as she turned to the rest "what do you prefer Dionisia or
Sonia?" Apart from a girl next to Dionisiaapparently a close friend of her
all the rest, included Matina, raised up their hands for the first choice.
Matina used to involve such short breaks in her teaching, which functioned as
a bridge between two different activities.
Matina: "Please, split into two groups."
Matina began an echo clapping in canon: each group repeated a two-bar
rhythmic pattern until Matina gave them a new one (Fig. 8.4, Track 04). After
the first three patterns, Matina included gestures like thigh slapping, chest
patting, head and shoulder tapping. As the activity progressed some voice effects like "frrrrr" and "sssss" were also involved while the hand gestures
changed into soundless ballet-like movements.
During the first bars the children were quite confused and imitated the pattern
of the other group, but slowly they managed to concentrate and maintain their
own pattern. At this point, Matina returned to one of the initial simple handclapping patterns and asked a volunteer to improvise.
Matina: "Who would like to improvise? Of course, the rest should retain the
rhythm". Mariangela, a girl from the first group, rushed to say "me".
Matina: "OK, you will be the first. Let's go."
The children resumed their playing but the girl looked at Matina as if she had
to ask something.
Mariangela: "What should I do?"
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Figure 8.4. A rhythmic canon for two groups.
Matina explained that she should invent patterns that fit with the ones played
by the rest.
Mariangela: "May I play whatever I want?"
Matina: "Yes you can; just start playing."
The girl played something on her thighs but it was not audible. Matina demonstrated a four-bar rhythmic improvisation involving many different sound
gestures but no voice effects. When she stopped she looked around for a possible second attempt but nobody volunteered. Accordingly, she prompted
both groups to improvise with her. Matina began first and the children followed her immediately but the result was a shapeless rhythmic piece. As everyone tried complicated and fast sound gestures the rhythm of the piece became totally unstable. However, neither Matina nor the children appeared to
have a problem with it. As the activity came to a dead end, Matina played
again the first pattern, involving sound gestures and voices. Both groups
maintained this pattern while they slowly began to stand up and walk around
the room. Matina introduced new patterns with foot stamping and the two
groups intermingled with each other. The children imitated every new pattern
and vocal effect, but in a rather loose style as they continuously improvised
sound gestures. Finally, Matina led both groups to the xylophones for the next
activity.
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8.5.4 Background music to a poemsecond lesson

The next ten minute-long activity, coming from the second lesson again, is a
characteristic example of using the Orff instrumentarium in combination with
non-indigenous material. Matina employed a Christmas text in order to create
an inspiring atmosphere which enchanted the children. This, in turn, affected
their instrumental playing and their musical expression.
The children had just finished a movement activity (see Section 8.5.3) and they
were asked to go to the xylophones, as they expected. When they were all settled behind their instruments Matina asked them to put their beaters 'to bed':
singing "Nani, nani, nani" which is a lullaby exclamation sang on a descending
minor third. Immediately after it, Matina began intoning a children's poem
with a Christmas text and the children repeated.
Matina: "Pay attention to the pronunciation please:
'Astra asteria asterakia (Big and little stars)
astraftoun san miria diamantakia (that shine like million diamonds)
na ena asteri pio megalo (There it is, a star bigger than the others)
fegi sti fatni apo pano (it is lighting over the crib)
nichta vathia ki astrofegia (deep dark night and the stars are shining)
ine ola toso magika' (it is all magic)."
She spoke clearly, rhythmically and accompanied the poem with expressive
hand gestures whilst after each line she slapped her thighs to complete the bar
saying: "boom-boom" and the children repeated every line and imitated her
gestures. Mostly, they were movements made-up by Matina to emphasise
words like 'There it is' and 'deep dark night' and 'it is all magic'.
Matina added a few notes on the xylophones to accompany their voices: "Let's
all play a 'la'." To make it easier finding the 'A' note, Matina asked them to remove the 'B' bar. They started with a tremolo on 'A', then they spoke the
words of the poem and after each line instead of saying "boom-boom" they
played two 'A's and when the poem came to an end, they played a tremolo on
'A' again (Fig. 8.5, Track 05).
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Figure 8.5. The first two lines of a Christmas poem and its accompaniment.
The children delayed the two 'A's so Matina had to repeat it several times: "asterakia 'la', 'la'" until the children managed to play the two notes in time.
When they repeated it, Matina asked them to play and speak very quietly
while she created an atmosphere suitable for Christmas night by dimming the
lighting of the room and switching on little blue lights. The children were
amazed by the lighting effects and this affected their playing, which became
more mysterious and magical. A glissando with both beaters was added to accompany the phrases: 'deep dark night' and 'the stars are shining'. The children played really softly and quietly but the rhythm had also been affected for
they played in a slower tempo. They finished the poem playing a long tremolo
on 'A' which faded out with an impressive decrescendo. The children were
surprised by their achievement and asked Matina to play it again but she
looked at the clock and decided to move on with her lesson plan. The lesson
plan appeared to be a priority in Matina's teaching but she refused to admit it:
"Usually, I let them play as much as they want but last time we had very little
time at our disposal"; it was her answer, when I commented on children's disappointment, during a brief discussion before the next week's lesson.
8.5.5 Playing small percussion instruments in 7/8fourth lesson

The next activity involves speech, percussion instruments and whole-body
movements. The ultimate goal, though, was introducing the 7/8 compound
beat to the children through repeated patterns and improvisation parts; one
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more step towards rhythmical improvisation, but this time using instruments
and specific words. Most important, the children enjoyed it as much as they
would enjoy any other children's game.
Matina started the fourth lesson (Table 8.3) asking: "Who can find a word of
three syllables with an accent on the first of the three?" The children responded
shouting a few words. Matina listened carefully and asked them to find an instrument whose name had three syllables.
Evagelia: "Timbano" (Drum).
Matina: "Very good. Now, could you find a name of a
musical instrument with two syllables?"
Stella: "Defi" (Tambourine).
Matina: "Correct" said Matina and introduced a
new instrument, a guiro whose Greek name has
two syllables: 'xistra'.
Matina: "Timbano, defi, xistra" (Drum, tambourine,
guiro).
Matina began repeating the three names whose
syllables actually produced a pattern in 7/8 (Fig.
8.6). Gradually, all the children joined in, while
Matina fetched the three instruments in question:
Matina: "Who wants to stay in the middle of the circle
to play these instruments?"
Stella and Mariana raised their hands and soon
after them Evagelia did, as well. Thus Matina
explained to them how to play the instruments.
All three displayed a familiarity with the instruments and they could not hide
their enthusiasm when they started striking the instruments in a kind of contest among them, even ignoring Matina's suggestions to play softer and
slower. When they eventually stopped, Matina asked something more specific. Accordingly, the class had to match the names of the instruments with
the sounds of the instruments. Every time the name of an instrument was
heard a child had to play the instrument concerned.
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Matina: "OK, stop. Congratulations to everyone."

Matina: "Let's name these sounds quavers; how many are they?"
Antigoni: "Five."
Lida: "Nine."
Petrina: "Seven."
Eventually all children agreed on seven.
Matina: "Are you sure? Absolutely sure? OK, it is 7/8, right? Now, lets try to play
it."
Matina and the children began clapping their hands.
Before too long, Matina started to vary the words, including every three bars
the phrase "kialo krousto" (and one more percussion). So it became: "Timbano
defi xistra, timbano defi xistra, timbano defi xistra, kialo krousto" (Drum, tambourine, guiro and one more percussion.)(Fig. 8.6, Track 06).
Figure 8.6. Words of percussion instruments matched to a rhythmic pattern.
The children formed a circle and Matina fetched the temple blocks while explaining their Greek name: xilokoudouna (wooden bells).
Matina: "When I put this instrument in front of a child it means that after the four
bars that we sing and play all together [on small percussion instruments], that
child should play an improvisation on this instrument [temple blocks]. I'll play
first." They clapped all together four bars in 7/8 and Matina continued playing a four-bar improvisation in 7/8. Every child in turn did a four-bar improvisation whilst the others supported the rhythm by means of finger snapping on the strong beats. However, not everyone did it successfully. Katerina
and Dionisia who played first were nervous and as a result they started earlier. Some of the rest stopped before the end of the four bars and others started
with some delay. In general, apart from Aggelika all the others improvised
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"successfully", displaying a satisfactory sense of the beat and a "moderate"

level of inventiveness of rhythmic patterns. Stella and Mariangela, in particular, distinguished for they both had some interesting rhythmical ideas. After
about five minutes of improvisation, Matina moved to the next activity, which
was in fact connected to this one, for it was a tune in 7/8.
8.5.6 Rhythmic improvisation in 9/8fifth lesson

Matina followed a
typical
Orff-Schulwerk
sequence of activities; patterns of speech were

translated
into
physical
responsesstamping,
knee-slapping, clapping, finger-snappingand

then transferred to unpitched percussion instruments. Finally, the same patterns were sung
and
played
on
melodic
percussion
like
glockenspiels, metallophones and xylophones. The

following two extracts from Matina's class focus on
exactly that point, as the children pass from the
unpitched percussion to the xylophones; although,
they continued with a different beat. Improvisation
also advanced one more step, passing from
rhythmic percussion to the temple blocks and involving the whole Orff-Schulwerk instrumentarium.
In the following activity of the fifth lesson, that
lasted for about twenty minutes (see Table 8.4)
Matina played a rhythm in 9/8 on the hand drum,
while the children clapped the rhythm or
performed improvised sound gestures.
Matina: "OK, now you can choose any percussion instrument you like and place it on
the floor."
The children chose different unpitched instruments and placed them on the
floor while Matina illustrated the playing technique of each instrument. She
gave the children some time to explore the sounds of their instruments before
she introduced them to a speech pattern aiming to help them comprehend the
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9/8.
Matina: "Vima vima pos maresi na pigeno s'ali thesi gia na paro ena krousto ke na
pexo sto lepto" (I really enjoy moving step-by-step into another position, to take
a percussion instrument and play) (Fig. 8.7, Track 07).
Figure 8.7. Words adapted to a rhythmic pattern in 9/8.
The children played the rhythm quite successfully apart from two or three
who confused 9/8 with 7/8 which they had played in the forth lesson (see Table 8.3). Accordingly, Matina analysed the rhythm in a different way:
Matina: "Dio ke dio ke dio ke tria kanoune enia" (two and two and two and three
makes nine). She clapped the rhythm and spoke the words while her head signalled the children to imitate her clapping. When the class had achieved a
secure beat, Matina played a four-bar improvisation in 9/8 accompanied by
the children and soon after she stopped to explain the structure of "rondo
form".
Matina: "Four bars of made-up rhymes and four bars of improvisation using sound
gestures." Matina moved to the blackboard and drew the parts that form a
rondo to make it clear that these parts follow each other.
Matina played a folk drum while the children interpreted the meaning of the
words displayed in figure 8.7 into action, moving with a 9/8 beat: two bars to
move into another position, two bars to choose an instrument and two bars to
play a rhythmic pattern in 9/8 on the instrument. As Matina continued to play
the folk drum, the children placed the instruments on the floor and moved
into another position. Before they repeated the whole activity Matina split the
group into players of metallic and wooden instruments and each time, before
the two playing-bars, she announced whether metallic or wooden instruments
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would be playing. While the children were listening to Matina they pushed
each other and changed positions to be closer to their favourite instruments.
Most popular were the big tambourines and the sleigh bells. There was tension and some noise which apparently annoyed Matina for she raised the volume of her voice.
Matina: [singing] "Place the instruments on the floor and dance between them." As
Matina continued to play a folk drum, the children danced between the percussion instruments that were placed on the floor. It was rather a kind of
rushed walking rather than any kind of dancing but as Matina's instructions
were general this was the only idea that came into the children's minds.
Matina: [singing] "Take the instruments and keep on dancing all over the place."
The children rushed to take the instruments that they liked most. In that instant those who were stronger and more determined won while the rest had to
find an instrument amongst the remaining ones on the floor.
Matina and the children danced, occupying the entire room, but only for a few
seconds, because very soon they were asked to move to the xylophones.
Matina: "Some bars must be removed, [singing] 'mi', 'si', place them under the
xylophone; they are sleeping now." Those bars still on the xylophones would
be used in the next song (Fig. 8.8, Track 08). It was a tune in 7/8 built on a
pentatonic D minor scale and structured as a two part canon. This tune was
first introduced to the children during the third lesson (see Table 8.5). However, one would expect an activity in 9/8 expanding the previous activity to
the melodic percussion.
Matina: "Re fa sol la la" sang Matina, while she was playing it on her metallophone. The children recalled the whole tune and began playing it from memory: "re fa so la la, re fa so la la, re fa so la la re re."
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Figure 8.8. Canon for xylophones.
However, not all the children remembered it so well so Matina intervened:

"try to play it as if you were one person" and soon after she stopped them. "Now,
play it again while I will play something else." The children played the basic melody twice while Matina introduced the second part (the second of the two
staves showed in figure 8.8. Their playing was furious and noisy. They were
concentrated on their instruments for the piece demanded some dexterity. The
resulting sound was rather blurred reminding how difficult it is to make fifteen young children play synchronised.
When Matina realised that there were inaccuracies in children's playing she
employed the 'Curwen hand signs' to assist their perception of the melody but
soon she realised that the children had forgotten the meaning of the signs and
now she had to explain them from the beginning. Among others this exercise
helped the children to learn the names of the notes they would soon play
themselves. They played the melodic line showed in figure 8.8 four times
while Matina corrected them individually and praised those who played correctly.
Dionisia: "Could you, please, play the second part of the melody?"
Matina: "Be patient Dionisia you must learn the first part first."
Dionisia: "But miss, please, I beg you. I can't remember it." And Matina replied
using the names of the notes.
Matina: "Re do do fa sol la fa sol la la re."
As some children kept forgetting, Matina tried another method. She raised her
hands with the beaters up and immediately all the children imitated her; occasionally, Matina employed this gesture to call for silence, as well. The children
had to sing the notes of the tune while playing an imaginary xylophone
somewhere above their heads. Matina asked Evagelia who played the bass xy
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lophone to try the first melodic line while the rest would sing and play in the
air. When they felt quite confident they played the tune on their xylophones.
Matina corrected some mistakes and helped them play the different parts of
the arrangement. When, after several repetitions, most of the mistakes had
been corrected, Matina accompanied the children by playing the temple
blocks. But as soon as the children played the melody once, Matina asked for a
four-bar pause in order to play an improvisation on her metallophone before
let them continue again. After her second improvisation she explained: "From
now on when I put the temple blocks in front of someone, it means that I expect that
child to play an improvisation." In a way this was the continuation of a previous
activity in the fourth lesson (see Section 8.5.5) transferred from rhythmic to
melodic percussion.
Chloi improvised rather out of time. Petrina who was second, slowed the
tempo down. While Evagelia was improvising, Matina played a folk drum to
help her maintain the tempo. The same happened with Lida, who played in
time. The next three children played an improvisation in 7/8 successfully. Finally, they repeated the melody without improvisations.
Matina: "Now, what have we done? Melody, improvisation and then melody again."
Aggelika: "It is a game, like moving in circles and running."
Mariangela: "Yes, yes, yes, she means that game we played before the lesson. First
running, then skipping and then running again." While the children examined
some possible answers Matina had picked up a tambourine.
Matina: "All right, and does this remind you of anything?" With her index finger
she drew a circle on the skin of the tambourine repeating the words: melody,
improvisation, melody, improvisation. Eventually, she reminded them that it
was a 'rondo-form' again, linking this activity to the previous one.
8.6 The teacher's perception
The following interview took place several days before the first observed lesson in order to discuss issues with regard to the teacher's teaching strategies
and choices of material. Matina had repeatedly asked the researcher "what
kind of interview would it be" and "how long would it last" and "whether it
would be published in any journal or something like that". However, the discussion did not start in the best way and Matina felt rather uncomfortable.
178
Apparently, she preferred questions demanding no specific knowledge.

My aim is to familiarise the children with music through dance or better I should say
through various games. I invent games and adjust them specifically for every lesson.
But not in every lesson, of course. Usually, I do not think of Orff-Schulwerk or the
Orff principles when I teach but I have many activities similar to the activities taught
in Salzburg. Well, I do not know the answer to this question. Maybe you could explain me what do you mean by 'Orff principles'.
The discussion continued in a more relaxed fashion avoiding questions that

might bring both the interviewer and the interviewee in such an awkward
position. Matina was very keen to speak about her teaching and the
sequencing of the activities which she meticulously prepared.
Usually, one activity leads to the other, to the next one, and slowly the children feel
more confident. Also, they help towards children's emancipation. By the end of the
year the children try their own movements and are always willing to play a solo and
improvise on a xylophone or a percussion instrument.
Matina considered her teaching strategies to be successful. She had confidence

in her teaching capabilities and she spoke without any tendency for selfcriticism. Thus, she spoke about the techniques she employed when she
worked with young children. "It is more a kind of a game and the children
learn while playing games, rhythmical games, games with movements or percussion instruments or melodic percussion." All these game-like activities that
the children enjoyed to "play", aimed amongst others to foster the talented
ones amongst the children of her class.
Some of the children had an inclination in dance from the beginning and they progress even faster than the others. But even those who were not so inclined learn the
basic movements and can follow the rhythm. These children always surprise me and
they learn faster than I expect.
Matina believed that there were many things that a teacher could learn from
his or her students; she was very convincing when she said: "They teach me
and give me new ideas through their spontaneous reactions." On the other
hand she regretted the times that she had to be severe with some children.
When I had boys in this class, there were occasions that I had to be very restrictive,
but now I have only girls and we are more like friends. I think that they really see me
as a friend, I can feel it when they ask personal questions like who is my favourite actor or my favourite TV series.
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On a number of occasions during the observed lessons, Matina employed folk

rhythms, folk dances, folk songs and a folk custom which the children performed in a kind of game-like activity. On one occasion she even played a folk
drum accompanying the children. Notwithstanding, all these activities that
were so data-rich for the researcher were of no particular importance for Matina.
There is a lot of folk music in our school and the children like it a lot. But, of course
they like all musics, folk or not I see no difference in their reactions. They are enthusiastic for all music I introduce to them. Of course, after all these years I can tell what
touches them and what not.
When we began discussing the issue of teaching material Matina stated that
she had stopped renewing her material for many years now but as we continued it was proved that day by day, lesson by lesson she transformed her old
material into new ones. "I use these songs for many years now, however,
sometimes when I buy a new CD we try some movements or in other cases I
use activities that I was taught in Salzburg."
Through the discussion with Matina it became evident that the parents of the
children appreciated the music lessons but only as far as they fostered the
dancing part of the lesson. Also it appeared that Matina's ambitions coincided
with parents' expectations for they all wanted the children to learn dancing at
an advanced level. As opposed to the Orff-Schulwerk philosophy they were
interested in the results rather than in the process.
The children who come here love classical ballet butI do not know whythey prefer a syllabus more relaxed like the one we have. My personal ambition is to help
these children continue with further studies either in music or in dance. When parents ask me whether their children will learn this or that, in a way they push me to do
it or they will try another school. Some even ask me whether their children will be
able to become dance teachers or not. Of course, I do not have to satisfy everyone.
According to Matina any changes in the syllabus of her school were rather
risky for the future of the school.
This school is basically a dance school, so the children come here to dance. We can
not change things in the syllabus because all these people come to us for this specific
programme. However, looking back I see that today's syllabus is much different than
the syllabus used five years ago. So in a way it is certain that the syllabus will change
again, it is only a matter of time. Recently we changed our syllabus in order to include activities for older ages . . . we train music teachers in Orff-Schulwerk.
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8.7 Commentary
A first reading of the data revealed Matina's teaching expertise. She knew how
to structure her lesson plans very well, relating the activities with each other.
Every lesson started with movement activities and ended with xylophone
playing (see Table 8.5). Of course, the adequate sequencing of her lessons is
closely related to the fact that she had been teaching for a long time. Characteristic example is the sequencing of activities during the fifth lesson in which
she focused on rondo form. The first activity was a rhythmical improvisation
in 9/8 whilst the second activity was the teaching of a melody; both activities
were based on a rondo form. As soon as the activity started (see Section 8.5.6),
it was obvious that Matina had used the same lesson plan many times before.
For example, although the words "Vima vima pos maresi" appeared to be spontaneous, they were planned in advance; they were words that Matina had invented in classes that she had taught in the past. As Matina admitted to the researcher, after all these years of teaching she rarely had to prepare a lesson
from scratch. On one hand, this statement might imply that Matina's lessons
are tested and approved for a long time but, on the other hand, it could be also
interpreted as a lack of development and flexibility in her teaching.
Matina insisted on following her lesson plan irrespective of children's disposition. For example, at the end of an activity in the second lesson in which Matina introduced a dialogue between voices and xylophones (see Section 8.5.4),
the children pleaded to play the piece one more time but Matina decided to
move on to the next activity. The above-mentioned activity, however, may be
considered as successful both because the children liked it and because Matina
managed to achieve her goals. Firstly, she managed to emphasise the meaning
of the words and to create a suitable mood by using the sound of the xylophones only to emphasise the end of each sentence, instead of playing along
the voices. A mysterious mood was further created by the lighting effects and
the expressive tone of her voice. Therefore, the children successfully interpreted the poem both by using their voices and in instrumental playing. Secondly, in a simple and natural way they used a variety of techniques: striking
a note with both beaters, playing a glissando to emphasise the intonation of
the vowel "a", playing a tremolo on two notes. The chosen poem was suitable
to the children's age, and within the context of Christmas.
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182
Matina was not merely an experienced music teacher, but also an experienced
Orff teacher. Therefore, in every occasion she employed movement activities,
being either whole-body movements or gestures. Matina herself displayed a
great variety of gestures and body movements aiming to enrich the children's
movement vocabulary. It is well known that gestures are more capable of
communicating musical nuances than any other means (see Section 1.2.). A
characteristic example of this was the way she taught the qualities of a compound rhythm like 9/8 (see Figure 8.2). In an activity from the first lesson (see
Section 8.5.1) Matina tried to engage the children in whole-body movements
by using a folk song as a starting point. The song chosen was in 9/8 which is a
commonly-found rhythm, especially in the northern regions of Greece. Most
children in Greece are familiar with 7/8, but often they face various rhythmrelated problems when they try to play something in 9/8. The way Matina led
the children to achieve this task was indicative of her long experience. She
asked them to use their hands first and later their whole body until they managed to conceptualise this irregular time signature.
Another salient feature of Matina's teaching techniques was the use of speech
patterns in rhythmic activities. In an activity from the fourth lesson (see Section 8.5.5) Matina used names of instruments to familiarise the children with
irregular time signatures like 7/8. She asked them to find words of two and
three syllablesnames of objects from the classroomwith an accent on the
first syllable, which proved to be very easy for the children. Through speech,
the children experienced the complexities of the rhythm in a more natural
way, and as a result they did not encounter any problems in transferring this
experience to instrumental playing.
As creativity is the corner-stone of Orff-Schulwerk, Matina put a lot of emphasis on improvisation activities. As an examination of Table 8.5. may reveal, in
almost all observed lessons, she employed one rhythmic or melodic improvisation. In most cases, however, these improvisations were unsuccessful. Matina was an expert in leading the children to imitate her movements and her
playing but she neglected allowing the children's creativity to blossom. For
example, in an activity from the first lesson (see Section 8.5.1), Matina tried to
involve the children in a creative process. She asked them to find their partner
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and to invent their own movements to accompany this traditional song. The
fact that in the previous lesson she had acquainted the children with mirrormovement exercises clearly indicates that Matina thoroughly scheduled her
lessons; and this, despite her claims that she rarely did so. Matina, however,
did not insist on the children discovering their own movements, either due to
lack of time or because she wanted the children to achieve a well-polished
performance more than she wanted to concentrate on creative processes. Accordingly, frequently she demonstrated her own ideas on what movements
would be appropriate and the children imitated her. Even though she asked
the children to invent movements according to the lyrics of a song, in fact she
taught them a choreography that she had invented without allowing the necessary time and opportunities for the children to experiment.
The same remarks can be applied to an activity from the second lesson (see
Section 8.5.3) which was very successful at least as far as imitation is concerned. The imitation of rhythmic patterns was supposed to be the preparation for the improvisation part. However, neither individual nor group improvisation was effective, either because Matina did not allocate sufficient
time for the improvisation or the children were not ready for something so
difficult. Also, the example of improvisation that she played was rather complicated and discouraging for the children. A rhythmic ostinato was supplied
in this case as well, in order to stimulate some rhythms from the children,
whereafter the stimulus would be gradually withdrawn, provided of course,
that the children were able to continue. A guided rhythmic or melodic playing
was a standard procedure in most of Matina's lessons. While the imitative part
worked very well, the transition from imitation to improvisation was somewhat abrupt. As improvisation had to "fit" a particular rhythm, a certain
amount of clear direction with examples by the teacher was necessary. Also
the development of the activity into a free rhythmic improvisation in which
the children performed non-stop sound gestures was an inferior substitute of
the organised improvisation and did not succeed.
Moreover, there were activities that could have been extended into creative
ones, but Matina failed or did not care to do so. As she said during a discussion after the first lesson: "We 'play' the pirpirouna every year with one of my
classes mainly because the children love itthey love the fairy tail of little
Pirpirouna; . . . we do singing and movements and pantomime and they love
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it." The dramatization of a traditional custom (see Section 8.5.2) was effective
in so far as experiencing a country custom while singing and walking simultaneously. However, in terms of music pedagogy, the children should also use
their imagination inventing ways of reviving this ancient custom into their
classroom which they did not. Unfortunately, through questions and suggestions Matina led the children to a dramatisation which was closer to what she
had in mind rather than the children; the children were left to improvise only
some details of the whole procedure. Even when the children were asked to
invent a movement sequence, teacher's example, given so aptly, actually limited their imagination. In most cases the children ended up with a slight variation on Matina's original example. When Matina was asked about her intervention in children's creative moments she appeared to be unaware of the importance of the issue: "I always help the children to put their ideas in an order,
which usually proves to be very helpful". Apparently, the element of risk and
the possibility of failure before forging ahead functioned as a inhibitory factor
against improvisation directed by children. Nevertheless, the children benefited a lot from their participation in this custom which, as expected, was
treated by the children as a joyful game.
Dominant in the Orff philosophy is the principle that music is practice, therefore teaching should be process rather than product oriented (see Section
12.1). On a number of occasions, however, Matina neglected this principle, as
was the case in the activity from the first observed session (see Section 8.5.1).
Whilst Matina successfully led the children to the imitative phase of the activity, she failed when she tried to involve the children in a creative process; she
merely asked them to invent their own movements to accompany a traditional
song. The fact that in the previous lesson she had acquainted the children with
mirror-movement exercises clearly indicates that Matina thoroughly scheduled her sessions. Matina did not insist on children's autonomous discovery of
movements and very soon she demonstrated her own aspect of what movements would be appropriate and the children imitated her. This attitude could
be justified due to Matinas will to show a well-polished performance more
than she wanted to devote time for a creative process. One should not forget
that Matina was the owner of a costly private dance school. Therefore in a way
her teaching was affected by the pressure of parents' expectations that were
product and not process-oriented. As a result and as Matina herself partly
admitted to the researcher (see Section 8.6) the school syllabus focused on per
185
formances in the end of the year or on festivities such as those at Christmas

to a large extent inhibiting the development of creative activities.
186
187
186
9.1 The setting

Almost every municipality of the general Athens area has its own music
school. These schools are run like private music schoolsthe students have to
pay fees, though significantly lower than the fees of private music schools, and
participate in public demonstrations of the school. However, the children's
parents cannot intervene and affect the school's policy as easily as they could
in a private school. The main reason for that is that municipal music schools
are non-profit institutions and therefore less dependent on parents' economic
support. These schools provide basic training on symphonic musical instruments plus some popular and traditional musical instruments. Alexia's class,
which was observed for the needs of the research, was supposed to be a recorder class which would have two lessons per week, the first of which would
be a recorder lesson and the second one an introduction to the theory of music.
However, through Alexia's initiative, the theory of music lesson was replaced
by Orff-Schulwerk activities that lasted two years.
The municipal music school was in the northern suburbs of Athens. Its facilities, compared to the ones of a private school, were rather limited. Although
the building was new, the classroom where Alexia taught was a small carpeted room which was also used as storage space for empty boxes and other
dispensable articles like old files and books. The building was originally designed to cover the needs of the basic instrumental classes of the school. When
187
the new municipal council decided to add early childhood music education in
the curriculum, they could not find any other place than this little semibasement room at the back of the building which, of course, was not planned
to be a classroom. It was so small that the children had to perform every
movement activity in circular fashion. However, there were enough instruments for every child: one bass and three alto xylophones, a metallophone that
Alexia herself used, a pair of bongos and a few unpitched percussion instruments.
9.2 The teacher

Alexia whose first degree was in literature studies, attended a two-year course
for music teachers in a private college in Athens (see Section 4.1.3), where she
became qualified to teach Orff-Schulwerk. However, like Matina, she was introduced to Orff-Schulwerk in her childhood: from the age of five she was a
student of Mathy, the music teacher that introduced Orff-Schulwerk in
Greece (see Section 4.1.1). Alexia was very proud of her apprenticeship with
Mathy: "Polyxeni has actually changed the route of my life. She was a great
teacher to me." Alexia's musical studies were in piano and recorder. In 1991,
she began teaching in this municipal music school. She was very keen on educational studies and planned to conduct research herself.
9.3 The children

There were four children in Alexia's class, two boys and two girls, aged seven
and eight. The small number of children was an advantage in terms of discipline but it negatively affected the dynamic of the class. Therefore, usually the
children appeared to have less fun and more work. On a number of occasions,
the children seemed bored and deprived of the means to channel their energy.
However, Alexia's persistence in instrumental playing was in accordance with
the school's philosophy. The children's expectations and/or their parents' expectations were directed towards instrumental music. Although they had not
chosen to learn a musical instrument yet, this orientation was evident in the
way they played the xylophones; they could patiently play the same melody
for an hour or so. This was their second year attending Orff-Schulwerk activities, and the children showed a level of competence in handling the beaters.
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Compared to Matina's students, these children had even more restricted experiences of live music performances. None of them had attended a concert of
classical music. Their favourite occupation was watching the television or listening to records. The fact that they attended a municipal music school indicates a rather low financial status of their families, even though the general
area was considered to be a prosperous one.
Katerina was an exception in her class. Her father was a humanities professor
at the university, and her mother an expert in international law. Her musical
tastes were unusual for an eight-year-old girl. Alexia described Katerina as
highly verbal, analytical of the music presented in class and full of questions
about musical pieces to which she was especially attracted. "My parents like
violin and piano music and the symphony but I like movie music. I like their
music, too, but it is not what I would choose to listen to first."
Panagiotis was more of an average ability student of this school. His mother
was a waitress in a family restaurant, and his father was a service station mechanic. His sister was eleven months younger than Panagiotis.
We have a keyboard and a guitar at home. My dad plays the guitar. He does not
really play it, because he is not really very good at it. He knows a few chords. Me and
my sister we make up songs on the piano. It's really a keyboard, and it sits on the table.
Viki's grandparents emigrated from Asia Minor. She lived with her grandfather, mother, and two younger brothers. She had long, dark hair clipped back
and dark brown eyes that shined as she spoke to the researcher.
We go to Katerina's house, and play our own stuff in her bedroom. We play band
songs, you know, variations of them. Or sometimes we try out the songs we usually
sing on our instruments. You know, stuff like 'Pera stous pera kambus' (Down to the
valleys) or songs from our tapes.

Moving and dancing were basic in Alexia's teaching. A pair of bongos resting
on their stand ready for use reflected such an emphasis. Although the space
available for movement was actually quite restricted, movement and dancing
were nevertheless an indispensable part of the lesson. Almost in every lesson,
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the children experienced the incorporation of their ideas in made-up round

dances. Evidently, the children admired Alexia's dancing abilities and often
exhibited their enthusiasm and wish to resemble her style. However, her lessons were not balanced. Compared to the other two teachers, Alexia used
fewer activities in each lesson, some of them lasting only a few minutes and
others almost the whole lesson. Although she employed movement, speech
and singing in her teaching, basically she was interested in developing children's instrumental playing abilities. One should not forget that Alexia's class
was meant to be a preparatory course to the theory and instrumental music
that the children would learn in the following years.

Given the difficulties of the setting in School B it took more time for the children to get used to the presence of the researcher and the idea of being videotaped. The observer in such a small room could hardly pass unnoticed. However, the children overcame both these distractions in just a few minutes.
9.5.1 Using xylophones to teach a tunefirst lesson

In the following activity which lasted a whole
lesson, Alexia had to prepare some songs for the
Christmas
festivity.
She
skipped
the
usual
movement activities of the beginning and began

teaching the melody of a Christmas song: "The
sheep are sleeping" (In the deep dark night the
sheep are sleeping. A shining star suffused the
world with its magical light). The children would
learn the melody and later she would teach them
5ths to accompany it. A non-folk Christmas tune
was used as a basis while Alexia placed a special
emphasis on teaching techniques.
This was the first of the observed lessons in
Alexia's class (see Table 9.1). The children placed
the xylophones in front of them and removed those
bars that were not needed, according to Alexia's
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suggestions. Alexia who had her metallophone mirroring the children's instruments began the lesson by guiding the children into exercises aiming to
improve the handling of beaters.
Alexia: "Hit the beaters against each other, . . . against the floor, to feel the bouncing." Alexia helped the children individually to improve their playing posture
before she moved back behind her metallophone. She played a melody on the
recorder and asked the children to listen carefully and try to recognise the
tune (Fig. 9.1, Track 09), which is widely used in kindergartens and most children know it; it is a tune in 3/4 and built on the major scale.
Figure 9.1. A Christmas children songThe sheep are sleeping.
Viki: "This song reminds me of Agia Nichta."

Giorgos: " No, it's Feggaraki mou lampro"
Panagiotis: " No, it's Agia Nichta."
As the children could not recognise it, Alexia began singing the lyrics and the
children repeated every line she sang. When they finished, she elaborated the
story of the song and asked the children to hum the tune as she played it again
on the recorder. The children tried singing it to 'la' but most of them sang out
of tune. Alexia asked them to sing softer using 'mm' because they overpowered the sound of the recorder and she hummed the tune alongside the children, although, only one voice seemed to follow the melody that Alexia sang.
Alexia: "All right, take the 'D-bar' out of the xylophones and put it on the floor."
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In a few minutes Katerina managed to play the song on the bass xylophone;
she was the one who previously hummed the tune successfully. By the time
the rest of the children could play the first phrase through a trial-error procedure, Katerina was playing the whole tune by ear. Alexia praised her and
asked if somebody else could do the same. As nobody volunteered, Alexia
played the first melodic line on her metallophone while singing the names of
the notes that she played. The children tried to play the melody on their instruments but without success and Alexia helped them individually. When
they were ready, they played the melody all together and then one by one
again for there were still several mistakes. Before they played the melody
again, she explained which was the best point to strike the bars and the children repeated the entire melody motif-by-motif in order to comprehend it
thoroughly.
Alexia tried to explain some rhythmic difficulties and asked the children to
play a specific motif.
Alexia: "Let's try again 'do si la do si la sol si'; again please 'do si la do si la sol si'."
The children appeared to have problem jumping from 'A' to 'C' and from 'G' to
'B'.
Alexia: "What stops you? Where is the problem?"
Panagiotis: "It is too fast." said Panagiotis in a complaining voice.
Instead of any answer, Alexia repeated the phrase three more times and draw
the movement of the melodic line on the blackboard.
Alexia: "As you can see it goes down then jumps up again then even lower and then
up again." The children looked at the blackboard without saying anything. Before they resumed playing, Alexia corrected their playing posture and hand
movements. The children played the entire melody while singing the names of
the notes alongside Alexia who sang and helped them individually to play the
melody. They played the two motives one after the other.
Alexia: "Although, I sing you the names of the notes, you must try to find it by ear,
so do not play just what I say, there is a melody 'behind' the names." Thus she
helped them individually again by singing: "la sol fa sol la sol fa."
Giorgos: "I can play it" said Giorgos and begun playing even before Alexia
asked. The others stopped their playing in order to listen to him. However,
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they did not listen at all, which prompted Alexia's reaction.

Alexia: "When somebody plays something the rest should listen carefully."
Giorgos: "I remember it [the song] . . . but only half of it." The others agreed, saying that they could not remember the whole tune. In order to overcome this issue Alexia asked them to sing the tune. The children sang the names of the
notes following the teacher.
Alexia: "Who feels confident to play it without my help?" Nobody was willing to
do so. She waited for a moment looking each child insistently in the eyes, before she propose a way out of this dead end.
Alexia: "Let's try to play an arrangement of the tune." The children had to play
both bars 'F' and 'C simultaneously. She sang and the children began to accompany her.
Alexia: "You must be synchronised as if you were one
player. SomeoneI will not mention a nameraises
his hands just when he should be playing."
Thus, she explained to them how to be accurate
and strike the bars in time. She taught them the
accompaniment for different parts of the melody,
which the children learned very easily. After
several repetitions, Katerina was asked to play the
melody on the recorder while Alexia was
conducting
the
whole
attempt,
trying
to
synchronise the rest with Katerina's playing.

However, the song could be heard thanks to the
recorder and Alexia's singing. One had the
impression that without the support of Alexia's
voice the children would not be able to sing in
tune.
9.5.2 Movement and dancing in simple and

compound beatssecond lesson
The following extract from Alexia's class is based
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on three activitiespart of the second lesson (see Table 9.2)which are presented together due to a close interaction between them: a warm-up activity,
which included body percussion and movement, and two activities based on
songs and/or speech activities accompanied with body, unpitched and
pitched percussion and movement. During this lesson, Alexia led her children
to invent a round dance on the music of a traditional carol.
The children had just entered the room: "Could we dance? Please?" Probably,
they remembered the last lesson during which they did not move at all.
Alexia: "Of course you can." Alexia responded promptly and took her place behind the bongos. "Listen carefully to what I am playing on the bongos and try to
match your movements with it." She repeated a rhythmic pattern in 2/4 with a
relaxed tempo (Fig. 9.2, Track 10).
Figure 9.2. Rhythmic patterns played on the bongos.
After two minutes of steady playing, Alexia began variations in terms of beat,
tempo and timbre. The children responded by walking, galloping or creeping
on the floor as Alexia stroke, tapped and scratched the skin of a hand drum
with her fingernails. Their reactions suggested that in previous lessons (not
observed) the children were told how to respond to Alexia's playing and one
could see a great pleasure especially on the boys' faces when they threw themselves on the floor to start creeping. Alexia, on the other hand, kept playing
with an expressionless face, while repeating certain standard phrases like "Attention please" and she kept playing, varying rhythms and tempi.
Alexia: "Listen carefully now." Alexia played a rhythm in 3/4 on the bongos
and the children walked around in a circle over-stressing the strong beats of
the rhythm with accented steps. She left the bongos and approached the children to make a suggestion.
Alexia: "Not in such a 'military-like style' . . . you had better do it like this [she
demonstrated]; let's try it." So, she suggested a more ballet-like movement,
and asked Viki to try it. The children giggled with Viki's dancing and some of
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them imitated her. Alexia played the bongos again and the children began
dancing, trying unsuccessfully to imitate Viki.
Alexia: "Do not look at your feet."
Alexia: "Attention now, I will play something else." She played a rhythm in 5/8,
faster at the beginning and then slowing down. The children seemed puzzled,
so after a while Alexia approached them again to help them understand the
beat.
Alexia: "It is like saying Kokino milo, prasino filo" (Red applegreen leaf). (Fig.
9.3, Track 11); she slapped her thighs while speaking: right hand for the strong
beats (the first syllable of each word) and left hand for the weak ones.
Alexia: "Please, try it." The children imitated her thigh-slapping successfully.
Alexia: "OK, let's try it now while saying the words."
All the children: "Kokino milo, prasino filo . . . "
Alexia: "Right. Now, could we use our feet, as well?" The teacher and the children
intoned the words while stamping their feet on the floor.
Figure 9.3. Words adapted to a rhythmic pattern.
Alexia: "Somebody is very tired and it shows." Alexia stopped her playing and
imitated the way a child walked so all the children began laughing.
Alexia: "Now, I will play something and you have to recognise it". Alexia played a
tune on the recorder which the children recognised immediately as they knew
it from last Christmas: "Agios Vasilis erchete!"
Alexia sang this traditional new year carol, reading the words from a paper,
while the children sang along. It was a piece in 2/4 employing a major scale
and the relative minor oneAgios Vasilis erchete po piso ap' to Kamari. Valte mas
krasi na pioume" (Santa Claus is coming from the backside of Kamari. Give us
some wine to drink) (Fig. 9.4, Track 12). The melody was within the usual vocal range of folk songsnot greater than an interval of sixth (see Section 5.1.2).
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Alexia: "Would you like to dance to this tune?"

Children: "Oh, yes. Can we?"
Figure 9.4. A new year carol from Ikaria, an Aegean sea island.
Alexia held the children's hands and stood still for a moment as if she were
planning her steps.
Alexia: "Little steps to the right, please."
Alexia led the class in a rather made-up round dance which they performed
all together while singing. Although Alexia asked for children's suggestions
that would contribute to this round dance, eventually she applied her own
ideas. First, they moved to the right then to the left and finally to the centre of
the circle while holding their hands up, following the melodic motifs of the
song. The children went on dancing while Alexia sang even louder to support
the rhythm. Later, she stood aside and let the children continue by themselves.
The children stopped and appeared confused with the development of their
dancing.
Giorgos: "I think we must move to the left."
Viki: "But first we move to the centre." Alexia helped them out of this disagreement and they kept dancing to the end of the carol.
Alexia: "Could you please form the circle again? It has lost its shape."
Alexia: "OK, would you like to dance once more?" But nobody replied for the children were tired.
Alexia: "Bend down now and stay there to relax and have some rest." The children
stood still for a moment while Alexia corrected their posture.
Alexia: "Let's try it again but please do not group in boys and girls." Alexia sang
196
the carol while the children danced one more time before they started the next
activity.
9.5.3 Teaching the accompaniment of a tune on the xylophonessecond lesson

Alexia employed the Orff instrumentarium in her teaching systematically. In
this specific activity she used the xylophones to familiarise the children, basically through an oral transmission, with the making of a simple accompaniment. However, when the children faced difficulties in the accomplishment of
this task she resorted to use the names of the notes. This activity, lasting thirty
five minutes, is an example of a one-sided way of teaching. Alexia did not
show any resourcefulness and used only one teaching approach: naming the
notes again and again.
This was the second lesson in school B. The children had just completed a
made-up dance based on a new year carol (see Figure 9.4). They were rather
tired after their dancing that had developed into a frantic spin. As a result
when Alexia asked them to sit behind the xylophones they did it with great
pleasure. The instruments which Alexia had chosen were one bass and three
alto xylophones while Alexia herself used an alto metallophone. The task was
to play a simple accompaniment for the carol. Alexia played in mirror fashion
and sang the names of the notes: "Re la la la." The children imitated her and
proceeded to the next rhythmic motive.
Alexia: "Do sol sol sol; as you can see, all the notes are quavers." The children
found it difficult to play both patterns one after the other, and Alexia repeated
it, singing the names of the notes in a slower tempo. She helped each child individually holding their hands and leading them to play the correct notes. She
even asked the children to come closer and to look at a score of an arrangement. Although, they could not read the score perfectly, they could understand simultaneous playing and musical pauses. Thus, the children tried to
play again. One by one they tried the same phrase but they met difficulties.
They played the easy parts of the phrase faster and the difficult ones slower.
Alexia: "Now, I will play the recorder and you will join me at that point: [sings] "Ta
ta ta ta" [She nods at the fourth note] (see Figure 9.4). While Alexia played the
recorder she nodded with her head to indicate the entrance point for the chil
197
dren. The children started at the right point but each one in a different tempo.
In an attempt to improve their perception of the rhythm, Alexia asked them to
sing while they were slapping their thighs. Later, the children played the instruments while Alexia was singing the whole melody with 'ta'.
Alexia: "We start with this hand . . . mirror, mirror don't forget." But the children
were already very tired from repeating the same melody. Indicative of this
was that after the first 15 minutes Panagiotis found a rather unusual way to
channel his energy: every now and then while seated on the carpet he turned
over, first backwards and then forwards again to his initial place. Alexia
avoided any remarks and proceeded without delays to accomplish her task:
"From the beginning." She sang the names of the notes while playing and the
children played as well.
Alexia: "Now, I will play the recorder and you will accompany me." This attempt
was successful. However, Alexia did not stop there and kept repeating different parts of the tune for about twenty minutes in order to achieve the best possible results. Thus, they played different parts of the arrangement in pairs.
During the repetitions Alexia played different musical instruments. First, she
used the recorder while the children were accompanying her and later she
played the chorus on a xylophone and sang the names of the notes while the
children were imitating her. Finally, she played the
chorus of the tune on the recorder while the
children accompanied her on the xylophones.
Alexia: "Do you want to play it once more?"
Children: "No" The children disclosed their
indignation from the long-lasting repetition of note
sequences.
9.5.4
Exploring 7/8 through visual and audio
stimulithird lesson
Alexia displayed an ease in the use of language
throughout her lessons. As it becomes obvious in
the next extract, coming from the third lesson, she
had developed a child-friendly way to explore
198
issues of rhythm with her class through the use of speech patterns. Thus, the
next extract includes two activities which are connected with the most common Greek rhythm: 7/8.
The class had just finished its usual warm-up, running around the small room
and now they stood on their knees opposite Alexia. In the space between them
there were a few white papers with some markers on the top. Alexia asked
them to play a pattern in 7/8 (3+2+2) by slapping their thighs.
Alexia: "Well, it is like saying: Kokino milo milo, prasino filo filo" (Red apple, apple, green leaf, leaf) (Fig. 9.5, Track 13).
Alexia: "Now, try to do it yourselves."
Viki: "It's like what we did last time."
Alexia: "Well, more or less, yes. Now, try to do it yourselves." The children imitated her.
Figure 9.5. Words adjusted to a rhythmic pattern.
Alexia: "Now, try it again and . . . I want to hear the words. There must be a constant
flow of words . . . like this." Alexia demonstrated what she meant in a rather fast
tempo. There were a few smiles among the children, meaning: how could we
possibly play it so fast? However, they tried it successfully, although in a
slower tempo. Alexia assisted them by shouting the words and particularly
the stressed syllablesthe first syllable of each word.
Alexia: "Well, could you now come closer to take these markers." The children examined some coloured marker pens and sheets of paper lying on the floor.
Alexia gave an example of how the children could use the colours to write
down the rhythm; she drew some lines and dots on a paper.
Alexia: "I want you to write down this rhythmic pattern three times, in your own
way. You must not use any words." The children took the markers and began
drawing different symbols while Alexia helped them. She let them to draw for
about two minutes. First, they hesitated; they looked each at other's drawing
199
but eventually they focused on their own paper.

Alexia: "Could you explain why you have written the rhythm like that?" she asked
Giorgos who had drawn many short lines. She did not receive any answer.
The boy did not open his mouth, he looked embarrassed, glancing at Alexia
and then at the camera. Suddenly, Katerina volunteered: "He failed to distinguish between strong and weak beats." There was a short silence before Viki explained her own drawing (Fig. 9.6) and Alexia looked happy with her answer:
"That is right, tall lines for strong beats and short lines for weak beats. Now, could we
use quavers instead of the lines?"
Figure 9.6. A kind of rhythm notation invented by a child.
Alexia played the pattern on her thighs.

Alexia: "Tell me, are all these beats equal or not?"
Katerina: "No, they are not equal." The children were confused by the strong
and weak beats played with right and left hand respectively and thought they
were not the same.
Alexia: "Listen, carefully: kokino milo, milo. How many syllables are there?"
Viki: "Seven."
Alexia: "Right, now, can you write it down for me. Use a quaver for each syllable, it's
easy."
The children still found it difficult to use quavers to notate the rhythm. Eventually, Alexia wrote it down using the conventional notation.
Alexia: "Do you understand it?"
When all the children had understood her way of notating the rhythm, she
asked them to think of an example with the same rhythm using other words
than 'prasino filo filo'. Viki responded instantly: "Prasino dendro dendro" (green
tree, tree). However, Alexia wanted new ideas and in order to help them she
gave an example: "Simera pao volta" (today I am going for a walk.) (Fig. 9.7).
200
Figure 9.7. A phrase matching a rhythmic pattern.
For the next two minutes, the children tried to find an example but with no
success, so Alexia asked them to do it as homework and she continued to the
next activity.
Alexia: "Pantrevoune ton kavoura ke tou dinoun ti chelona draga trouga targana ore
targana" (A crab is married and the bride is a turtle; draga truga go the instruments.) sang Alexia (Fig. 9.8, Track 14). This is a Halloween song which employs stories of animals to mock human behaviours. Although the song is
dominated by a major scale, every verse concludes on the second degree of the
scale, giving a modal character to the song.
Figure 9.8. A traditional songA crab is married.
Alexia stood in the middle of the room and sang the song while clapping her
hands. The children stood around her and watched. Alexia explained the unknown words to the children who soon followed her singing and hand clapping without any serious difficulties. Next, they all sat on the floor and Alexia
played the rhythm on her knees.
Alexia: "Does this remind you of anything?"
Katerina: "Yes, prasino filo, filo" (see Figure 9.5).
Alexia: "Correct."
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Alexia fetched the bongos and asked the children to attempt to play on the
bongos the rhythm that she had played on her thighs. Panagiotis tried first
and he found it rather difficult to synchronise his hands with the rhythm.
Alexia played with him to make it easier. It was difficult for the next child as
well.
Alexia: "You must forget the rhythmic pattern prasino milo milo ; just think of the
song." She explained while dancing to her singing. The children continued
their attempts for about five minutes but they could only play the basic beats
with a lot of effort. Apparently, playing the bongos demands a certain dexterity and experience that the children did not possess.
9.5.5 A poem set to music by the childrenfifth lesson

In the following, thirty minutes-long activity of the fifth lesson, the children
were guided to a kind of collective composition which was approached in a
modelling waythe imitation of the teacher's composing style was inevitable.
Alexia led her children to a creative experience which would be more appropriate for a class of adults.
The children started the lesson seated behind the

xylophones and playing a song that they had
learned in the previous week's lesson (see Table
9.4). It was a poem set to music by Alexia herself.
After they played the melody and sang the words,
Alexia gave the children copies from a poem
which she recited slowly and expressively: "Mes
tabeli chilies dio mikres grothies to mavi to vathi stafili"
(In the vineyard one thousand two little fists the
deep purple grape). Both the teacher and the
children read it again and stopped after every line
to analyse certain words and illuminate the
meaning of the poem.
Alexia: "Do you understand what this poem is about?"
Viki: "Yes".
202
Alexia: "Could you explain it to us."

The girl looked shy, she did not speak, she looked at Alexia and at the camera
but she did not say anything despite all the teacher's encouragement. So
Alexia decided to analyse certain phrases of the poem again. "I want you to understand the words" she said, and asked the children to try a rhythmic reading
of the poem. As the children hesitated to try, Alexia took the opportunity to
explain what is called 'rhyme'. Midway, Katerina decided to make an attempt
and read the poem. Her voice was pale and the accentuation of the words was
unsure. Viki read the same lines of the poem in a similar colourless way.
Alexia spent a moment contemplating and then with a decisive voice: "Do you
think we could try to find a melody for this poem?" The children looked at each
other puzzled as if they had not understood. Some expressions of hesitation
were heard and instantly covered by Alexia's voice: "Do you want to give it a try
on the xylophones?" They did, for they liked anything related to xylophones.
The children sat behind the xylophones and looked at them without playing
anything.
Alexia: "Try something, it will not come to you by itself." The children tried a few
notes to which they reacted with grimaces of dislike.
Alexia: "Pretend you are alone in a room and you have to find a melody. What would
you do?"
For five minutes the children tried to make up a melody using the xylophones.
Sometimes they went through sequences of notes that belonged to the song
which they had learned in the last lesson. Most of their attempts were phrases
of three or four notes. Everyone could see that they were confused and reluctant to proceed. Obviously, Alexia felt that something was wrong, and she approached the children and asked if they needed any help: "Why don't you try?"
The children looked at the floor saying nothing.
Alexia: "Do you want me to try? But I want you to try." She began humming a
melody while she looked at the poem. There were some stresses in her voice
which coincided with a loose patting of her thighs.
Alexia: "Why don't you make use of the accentuation of the words?" She suggested
a possible rhythmic pattern which could provide a framework for their compositions. She also asked them to remove the 'F' and 'B' bars. Now, the chil
203
dren began boldly to explore harmonic and melodic combinations of sounds

challenging the intervals revealed by the gaps between the bars in their instruments. Alexia was listening and occasionally asked them to repeat a
phrase which appeared to fit to the words. With her help the improvised
melodies gradually became clearer and meaningful. Eventually, she combined
melodies made by different children to create a new one. Mainly, it was a melody in the C pentatonic scale which was clearly affected from those bars that
were left on the xylophones. While the children again played their made-up
melodies, she kept notes of their collective composition (Fig. 9.9, Track 15) in
order to play it on the recorder.
Figure 9.9. Children's collective composition on a poem.
Alexia: "Would you like to dance it now?" As Alexia played, the children moved
in an exploratory way spinning around the room and around themselves in a
ballet-like way. Their style was similar to their teacher's style. By the end of
the melody, she invited some changes to their style: "We must also think of the
words as we dance." Alexia sang the words and later she played it on the recorder again while the children danced to their own music with a style very
similar to the previous one.

When we met for the following interview with Alexiathree days before the
observed lessonsshe looked as if she was looking forward for this meeting.
She looked confident but she never rushed to give an answer before giving it a
second thought. Given the regulations of the school Alexia had a few choices
to vary her teaching. All students of the school had to develop certain skills
that would facilitate the instrumental courses that would follow in the coming
years.
204
Anyway, I must follow the school's regulations which anyway are closer to the parents' will. I have to prepare these children for the classes to come, to be able to cope
with the difficulties that will face the coming years as instrument players. However,
the basic Orff principles are included in my teaching. Every lesson starts with movement . . . we use xylophones and we use many speech activities.
Alexia was quite clear to her tasks as a music teacher. During our discussion
she spoke about Orff-Schulwerk with confidence and gave the impression that
she was a conscientious Orff teacher.
[My aim as music teacher is] To develop their musicianship? To give to the children
opportunities for creativity. I see children's musical development everyday. I think
that they get more pleasure working with difficult rhythms and playing difficult motives on the xylophones and reading notation.
As it became evident from the observations, Alexia appreciated the integration

of other arts in her teaching. She employed elements of poetry and painting in
the classroom and handled them as stimuli for further explorations. "I want
them to have as many experiences from this lesson as possible, experiences
that will affect their lives." On the other hand, of course, she taught the recorder and particularly its use within the Orff activities.
Alexia believed that her class progressed in a satisfactory pace. However, she
pressed for further steps that would enhance children's musicianship. As she
spoke, her words and her facial expression unveiled a person who loves children and is ready to do anything to help their progress.
These children had very little previous experiences but they want to learn because
they love music. Unfortunately, their parents have them occupied with many different things like dance, foreign languages, etc. So they cannot concentrate only on music. I see these children trying their ideas more often now than they did two months
ago. They do not hesitate to suggest a movement or a melody or a rhythm when it is
asked.
Alexia's talking often turned to self-criticism like commenting on her choices

of teaching strategies and partially, answering some unaddressed questions of
the researcher. "Some times, I feel guilty because I push them to learn faster
than they are able but I hope they don't hold it against me. I am trying to be
friendly with them but this must not be at the expense of their development."
Her thoughts revealed an open-minded teacher promoting a child-centred
teaching. "I feel that I learn from the children and I like to work with them developing their ideas in order to achieve better results."
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Alexia had a vague perception in regard to folk music and its role in the OrffSchulwerk approach. One had the impression that she used folk music because she was obliged to do so. Therefore she taught folk music as if it were
part of the compulsory teaching material. In fact she used material from her
initial training in the Moraitis school.
We use folk music but only some times, basically, I use the rhythms; all irregular
mixed rhythms which these children must know. They are already accustomed to
these rhythms as listeners but here they learn to play these rhythms on drums and xylophones and even to dance them [she mend made up dances or at least this is all the
researcher could see]. I find that the children feel at ease with these rhythms at least
the majority of them.
Being a member of the editorial committee of the Greek Orff Society's quarterly journal, Alexia had access to the entire teaching material that was published. Also she was present in most activities of the society, including the
workshops that took place every month. "Basically, I choose the material according to the needs of each lesson but sometimes I use material from previous lessons spontaneously or I can improvise something." Discussing the
teaching conditions in her school Alexia expressed an overt frustration when
she spoke about the syllabus and particularly the expectations of the school.
This music school does not have any particular interest in Orff-Schulwerk but they do
not mind provided that it is not taught at the expense of children's development. In
fact the school's administration and the parents are very pleased and often they praise
the methods I use although they have no idea what I am doing.
In a way Alexia could only count on herself to improve the syllabus of her
school making some small changes in her daily teaching; changes that will
eventually bring better results for the children's musical development.
As I have said, in a way I have already changed the syllabus surreptitiously; I was
supposed to teach recorder lessons twice per week but I have replaced one of them
with Orff-Schulwerk activities. However, the result is the same or better for every experience and all progress of the children is applicable in whatever musical endeavour
these children will involve.
Alexia was rather limited in her ways of expressing her feelings. Occasionally,
she praised a child but usually she avoided any comments on the results of an
activity. Instead, she moved to the next activity or suggested a more careful
repetition of the activity. Some of her comments had to do with her goals for
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young children in music; Alexia used the Orff-Schulwerk approach to music

education because she believed that it helped "to preserve the spontaneity and
curiosity" which is natural to the young child and helps them to "acquire new
ways to be expressive." Talking about teaching strategies, Alexia volunteered
this point " . . . always have kids inventing their own ideas". Such statements
indicate that she would support a child-centred teaching. However, the observational data showed teaching that guided the children step-by-step to a predetermined end-product. Compared to the other two teachers, Alexia was the
one who hardly used play as a means of learning.
9.7 Commentary
Alexia demonstrated a fluency in dancing, recorder playing and singing. Primarily, though, she was an expert in linguistics, therefore she did not miss any
opportunity to relate language to music. In accordance to an Orff principle
which suggests that rhythm is easily understood by children when it is combined with speech (see Section 2.6), she employed words familiar to the children to help them perform the Greek compound rhythms. An example of this
occurred in an activity in the third lesson (see Section 9.5.4) which had already
been prepared in a previous lesson. Thus in the first lesson, the children had to
move and play a 5/8 pattern on their thighs whilst in the second lesson that
speech pattern, was slightly adjusted to fit a 7/8 pattern (see Figure 8.9),
which is very common in Greece. The children, therefore, could easily manage
to perform the new irregular beat.
Alexia familiarised the children with 7/8 by using a few words rather familiar
to them. However, as these three or six words were used throughout the activity, when the children were asked to find other words, they could not, for they
had identified the rhythm in question with the specific words. Although she
successfully led the children to symbolise the rhythm with short and tall vertical lines, she could not help them to use conventional notation and distinguish
between strong and weak beats. The children could easily translate the syllables into tall and short lines, as they understood the difference between strong
and weak beats, but they confused accent with duration. They could not understand that although all notes had the same duration, some notes were more
accented than the others. Perhaps Alexia confused the children by trying to
apply two different systems of notationconventional and graphicin the
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same lesson.
208
209
Moreover, she did not wait for the children to identify the quavers and she
rushed to give the answer. Of all three teachers, Alexia was the only one who
was interested in the children's acquaintance with notation.
The majority of the teaching material that she used originated from the Greek
tradition; songs, rhythms, and composed pieces that the children were taught,
all had compound beats and used folk scales. The last activity of the same lesson was an extension of the previous one. Alexia taught the children a traditional song in 7/8, transferring thus successfully their newly acquired knowledge to a "live" performance. Language proved a perfect medium to bridge the
gap between aural and visual stimuli. The children could easily recognise the
rhythm as Alexia sang the song.
Although the chosen song was in a fast, the children had no difficulty in clapping the rhythm. However, when they were asked to play the same rhythm on
the bongos they could not, for they lacked the necessary dexterity and practice.
In many cases the transcriptions revealed contradictory data as far as Alexia is
concerned:
(a) In two out of five of the observed lessons, Alexia started her lesson
with movement (see Table 9.5), thus helping the children to diffuse
their energy and conceptualise musical elements physically. In the second lesson, for example, she started with free dancing and continued by
asking the children to react in a specific way according to the changes of
her playing. Changing from regular to irregular rhythms, she successfully led the children to notice the difference between strong and weak
beats. After this activity she focused on 5/8, a rhythm that is often met
in Greek traditional music. Although Alexia considered the development of this activity to be successfulduring a discussion after the second lesson she said: "last year they were confused very easily, especially when I changed from regular to irregular rhythms, but now they
notice even the slightest changes in my playing"it was evident that
the children's dancing was not as fluent as it was before the 5/8 beat
was introduced. They kept dancing but suddenly their movement "repertoire" became significantly restricted. Obviously, irregular rhythms
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take even more experience for children to feel secure and attempt any
improvised dancing.
Alexia's belief that sensory-motor experience should precede the cognitive operationa belief in accordance with modern music pedagogy
can be furthermore traced in an activity from the third lesson (see Section 9.5.4). The children experienced a rhythm in 7/8 physically, by
slapping their thighs before they were asked to notate it. In her attempt
to teach the children how to notate a rhythm in 7/8, Alexia adopted the
notion that teaching, especially with young children, should not rely on
verbal but rather on motor and perceptual experiences.
(b) Alexia could spend a whole 45 minutes teaching a melody which the
children had not audiated before. At every opportunity, during an activity from the first lesson (see Section 9.5.1), she repeated the whole
melody of the song in an attempt to teach it to the children quickly. Although she knew the benefits of playing by earshe often encouraged
the children to hear attentively before they repeat a melody that she had
playedshe usually preferred to give the names of the notes because,
in this way, she saved time. First, the children sang the melodyor at
least they triedby singing the names of the notes and when they felt
confident with it they proceeded to play it on the xylophones. However,
a detailed scrutiny of the video extracts revealed that in fact the children played each note just after Alexia had sang it. Do children of this
age have the capacity to memorise such long melodies? This is a question that she failed to ask to herself.
(c) Alexia was the only one of the observed teachers who asked the
children to compose music. In a way she had paved the way for this lesson's (the fifth lessonsee Section 9.5.5) composition activity, when in
the previous one she gave the children an example of a poem set to music by herself. Starting the lesson, she reminded them of her composition before she presented a poem that the children had to set to music.
A first reading of the data could therefore lead to the assumption that
Alexia favoured creative activities. However, when the time came to
prompt them to compose, she did it rather abruptly. The children were
given no opportunity to get used to the poem through movement or
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some kind of musical game that would function as a warm-up. At least,

she could have started with a kind of improvisation before asking the
children to invent melodies that would fit the words of the poem. The
children's reaction showed that creative playing and improvisation was
a problem for them; they were not used in such activities. As a result
Alexia used to intervene and interrupt their musical explorations in order to provide solutions and save the activity from a dead end. In a
way, the children were forced into music composing and as a result
they were not wholly involved in the creative process. Her interference
cut across the limits and in a way she imposed the melody on the children. With regard to the poem used in this activity, it was obviously
beyond the children's capacity. It contained meanings that could not be
understood easily by children of this age. Although educators, and
among them Orff himself, suggested that children can appreciate any
advanced form of art, as adults do, in this case it would have been wiser
to start with a poem more accessible to the children.
A limited use of creative activities can also be traced to other instances.
In an activity from the second lesson (see Section 9.5.3), Alexia encouraged the children to play a simple accompaniment on the xylophones;
she did so within the limitation of the available teaching time. She had
no time to wait and see what kind of accompaniment the children
would invent themselves, neither had she the time to employ other
time-consuming methods like oral learning.
(d) Alexia deprived the children of using their own ideas either in instrumental playing or movement activities. During the second lesson,
while working on a new year carol, Alexia did not give her children any
stimuli to help them invent their own movement ideas. Having a rather
simple form (ABA), this carol could have been a stimulus for a creative
movement activity but as Alexia demonstrated what she expected from
the children, they inevitably imitated her. Her task, to help the children
"improvise" a round dance while singing a song, was partly accomplished. The children did enjoy dancing but they could not cope with
the difficulty of performing lyrics and melody at the same time.
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Data therefore revealed that on a number of occasions Alexia chose to ignore

basic Orff principles. This was not due to an ignorance of these principles on
her part, but a conscious decision to ignore them for a number of reasons. As
she had to prepare the music for the Christmas festivities, she pushed the
children to learn as quickly as possible. This festival was a priority in this case;
it was the main reason that drove the teacher to overlook basic music teaching
principles such as: (a) children at this age cannot concentrate on the same activity for as long as 30 minutes; (b) the teacher only provides the stimuli and
lets the children explore the possibilities; (c) music teachers resort to note
names only after a music piece has been learned by means of imitative procedureswhich is a basic Orff principle, as well. In this lesson, Alexia continued
with an intensive 'one-way' teaching which lasted 35 minutes. Commenting on
this issue she said: " . . . the last few lessons before Christmas are always affected by the preparations for the festival."
Unfortunately, there was nothing creative that the children were asked to do
during this time. It remained a relentless repetition of melodic motives and
phrases resulting in the children's nervous reactiondespite Alexia's belief
that the children enjoyed everything related to xylophone playing (see Section
9.6). However, apart from the above mentioned reasons, it appeared that
Alexia simply could not let the children free to experiment and employ their
own ideas, which was also related to her character and personal beliefs: "I
know that they don't feel at ease when I ask them to compose a piece or a
short phrase. Whenever I leave them [the children] alone to work by themselves and invent things, I feel that I waste their time, time from their development . . . I feel that they need me, they need my help to take a step forward."
Both Alexia and Matina had to prepare a repertoire for Christmas festivities.
Alexia had been aware of this and was rather apologetic to the researcher during a discussion after the second lesson, stating that she was pressed to organise the festival. She said: " . . . they were bored today but I don't blame them . .
. sitting all the time behind the xylophones; but I had no choice, I had to teach
those Christmas songs" and later "This is not actually the kind of lesson I
would like to do, but I must save time in order to prepare this festival".
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10.1 The setting

This was a state primary school situated in a large municipality in the northern suburbs of Athens. Orff-Schulwerk lessons took place in a long room, the
size of a basketball court, therefore there was enough space for movement activities. Moreover, Fanis had placed all furniture aside, leaving a spacious
though a bit barren room for his lesson. One side of the room was entirely of
windows and there was a stage at one end. A small carpet was in the middle
of the room where most of the lessons took place. The walls of the classroom
were decorated with pictures of the heroes of the 1821 Greek revolution; big
rooms in public schools serve as gathering places during national holidays.
Compared to the other two schools, this school was less fortunate as far as
equipment was concerned and this was closely related to the fact that it was a
state and not a private schoolas was the school A. The school followed the
national curriculum but due to lack of a specialist music teacher, there was no
music lesson included in its syllabus (see Section 4.2.1). However, extracurriculum activities, such as music or dance, could be offered to those children who were interested. The observed class was established due to an initiative that the parents of the school took, aiming to keep their children busy in a
creative way during the early afternoon hours. In this way, Fanis, the music
teacher, was hired to involve the children in musical activities which he called
"musical games". His payment came from municipal funds available for extra
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school activities, and unlike the other two schools, parents in this school did
not have to pay anything at all. Nevertheless, during the first months of the
programme Fanis managed to assemble some money from the parents in order to buy a few percussion instruments.
10.2 The teacher

Fanis had completed a guitar course in a conservatory, followed by a two-year
degree course in music and movement in Moraitis schoolthe same one that
Alexia had followed (see Section 4.3). He was an active musician as well, playing traditional percussion instruments at a professional level. He also displayed some simple keyboard playing abilities.
At the time of the research he was a teacher with more than five years of
teaching experience. Apart from the observed school he also taught in three
other institutions. Being a well-known Orff teacher, he also taught a number of
in-service training seminars. He was also accustomed to being observed for as
he said: "on various occasions, students from the two-year Orff course [in Moraitis school] attend my lesson". Therefore, he seemed at ease with the presence both of the researcher and the camera.
During the lessons, Fanis nurtured a friendly atmosphere, often gently kidding the children and was consistently energetic throughout each lesson.
However, being quite reserved in personality, Fanis smiled rarely and spoke
only when it was necessary, with a calm and relaxing voice. During the observed lessons, he never lost his temper, although he was continuously interrupted by the children and even by their parents. He believed that "creativity
can be nurtured only when every child's voice can be heard". Therefore, he
developed a democratic way and favoured a permissive climate in his class,
asking everybody to participate equally. As the title of his lesson "musical
games" reveals, he was a teacher whose main interest was children having fun
and learning through play, rather than obtaining advanced skills.
In one of our discussions, he confessed that he had always wanted to be videotaped; he thought that an analysis of his methods would prove to be very
helpful in improving his teaching techniques. What was obvious both from the
observed lessons and the interviews, was Fanis' love for children and eager
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ness to improve his teaching skills. "When I find the money, I am planning to
attend a summer course in Salzburg." Notably, he managed to go the following summer.
10.3 The children

Unlike the other two schools observed, the children in school C were experiencing Orff-Schulwerk for the first time. Having five boys and five girls, Fanis'
class had an ideal size and balance between boys and girls. The children were
mostly from lower and middle class background; their cultural experiences
were confined to the television and school. Two of them mentioned experiences of street entertainers playing music in the pedestrian zone of central
Athens, which they described as "a fantastic experience".
Notably, they were familiar with round dances, thanks to the physical education teacher. Unfortunately though, this experience did not help them with
movement in general, for they felt rather uncomfortable with free or improvised movement. However, during the five lessons that were observed, the
children were eagerly participating, having fun and enjoying themselves,
though quarrelling with each other; this is a characteristic of most Greek primary schools. Therefore, theyespecially the boysoften lacked discipline
and followed Fanis' suggestions approximately; often they responded by doing the opposite of what they were asked to do, or behaved strangely only to
attract others' attention. In the following paragraphs are presented some of the
children that were more energetically participating.
Yannis was a tall and husky boy dressed in black jeans and a sweatshirt. He
appeared older than his classmates, his hair cut short, with wire-framed
glasses. He had three siblings and his mother and father were employed in the
maintenance of the town hall's indoor spaces. His demeanour was gentle and
modest. He wanted to learn to play and read music, and he recognised that
this music class with Fanis could provide him with these skills.
Nikitas was a gregarious child, quick in delivering opinions of his family,
school, and musical life. His mother was a licensed practical nurse, and he had
a fifteen-year-old brother. He was immediate and certain in his remarks, maintaining eye contact with the researcher.
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I like soft music. When flutes, violins, and saxophones play together. Violins are actually my favourite instruments. Like the music of Parios (A Greek pop singer). My
mum likes to listen to Parios. My mum, she used to have all his CDs. My mom sings,
she is one of the loudest singers.
Aggelina had an older brother at the intermediate school in the same district.
Her father worked at the central market, where he unloaded produce trucks;
her mother worked as a chambermaid at a downtown hotel. It was obvious
that Aggelina found immense enjoyment in music. She mentioned songs of
her parents, tapes and videotapes and Fanis' classesall of these elements
comprised her musical life. She remembered the song "I poulia pouchei epta pedia" and the song "Ena karavi araxe".
Natalia's long, dark brown hair was fixed in a high ponytail that bobbed as she
talked in an animated manner. She wore round wire-rimmed glasses. She was
articulate, friendly, and with a good sense of humour, smiling and giggling
easily. Both of Natalia's parents were employed as cafeteria workers.
Unlike most kids, I have my own recorder at home, which I got for Christmas last
year. It's wooden and pretty expensive. I know some Cretan songs and so do my big
sisters. After school, I go home and turn on my Cretan tapes and sing with them. My
older sisters know some of these songs, but I know them better.
Vasilis was the middle of three boys; his brothers were ten and seven years
old. His parents were recently divorced, and he and his brothers spend their
time in each of their parents' homes.
My uncle is a percussionist. He shows me lots of his drums, and I get to play them.
The one in school is not a real thing. But anyway, no big deal. I like the dancing
games. Sometimes. But today, when he (Fanis) played the piano, the girl who was
supposed to play the drum part just couldn't get in sync. Some of us could play the
rhythm, but this girl just couldn't play.

During the five lessons Fanis improvised a lot in his teaching, employing a variety of activities which were not planned but chosen spontaneously from his
rich teaching repertoire. Usually this resulted in a poorly sequenced lesson
plan. On the other hand, he showed a particular zest in trying new ideas and
variations that stemmed from the children's suggestions or were directly proposed by the children. Therefore, his lessons were never boring for he used, a
217
variety of activities; for example, movement activities, such as group dancing

of an elemental or folk character and dramatisations of fairy tales or other
short scenes in dance. The children enjoyed these activities that gave them opportunities to use their imagination. In an interview, Fanis stated that, in his
opinion, the goal of the music programme was to promote musical independence and to enable children to conceptualise about music.
Fanis preferred to try a lot of different activities with the children in order to
offer them a pleasant time instead of persisting with one activity in order to
accomplish a better performance. Usually, he used five or six activities in each
lesson. Movement activities occupied the greatest amount of time in most of
the observed lessons with Fanis. Therefore, partly, due to the lack of pitched
instruments, most activities developed into movement activities. Often he involved the children in free movement activities, such as free dancing or simple
made-up dances. The children moved in a variety
of ways: mirroring one another's body movement
or inventing their own movements. Whether they
were singing, playing or moving, the emphasis
was on doing so in a creative way. The teaching
materials used by Fanis were drawn from folk
musicinstrumental or voicepopular music and
art music; Fanis used non-folk material more often
than the other two teachers

In the course of each lesson Fanis used many
activities in order to develop children's general
musicianship or merely to entertain them. The
following three extracts constitute a sequence of
closely related activities which, nevertheless, have
a slightly different focus.
10.5.1 Hand gestures as a means to conceive

rhythm and melody second lesson
In the first ten minute-long extract Fanis employed
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a carol to attract the children's attention and let them develop a sense of the
melodic movement by means of hand gestures. This was the second of the observed lessons in school C (see Table 10.1). It took place three weeks before
Christmas and Fanis, like most music teachers, employed carols in his teaching. Taking advantage of the fact that the children were familiar with the melody, he encouraged them to explore the melodic line, by means of whole-body
movements or gesturesas it is described later in this section. Fanis provided
the children with scores and lyrics of the carol, although most of them knew
the tune by heart and sang along: "Kalin esperan archontes kian ine orismos sas"
(I wish you a good afternoon my Lords.) (Fig. 10.1, Track 16). It was a simple
melody built on a major scale and a simple 2/4 beat.
Figure 10.1. An Athenian Christmas carol.
Fanis asked the children to imitate him as he represented the ups and downs
of the melody with movements of his right hand. The children tried but all
they achieved was to raise and lower their hands arbitrarily, imitating Fanis's
gestures without listening or without having been able to translate what they
heard into hand gestures; they had difficulties in distinguishing between ascending and descending melody, and Fanis helped them again. This time he
used his left hand fingers as a ladder, to define the steps of the melody, moving upwards and downwards. "We start with the middle finger." The teacher
and the children sang together while pointing the steps of the melody on the
left hand with the index finger of the right hand. That was quite successful but
some children still had difficulties. "We had better try it at a slower tempo", said
Fanis and changed the tempo of his singing in order to make it easier. This
worked perfectly well and the children managed to sing the tune in time.
The next activity focused on the development of attentive listening.
Fanis: "Whenever you hear the 'starting music' [a melodic motif from the begin
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ning of a Christmas carol (see Figure 10.1)] you must raise your hands." However, the children were not sure which was the starting music that Fanis meant
and they had probably confused this activity with the previous one. Accordingly, they started quarrelling.
Yiannis: "Vasilis does not raise his hand."
Vasilis: "This was not the 'starting music'."
Fanis: "When you hear this music 'la la la la' [sol la si do] [you must raise your
hands]."
Aggelina: "But Sir you said when we hear it. Why do they not wait for it?"
After a few repeats of the melody, the children responded in a satisfactory
way and Fanis moved on to the next activity which was the clapping of the
rhythm of the tune. Initially, the children played a steady beat for they confused the term 'rhythm' with the term 'pulse'.
Fanis: "Please, follow the melody, the rhythm of the words."
Yiannis: "Like this." Yiannis demonstrated to his classmates by clapping a pattern but it was wrong.
Fanis: "I don't want a steady beat like this; I want you to play the melody . . . like
this." Fanis spoke and clapped his hands at the same time.
Fanis: "Once more, please; this time sing the tune internally." They repeated the
activity by slapping their thighs instead of hand-clapping. Very soon, all the
children performed the rhythm of the song without any mistakes. Thus, by
employing different techniques, Fanis led the children to an understanding
both of the melody and the rhythm. However, he chose a rather unusual way
of starting from the melody and proceeding to the rhythm and, as a result, the
children appeared confused by the third activity.
10.5.2 From movement improvisation to round dancingsecond lesson

The next extract which lasted twenty five minutes, was chosen to be included
in the data analysis for it exhibits in the best way Fanis' technique to elicit
children's movement ideas and incorporate them in a continuous round dancing. Noteworthy, he employed a lengthy introductory part to make the children feel at ease with improvised movement.
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This was the second lesson in the primary school (see Table 10.1). Fanis asked
the children to dance to the sounds that he played on a hand drum. It had a
variety of rhythmic patterns and tempi (Fig. 10.2/a,b,c, Track 17) and required
the children to respond appropriately.
Fanis: "Please, walk to the rhythm, moving backwards now, galloping now . . . I want
each one of you to try this."
One by one, the children interpreted the various rhythmic patterns in different
ways, such as galloping, skipping or even running around their classmates.
Amalia moved ethereally around the room raising her hands like a butterfly.
Fanis chose her to exemplify his expectation: "Do what Amalia does" and continued with a variation of the activity: "Now you must echo my drumming by
stamping your feet on the floor." Fanis played different rhythmic patterns on a
hand drum (Fig. 10.2/d,e, Track 17). The children appeared to enjoy this activity especially when it developed into a kind of free dancing.
Fanis: "Don't forget to use your hands and please try more new ideas." The children
demonstrated their inventiveness by jumping around or throwing themselves
on the floor.
Figure 10.2. Rhythmic patterns played on a hand drum.
Marios had an odd idea. He took his shoes from the side of the carpet where
they had been placed and banged them on the floor, following the rhythm of
the hand drum. Although he made too much noise, Fanis merely gave him a
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look. It was a look of questionable approval, thus the boy continued. Soon
Nikitas fetched his shoes as well and began to play in a kind of contest with
Marios, thus banging became an annoying noise. Fanis kindly asked them to
stop and they both resumed moving. After a while Fanis asked the children to
listen to a new pattern (Fig. 10.3, Track 18). As he played a small hand drum
using a beater, one by one the children performed while the rest were seated
in a circle on the carpet and watched.
Figure 10.3. A rhythmic pattern played on a hand drum.
Fanis: "Giorgos, would you like to try next?"

Giorgos: "OK, I will."
The boy moved to the middle of the circle and as soon as the drum played he
began banging alternatively his chest and his head with his fists. However,
Fanis expected something else.
Fanis: "I would prefer it if you had a clear idea and kept it the same throughout your
presentation."
Fanis: "Who wants to try next?"
Elena: "I will."
Elena stood in the middle of the circlefeet still and stiffand she raised her
arms alternatively to an horizontal position and down again, following the
pulse approximately. "What do you think of this?" asked Fanis. A couple of
hands were raised but not for answering his question. Giorgos who had performed first, said that the tape-recorder was still on and a second boy said that
he would like to be next while Elena who had just finished insisted on trying
once more. Fanis, being rather disappointed, asked Nikitas to try. When the
hand drum began sounding again the boy started to perform various fullbody movements featuring running and skipping forwards and backwards,
inside and out of the circle and away out from the carpet. When he stopped,
Fanis praised the variety of his ideas but repeated that he would prefer one
clear idea which would be worked out thoroughly. As we will see later, the
reason for having one clear idea was that later the children would be asked to
incorporate their ideas into a general choreography.
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Accordingly, Nikitas stood up again and performed only a phrase from all his
movementsskipping forwards and backwards once. Next performed Natalia
and when she finished Fanis asked all the children to stand up in a circle.
Fanis: "All right, now I want all of you to remember your own movements."
The children responded by trying their movements all together.
Fanis: "Now, let us see which of these ideas can be used in a team performance."
Natalia: "I have an idea." Natalia was trying hard to be heard among the voices
of the others.
Fanis: "Please, listen carefully what Natalia says."
Natalia: "Why don't we try to move first to the right and then to the left."
Fanis: "All right, lets try it. Now, we will try to combine all these ideas in a round
dance."
Fanis and the children tried to put some ideas in an order. As the choreography progressed, Fanis was very careful to incorporate every child's ideas.
Now there was an endless flow of new ideas which the children conveyed all
together making it difficult for him to follow them. Some children proposed to
move in and out of the circle in a funny waylike soldiers or ballet dancers
some others proposed to leave the circle make a solo dance and return to the
circle.
Fanis: "OK, shall we try now some of these ideas while singing the Christmas carol.
Giorgos: "I 'll start first."
Fanis: "Let's dance all together."
As a result, all movements had to be tailored again to fit the length of the
phrases of the song. Fanis looked at his watch; it was time to start the next
activity so he asked the class to sit with him on the floor and comment on
what they had just done. There were some off-the-cuff comments like "I liked
it very much" or "I liked that part of dancing more" and then a boy interrupted
them shouting something totally irrelevant:
Vasilis: "Sir, Aggelina tells me 'what to do'; who is the 'chief' in this place Sir, Aggelina or you?"
Aggelina reacted instantly.
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Aggelina: "First of all you must learn how to speak properly; we never call our Sir
'chief'."
They continued arguing while Fanis preferred not to interfere and went to his
desk to find a percussion instrument for the next activity.
10.5.3 Using interactive learning to introduce a customthird lesson

In this fifteen minute-long activity Fanis partly relived the traditional oral
transmission (see Section 5.2.2) as he performed in front of the class. At the
same time he used several techniques of the Orff approach. The children had
the opportunity to experience the rhythm and the text but not the ritual action
of a custom originating from a distant region of Greece.
The third of the observed lessons in the primary
school (Table 10.2) had just started. The children
were seated in a circle on the carpet and Fanis sat
among them tuning his guitar. They were very
curious to examine the tuning fork that Fanis used.
Accordingly, Fanis passed from each child's place
and put the tuning fork close to their ear to let
them hear its sound which was not audible otherwise.
Fanis: "Now, I will tell you about a Christmas carol
from Thrace. Do you know where Thrace is?" The
children appeared to disagree, which prompted
Fanis to give the answer: "It is in northern Greece,
near Bulgaria and Turkey. Well, in Thrace people sing
this carol on New Year's Eve . . . actually they do not
sing but speak it." Thus Fanis spoke the carol
accompanying it with sound gestures "Sourva
sourva gero kormi gero kormi gero stavri. (Sourva
sourva may you have strong body, strong body and
strong waist.)" (Fig. 10.4, Track 19).
As soon as Fanis stopped, Yiannis asked if this carol was always spoken from
a seated position. The answer came from Amalia who demonstrated how one
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could speak the carol standing. At this point Fanis gave the context of the
carol. "On New Year's Eve, children take a twig from a cornel tree, which is considered to have very strong wood and curve it to the shape of a horse-shoe which they call
'Sourva'. Then they use the sourva to pat the back of old people while speaking certain
wishes."
Figure 10.4. A new year carol from Thrace.
Fanis asked the children to repeat after him as he started saying the carol from
the beginning and every two bars he repeated the words supporting the children and then continued with the next two bars. The children participated enthusiastically, enjoying speaking the words in the local Thracian accent which
sounded strange to their ears. At this point, Fanis explained some words
which were unknown to the children. When they resumed the imitation process Fanis played four bars instead of two. The children repeated without any
problem apart from Vasilis whom Fanis always kept next to him because he
was a well-known mischievous pupil. After a few explanations Fanis repeated
the carol but this time the children spoke with him and not after him.
Fanis went to the tape recorder and played an original recording of this carol
from Thrace which he had recorded from a radio broadcast; one could even
hear the producer of the programme who prefaced the carol. The children
were listening astonished and when it stopped they laughed a lot with the
voices of the children from Thrace which had a very strong accent. Fanis,
though, did not comment on the recording.
Fanis: "Now, let's find a dance for this carol."
Marios: "Let's move in and out [of the circle]"
Elena: "No, no, move to the right and then spinning around, and then to the left."
Marios: "But, we did this in last week's carol."
All the children showed an eagerness to see their own idea being adopted and
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shouted as loud as they could suggesting that their own movement idea was
the best or rejecting the ideas of the others. However, Fanis singled out two
ideas which seemed to be more feasible and explained to the children what to
do. The basic movements were steps to the right, steps to the left and steps to
the centre of the circle. The result was not so impressing but the children
looked very happy as they were dancing their own round dance.
10.5.4 Accompanying a song with unpitched percussion instruments third

lesson
This was one of the many activities in Fanis' lessons whose goal was not
clearly set; apart from children's great enjoyment, of course. The children were
asked to play and sing spontaneously and when they did it there were no further corrections or demands on the teacher's part.
This ten minute-long activity, coming from the third lesson observed in school
C (see Table 10.2), is an example of what a music teacher can do without many
musical instruments. Possessing only a few unpitched percussion instruments,
Fanis gave a lead as to how one might, with the addition of only one melodic
instrument, keep a class occupied and provide some sort of ensemble quickly.
The class had completed a made-up round dance (see Section 10.5.3) and they
sat down in a circle with Fanis among them.
Fanis: "Now, we will choose our instruments."
Fanis asked Aggelina to pick a child who would be the first to take an instrument; and that child in turn, would pick the next and so on. Also, every child
had to name the musical instrument that he or she had chosen. The available
instruments were two tambours, two jingle rings, a pair of maracas, a pair of
agogo bells, a pair of cymbals and a pair of claves. While the children were examining the instruments in their hands, they also explored the sounds that
could be produced by the instruments.
Fanis: "This is how we play the maracas [he demonstrated] and the claves [he
demonstrated again]." Thus, Fanis explained the usual way of playing each instrument. As he talked, a boy who had chosen the agogo bells tried to change
it with another instrument.
Giorgos: "Sir, may I choose another instrument?"
226
Fanis: "No, you made your choice. You 're playing the agogo bells."
When the children felt quite familiar with the instruments, Fanis began to play
the guitar and sing a carol (see Figure 10.1), while the children accompanied
with percussion instruments. Curiously, Fanis did not tell them how to play,
not even to start playing but while he was singing he monitored the children's
rhythmic accuracy and handling of the instruments. After every verse he
stopped and prompted them to play more efficiently: "Could you, please, make
your instruments' sound to last longer?"
Fanis began singing again and the children played the instruments. Their faces
had an expression indicating a great satisfaction, for they played their instruments together with other musicians as adults did. Most of them followed the
rhythmic values of the melody, some of them played the upbeats or in the
gaps between the melodic phrases accidentally and once in a while a child
could be heard maintaining the pulse of the tune.
Fanis: "Now, can you play and sing at the same time?" Fanis played the guitar and
the children started to play and sing simultaneously but they made too much
noise with the instruments and Fanis had to interrupt them: "Play the instruments softer, please, I want to hear your voices." The result was very close to what
it was before he had made his suggestions, but Fanis seemed not to expect
anything more and moved to the next activity.
10.5.5 Another way into movement improvisationthird lesson

In this activity Fanis allocated a good amount of timeabout fifteen minutesto prepare a movement improvisation activity. Starting from a wellknown tune, he involved the children in whole-body movements which were
later developed into invented movement ideas.
Fanis often used movement to help the children develop a sense of melody as
in the following activity which came from the third lesson again (see Table
10.2). It was a particularly noisy lesson with all ten children in the class including two over-energetic boys. The class had just finished an activity accompanying a carol with small percussion instruments (see Section 10.5.4). The children left their instruments unwillingly and sat on the carpet as close as possi
227
ble to Fanis. Usually, they quarrelled who would sit next to him but Fanis always chose those noisy boys in order to have them under control.
Fanis fetched a recorder and began playing an Athenian Christmas carol (see
Figure 10.1), a melody which the children already knew by heart. As they listened, the children were asked to identify a specific melodic pattern which
was the starting motif of the entire melody.
Fanis: "Each time you hear this motif you must walk forward." Actually, this was a
variation of an activity carried out in the previous lesson in which the children
were asked to raise their hands each time they heard this specific melody (see
Section 10.5.1). However, this activity was not very successful; the children
appeared to disagree about which was the motif in question. Nevertheless,
Fanis asked them to try something else: "You can also make steps to the left or to
the right." The result was even more chaotic. The children moved continuously
and nothing indicated when the motif in question was played. Marios and Vasilis created a lot of noise pretending they drove an imaginary car but Fanis
ignored them and offered a solution to their need for continuous movement:
"Please, choose a certain movement pattern to start with and each time I play the start
of the carol you must try a new movement. When you don't have any more ideas, return to your place and stay still."
He talked and moved, giving an example of what he meant. It was one of the
rare cases when one could see Fanis performing movements. His voice was
hardly audible because all the children were talking to each other. Although it
was not certain that the children understood what he said, Fanis began playing the recorder and the children one by one tried several movements which,
in fact, were different ways of marching forward and backward. Nikitas who
tried first walked rhythmically to the centre of the circle waving his head like a
puppet and the second time that he walked to the centre he danced like a rock
singer moving his hands and shuffling his feet. When he returned to his position he looked at Fanis waiting for a comment but, instead, Fanis asked a second child to start; he did not normally comment on children's individual attempts. Later as Fanis discussed this issue with the researcher he explained,
"The children look at my face and they know whether I like it or not. So I prefer not to say anything that might affect what they do."
228
Amalia, who was second, just walked up and down the room unaffected by
the development of the melody. When she stopped walking Fanis asked the
class to comment on her movement ideas.
Yiannis: "She didn't make it."
Natalia: "She only walked."
Yiannis: "Only the last time she did it correctly."
Fanis agreed with the last comment and suggested that next time they should
watch more carefully. "You must focus on whether she does it nicely or not" he said
as Katerina presented her own ideas which, again, was a variety of steps forwards and backwards. As soon as she stopped, Fanis and the children agreed
that she varied her movements more often than she should; she did not wait
for the specific motif to be heard. Two more children presented their ideas and
the comments were more or less the same. The
rest of the children refused to try and Fanis
proceeded to the next activity.
10.5.6 Rhythmic development through speech

gamesfourth lesson
Faithful to the title of the course"musical
games"Fanis regularly employed musical games
aiming towards children's entertainment. In the
following activitieseach one lasting about five
minuteshe managed to combine entertainment
with rhythmic development.
This was the fourth lesson in Fanis' class (see
Table 10.3). It was the first school day after the
Christmas vacation. Obviously, some of the
children were still on vacation; there were seven
childrenfive girls and two boys. Fanis and the
children sat in a circle patting their knees
rhythmically while introducing themselves to
rhythmic
speaking.
Fanis
and
the
children
maintained the pulse with alternative clapping

and thigh slapping while saying: "Irtha pali edo
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yiasou Fanis. (I came here again. Hi, Fanis.)"

Fanis: "OK, now continue with the clapping but only one child at a time should
speak." Eventually, the children managed to say this little phrase rhythmically.
However, sometimes they started on the upbeat or even when they started on
the downbeat gradually the stressed syllables became misplaced on the upbeat. Occasionally, Fanis stopped them and the whole class started again.
The activity went on with clapping and thigh slapping before Fanis moved
into questions concerning their holidays. The children gladly shared their experiences with their classmates. It was a narration presented in a recitative
style rather than singing. Occasionally, the children stopped playing the
rhythm and Fanis asked them to be more careful. As the rhythm went faster
and faster Fanis introduced a game-like activity in which the children invited
their classmates to sit next to their own position on the floor. Fanis left an
empty space on his right side and said: "I thesi sta dexia mou ine adiani ela Mary
na katsoume mazi. (There is an empty seat on my right side, please come Mary
and sit next to me.)" As Mary left her seat to come next to Fanis, Marios who
sat on the left side of Natalia had now an empty seat on his right side and so
he said the words: "I thesi sta dexia mou ine adiani ela . . . na katsoume mazi." and
the activity continued in this way.
As the tempo went faster and faster the stressed syllables had been moved to
the hand clapping but Fanis did not say anything and let the children continue
the game which they seemed to enjoy very much. Soon, this activity developed into another game with numbers:
Fanis: "One"
Yiannis: "Two"
Nikitas: "Three"
Katerina: "Three"
Every child had to say a number while banging the floor with one hand. But
when two children accidentally said the same number, the class had to start
the game all over again. As usual, the children were impatient and Fanis had
to ask them repeatedly to wait for a short time between one number and the
other. The children seemed unable to decide and looked at each other wonder
230
ing who would say a number. Gradually, they achieved a stable tempo and
left equally long pauses between the numbers which was actually the purpose
of this activity.
10.5.7 The dramatization of a songfourth lesson

In the next activity Fanis played the role of a musician performing in the classroom. This prompted the children to participate eagerly and play their own
parts as percussionists. For this purpose, he employed a children's song with a
lively tempo which prompted for movement and action.
The next activity comes from the fourth lesson in the primary school (see Table 10.3). The class had just completed an enjoyable activity with plenty of
movement and dancing all over the place (see Section 10.5.6). Fanis thought
the children would need some rest and asked them to sit on the floor.
Fanis: "How can a boat sail away without sails?"
Giorgos: "Using an engine."
Fanis: "Something simpler?"
Katerina: "Using oars."
Fanis: "All right, let's form two rows of rowers."
The children sat back-to-back on the carpet in two rows and Fanis explained
them how to imitate rowing by patting the carpet. First, they patted on their
knees, then on their right, then on their knees again and finally on their left.
Synchronised movements proved to be difficult especially between the two
rows. As they could not see each other the children had to listen carefully for
the sound of the other group's rowing. When the children were able to row
rhythmically and well synchronised, Fanis played the guitar and sang: "Ena
karavi araxe stou vasilia tin porta"(A ship anchored in front of the King's door.)
(Fig. 10.5, Track 20), which is a children's song in 2/4, reciting the adventures
of a ship; the children sang alongside for they knew the melody from a previous lesson.
231
Figure 10.5. A traditional children song.
Guitar playing, singing and sound gestures following the pulse of the tune
went quite smoothly when Fanis asked the two rows to sit facing each other.
He gave them some unpitched percussion to accompany their singing. After
they had played the song once, without any real problem, the children were
asked to make their own arrangement of the song. The children discussed it
for a short time, sometimes disagreeing and sometimes working as an experienced, well organised team. Finally, they concluded with the following arrangement: the two rows sang each verse of the song alternatively, accompanied by the percussion instruments. They started applying their ideas but soon
after the first two verses the children had a new idea: one of the rows stood up
and began walking rhythmically around the seated row while singing and
playing the percussion instruments. When they repeated the song, both
groups were walking around the room; this actually was accidental as they
had not discussed it at all. Their singing was not perfect, and the playing of instruments had some flaws. The two groups were occupied in a kind of rivalry
and did not pay much attention to their singing and playing. However, Fanis
let them continue to enjoy this 'game song' they had made by themselves.
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10.5.8 Creative listening through pantomime fifth lesson

Play as a means for learning was regularly used in
Fanis' lessons. In this particular case, Fanis
employed a story which proved very attractive
and stimulating for the children's imagination.
They were totally absorbed in imitating animals of
the wood, which served Fanis' goals perfectly.
Later, he explained "My ultimate goalapart from
letting them [the children] have a good timewas
to familiarise them with some common musical
instruments and also a modern piece like this one
by Robles."
In his teaching, Fanis often employed stories and
fairy-tales like the following one which attracted
the children's attention straightaway. It was the
fifth lesson in Fanis' class (see Table 10.4) and
various movement activities preceded this one.
The theme in this activity was the woodsan
unusually long activity lasting about thirty
minutes.
Following
Fanis'
instructions,
the
children sat around him and pretended they had

lit a fire while making various sounds and
movements related to life in the woods.
Fanis: "And, of course in the woods, there is always a group of people playing the guitar and singing." Fanis played on the guitar a song referring to snow"chioni
chioni chionise ta poulia pagonise asprise kai fountose kiola ta koukoulose" (The snow
falls and freezes the birds, it turns white, it turns big and covers everything.)
(Fig. 10.6, Track 21). It was a composed song in 5/8 which nevertheless employed an Ousak mode (see Section 5.1.1). Unfortunately, due to the use of the
guitar, the degrees of the mode were played as degrees of a well-tempered
scale. The rhythm of the song was a rhythm that is usually met in folk music
from Epirus (see Table 5.2), but the melody and the arrangement of the song
changed its character completely.
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Fanis sang the song again with the children and before he asked them to dance
in a free style, according to the lyrics of the songimitating the motion of
snow flakes and animals. They danced freely and in an exploratory way, some
of them imitating movements of falling snow flakes and some of them imitating flying birds but none of them was quite clear. However, Fanis continued
playing the melody on the bass strings of the guitar while encouraging the
children to continue in the same manner.
Figure 10.6. A song about snow.
When the children sat around Fanis again, he asked them to think of sounds of
the woods while he encouraged their imagination.
Fanis: "OK now, come and sit in a circle again. Can you tell me what sounds we hear
in the woods?"
Amalia: "Animals."
Fanis: "All right. What kind of animals? Do they sleep during the night, or not?"
Marios: "Night animals like wolves."
Elena: "And owls."
Fanis: "And how do they move? Do they creep or run?"
As they kept talking, Fanis approached the stereo and played a recording. The
children stopped talking and turned to the stereo. Fanis turned the volume
down and asked the children to listen carefully in order to name the animals
that came into their minds as the music was heard. It was the piece "Themes
for Narnia" by Roblesa piece lasting for about four minutes. As the children
heard the sounds of the woodwind instruments, the guitar and the piano, they
234
imagined bats, horses, mice and owls. Fanis played the music again and asked
them to detect these animals within the music. He pressed the children to find
more ideas and he played the music again and again until the children mentioned names of animals that Fanis expected to hear. Only then did he move
on to let them hear the rest of the piece. Fanis played a point of the recording
where the flute and the piano played together a fast tremolo so many times
until the children suggested that this part of the piece resembled a flying bat.
In this way, gradually, the children connected each instrument of the piece
with an animal.
Developing the activity, Fanis asked the children to stand in different corners
of the room until they heard the instrument representing the animal they had
chosen, and then to approach the middle of the room in pairs or in couples of
pairs, miming the movement of the animal concerned. The outcome was
unique; every child had his or her own recollection for the specific animal.
They moved on tip toe or in a grotesque fashion, looking around suspiciously
or as the music inspired them.
Fanis: "I want you to do it again but without my help."
Later, when the children had left the classroom, Fanis recollected that the
development of the story created by these children was quite different from
the one created by classes of the same age in previous years.

The agreed discussion with Fanis took place just one day before the first observation for he was very busy. From the first moment it was obvious that he
avoided to discuss issues related to specific Orff-Schulwerk matters. Accordingly, he preferred to reply in a general fashion saying what he wanted to say
rather than answering the questions. When we began discussing his aims as a
music teacher he appeared to be discontent with his role in this after-school
course.
Basically, my role is to keep these children occupied during the afternoon hours as it
was agreed when I got this job in the first place. Some of the children see my lesson
merely as a playtime and some others, being more mature maybe, see it as an opportunity to learn more about music. Anyway, I always try to make the music lesson be
play as well and at the same time to give the children experiences, many experiences.
235
When we began discussing his aims as a music teacher, Fanis, although he

avoided to relate his teaching to specific Orff principles, eventually, his teaching proved to be very close to the Orff pedagogy. It is possible that Fanis ignored some aspects of Orff-Schulwerk, as for example, the role of improvisation in his teaching which he considered to be alien to the Orff principles.
Some of these activities are clearly Orff activities, I have many of them in my notebooks from the Moraitis school. But usually I improvise, I do activities on the spot according to the children's mood and my own, of course. But anyway, Orff-Schulwerk
is always the starting point.
Occasionally, Fanis responded only partially to my questions either because he

did not understand the question or becauseas mentioned beforehe wanted
to say something else. For example, when I asked him where did the activities
lead, in an indirect way he said that these activities do not lead anywhere particular.
The real problem of this class is that the children play truant whenever they feel like
it. Sometimes, they miss two of three consecutive lessons, without any particular reason. Of course, all these stem out from the fact that the parents pay nothing at all for
these lessons. So I don't make any long term plans for it makes no sense. I just give to
the children the pleasure of singing and dancing together.
Fanis believed that children's energetic participation in each lesson was the
best proof that his teaching had achieved its tasks. He was happy when even a
few of the children exhibited their inventiveness.
I see some progress, although very small, but I see it. I think that I have to prepare the
activities better and have more creative activities but unfortunately I don't have time
for such things right now. Maybe the lack of organised activities could be the reason
for the small amount of progress. Although, as I told you, it is not small for everyone,
some of the children try their ideas in every lesson and every time they have new
ideas, very interesting ideas. Unfortunately, they do not develop any dexterity in the
playing of musical instruments but then again this is not my role, at least not in this
course.
Fanis took advantage of his role in this course and gave the children the opportunity to approach music in their own way. However, he acknowledged
the danger that the children would misunderstand this freedom and use the
music classroom as a playground
Sometimes the children ask me to let them play the keyboard or the guitar but I know
that they see them as toys which I don't like, so I refuse. On the other hand, in every
lesson they have the opportunity to explore the sounds of the percussion instruments
236
we have in the classroom. To tell you the truth, in this school I feel more like entertainer than a music teacher which is not necessarily bad, rather the opposite I have a
relaxed relationship with the children and sometimes I feel like being one of them.
As it became clear from the observations, Fanis often played the guitar and a
keyboard in the classroom. However, his main instrument was the percussion.
Particularly, he played various ethnic percussion instruments like the Greek
tubeleki and the African djemb. His role as percussionist in folk music groups
inevitably affected his teaching. The variety of rhythm patterns that he played
to his students and the role of the percussion instruments in his class was only
small evidence of this.
I have a variety of folk music material which I share with the children. I have some
children whose parents originate from remote villages and so these children are more
familiar with this type of music but nevertheless, all the children enjoy folk music activities and it becomes obvious in the way they participate in these activities.
In some respect, the directory of the school in which Fanis worked overlooked
his role in the school's syllabus for there was another music teacher to teach
the regular music lessons. Although it was not his own affair, Fanis did not
miss opportunity to criticise this stance of the school. This time the pretext was
my question regarding the school's expectations as far as his lessons were concerned.
This school does not expect anything particular from my lesson. The whole thing was
not their idea. It was an initiative of the parents or rather one of the municipal council
or the mayor himself. I mean that by financing educational projects like this the
mayor increases his popularity. So we could speak about parents' expectations and
the mayor's expectations who in a way wants to fulfil parents' expectations for wider
and cost free education. Some parents come and ask me about their child's progress
but I doubt whether they are prepared to hear any severe criticism.
Obviously, Fanis had some complaints regarding his payment and the working conditions and saw our discussion as a chance to channel his disappointment. Deep inside he might thought that I could transmit his view to those in
charge of the whole project.
It is quite possible that this lesson will change into something more practical. There
are some plans for recorder lessons but I am not sure whether they want me to change
this course into recorder course or they want to hire another teacher who will teach
recorder in parallel to the musical games that I do. I can not possibly know it you see,
I don't participate in any decision-making committee.
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10.7 Commentary
Fanis had a specific way of starting each lesson. Usually, he began a lesson
with speech activities which were developed into hand gestures and wholebody movements (see Table 10.5). However, the sequencing of these activities
did not appear to be very well planned. Occasionally, an activity was followed
by another without any clear connection in terms of pedagogical tasks. During
the second lesson, for example, Fanis chose to move on from the Athenian
carol to the next activity (see Table 10.1) that had no obvious connection with
the previous one. Sometime later, he apologised for this lack of planning: "Due
to the exams for my degree of 'theory of music' I am having a hectic time."
As result of the lack of planning a number of activities that could lead to improvisation were left unexplored. "The number game", for example (see Section 10.5), which aimed to teach the children how to give each other space, a
presupposition for any improvisation activity, did not function as a warm-up
for improvisation as it could have been. According to Fanis, this had been one
more game which had its own value as the children liked it very much indeed.
"The colour game and the number game are amongst their favourites and they
always ask for them, especially when they are tired with other more demanding activities."
In the majority of the observed lessons Fanis improvised a lot in his teaching.
This was partly due to the fact that he promoted a teaching style based on
games and, therefore, followed the children's predisposition of the moment.
An examination of the schedule of the fourth lesson, which in fact was a collage of different games, justifies this notion: some speech activities, a game
with numbers, two movement games, a hiding game, a singing game (see Table 10.4). During that lesson Fanis moved from one activity to the other, each
one lasting only a few minutes, without having searched for a common teaching goal amongst them and without further expanding them. Nevertheless,
Fanis was very close to the Orff principles for, according to Orff (1932), "play
should be in the centre of teaching" (p. 3).
238
239
The speech activities that took place during the fourth lesson were games
based on simple words derived from the children's experiences. In the second
activity, aiming to help the children develop their rhythmic skills, Fanis employed children's everyday language which is similar to children's games
traditional and/or improvised, rhythmic and occasionally melodic. In this
way, the children felt at ease with such teaching material and participated energetically. Of course, it is not surprising that they could not tell the difference
between downbeat and upbeat and it would not make any sense trying to analyse issues of music theory in detail to the children. Consequently, Fanis just
asked them to start speaking at 'the thigh slapping' and not 'the hand clapping'.
The activity in which the children exchanged seats (see Section 10.5.6) was
reminiscent of the Dalcroze approach; the children had to do all the necessary
movements in the time span of a musical phrase. As a result, they became
more aware of movement and rhythm relations especially at that point when
the tempo was changing. Therefore, the children became successfully involved
in these rhythmic activities in an effortless and playful way. As stated in Section 2.6, children should start with the often discredited names before proceeding to the great poetry, in order to employ the whole of the body in speaking. In this sense, Fanis' teaching succeeded in making the children employ the
whole of the body. On the other hand, this activity, could have acted as a preliminary game that would lead to an improvisation; in a typical OrffSchulwerk activity speech games involving sound gestures are followed by
whole body movement and the whole experience is finally transferred into instrumental playing. However, again this issue is related to Fanis' lack of necessary planning.
The singing game at the end of the fourth lesson (see Section 10.5.7) aimed to
connect the production of sound and the playing of instruments with a
rhythmic movement such as rowing. Fanis cleverly used the context of the
sailing boat which put the children in a playing mood. Starting from that moment, the two groups found themselves involved in a kind of contest in which
the best performance would identify the winner of the game. This worked perfectly well and made the two groups synchronise their playing with each
other. The children acted as if they were alone. Technically speaking, their
playing was not perfect but it was vivid, playful and exploratory.
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Fanis' students seemed to have fun and enjoyed the variation of activities. On
the other hand, the lack of instruments, in combination with the lack of concentration that some children revealed, limited Fanis' choices and expectations
to elementary tasks. Therefore, in the activities that demanded a greater
amount of concentration on the children's part, the outcome was dubious. For
example, partly due to lack of discipline, the children did not manage to respond successfully to the task of distinguishing different parts of a melody
(see Section 10.5.5). Such activities demand attentive listening on the children's
part. Especially during the third lesson, Fanis' class was very noisy. However,
in that particular activity, he displayed a more thorough planning of the lesson
than usual. During two consecutive lessons (lessons two and three), he employed full body movements and gestures to help the children develop their
listening skills, firstly by distinguishing between ascending and descending
melodies (see Section 10.5.1), secondly by distinguishing among different
rhythmic patterns and, thirdly by improvising movements to the sound of a
specific melody (see Section 10.5.5). Such activities are characteristic of the
Dalcroze method but they can also be found among the teaching material of
the Orff Institute (see Section 7.5) and are used by the majority of Orff teachers
around the world. Of course, in a Dalcroze lesson they are used in a more sophisticated fashion, aiming to familiarise children with various forms of classical music.
Fanis promoted a democratic style of teaching, sometimes at the expense of
teaching time and class discipline. In an activity in the second lesson (see Section 10.5.2), he was tremendously eager for every little voice in the classroomstrong or weakto be heard. As a result, the children were fortunate
to see most of their ideas adopted which is a basic principle for any creative
activity. He also tried to make them sensitive and critical of everything that
took place in the classroom. Although most of the time his questions remained
unanswered, nevertheless, he continued questioning and asking for children's
creative participation. Consequently, in terms of creative thinking, the children benefited a lot from this activity. Regarding the progress of the activity,
however, it must be said that the process was rather inadequate. If the whole
activity was to be based on a specific Christmas carol, then that carol should
be used from the beginning of the activity; especially, when the children were
looking for movement ideas. Instead Fanis employed a drum pattern which
241
related to the carol's rhythm but when the melody of the carol came in, most
of the movements seemed not to match with it.
Evident in Fanis' teaching philosophy was his opposition to teacher modelling
as, for example, during the above-mentioned activity in which the children
danced to the sounds that Fanis played on a hand drum. He prompted the
children to learn through observing the others, encouraging demonstrations of
different ideas by individuals or groups but he did not stimulate the children
through his own movement or dancing. Only once, in the third lesson, he was
observed dancing with the children. He believed that any demonstrations of
dancing might result in the children's responses becoming exclusively fixed on
the teacher's personal movement style.
Usually, Fanis avoided any negative comment on the children's attempts. Instead he praised those who did well, which occasionally worked, as in the activity when he said 'Do what Amalia does' (see Section 10.5.2). He used to establish a very friendly environment, a place for the imagination, where the
children experienced creativity through play. On occasions, he even allowed a
wild, unorganised improvisation, as we can see in an activity from the fifth
lesson (see Section 10.5.8) where the children imitated animals' movements
without any specific guidance, overlooking the dubious educative results.
Fanis maintained that encouragement is most important, whether in the form
of praising an improvisation or suggesting ways in which another might be
improved, or even of providing an example that was required from a child
who was more inhibited than his or her fellows. So Fanis' teaching was very
close to a modern teaching approach; a 'child-centred' teaching.
In an activity from the second lesson (see Section 10.5.3), Fanis intended to let
the children use the instruments freely without the restrictions of any guidelines: "Today was the day of getting to know each other [the children and the
instruments]" as he had said to the researcher after the end of the lesson.
However, he continuously monitored children's rhythmic accuracy and handling of the instruments. The children had the opportunity to know the percussion instruments and invent ways of playing them. Fanis systematically
avoided intervening with instructions and corrections. As a result, the children
felt every part of the activity being of their own; something that they themselves had made bit by bit.
242
The children became acquainted with notions such as pulse and rhythm and
the names of many percussion instruments. Of course, they were not asked to
play a specific rhythmic pattern or something else demanding dexterity but
even the task of combining singing with playing was a valuable experience.
The children felt free to act spontaneously as they did in their games. As a result, the percussion instruments made a difference and added a new colour to
the sound of a carol while the children felt at ease with the instruments.
Data, therefore, revealed that Fanis continuously promoted the children's
imagination and creativity, either by letting them experiment with soundsas
in the above-mentioned activityor with movements (see Section 10.5.2) or by
introducing attentive listening. In the second activity of the fifth lesson (see
Section 10.5.8), Fanis started from a theme particularly cherished by the childrenlike animals and the woodsand managed to take them away into a
imaginative journey where music was left to carry out the development of the
story. In addition, he managed to familiarise the children with the sound of
some instruments through an active listening of a rather difficult, modern
piece of music. He encouraged the children to compose their own choreography and in many ways he promoted their way of thinking about music listening.
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The analysis of the Salzburg observations and the interviews revealed the nature of the Orff principles (see Section 7.10). The modern application of OrffSchulwerk, as it is practised in the Orff Institute, came to justify, challenge or
revise this music education approach as it was documented by Orff himself or
his close collaborators (see Chapter 3).
The previous three chapters examined three cases in which Orff-Schulwerk
has been implemented in Greek schools by Orff-teachers who were trained in
Greece. The aim of these classroom observations was to describe and analyse
selected aspects of an Orff-Schulwerk programme of music education focusing
on methods of their application. In this chapter salient features of each case are
compared in order to develop a more comprehensive view of the way the Orff
principles are applied in Greece. This chapter adopts the four categories used
in Chapters 1 and 2, that is movement, speech, opportunities for creativity and
use of instruments, as these, it is maintained, are the most distinguishing characteristics in typical Orff-Schulwerk teaching. The use of indigenous material
is also examined, in order to supply the necessary information for a discussion
about the application of Orff-Schulwerk in Greece that will be undertaken in
Chapter 12.
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11.1 Movement activities

In Orff-Schulwerk, some kind of movement is included in almost any activity,
even in instrumental playing activities or singing. This section, though, is
mainly concerned with whole-body movements and dances made-up by the
children. In School A, dance was the main task of the syllabus while in Schools
B and C dancing and moving were included as an inseparable part of the OrffSchulwerk approach.
Matina, in School A, was a dancer herself and as a result she could easily lead
the children into using their bodies. Instead of any guidelines Matina gestured
or moved herself and let the children guess what she expected from them. The
children, on the other hand, enjoyed to participate as if it was a kind of game.
She always demonstrated the movements that she expected the children to
adopt and they imitated her easily because every demonstration was clear and
to the point. Her long expertise as a dance teacher led the children to give impressive movement performances in a short time. However, in contrast to the
other two schools, Matina did not lead the children in any round dance experience which, as a natural dance form, is important to children's musical development (see Section 3.4). On the other hand, the children were often deprived of the essence of creativity. A vocabulary of movements would be very
useful when the children were asked to compose a choreography; however, in
these five lessons the children were not asked to do anything like that. The activity "movement improvisation in 9/8" is a characteristic example of how
successfully Matina involved the children in whole-body movements such as
stamping, swaying, turning. However, despite Matina's instructions, the children failed to surpass the imitation phase and develop the activity as a creative one. One cannot help wondering why this happened. Is it because Matina
did not devote enough time for creativity to blossom? Or because her presence
was too overwhelming for the children to explore their own ideas?
In School B, dance served as a warm-up or a 'welcoming' activity, usually at
the beginning of each lesson. Alexia usually started the lesson by playing the
bongos and inviting the children to join in an improvised dance. As the children loved this activity it went on for quite a long time. These made-up dances
were very expressive and the children appeared to be relaxed and intensely
involved (see the beginning of the activity in Section 9.5.2). Occasionally, the
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children in Alexia's class, could spend a whole lesson without any movement
(see first lesson, Table 9.1). Therefore, compared to Matina's class, movement
did not have such a central role. This is related to the fact that Alexia's main
interest was in instrumental playing whilst movement was often considered a
luxury (see also Section 9.6). More often, Alexia chose rhythms from Greek
traditional music which usually began as solitary dancing and developed into
a round dancing made-up by the children. Alexia enjoyed dancing herself, she
often chose to dance with the children and helped them organise their dancing. However, movement activities that Alexia chose did not have either the
complexity or the technical demands of those selected by Matina.
In School C there were many movement activities. Apart from any other reasonsuch as the lack of melodic instrumentsmovement was an ideal medium to channel the overflowing energy of the children. Fanis prompted the
children into movement activities with material appropriate to stimulate their
imagination; he used musics originating from the Greek traditional music but
also from world art music. The children moved and danced usually in a free
style, as Fanis systematically avoided involving himself in dancing. Fanis gave
the researcher the following justification for his reluctance to dance: "Any
demonstrations of dancing styles might have influenced the children's style,
and I don't want that". Given the fact, however, that Fanis was a musician with
no previous movement training, apart from the movement lessons in the Orff
course in Moraitis School, one could not help wondering if his reluctance was
related to a lack of confidence so far as movement is concerned ("I always felt
much better playing my guitar than dancing or singing."). Alexia, on the other
hand, being a student of Mathy from the age of five, was far more confident
in her dancing, whilst Matina, being a dancer herself, left no opportunity to
demonstrate her dancing abilities.
As the main task in School C was to enrich children's experiences, Fanis, in
contrast to Alexia, never asked the children to work out their made-up dances
in detail. Fanis often asked the children to respond to his playing on the tambourine employing full body movements; Alexia did the same as she played
the bongos. Notably, also, when Fanis played the tambourine, and despite his
expertise in percussion, he did not employ any compound patterns as Matina
and Alexia did. This is also related to the fact that he preferred simpler tasks
than the other two teachers (see Section 10.6).
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11.2 Speech activities

Speech activities are those that included language not in the form of lyrics but
mostly speech patterns in order to help the children develop their rhythmic
abilities.
All three schools used speech activities in almost every lesson. These were
used to familiarise the children with a specific rhythm (see Sections 8.5.5, 9.5.4)
or as a warm-up before an instrument playing activity (see Section 9.5.4). In
School A speech was used almost in any activity. As speech rhythms are excellent for building children's rhythmic vocabulary, Matina used that vocabulary
as a basis for rhythmic improvisation (Walters, 1989). For example, in an activity from the fourth lesson (see Section 8.5.5), the children managed to perform
the improvisation activity successfully, despite the complexity of the rhythm.
Even though two or three children were out of time, the rest of them managed
to perform many variations in 7/8. The effectiveness of this activity is clearly
based on Matina's employment of familiar words to the children to illustrate
the compound rhythm. Matina used speech patterns even when she instructed
the children or just spoke to them. "Autosxediazoume oloi mazi" (Let us improvise all together) Matina used to say in a singing voice that followed the compound 9/8 beat in a number of occasions. In another case she adopted the
rhyme "vima vima pos maresei", which was used to familiarise the children with
the 9/8 beat, into "Dio ke dio ke dio ke tria kanoune enia" (two and two and two
and three makes nine) in order to analyse the rhythmical pattern (see Section
8.5). As a result the use of speech patterns, accompanied by sound gestures or
whole-body movements or melodic and rhythm percussion, came to be more
impulsive compared to the other two schools. Most often, however, Matina
used speech patterns to familiarise the children with irregular folk rhythms
and then she asked them to transfer these patterns into instrument playing, as
in an activity of the fourth lesson (see Section 8.5.5).
In School B speech activities were usually in a form of speech patterns which
followed warm-up dancing and aimed to familiarise the children with a certain rhythm. For example, in an activity from the third lesson (see Section
9.5.4), Alexia used a standard wording to represent the quavers of each pat
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tern, that is kokino milo milo, prasino filo filo and the children repeated the pattern whilst they played it on their thighs. Alexia insisted on the correct accentuation of each word which should also be reproduced accurately in clapping;
in the previously mentioned example she required the rhythmic quality of
each word to be articulated carefully. In some cases speech patterns were also
used to illuminate ambiguous instrument playing, as was the case of an activity from the third lesson. Here, the children had difficulties in playing the 5/8
beat on bongos, therefore Alexia assisted them by repeating the words kokino
milo, prasino filo. Alexia also employed speech patterns to introduce conventional notation to the children (see Section 9.5.4). Notably, in School A Matina
had also asked the children to identify the values of the notes that she played.
However, she had never asked them to put it down on paper (that happened
in a number of occasions: during the third lesson when she asked them to
identify a 7/8 beat that she played on the floor with her hand, but also in the
fourth lesson during an activity from the fourth lesson (see Section 8.5.5). One
should bear in mind, however, that Alexia's lesson was part of a preparatory
course in the theory of music. Therefore, the teaching of conventional notation
was part of Alexia's goals. Apart from rhythmic speech patterns, Alexia also
related language to music in other ways. She even asked the children to compose music on a poem. During that activity (see Section 9.5.5), she insisted on
the pronunciation and the rhythm of the language in order to help the children
to conceptualise its internal structure. She explained, "children are poorly educated in terms of poetry and classical literature . . . music teachers have a role
to play in relating music and singing particularly to phonology and the operational function of language."
In School C the lesson plan was mostly concerned with familiarising the children with the beat of speech games whilst Schools A and B were more concerned with rhythm and especially compound beats like 9/8 or 7/8. During
the observed lessons, Fanis used name games, singing games and traditional
sayings which, according to Schulwerk principles, are the most suitable teaching materials for introducing children to metrical speech experiences in order
to develop their rhythmic abilities. He also used sayings and proverbs as ostinati which were used as an accompaniment to the main word-pattern as, for
example, in an activity from the third lesson (see Section 10.5.4). In this way
speech activities and playing games became integrated in Fanis' lessons in favour of children's enjoyment and musical development. His class experienced
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a plethora of speech games such as exploring rhythms built up by listing

names. An example of this was in an activity from the fifth lesson (see Table
10.4) the children had to match names of animals, vegetables and colours to
sound gestures and instrument playing. However, Fanis did not fully explore
the potential of the chosen speech activities as in all the observed rhythm activities he chose very simple patterns like clapping and patting, whilst he
could have led the children to invent other, less conventional sound gestures.
Fanis instructed activities aiming at an awareness of objects familiar to the
children and taking advantage of their experiences with everyday language
without, however, insisting on the correct clapping of the rhythm, as for example, in the game-like activity: "I thesi sta dexia mou ine adiani ela Mary na
katsoume mazi." (There is an empty seat on my right side, please come Mary
and sit next to me).
In the activity with the carol from Thrace (see Section 10.5.4) Fanis explained
the words, their peculiar accent and the context of the custom. All these parameters added to the way the children appreciated a song. It was obvious
that the children liked to say the unusual words and particularly enjoyed listening to the recording (see Section 3.6). Therefore, by choosing a custom
which is unknown to other regions of Greece, Fanis promoted both the continuation of tradition and children's rhythmic development. However, Fanis
did not proceed to a further dramatisation of the custom, as he could have
done in order to promote children's creativity as well. Instead, he chose a limited variety of sound gesturesclapping, pattingto accompany the words
and a somewhat flat interpretation of the language that did not fully stimulate
the children's imagination. Also, apart from emphasising the right pronunciation, Fanis could have stressed the rhythm and the sound of the words, as
well.
11.3 Opportunities for creativity and improvisation

Even though improvisation and creativity are elements normally expected to
be integrated into every Orff-Schulwerk activity, in this section situations are
described with a special emphasis on creativity.
All three teachers included creative activities in their teaching, usually in the
form of improvisation. In School A there was a certain procedure that was fol
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lowed. Accordingly, an improvisation activity was preceded by an imitation of

Matina's movements or playing, according to the situation. The majority of
these imitation activities were successful and of a high level, considering the
age of the children. Nevertheless, when the time for creation was reached, the
children rarely saw their ideas become part of a work; more often they were
asked to play a pre-existing piece or a dance that Matina already knew. Therefore, in a number of cases, as in an activity from the second lesson (see Section
8.5.3) or in an activity from the first lesson (see Section 8.5.1), the children
failed to surpass the imitation phase and engage themselves in an improvisation (see Section 8.6). On the other hand, there were activities where Matina
plainly imposed her own ideas. The dramatisation of a custom (see Section
8.5.2), for example, was effective in so far as experiencing a country custom
while singing and walking. However, in this case the children were supposed
to use their imagination inventing ways of reviving this ancient custom into
their classroom, which they did not. Through questions and suggestions Matina led the children to a dramatisation which was closer to what she had in
mind rather than the minds of the children; the children were left to improvise
only some details of the whole procedure.
In School B the only improvisation experiences for the children were the
made-up round dances which again were affected by Alexia's dancing. However, it is interesting to notice how Alexia led the children in a round dance to
accompany the Ikarian carol. In fact she led the children to movements invented by herself (see Section 9.5.2). The imitation procedure was not so clear
as it was in Matina's teaching. The children imitated simple speech patterns
and sound gestures that Alexia performed, but not as a preparation for any
improvisational activity. On the other hand, Alexia was the only one of the
three teachers that asked the children to compose a piece, regardless of the
appropriateness of the preparation for such a task (see Section 9.6).
In School C the children were asked more often to use their imagination in order to invent a sequence of movements or a more organised choreography that
would be included in team work. Fanis was not the type of teacher who was
doing all the creative work himself requiring the children to follow his example.
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Improvisation in groups is most successful when children are aware of what

their peers are doing and when they match them in beat, mood and dynamics
(McNeil Carley, 1977). Fanis, with the only exception of sound gestures,
avoided giving any example to the children of what he expected from them.
However, he led the children into made-up dances successfully, via spoken instructions and regular praising of those children who performed well. Compared with Alexia, Fanis followed a completely different, teaching approach
for the dance for the Christmas carol (see Section 10.5.2). He asked the children
to find their own movements and then they tried to combine the children's
ideas to a simple choreography. "Let us see which of these ideas can be used in
a team performance" was Fanis' words. Also, very often the children were
asked to improvise movements or sound gestures, even at the expense of discipline.
Interview data suggested that these Orff teachers regarded the employment of
creative activities as being particularly demanding of planning and preparation. Indicative of this is that Alexia could not wait for the children to complete their composition by themselves " . . . I would definitely need one more
lesson for such an activity", while Fanis could not correlate children's improvisations with preceding activities " . . . this was not a planned activity but it
somehow came out from the children's ideas" (see Table 10.5, lesson 4).
11.4 The use of instruments

The use of instruments was considerably different within the three schools. In
School A there was a variety of pitched and unpitched percussion instruments
and the children could experience the sound of these instruments. All sixteen
children had a melodic instrument like xylophone and metallophone or a skin
percussion like tambourine or small percussion like claves, castanets and
cymbals (Table 11.1). In School B there were xylophones and rhythmic percussion but not in the same variety as in School A, while in School C there were
only rhythmic percussion for every child. The children had also the experience
to hear their teachers playing various instruments. All three teachers skilfully
played pitched and unpitched percussion instruments. In addition, the children in School C had many opportunities to hear Fanis playing the guitar and
a small electronic keyboard. Alexia often used the recorder while Matina used
to play a folk drum which actually was the only Greek traditional instrument
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used in all three schools.

In School A, instrumental playing was more organised as in each lesson it occupied the last fifteen minutes. Notably, Matina taught the same piece for
three consecutive lessons until the children were able to play in canon with an
elementary arrangement and a rhythmic improvisation. Matina had developed various ways of encouraging the children to learn by imitating her ceremonial gestures. For example, when they played the beaters above their heads
or when they played percussion instruments while dancing all over the place
or even when they took out a few bars and placed them under the xylophone
in absolute silence. Matina followed a certain general plan of teaching, starting
with speech activities, transferring them into rhythms, body percussion and
finally to unpitched and/or pitched percussion. The children had achieved a
high level of dexterity on the instruments by playing simple melodies and
parts of arrangements. Also they played in the time between the lessons. All
the instruments that Matina's school possessed, were made available for the
children to play in their free time, resulting to a cross-fertilisation of ideas
across the various age-groups of the classes.
Table 11.1. Number of children and instruments in the three Orff schools in Athens.
In School B, instrument playing was organised within the span of a lesson.

Alexia employed body percussion, such as knee slapping and foot stamping,
and whole-body movements to familiarise the children with the rhythm of a
piece before they tried it on the xylophones or other percussion instruments.
The children enjoyed the opportunity to play instruments they might not have
had the chance of playing in their instrumental music classes. However, when
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they were pressed to learn lengthy tunes they appeared to loose their interest
in playing instruments. In the observed lessons there were two cases of such a
sterilein terms of creativitylesson (first and fifth lessonssee Sections
9.5.1 and 9.5.5) .
In School C, instrument playing was more casual. Usually, Fanis asked the
children to play the instruments in any way they could and according to the
needs of each activity. The children accompanied rhythmically a song that
Fanis sang (see Section 10.5.3) or made a sound environment for a fairy tale
(see Section 10.5.8). In general, the children in School C had more opportunities to participate in game like activities playing small percussion instruments.
Both in Schools A and B, teachers always demonstrated the playing of the instruments that the children would play. Fanis on the other hand, helped the
children with the handling of the instruments, but let them explore the
sounds. With regard to the teaching of a melody, both Matina and Alexia supported the approach of oral transmission but with some salient differences.
Alexia played the melody to be learned while speaking the names of the notes
and occasionally she helped the children individually, guiding them note by
note. "Although I sing you the names of the notes, you must try to find it by
ear" were Alexia's words to the children. In fact, however, she did not allow
sufficient time for the children to internalise the melody. Most often the children proceeded to the completion of a melody by memorizing the names of
the notes and then reproducing them one by one. Matina also used the names
of the notes but only to clarify some details. The melody was learned via imitation of Matina's hand movements or continuous exploratory searching. In an
activity from the fifth lesson, for example (see Section 8.5.6), Matina played a
canon on the metallophone while the children had to repeat the melody, learning it by ear.
11.5 The use of indigenous material

The preparations for the Christmas festivities was an ideal occasion for the
three teachers to introduce the children to folk material drawn from the numerous customs of Greece. However, one should not consider the use of
Greek material as accidental, as all three teachers used Greek material in a
number of ways, and on a number of occasions after the Christmas festivities,
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as well (see Table 8.5). Greek traditional music was present in almost every
lesson, either in a form of a song, such as Pantrevoune ton kavoura in School B,
or as a custom, such as Pirpirouna in School A, or a rhythmic pattern. Remarkably, all three teachers chose to teach less common Christmas carols and
customs from different regions of Greece, thus assisting to the preservation of
the tradition. Greek compound rhythms, such as 5/8, 7/8 and 9/8, have been
successfully incorporated into various Orff-Schulwerk activities: movement,
instrument playing or rhythmic improvisation. Folk music, with its simple
form, is related to elemental forms of dancing which in turn are closer to children's play games (see Sections 2.2. and 3.10). Therefore, both Fanis and Alexia
often involved the children in round dances with a simple structure. All three
teachers made an extended use of Greek material which is considered a necessary feature for a successful adoption of Orff-Schulwerk. They taught songs
from traditional music, such as pantrevoune ton kavoura, ena karavi araxe, etc.
These songs should not be considered as part of children literature, but as
songs for adults, and this choice is justified in terms of children's agethey
were not very young. Indigenous music has one more similarity to the OrffSchulwerk approach: it favours a learning process through imitation. In an activity from the third lesson, for example (see Section 10.5.4), Fanis chose a
learning process through imitation which was very close to the way such customs were transmitted in their natural context: learning through whole-body
movements.
All three teachers, however, used the standard Orff instrumentarium whilst
none of them made any attempt to incorporate Greek traditional instruments.
They even thought it would be rather extreme to use a popular instrument in
the classroom. Discussing this issue with Alexia at the end of the first lesson
she said: "I wouldn't go so far as to use a bouzouki in the classroom but maybe
a santouri could fit in my teaching". The only exception has been a small folk
drum (toumbeleki) that Matina used with her classes. In response to a question
of the researcher, all teachers appeared questioning the possibility of the introduction of folk instruments to the Orff instrumentarium. Even Fanis, who
was more open to new ideas, was constrained to the use of the recorder instead of any kind of folk flute. "Once I tried a folk flute with the children but
they could not produce any sound at all, but even when I played it I could not
tune it with other melodic instruments". At this point it must be stressed that
the integration of indigenous instruments is as important as the integration of
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any other indigenous cultural elements.

However, whether teachers made the most of this material or not is an issue
that will be examined at a later stage. In a number of cases an oversimplification either of the melody or the rhythm, or both was noticed. The song Ena
karavi araxe (see Figure 10.5) used by Fanis served the purpose for which it was
chosen; it had the appropriate tempo, structure and an interesting story which
attracted the children. Unfortunately, it was a simplification of a traditional
song which in its original version included a rich variety of ornaments and accidentals. Fanis ignored that version but nevertheless, he suggested that anything more difficult and complicated, such as an original folk version of the
tune, would be beyond the children's capabilities. He meant their singing aptitude, of course, because their playing would not be affected.
11.6 Summary
Of course, all three teachers differed from each other in terms of teaching philosophy or main focus of their teaching. Fanis, for example, was more democratic than Matina and concerned about creativity and children's enjoyment of
music. Matina, on the other hand, was mostly concerned with the development of movement dexterity while Alexia, with instrumental playing. These
goals, however, were to a large extent related to the function of each class:
Matina's class was in a dancing school, Alexia's class was a preparatory course
for students that would follow studies in an instrument of their choice and
Fanis' class, as one could guess from the title "musical games", was an introductory course for students that most likely would not follow any music studies in the future.
Despite, therefore, the divergence that data analysis revealed on teaching
practices (see Table 11.2), as shown in the commentaries following each
school's lessons, as well as, in the previous comparison sections, the reader
should focus on the common elements that all three teachers showed in their
teaching, and especially those elements that coincide with Orff-Schulwerk
principles. All three teachers had based their lessons on the Orff principles. In
every opportunity they employed movement and speech activities that would
enhance children's musical development. Unfortunately, there was a lack of
opportunities for musical improvisation, apart from School A in which the
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children improvised on unpitched percussion. Besides, even these improvisations were not considered as a first step towards a group or individual composition. Regarding the use of instruments, it depended to a large extent, on the
availability of xylophones and other pitched percussion instrumentsnotably,
in School C there were no xylophones or other pitched percussion instruments.
Significant findings in relation to the teaching techniques employed by the

three teachers are summarised below.
In many cases and particularly when they had time restrictions, the Orff
teachers led their children in step-by-step guidance, limiting their time
for creativity and imagination;
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most improvisation activities were limited to an elementary level;
usually the kind of language that the Orff teachers used in class activities was not the language that the children use or experience but a mixture of ancient and scholarly Greek;
the Orff teachers appeared to ignore a basic Orff principle, that they
should educate the senses first and then the body;

the Orff teachers lacked knowledge such as why they should not use
the original Orff-Schulwerk material and what kind of material from
the Greek culture is available;
the folk songs that the Orff teachers employed in their classes were not
representative of Greek traditional music;
Finally, in many cases, the teaching techniques employed contradicted basic

Orff principles due to reasons other than ignorance of the Orff principles. In
the case of instrument playing, for example, both Matina and Alexia chose the
quicker way to learningnaming the notes of a tuneinstead of helping the
children to internalise the melody in a number of ways. However, the application of Orff-Schulwerk in Greece, as it reveals itself through the examination
of these three cases in Athens, must also be discussed in the general context of
Orff-Schulwerk's theory and its application in Salzburg but this is an issue that
will concern us in the following chapter.
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This chapter draws together some of the findings of previous chapters and
uses them as a basis for discussion in relation to the literature reviewed in the
earlier chapters. The motivation for the research arose from a desire to understand the problems in connection with the development of a comprehensive
music and movement teaching approach in Greek schools. The questions envisaged in the Introduction were gradually refocused as the research proceeded and this was discussed in the methodology chapter. In general terms,
the investigation had two broad concerns: firstly, the profound principles of
the original Orff-Schulwerk and secondly, the way these principles are applied
in Greece.
As the research proceeded, it became clear that the success of Orff-Schulwerk
adaptations in other countries related clearly to the incorporation of indigenous cultural material. This clearly is a principle that became deeply embedded in Orff's vision. As a result, the research endeavoured to explore elements
of the Greek culture and particularly the nature of the Greek music and language which had a central role in most Orff-Schulwerk practices.
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Literature was assembled concerning the psychology of children's musical development, Orff-Schulwerk principles and the nature of Greek traditional music and was critically reviewed. In the observation phase of the study, data
were collected about the teaching strategies and teaching material observed in
Salzburg and were related to the way Greek Orff teachers applied OrffSchulwerk. Greek Orff teachers were also interviewed about their perceptions
of the teaching materials they used and about the teaching strategies they
adopted.
The dissemination of Orff-Schulwerk proved to be a complicated issue. OrffSchulwerk was not specially designed to be adopted by any other country; its
worldwide acceptance had not been anticipated by its creator. As Regner said
during an interview with the researcher "Orff strongly discouraged any translation of Orff-Schulwerk" (Interview with Regner, 1996). One basic reason why
Orff-Schulwerk cannot merely be translated to other cultural contexts is that
the material in the five original volumes was selected with the German heritage in mind. Moreover, the strong relationship between music and language,
which is a main component of Orff-Schulwerk, discourages any mere translation.
Literature was reviewed concerned with the dissemination of Orff-Schulwerk
and the problems in connection with its adaptation. The interview data provided insights into what Greek Orff teachers thought about their work with
Orff-Schulwerk; data from the observations were drawn on to characterise
how teaching actually proceeded in the small number of instances studied,
and in order to generate understanding of the nature of the interaction between the original Orff-Schulwerk, the way it is taught in Greece and the
Greek culture. Findings were reported in Chapters 7 and 11.
Given the diversity of the three teachers, in relation to their background and
classroom situations, and nevertheless the similarities in their teaching practices (see Table 11.2), one could conclude that these three teachers are a salient
example of what Greek Orff teachers do in their teaching. They had successfully incorporated elements of the Greek culture into their regular OrffSchulwerk teaching. However, there are related issues, for example in the selection of teaching approach and indigenous material that need to be thoroughly examined.
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12.1 The Orff principles

In the light of literature reviewed in Chapter 2, it appears that there is no one
source in which Orff states his philosophy of the nature of music education.
We can however synthesise his viewpoint from the way he treats music, in the
material used in the original volumes of Schulwerk, his compositions as well
as the answers from the three interviewees in Salzburg, analysed in Chapter 7,
who were questioned about the Orff principles. It must be emphasised here
that all three were close collaborators of Orff himself and they applied these
principles in their teaching. Thus, their beliefs and their teaching highlighted
certain features of Orff-Schulwerkcommon to all three tutorswhich could
be summarised as following: (a) Orff-Schulwerk is not interested in the product but in the process leading to a product. Music-making as an end in itself is
an important cultural phenomenon in many societies. Music is a community
effort as it is clearly demonstrated by the absence of solo repertoire in the Orff
literature; (b) within group activities everyone learns every part, therefore
every part has integrity in the ensemble. Moreover, Orff believed that every
child is innately musical (Orff, 1963); (c) music is felt kinesthetically by involving the whole body. Children learn to take aesthetic decisions through improvisation and orchestration from an early age. They learn to be musicians by
doing what musicians do; (d) a child's musical development is tied to the development of his or her language. Music and language share common features
such as rhythm, melody, stress and pause.
12.2 Orff-Schulwerk in practice

In Chapter 1 the psychology of children's musical development and learning
was studied in the light of current developmental and cognitive theories,
whilst in Chapter 2 a presentation of Orff-Schulwerk was attempted. In this
section a synthesis is attempted of the findings from the above-mentioned literature review. More specifically, any congruence between the Orff approach
and the psychological theories of musical development are explored in the
light of the findings of data analysis.
In typical Orff-Schulwerk training, children are given opportunities for
growth and development in areas of musical involvement, including: singing,
playing, moving, creating, listening, valuing, feeling. They sing many folk
songs and, occasionally, they sing melodic phrases in solfa using hand signs.
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Also they play instruments: body percussion, unpitched percussion, pitched

percussion and create their own rhythmical patterns and body movements.
In Orff's work there is no explicit discussion on the musical development of
the child. All his work, however, as encapsulated in the five volumes of Schulwerk, is greatly influenced by developmental theories, especially in the selection and sequencing of repertoire. The developmental approach adopted in
the Orff volumes can be mostly understood as the avoidance of the premature
introduction of concepts and notions into a child's play-world. The pieces that
form the repertoire, however, should not be considered as "progressive" in the
usual sense of term, as they are always musically meaningful, although
simple. The rate of progress, on the other hand, depends on a child's receptivity in terms of both music and language. Moreover, the Orff approach effectively illustrates the notion of developmental psychology that even the young
child's mind is developmentally adept to music as, according to Vygotsky
(1971), music is generated by perceptual and not cognitive skills (see Chapter
1).
Orff was a proponent of the theory of recapitulation or biogenesis, that is of the
notion that the evolutionary stages in the development of the human species
are echoed in the developmental stages of the individual. "The child's world of
play reflects the early archaic stages in the development of mankind" (Orff,
1962, p. 3). According to this theory, it is through playing that the child is liberated from earlier stages and moves on to higher stages of musical development (Hawn, 1986).
Points of congruency do also exist between the Orff approach and cognitive
theoriesschema theory and play theory being the most widely accepted (see
Chapter 1). As Dolloff (1993) remarks, there are activities in the framework of
the Orff approach that are specifically suitable to Serafine's (1988) cognitive
tests. Orff principles concerning music education through practice and active
participation are also compatible with schema theory. In relation to elementary music education, schema theory can be summarised as following: in order
to perceive and to be able to process musical input, we need to have a set of
experiences or schemata to help us classify what we hear. Kinesthetic or performance schemata mostly affect our perception of music. According to Shiobara (1994) moving to music activities help children to gradually build up a
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vocabulary of musical gestures by matching their movement to it (see Section

1.2). Orff-Schulwerk develops several kinds of schemata in children: (a) it provides models of historically correct forms (Thomas, 1960); (b) through the ensemble playing children adopt a number of performance schemata; (c)
through composition and improvisation children form affective schemata towards music.
Piagetian stages of play can also be traced in Orff activities. As Nash et al.
(2001) claim, "Schulwerk begins in the natural play patterns of children because they hold inherent the realms of body, mind and spirit" (p. 24). Play for
Piaget was the purest form of assimilation of the environment. Hawn (1986)
has drawn analogies between Piagetian theory and Orff-Schulwerk. He traced
the three Piagetian stages, practice games, symbolic games and games with rules,
in the various Orff-Schulwerk activities. According to Hawn, practice games
can also be traced in the exploration of voice, instruments and movement as
well as in pitch-matching games, whilst symbolic games take the form of notation games and metaphors to teach musical concepts. Games with rules are,
for example, the singing games; such games with rules were also included in
the observed sessions in Athens. Fanis (school C) employed such games as the
game with colour names (see Section 9.5). Willman (1983) has called improvisation a game with rules; rules in improvisation help children limit possibilities, it is not therefore free play (for the relation between improvisation and
play see Section 1.4).
Furthermore, the basic Orff principle, that is to produce well-rounded musicians, coincides with Gardner's notion of overall artistic development. Gardner's (1983) model of child development includes three systems: making, perceiving and feeling. From these systems, the following artistic roles can be
traced: the creator, the audience, the critic and the performer. It is obvious that
the Orff approach encompasses all these roles, even though it is common for
the creator and the performer to be the same person. In practice, however, the
other two roles, these of the audience and the critic, are less developed. Dolloff
(1993) criticises the Orff approach for neglecting the listening experience, as no
unique strategy has been developed for listening to the works of others.
It could therefore be concluded that all Schulwerk practices, as they are
broadly categorised in movement, speech, instrumental playing and improvi
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sational activities, are compatible to current psychological theories. The role of

imitation, which is widely used in Orff echo-games, has been already stressed
in Chapter 2. Imitation can be traced in various Orff group activities, in singing, moving, instrument playing or improvising. According to Rogers (1990), it
is this tendency to imitate that makes group teachingthe corner stone of
Orff-Schulwerksuch a powerful educational tool. What remains to be clarified is whether, according to the data gathered by the observations and the interviews in Salzburg and in Athens, this concurrence also exists in practice. In
other words, an evaluation of what Greek teachers do and if their practices are
germane to the original Orff Schulwerk, as it is taught in the Orff Institute, is
attempted below.
12.2.1 Tracing the inherent nature of movement

Orff-Schulwerk begins first with the sensory: the sounds of words, the kinesthetic sense of rhythm. The use of movement presents music to the individual
through his or her visual and tactile senses. Gradually, these sensual experiences of music develop to include conceptual knowledge of forms and names.
In his work Orff (1978) comments: "Rhythm is no abstract concept, it is life itself. Rhythm is active and produces effects, it is the unifying power of language, music and movement" (p. 62). This means that there is no one single
way of understanding rhythm. It must be present in all activity, vocal and
physical.
At the Orff Institute, movement held a major part of the instruction, as an examination of the schedule may reveal (Appendix K). Movement formed an
integral part of teaching, not only in pure movement sessions, such as those of
Yon and Unterholzer, but in the sessions of all instructors, no matter whether
the focus was on instrumental playing or improvisation. The views of the
three interviewees were also in accordance with this notion.
This kind of connection between movement and music is not superficial but the most
sensual starting point of energy. It's the same energy, it's the same timing or what you
call rhythm that appears some time in the sound of a drum or in the stubbing of the
feet. (Interview with Haselbach, 1996)
The case of Greece in relation to movement is somewhat unique. In Greece

there is a strong tradition of folk dances; dances that vary from the most still
forms, in which the dancers barely move their feet, to the most "kinetic" ones,
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in which the dancers perform complicated gestures and floor patterns around
the space. However, the use of natural movement performed without technical training (such as running, skipping, etc.) to understand and express musical concepts is a "foreign" pedagogical idea. Moreover, most music teachers
lack the sufficient experience and, therefore, confidence to perform and direct
movement activities. In consequence, movement easily becomes a decorative
frill rather than a vital and integrated part of the whole.
There are several reasons why some music teachers may avoid introducing
creative movement into the classroom: lack of space, fear of losing control,
risks to the children's safety, and inexperience in guiding children in meaningful movement experiences or a feeling that they have no inclination to incorporate movement into their teaching. In the observed sessions of the three
Greek Orff teachers, movement and dance occupied a major part of the syllabus. Numerous examples can be found throughout the observational data,
such as made-up round dances performed both in Schools B and C and
movement games that Fanis used to play with the children and, of course, all
the moving and dancing activities in School A which was a dancing school.
Although the three Orff teachers regarded movement as an integral part of
Orff-Schulwerk, when insufficient time was available some of them felt that
movement should not take up time which might be better spent on other aspects. Characteristically, some of the lessons in school B were spent entirely on
xylophone playing and singing. One cannot therefore help wondering
whether sometimes movement activities became merely a way of defusing
children's energy. School C presents a characteristic example. As the data
analysis revealed, movement activities, mostly in the form of exploratory, freestyle dancing, penetrated almost every session. A closer examination of the
findings, however, reveals that Fanis systematically avoided involving himself
in any dancing or movement demonstration. This helps to justify Deco's (2001)
report, concluding that most Orff teachers in Greece are mostly musicians
with no previous movement training. The entrance exams for the two-year
course in Moraitis school also support this aspect: the candidates are examined
in music but not in movement (Appendix B).
Another salient remark concerns children's reaction to movement activities in
School C. To a large extent, these activities were used to channel the overflow
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ing energy of the children. As a result, movement was often taking the form of
games whilst more demanding movement tasks were doomed to failure.
School A, on the other hand, revealed a totally different attitude towards
movement compared to School C. The childrengirls onlyin Matina's class
meticulously performed any movement task that their teacher dictated; for the
majority of the Greek culture, movement and dance is considered to be a girls
occupation. Haselbach (1978) remarks that around the age of eight, the type of
movement and the interests of boys and girls begin to differ. Furthermore, she
states that the tasks for boys should require more strength and skill than those
for girls. In addition to an increased predisposition to be undisciplined that is
noticeable from an early age to boys in Greece, one can understand that, in order for movement to become a unity with music as Orff intended, skilful
teachers are required.
All the tutors, both in Salzburg and in Athens, incorporated movement activities in their teaching. In Salzburg, however, movement formed an integral part
with every activity, no matter if the focus was on singing, instrument playing
or moving. The three Greek Orff teachers, on the other hand, adopted a more
superficial approach to movement which was often considered as a decorative
frill rather than an essential part of their teaching; they failed to surpass the
imitative level and lead the children to more advanced levels of movement.
12.2.2 Speech and the unexplored capacities

Orff-Schulwerk is always linked directly to the spoken word. Words provide
the starting point in Orff's scheme of music education. The teacher's aim in
speech work is to improve articulation, to encourage the use of wider range of
colour and tone and to arouse sensitivity to a wide variety of words. However,
above all speech exercises are the foundation of all rhythmic work in OrffSchulwerk. In the case of the Greek adaptation, of course, the key issue is
whether the Greek language is used as successfully as Orff used the German
language for the development of children's musicianship.
Thomas (1960) parallels Orff's speech activities to an eighteenth century theory
of linguistic development of Herder, an author and essayist. Herder discerns
four stages in the development of language: (a) childhood in which there is not
speech but sounds and pantomime, (b) youth in which the sounds of the words
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and their rhythms are used for beauty and for symbolic purposes, (c) manhood
which is the stage of beautiful prose and (d) old age which is increasingly preoccupied with correctness. Orff's single-word exercises accompanied by
rhythmic gestures reflect Herder's first stage. The second stage in Herder's
scheme is demonstrated in many speech exercises which are clearly chosen for
their sonance. The third stage is present in all Orff's volumes through proverbs
and other folkloric poetry. The last stage, on the other hand, in which rules of
grammar are taught, is avoided in the Orff approach as it may suppress children's creativity and spontaneity.
In many writings Orff insisted that as many sources as possible, such as nursery rhymes, riddles, charms, proverbs, classic and modern verse should be
used. All these, according to age and suitability, should be part of children's
experiences; children must feel the sonorities of the mother tongue and enrich
their musical experiences through the traditional lore of the country (Orff,
1978). Jungmair of the Orff Institute gave due time and attention to the development of awareness of speech values. In most of her sessions the students
would think out different ways of exploring words and their musical values.
She believed that, "within children lies the power of creative music-making
through speech which lays a genuine foundation for all music-making" (Interview with Jungmair, 1996).
Findings from the observations confirmed that the three Orff teachers used a
variety of speech activities. Alexia, was distinguished amongst the three Greek
Orff teachers, for placing an emphasis on more complex speech activities. She
insisted on the correct accentuation of each word which should also be reproduced accurately in clapping. Alexia successfully encouraged the children to
find answers to certain problems as, for example, when she invited them to
find differences between her playing of a rhythmic pattern and their attempts
to notate the same pattern. However, the children seemed puzzled when
Alexia prompted them to find their own words to match a rhythmic pattern.
As Cernohorsky (1989) points out, young children especially become confused
when they find out that the same pattern may be represented by words with
different meaning. Fanis, on the other hand, instructed simpler activities aiming at an awareness of objects familiar to the children and taking advantage of
their experiences with everyday language, while Matina used speech patterns
on almost every occasion; she even gave orders to the children in a rhythmi
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cally spoken way.

One could therefore see the dominant role of speech in the teaching of the
three Orff teachers, either in a form of structured activities aimed to acquaint
the children with rhythmic patterns and more abstract termsfor example,
notationor, as Matina did, intoning the instructions instead of merely speaking them. However, whether they fully explored the potentials and characteristics of Greek language or not, is an issue that will be examined later in this
chapter. Nevertheless, there was an overt divergence between the tutors of the
Orff Institute and the three Orff teachers, with regard to the way speech activities were conceived. In the second case, it was merely an aid towards children's rhythmical development whilst in the first, speech was also an aesthetic
and musical experience.
12.2.3 Improvisation as an inherent component of musical development

Perhaps Orff-Schulwerk's most valuable contribution to music education is its
emphasis on creativity and the establishment of improvisation in the classroom. According to McNeil Carley (1978), improvisation and other creative activities should always be carefully graded if they are to succeed. As she claims
the role of the teacher is to provide: a vocabulary of rhythms and a stimulus;
rhythmic security before melodic improvisation and; directed activities in the
early stages only. The teacher must also limit the initial availability of notes
and help children develop a reasonable stick-technique and voice control, if
melodic improvisation is to succeed. Directed activities beyond the early
stages could diminish students' enjoyment; notably, enjoyment appears as a
crucial factor for successful improvisation (Burnard, 1999).
One of the key objections to the Orff approach is its presumed preoccupation
with pentatony and rondo-form (Dolloff, 1993). Addressing this question,
Regner (Interview with Regner, 1996) attributed it to the cultural tradition of
his country. In fact, only the first of the five original volumes is dedicated to
pentatonic tonality. However, worldwide, many teachers misuse or neglect
the full range of repertoire available, either because of lack of training or because of the immediate success attained when improvising in the pentatonic
mode. It is true that many teachers simply lack the experience to take children
past this point.
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Generally speaking, the data analysis revealed that all three teachers used a
range of techniques and strategies to extend children's ideas and attempts to
improvise, such as exploration of different rhythmical variations and imitation
of particular elements in teacher's playing (see Table 11.2). However, to identify all the techniques employed by Greek Orff teachers would necessitate
much more extensive data collection. This is recommended to others for further study.
What was interesting to note is that in none of the observed lessons there were
spontaneous contributions by children; it was always the teachers who invited
them to find new ideas. Characteristically, the children in School B were puzzled when they were invited to improvise on a given text, although Alexia
used questions to stimulate and maintain an exchange of ideas between her
and the children. In addition to the value of improvisation, the teachers also
emphasised the significance of composing and acknowledged that most children felt uncomfortable with such activities. This is probably related to the fact
that the three teachers did not have either the experience or the time to carefully plan such creative activities. Interview data suggested that these Orff
teachers regarded the employment of creative activities as being particularly
demanding of planning and preparation.
Most activities taught by Fanis could be described as exploratory activities,
failing to reach a more constructive phase of improvisation or composition. In
School A, on the other hand, despite the apparent relaxed atmosphere, there
was never any doubt in any of the observed lessons that Matina was leading
the group. This is at variance with Jungmair's remark saying "The teacher
should learn not to be the most important person, that he should be ready to
learn from others, from children themselves" (Interview with Jungmair, 1996).
When, during the Orff Institute seminar, Beidinger guided his students into
improvised playing activities, he ensured that all the ideas came from them
(see Section 7.7). New arrangements of pitches and rhythms, of sounds and silences, comprised their compositions which also included new movements of
steps or gestures and new words, phrases or sentences. Occasionally, these arrangements of sounds were in response to a stimulus provided by another
participant, or a participant provided a starting point from his own mind.
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On the other hand, all three Greek Orff teachers appeared puzzled as they
looked for a way to proceed from imitation to improvisation. In most cases the
transition was somewhat abrupt; they missed the appropriate technique to
pass from one to the other smoothly and in a productive, educationally appropriate, way. Therefore, they failed to fully explore the dialectic nature of
improvisation that has imitation at one end and invention at the other. According to Regner (1975), the child must have constant opportunities to imitate
and then to invent, at first with only a few notes, within a given structure; this
also applies to speech exercises and to movement. In aggregate, the three Orff
teachers failed to: (a) employ improvisation activities and make steps beyond
an elemental explorative playing; (b) achieve a progressional transition from
imitation to improvisation; (c) ensure that every creative activity stems from
the children themselves.
12.2.4 Playing technique and the education of the senses

It is not necessarily true that the quality of work is directly related to the number of instruments available but if Orff's ideas are to be implemented, a certain
number of pitched instruments should be available in addition to the
unpitched instruments which appear to be possessed by every school. Some
assert that every child should have an instrument. There is much diversity of
opinion here, and ultimately the quality of teaching appears to be a far more
important criterion than the instrumental resources available. Besides, Orff
teachers see the playing of Orff instruments only as a medium for the acquisition of general musicianship and this attitude affects the way they teach the
instruments.
The instruments are not to be seen as inert things incapable of any expressive
quality in music-making. Instead they are to be seen as Orff saw them, as colourful instruments in their own right, each one separate having a character of
its own with a full range of dynamic possibilities. This aspect should be made
clear both to teachers and children. Jungmair (1996) made a remarkable contribution on this issue:
Before the xylophone, the drum was the first instrument used by Orff, together with
the big gongs and timpani, instruments whose vibrations could be felt on your stomach. Now we have those little drums which are just pedagogical tools, Orff would
never have had his idea with these drums. (Interview with Jungmair, 1996)
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In Greece, the Orff instrumentarium is imported either from Germany (the

original Studio 49 instruments) or from Japan (Suzuki instruments). Independent domestic manufacture has not yet been established in Greece apart from a
limited production of glockenspiels. The majority of Orff classes, make a wide
use of unpitched instruments (mostly drums) and use of a few pitched ones.
Amongst the observed schools, School A had been the most fortunate in terms
of equipment, possessing a rather amazing and diverse instrumentarium.
School B, being a music school, could also afford to possess pitched instruments, those being xylophones, for each student but it had a smaller variety of
unpitched instruments. School C, on the other hand, had been the most poor
in resources; there were only some unpitched percussion instruments, mostly
hand drums. This shortage of equipment inevitably affected the structure of
the lesson which was more oriented to movement, rhythm and speech activities than to instrumental playing.
At this point it is considered vital that certain principles concerning instrumental playing should be reexamined and juxtaposed to the way the three
Greek Orff teachers applied Orff-Schulwerk.
(a) Orff followed the Pestalozzian thinking in many aspects, such as the
progressive addition of body percussions from clapping to patschen,
then stamping and snapping and so on. In the observed sessions, all
three Greek Orff teachers followed this progression which started with
physical responses and was finally transferred to instruments.
(b) Even if the Orff approach promotes group activities, it is the
teacher's responsibility to prepare the environment in which the musical skills and intellect develop for the individual and for the group.
Each child develops his own abilities within the context of the ensemble. In order to promote independent thinking, both Alexia and Matina
followed the standard imitative procedure used by the majority of Orff
teachers for instrument playing: the teacher plays a phrasethe children imitate, then the teacher playseach child in turn invents an answer and finally, each child playsthe other children answer.
(c) Following the principle that the education of the senses should come
first, Orff begins with the sensory (the sound of the words, the kines
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thetic sense of rhythm, the use of movement). In connection with this

principle the data analysis revealed the most crucial discrepancies with
the original Orff-Schulwerk model. Both Matina and Alexia chose to
overlook this principle, as they taught a melody by naming the notes
instead of leading children to learn a melody by audiating it. Alexia's
teaching was the most typical example as she could spent a whole session teaching a melody which the children had not audiated or experienced in any other way before. In her classes, Jungmair made it clear
that technical considerations needed to be reduced to the minimum
necessary initially for music making. "Children are capable of inner
feeling and it is essential that this sense should be cultivated before
technique becomes an obstacle to the real meaning of music" (Interview
with Jungmair, 1996). Experiences always followed a controlled development, but relying on a kind of teaching sensitive to the possibilities of
experiment and of change. This is essentially what Orff's Music for Children is concerned with: skills connected with notation and technical
manipulation of instruments proceeding in a way that it can be assumed that they will not be used as a substitute for music. In this way,
the delayed introduction of notation strengthens memory as both
Regner and Haselbach stressed during the interviews with the researcher. "It (Orff-Schulwerk) was not meant to neglect notation but before the child goes to notation, make all that musical feeling and memory strong enough so it cannot be spoiled by notation" (Interview with
Haselbach, 1996).
Under the pressure of time for the coming Christmas festivities both Alexia
and Matina overlooked basic Orff principles. Although, group performances
comprise a unique experience towards the acquisition of general musicianship, this task does not necessarily have to be obtained through the dilemma
of choosing between: playing technique or education of the senses; these two
can coexist and complement one another. This could be achieved only through
the necessary curriculum changes. Both teachers and parents should be aiming
towards a process rather than product oriented teaching. In addition, school
festivities should be comply with this philosophy otherwise Orff's ideas will
be transformed into a sterile xylophone playing.
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12.3 Material from indigenous culture

If the pedagogical aspects of Orff-Schulwerk are to be explored in any depth
and in accordance with Orff's original ideas (see Section 2.1), the material used
must be within the experience of the children and therefore derived from their
own culture. As has been already mentioned earlier in this chapter, interview
data from the three interviewees in Salzburg encouraged this notion, regarding the use of indigenous instruments, and also the use of folk rhythms and
modes, instead of the pentatonic model. Orff-Schulwerk, in consequence,
should not be a mere transplantation of the original model but adjusted to be
culturally-appropriate in order for its adaptation to be considered successful.
From this standpoint, the data from the observed sessions were further examined in relation to the use of Greek material. The examination of the transcripts revealed that all three teachers managed to incorporate elements of the
Greek culture into the teaching of Schulwerk. Examples of such an integration
were numerous and appeared almost in every observed session, although
some similarities and differences could be discerned in the way teachers sometimes accomplished this. In general, their teaching gave the impression of being sometimes planned, as the activity with Pirpirouna in School A, and sometimes improvised, as most of the activities in School C.
Problems relating to the adaptation of folk material, for example, which version of a folk song would be the best for classroom teaching and related originality issues, are complex. Both Alexia and Fanis played on the recorder the
same folk carol from an Aegean island. While they both played the carol in
2/4remarkably, Fanis knew that the original tune was in 10/8, a rhythm
which is found only in Macedonia (see Table 5.1)neither he nor Alexia were
concerned for the modal character of the tune. However, considering that
most folk musicians in Athens play these melodies in well-tempered scales
(Baud-Bovy, 1994), it could be confusing for the children to learn them in their
original form. Discussing this matter, Fanis blamed the recorder of being a
well-tempered instrument while Alexia doubted her ability even to sing something apart from the major and minor scales after all the years of non-modal
musical experiences.
Admittedly, the examples of pentatonic and Dorian improvisation and ostinato patterns are reassuring in their simplicity, but other scales exist and other
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ways of accompaniment are possible. Apart from the "Pirpirouna" song

employed in an activity in School Aall the rest songs were in major scales
which represent a small proportion of Greek traditional music (see Section
5.1.1). Accordingly, so far as the modality of the employed songs concerns, it
must be emphasised that the teaching material used in the observed sessions
was not representative of the Greek traditional music.
As has already been mentioned, Orff is criticised for a presumed preoccupation of pentatony and rondo-form. From the five volumes, however, only the
first one is dedicated to pentatonic tonality. "The misuse and neglect of the full
range of repertoire available is perhaps due to the fact that most teachertraining courses in Schulwerk only scratch the surface of the first volume"
(Dolloff, 1993, p. 17). As improvisation in pentatonic modes guarantees the results, many teachers, perhaps due to their limited training, appear reluctant to
explore new tonal systems. So too with rondo form. Teachers who are incapable of improvising in any of the other forms stick to the rondo form. Once
some structural certainty has been established, it is fundamental to Orff's philosophy that new ideas should be explored and new modes of expression employed. In the observed lessons, the three teachers, adopted the earlier stages,
primarily the pentatonic beginnings. Of course, considering the level of the
children, the pentatonic suited the three observed teachers well, nevertheless,
the key issue is that they were not ready to use indigenous material for improvisation activities. Remarkably, discussing this issue with Matina after the
lesson reported in section 8.5.6 she said: "How can I ask a child to improvise in
the way professional musicians do? Of course, they make up their own melodies but only in the pentatonic".
All three teachers used the teaching material that has been given to them during their training. However, alternative material needs to be explored and the
idea of using a wider variety of folk songs needs to be extended. With regard
to teaching strategies, since folk music has no tradition of scholarly writing in
comparison with western art musics, then whatever materials do exist require
that teachers use them discerningly. Whilst in the final phase of the research
all teachers were observed using folk songs, certainly a more judicious selection and a new manner of using them would result in the creation of a very
rich learning environment, in the sense that students could gain from the contact with a variety of folk tunes. As was revealed in Chapter 5, Greek tradi
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tional music is characterised by its melodic and rhythmic diversity, each region having its characteristic modes and rhythms. In the observed sessions,
compound rhythms were often employed but basically they were restricted to
5/8, 7/8 and 9/8 rhythms. Again, a scarcity of published song material from
all over Greece restricts teachers' work, who mostly use the traditional material they had experienced from their initial training. It is characteristic that
both Pirpirouna and Sourva-Sourva (see Section 8.5 and 9.5), are Greek customs
that are taught in exactly the same way in the Orff course in Moraitis School as
in the observed sessions [it comes from personal seminar notes of the researcher] (Appendix M).
The same applies to the Greek words prasino filo filo, kokino milo milo and
prasino filo, kokino milo that both Matina and Alexia used to explain compound
beats of 7/8 and 5/8 respectively. The interviewed teachers contributed a
view which balanced, to some extent, the observation findings indicating that
there is a need for an in-depth examination of the structure of Greek language.
Only one teacher, Matina, offered a slightly different perspective when she
suggested that she considered her teaching to be comprehensive in terms of
speech activities. In general, throughout the observed lessons all three teachers
exhibited a lack of flexibility in the exploration of different facets of the Greek
language. Remarkable is the shortage of relevant publications that explore the
possibilities of the Greek language. The only publication to this direction is
"Rrrrrro" by Mathy and Slavic, but as has been stressed in Section 4.1, its content is more a mixture of ancient and scholarly Greek than examples derived
from everyday language.
The issue of Greek language allied to "children's speech experiences" (discussed in Section 11.2.4) was of concern to all three teachers, and is an issue
which might usefully form the basis for future research. As Haselbach (1996)
stressed in her interview with the researcher, in connection with the structure
of the Greek language
it [Greek language] doesn't have the accent, it only has the length and shortness, and
that's different from the German language and therefore probably rhythmic examples
given in German language are very unfamiliar to you and vice versa. So this is a
really important difference which has to be considered when you do speech exercises
in Greece. (Interview with Haselbach, 1996)
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More specifically, the main characteristics of Greek language are: (a) one main
stress per word; (b) constraint to the last three syllables (therefore no word is
stressed before the antepenultimate); (c) the placement of the stress is considered to be largely unpredictable; (d) a limited use of one-syllable words, notably a lack of one-syllable verbs (unlike the English and the German languages)
(see Section 5.3).
An in-depth examination of its structure would therefore lead to a more substantial use of Greek language that would ensure the unity of speech and
rhythm in accordance with the original Orff-Schulwerk. As was implied in
Chapter 5, folk songs suitable for children could be used in speech activities in
a positive way: they possess rich linguistic material as they originate from different areas of Greece, they have simple texts and melody and most important
they are within children's experience. Moreover, as Mills (1995) stressed referring to traditional games, "teachers themselves can learn a lot about the children's singing and rhythmic ability as well as their overall development from
just watching them in the playground". p. 20
A central concern for Orff teachers is the kind of instruments to be used and
what kind of transmission is the best to be adapted.
The Orff teacher should be constantly on the lookout for available means of enriching
the sound of the Orff ensemble. There is no fixed set of rules which 'allows' some
instruments and 'forbids' others. Folk instruments, classical instruments even
electronic ones and the piano which for a long time was a taboo for the Orff instrumentarium now are freely used. (Interview with Regner, 1996)
In broad terms, the three teachers used the Orff-Schulwerk materials they had
experienced in their initial training, irrespective of whether the nature of this
material led to a western-type teaching approach or not. Nevertheless, the
question arising is whether, given a wholly adapted five volume OrffSchulwerk Greek edition, the three teachers would have chosen different
teaching strategies, but this question would require further research. At this
point it must be stressed that Regner (1996) had located the problem long before this research took place:
"I think there should be not one Greek version but a collection of small booklets which
represent the ethnic speciality of every region and show the whole variety and diversity of the Greek tradition (Interview with Regner, 1996)."
275
Courses and seminars in the Orff Institute in Salzburg are westernised and orientated to the application of the original model. In response to another
question, the interviewees explained this adherence to the western model as a
necessary consequence of the need to teach in their own mother tongue.
Therefore, it is according to the pedagogues of each country to accumulate and
modify the original model to fit the needs of their culture. As Haselbach (1983)
suggests, it requires much hard work to find the balance between one's cultural inheritance and a new teaching approach. Another startling point of the
Orff-Schulwerk approach in relation to the Greek culture must be mentioned,
namely the way movement activities were perceived by boys in the observed
schools. Of course in this case, their reluctance to perform any ballet-like
movements, is also related to a lack of a systematic music and movement
training starting from the early ages.
Both the observational data and the literature review show that most music
teachers involved with Orff-Schulwerk in Greece are not knowledgeable or
competent in indigenous folk music. Notably, Orff-Schulwerk and Greek traditional music share a common feature: they are both based on teacher modelling. In the case of Greek traditional music, oral transmission is the only
known way of learning (see Section 5.2.2), whilst Orff-Schulwerk employs oral
transmission only in the first stages of learning (see Chapter 2). Folk teachers
of the old tradition, on the other hand, who could contribute a lot to the adaptation of the original model in this direction, usually do not see the need for
adapting a new pedagogy instead of their familiar rote learning (Mazaraki,
1984). Moreover, Orff-Schulwerk values tradition and could mostly contribute
to its dissemination in the educational context as the publications of folk and
children's songs and dances around the world show.
Orff's insight into the enculturative process is an essential and strongly creative point
as it throws the western-made classroom into question, and this automatically opens
the door for a broader concept of music education than just what happens in the
classroom. Music education then becomes 'whatever we learn about music in whatever situation'. We are thus allowed to keep music within its cultural context and
meaning. (Schiff, 1997, p. 8)
This naturally opens the way for Greek music to receive at least equal value
when brought into the classroom, and also for it to be used as 'authentically' as
possible. It also opens the way for the musicality to be the aim of music education rather than 'reading music', or 'singing', or 'playing an instrument' or 'displaying one's talent'.
276
12.4 Summary
In such a creative way of teaching music as the Schulwerk approach, where no
model to be strictly followed is provided, a variety of teaching styles is justified. Regner (1996) remarked to the researcher, "When you teach Schulwerk it
must be different from my teaching of Schulwerk" (Interview with Regner,
1996). However, the variety of teaching styles must not constitute a problem to
the adaptation of Orff-Schulwerk.
Given the diversity of the three teachers (one male, two female) in relation to
their background (a dancer, a philologist and a musician) and the school situations (see Table 11.1) and nevertheless, the similarities in their teaching practices, one could conclude that these three teachers are a typical example of
what Greek Orff teachers do in their teaching. However, it does not provide
the ground for the researcher to generalise and transfer the conclusions from
these three cases to a larger scale. According to the data analysis based on the
observed sessions and on the corresponding interviews with the three teachers, there are certain issues concerning the adaptation of Orff-Schulwerk in
Greece that need further consideration:
improvisation is not only an end in itself but also an activity preparing

children for other creative activities like composition;
Orff teachers must work free of any time limitations providing numerous opportunities for creativity;
the education of boys particularly needs to be given more attendance

in order they to feel comfortable with body movements;
Greek language needs to be studied specifically for use within the

Orff-Schulwerk approach;
the use of material from the Greek culture is of higher importance and
must be included in the training of Greek Orff teachers together with
their acquaintance with the original Orff-Schulwerk;
the research for age-appropriate folk songs is a priority for the appli-
cation of Orff-Schulwerk in Greece;

the indigenous material employed by Greek Orff teachers has to be
representative of Greek traditional music;
Greek folk instruments, such as laouto, santouri and canonaki could be
277
incorporated in the original Orff instrumentarium or even totally replace it;
a progressive initiation of children into folk music is essential, especially in urban areas such as Athens where folk music and dance are
rarely part of children's experience.
Following the findings of the research one might think that there are certain
discrepancies between the Greek Orff-Schulwerk and the original model and
these discrepancies hinder the application of Orff-Schulwerk in Greece. Nevertheless, there are certain reasons actuating these discrepancies which are
briefly mentioned in this section. As discussed in Section 4.2.2, there are many
musical activities in the curriculum of Greek primary schools but no creative
ones. Accordingly, it is up to the ability of each music teacher to pursue a creative and child-centred style of teaching. Private schools, on the other hand,
have the infrastructure for a better curriculum, in terms of musical experiences. However, the pressure of parents and management, that are product
and not process-orientedfocused on performances in the end of the year
concerts or on festivities such as those at Christmasinhibit the development
of creative activities. In addition, Orff-Schulwerk practices in Greece often face
a misunderstanding by society which sees it as another treat amongst the Kindergarten accessories. Therefore, Orff-Schulwerk is often limited to preschool
ages and in many cases it is taught by non-specialists.
In the context of a product oriented teaching, in all three cases improvisation
activities were not fully incorporated in the teaching procedure, missing in
many cases a substantial unity with the whole. Most activities used imitation
and a step-by-step guidance limiting children's development of creativity and
aural awareness. Also, this teaching philosophy restricted the children of the
necessary opportunities to explore the musical instruments they used. Many
problems of the Greek adaptation of Orff-Schulwerk are also due to a scarcity
of appropriate materials, and, therefore, teachers work almost exclusively with
the folk material they were provided during their training. Interviews, both
with the three Greek teachers and the members of the Institute in Salzburg,
stressed even further the need for more publications in this direction.
278
12.5 Implications for music education

In Chapter 7 an overview of the way Orff-Schulwerk is taught in Salzburg was
presented. This overview proposed that there were certain fundamental principles that were followed by most of the instructors. On the basis of evidence
outlined in Chapters 2 and 7, it was acknowledged that, these principles
should be present in the teaching of every Orff teacher. Therefore, an initial
concern of the study was to examine the role of the teacher in a typical OrffSchulwerk lesson.
All instructors in Salzburg taught in a "child-centred" way; their role as teachers was central, only in so far as they moved on from one activity to another.
Within this framework, their role was to encourage and suggest, but never to
force. This highlights a particularly difficult issue for music education and
emphasises the problem in connection with the introduction of improvisation,
whether in school performances or in the classroom. If improvisation activities
demand certain skills on teacher's part, then some special care must be taken
during the initial training of music teachers.
Moreover, any open-ended improvisational activities demand a refocus of the
educational goals which at present are product and not process oriented.
Schools, their managements, parents and teachers, should all understand this
difference. Furthermore, in order for a music and movement approach, such
as Orff-Schulwerk, to be successfully implemented, it should be incorporated
in all stages of education, from preschool to upper levels and not restricted to
a specific age group.
Likewise, the application of Orff-Schulwerk requires a minimum of rhythmic
and melodic instruments. The selection of teaching materials and techniques,
quite obviously, must be linked with the availability of instruments, especially
melodic percussion ones. Special care must also be taken for the use of indigenous musical instruments; instruments like the santouri which has a very simple playing techniquesimilar to that of the Orff melodic percussion, or the
laouto whose role in traditional musicmainly playing an ostinatois also a
characteristic Orff-Schulwerk technique. Children and teachers should be encouraged to experiment with instruments from the Greek and the international folk scene; eventually these instruments could be incorporated into the
Orff instrumentarium. The demands on music teachers and those responsible
279
for the supporting infrastructure of instruments provision within a school are

obviously considerable.
The picture of Orff-Schulwerka method which developed in another countryin Greece, is very similar to the picture in other non-western countries
such as South Africa or Thailand where Orff-Schulwerk has been applied.
There are certain problems in connection with the application of OrffSchulwerk that contribute to this picture. At this point, three of them are highlighted: (a) the different qualities of Greek language and music; (b) the very
recent integration of music and movement in the syllabi of conservatories and
schools; and (c) the very recent integration of Greek traditional music in the
syllabi of music schools and conservatories. These are problems that are
closely related to the issue of material development. In general, there is little
improvement in the adaptation of teaching material and incorporation of indigenous music since 1962 when Orff-Schulwerk was first introduced in
Greece. The development of teaching material appears to be a priority for the
next critical steps of Orff-Schulwerk. This material should be appropriately
adapted for children's age. Also it could be specifically focused on each region
of Greece and the intensively expanding communities of emigrants in some of
these regions.
As mentioned in Chapter 4, although Greek children's songs make wide use of
the known sol-mi melodic pattern, this is not the case in the majority of Greek
traditional music in which the commonest starting interval is that of ascending
forth, major second or major third. It is therefore recommended that, in addition to the minor third, teachers addressing older children also to reconsider
other intervals as starting points in Schulwerk activities.
With regard to the Greek language it would be essential to study the stressing
of the words in the Greek language and the structure of the Greek language in
terms of phonology. This would affect positively all speech and rhythmic
activities used in music lessons.
Apart from the structure of the Greek language, music teachers must have experiences that will familiarise them with the essential structure of music. Their
training should also include elements of folk music for, as Haselbach stresses,
"without the experience of such primitive sources of creative energy (as the
280
ones found in folk music) they would be merely mimicking the materials and
methods of Schulwerk" (Haselbach, 1992, p. 7).
Orff-Schulwerk must also affect children's whole attitude towards music and
render them capable of further artistic explorations without a teacher's help.
Nowadays, as the relation between the fine arts and music is clearer, students
must be encouraged, apart from music and poetry, also to explore other arts,
and particularly dance and painting (Regner, 1975).
These are some insights that could play a significant role for the implementation of Orff-Schulwerk in non-western countries such as Greece. Schulwerk is
open to any new ideas which are really important for its future. Orff himself
stressed the significance of changing with the times and through the times
(Haselbach, 1992). Remarkably, from the very beginning, any direct translation of the original volumes of Music for Children was strongly discouraged.
Accordingly, each culture must readjust the basic principles and reorder the
priorities of Schulwerk according to its needs. Apparently, music teachers
must never stop to adjust Schulwerk in their own time for it will become
dated. As Regner puts it: "Whether Orff's ideas will continue to live or not,
will depend on the ability, understanding and determination of teachers always to be rearranging the ideas in new ways" (Regner, 1975). Nowadays, as
the Greek educational system undergoes serious changes in order to be adjusted to the European educational systems, this message acquires a special
meaning for the attempted transition into a modern music teaching but also
for the establishment of a contemporary general education in Greece.
As the thesis is completed the researcher proceeds to use the experience that
was acquired through the research. There is already a close cooperation with
the editorial board of the periodical of the Greek Orff Society. This includes articles and projects for the dissemination of the Orff-Schulwerk approach in
Greece.
In this spirit, it is scheduled a publication of Orff materials appropriate to be
used in Greek schools. Specifically, the researcher has collected folk songs
from Thrace, the north-eastern region of Greece, which will be developed and
arranged for a mixed instrumentarium of Orff and folk musical instruments.
This publication is the beginning of more publications that will cover all the
281
regions of Greece producing teaching materials for the needs of music lessons
and filling partially the gap from the lack of a Greek Orff-Schulwerk edition.
The researcher has also developed a sequence of eleven music and movement
lessons which through an experiential approach introduce the children to folk
dances. These lessons start with play-like activities that help the children to
explore their kinaesthetic abilities and gradually turn into sequences of steps
and dancing. This proposal, adopting an Orff-Schulwerk approach to the
teaching of folk dances, will be submitted to the Greek Ministry of Education
for inclusion in the national curriculum.
12.6 An appraisal of the study

The research interest in the application of basic Orff-Schulwerk principles and
the handling of indigenous material in Orff-Schulwerk practices, led to a concentration on teaching as the main source of data in the study. Data have been
gathered through a number of methods. Often, data from one method served
to contradict or confirm findings which resulted from a different method. In
some instances, for example the interviews, data merely offered a hint which
could be explored more fully by observations. Starting from the literature review, the progressive focusing of interest shaped up an exploratory kind of research intending to allow themes to emerge as the study progressed.
Throughout the investigation, care was taken to control biases that might influence data collection and interpretation. For example, the three interviewees
in Salzburg maintained a neutral posture in the questions concerning the adaptation of Orff-Schulwerk in Greece, either due to an insufficient knowledge
of the situation of Greece or because they preferred to keep themselves at a
distance from sensitive issues (for example, the appropriateness or not of the
Orff-Schulwerk arrangements made by Mathy). However, it was a matter of
discretion on the researcher's part not asking a more explicit stance. Although
the research was designed to be non-interventionist, during the interviews a
kind of interaction between the interviewer and the interviewees took place.
Also the mood of the interviewee and interviewer and the time and place,
might have resulted in a different outcome; the dangers of bias and reactivity
were real for a study which was reliant, for the most part, on qualitative
analysis of data.
282
Regarding personal beliefs, admittedly the researcher came to the investigation with an ideology which placed a value on the enculturating qualities of
folk music. Accordingly, this might influence the contexts of data collection as
a result of what is attended to, the interpretation of data from the interviews
and observations, and, not least, in the selection of excerpts from the transcripts. Also, problems related to the generality of the events described could
be recognised as deriving from a small number of particular instances being
investigated. There are advantages and disadvantages related to the focus of
the research on a small group of teachers which are articulated in detail in Section 5.1. Nevertheless, this was recognised as being a typical group selected for
particular reasons.
To my knowledge, there is no research into Orff-Schulwerk teaching which
explores how Orff principles are applied in Greece, nor which examines the
use of indigenous material in music classes. Hopefully, this research will offer
new insights into music teaching and make a contribution to research using a
qualitative-interpretative approach. However, the most rewarding aspects of
the research study was the opportunity to talk with Orff teachers and watch
them and their children in action. They appeared to love what they did and
have a good time while enriching the lives of children for whom they were responsible. After all, enjoying every lesson may be the key factor for the acceptance of Orff-Schulwerk in Greece or any other cultural setting. As Shamrock
(1990) puts it "the Schulwerk model is appropriate wherever it is considered
desirable" (p. 50).
283
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Appendix A
Appendix B
MORAITIS SCHOOL OF ATHENS
Two-year Orff-Schulwerk training course

This is the only course in Greece licensed to provide its graduates with an Orff certification. It was established in 1986 with an exclusive collaboration between the
Orff-Schulwerk-Forum in Salzburg and the Moraitis School in Greece.
It is an in service training course, addressed to primary and kindergarten teachers,
dancers, musicians, physical education teachers and generally to everyone holding
a degree in education or music and interested in acquiring a professional training
in Music and Movement Education.
The course lasts two years, each year having an eight-month duration (from October to May). Since 1998, participants of the course have to pass entrance examinations taking place every June. The applicants are examined in the following issues:
music, movement, ensemble, teaching and pedagogy.
Curriculum
The curriculum of the course is expanded to 700 hours per year. The lessons are
on a daily base and are divided into three broad categories: pedagogy, music and
movement. In addition, once per week, workshops with groups of children are included in the course. Attendance is compulsory.
Course offerings
Music
Training in choral and instrumental ensemble
Music Composition
Music Theory and French type Solfge
Orff instruments playing technique
Greek rhythmology
Voice training
Instrumental conducting
Ethnomusicology
Movement
Movement techniques
Movement improvisation
Creative movement and dance
Accompaniment to movement
Greek folk dances and issues on Greek culture
Folk dances from around the world and dance teaching
Pedagogy
Issues on children development
Music and Movement pedagogy
Workshops with groups of children
Appendix C
Appendix D
Appendix E1
Appendix E2
Appendix F
Appendix G
Appendix H
Appendix I
Issues discussed with the three Greek Orff teachers
What are their aims? How do these relate to Orffs principles?
Do they think they have achieved their tasks?
How they perceive the progress of their classes?
Interaction with the children.
The roll of folk music in their teaching.
Choice of material.
Expectations of the school.
Possible changes in the syllabus.
Appendix J
Issues discussed with the children
How do they feel when they move and dance?
When did they start music lessons systematically?
How often do they listen to live music?
What is their parents / brothers / sisters relationship to music?
Appendix K
Appendix L
Interview questions (Salzburg)
1.
Would you consider Schulwerk as an exportable pedagogical idea?

a. Has the export of musical civilisation from Europe to non-western countries
ceased or does it still continue?
2. What were Orff's criteria when he advised for or against translations of the original volumes?
a. What competencies would he required of a translator?
b. What kind of musical idiom would a country need to have?
c. Have there been any recent changes in these respects?
d. What do you personally consider to be the most basic Orff-Schulwerk principles?
3. What Schulwerk principles should remain unaltered in a possible adaptation?
a. What are the fundamental Schulwerk elements that should be utilised in music
teaching in order to still be considered as an Orff approach?
4. What do you think of:
a. The role of voice, with all those special characteristics of a specific folk music in
the framework of the Orff instrumentarium?
b. A possible exclusion of the metallophone and the recorder in material that
serves the needs of a specific indigenous musical style?
c. An instrumentarium that has nothing to do with the Orff instruments?
d. The use of folk string instruments to play the bourdon?
e. The special requirements of a particular style like Greek traditional music with
very simple harmonic structures based on a moving bourdon?
5. How pedagogically useful is folk music in Schulwerk when folk music is not within the
everyday experience of the children?
6. How important are pentatonic scales and the minor third in the early stages of Schulwerk?
a. What about those musical cultures that lack such tonalities?
7. Would you consider Schulwerk's position on staff notation as a key point in the teaching
of traditional music?
8. Why does model presented at introductory Schulwerk workshops always take the western form?
a. Is the majority of people who come to the Orff-Institute interested in the teaching of original Schulwerk, or do they see it as a method that could be adjusted to
support their own teaching methods?
b. Have you come across other music teachers that were keen in utilizing their
country's indigenous music in the teaching of Schulwerk?
9. What are the most common difficulties in adopting Schulwerk?
a. Is the high cost of Orff instruments a barrier for countries/ schools/ music
teachers who would like to use Schulwerk?
b. Do different languages present particular problems? i.e. the way language is
used to develop rhythm may or may not be effective or convincing, depending
upon the fluency of the participants in the instructor's language.
10. If it is true that nothing in the original model precludes the application of basic principles to other musical idioms or the use of indigenous instruments rather than Orff instruments, then how do you explain the fact that this has not happened so far?
a. The case of Czechoslovakia
b. In which country has Orff-Schulwerk most successfully been adapted so far?
c. What do you know about the case of Greece?
Appendix M

Orff-Schulwerk Applications in Greek Settings

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University of Reading

Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Chapter One: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

Chapter two: Orff-Schulwerk

Chapter three: World wide adaptations of Orff-Schulwerk

World wide adaptations

Chapter four: Orff-Schulwerk in Greece

The introduction of Orff-Schulwerk

Chapter five: Greek music and oral tradition

The nature of Greek traditional music

Chapter six: The research process

The focus of the research

Chapter seven: The Orff-Institute seminar: experiencing Schulwerk in action

Chapter eight: School A: A private dance school

Chapter nine: School B: A municipal music school

Chapter ten: School C: A state primary school

Chapter eleven: Orff-Schulwerk practices compared

Chapter twelve: Discussion and conclusions

The Orff principles

Speech activities from a book by Lebesi and Tsaftaridis

Training course of the Moraitis school

Sample lesson from the Moraitis schoolrhythmic arrangement

Sample lesson from the Moraitis schooltraditional song

Arrangement of a traditional song by Mathy Chortarakia

An activity from a book by Mathy and Slavic

Arrangement of a children song by Zervoudakis

A children folk song from a book by Tsaftaridis

The list of questions from the interviews with the children

The programme of the Salzburg seminar

The list of questions from the Salzburg interviews

Sample lesson from a session with AtesoglouPirpirouna

A folk melody in Souzinak mode

Yons rhombus of human behaviour

The rhythm of a folk song in 9/8Niktolouloudo

A Christmas children song"The sheep are sleeping"

An Athenian Christmas carol

The most common Greek folk music modes

The methodology of the study

The content of the first lesson in School A

The content of the first lesson in School B

The content of the second lesson in School C

Number of children and instruments in the three Orff schools

"The sheep are sleeping"

An Athenian Christmas carol

different characteristics compared to western forms of music. Does this mean

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

Chapter one: The psychology of childrens musical development and learning

Although, as Hargreaves (1986) remarks, the days of grand theories that

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

imitation. Through a trial-and-error process children approach performance

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

variation of time, variation of weight, variation of level, variation of shape,

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

ment in music is, of course, rhythm. According to Campbell (1995), together

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning

1.3 Rhythm and speech

Chapter one: The psychology of children's musical development and learning