BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS

UNIT : II
BRICKS:
Brick is a rectangular block of regular shape obtained by moulding a mixture of clay and
sand and generally burnt at high temperature. The earth for good brick should contain clay or
Alumina 20 to 30%, sand or silica 35 to 50%, silt 20 to 35% by weight. The
mineral
constituents of bricks are alumina (plasticity), silica (cracking, shrinkage), lime (binding),
magnesia (binding) and iron oxide (binding, strength, colour). The brick clay should have
plasticity and good binding property. It should with stand high temperature without-deformation.
It should be free from pebbles, stones, gravel, grit, alkaline salts, lumps of lime, vegetables and
organic matter.

Bricks sizes
Modular brick or Standard Brick: The bricks confirming to IS 1077-1976 are known as
modular brick. The size of brick is 19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm. With mortar joint the size
becomes 20 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm.
Traditional brick or Conventional Brick: These bricks are manufactured traditionally or
right from ancient times. here is a slight variation in the size of the brick from place to
place. The common size is 23 cm x 11.4 cm x 7 cm.

Classes of bricks

Properties & tests on bricks

Bricks should be well-burnt, copper coloured.
They should be free form crack, fissures, tones etc.
Brick should have perfect edges, required shape and standard size 19 x 9 x 9 cm (Modular brick)
(Dimension Tolerance Test).
Bricks should be sufficiently hard i.e. when scratched with a nail, no impression be present.
Bricks should give clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other.
Bricks should be homogeneous and free from blow holes, cracks, voids, the latter is dangerous as
they slake upon absorption of water, expand in volume and cause the crumble or split.
Bricks should not absorb water more than 20% and 22% by weight for 1 st and 2nd bricks
respectively when soaked in cold water for 24 hours (Water Absorption Test).
Bricks should not break, when struck against another brick or when dropped from a height of 1
m on the firm ground.
Bricks should be sound proof, fire resistant, and weather resistant.

Bricks should be free from harmful constituents like soluble salts of calcium ma and potassium
(Efflorescence Test).
Bricks should be strong and durable. The crushing strength should be 3.5 N/mm 2 (Compressive
Strength Test).
Bricks should have 5 to 7 N / mm2 shearing strength.
The density of brick should be 1.7 to 1.9 kN / mm2.
Uses of bricks
1)Bricks are used for the construction of walls.
2)Hallow blocks i.e. bricks with cavities are used in the construction of walls, as they are very
light so very useful for high rise buildings.
3)Bricks are also used for the construction of columns, compound walls, chimney and other
special works.
4)Bricks of good quality i.e. 1st class bricks are used for fencing of wall.
5)Paving bricks manufactured from clay containing large percentage of iron are used pavements
since they resist abrasion.
6)Fire bricks manufactured from fire clay are used as refractory bricks for lining furnace.
7) Sand-lime bricks are used for decorative work.

BRICK MASONRY
Brick masonry is construction in which uniform units ("bricks"), small enough to be placed
with one hand, are laid in courses with mortar joints to form walls. Bricks are kiln baked from
various clay and shale mixtures.

Bond: Bond is an arrangement of bricks for proper

distribution of load.
Types of Bonds in Brick Masonry
Brick masonry is built with bricks bonded together with mortar. For temporary sheds mud mortar
may be used but for all permanent buildings lime or cement mortars are used.
The various types of bonds generally used in brick masonry are
1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond

3. English bond and

4. Flemish bond

1. Stretcher Bond
A stretcher is the longer face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In the brick of size 190 mm
90 mm 90 mm, 190 mm 90 mm face is the stretcher. In stretcher bond masonry all the bricks
are arranged in stretcher courses as shown in Fig-1. However care should be taken to break
vertical joints. This type of construction is useful for the construction half brick thick partition
wall.

Fig-1 Stretcher Bond

2. Header Bond
A header is the shorter face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In a standard brick it is 90 mm
90 mm face. In header bond brick masonry all the bricks are arranged in the header courses as
shown in Fig-2. This type of bond is useful for the construction of one brick thick walls.

Fig-2 Header Bond

3. English Bond
English bond consists of alternate course of headers and stretches. In this English bond
arrangement, vertical joints in the header courses come over each other and the vertical joints in
the stretcher course are also in the same line. For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive
course it is essential to place queen closer, after the first header in each heading course. The
following additional points should be noted in English bond construction:
(1) In English bond, a heading course should never start with a queen closer as it is liable to get
displaced in this position.
(2) In the stretcher course, the stretchers should have a minimum lap of 1/4th their length over
the headers.
(3) Walls having their thickness equal to an even number of half bricks, i.e., one brick thick wail,
2 brick thick wall, 3 brick thick wall and so on, present the same appearance on both the faces,
i .e. a course consisting of headers on front face will show headers on the back face also.
Isometric view of 1 brick wall in English bond is shown below,

(4) In walls having their thickness equal to an odd number of half brick, i.e. 1 brick thick walls
or 2 brick thick walls and so on, the same course will show stretchers on one face and headers
on the other.
(5) In thick walls the middle portion is entirely filled with header to prevent the formation of
vertical joints in the body of the wall.
(6) Since the number of vertical joints in the header course is twice the number of joints in the
stretcher course, the joints in the header course are made thinner than those in the stretcher
course.

Fig-3 English Bond

4. Flemish Bond
In this type of bond each course comprises of alternate header and stretcher Alternate courses
start with stretcher and header. To break the vertical joints queen closers are required, if a course
starts with header. Every header is centrally supported on the stretcher below it.
Flemish bonds may be further classified as

Double Flemish Bond

Single Flemish Bond.

In case of double flemish bond, both faces of the wall have flemish look, i.e. each course consist
of alternate header and stretcher, whereas single flemish bond outer faces of walls have flemish
look whereas inner faces have look of English bond.
Construction of flemish bond needs greater skill. It gives more pleasing appearance. But it
is not as strong as English bond. If only pointing is to be used for finished wall, flemish bond
may be used to get good aesthetic view. If plastering is going to be used, it is better to use
English bond.

Fig-4 Flemish Bond

METHODOLOGY:
1. Good brick masonry should utilize bricks which are sound, hard, well burnt and tough with
uniform colour shape and size.
2. The bricks should be compact, homogeneous, free from holes, cracks, flaws, air-bubbles and
stone lumps. These bricks should be properly soaked in water for at least two hours before use.
3. In the brick work, the bricks should be laid on their beds with the frogs pointing upwards.
4. The brick courses should be laid truly horizontal and should have truly horizontal and should
have truly vertical joints.
5. As far as possible the use of brick-bats should be discouraged.

6. As far a possible the brick walls should be raised uniformly with proper bond. Generally the
height of brick masonry construction in a day should be less than 1.5m. The maximum difference
in rise of the wall between the different portions should not be more than one meter.
7. When the mortar is green, the face joints should be raked to a depth of 12 to 19mm in order to
have a proper key for plastering or pointing. The mortar joints should be stuck flush and finished
if no plastering or pointing is to be done.
8. In order to ensure continuous bond between the old and the new, the walls should be stopped
with a toothed end.
9. Finished brickwork in lime mortar should be cured for a period of 2 to 3 weeks. This period
can be reduced to 1 to 2 weeks in case of brickwork with cement mortar.
COMPARISON OF ENGLISH BOND AND FLEMISH BOND
Sr No.

English Bonds

Flemish bond

This bond consists of headers and

stretchers laid in alternative courses.

This bond consists of headers and

stretchers laid alternatively in each
course.

It is strongest of all the bonds.

It is less strong for walls having thickness

more than 13 inches.

It provides rough appearance especially

for one brick thick walls.

It provides good appearance for all

thickness of walls.

There are no noticeable continuous

vertical joints in the structure built in this
bond.

There are partly continuous vertical joints

in the structure built in this bond.

Much attention is not required in

providing this bond.

Special attention is required in providing

this bond.

Progress of work is more.

Progress of work is less.

It is costly because the use of brick bats

is not allowed.

It is economical because brick bats are

allowed for forming this bind.

Concrete types:

Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)

Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)
Prestressed Concrete
Precast Concrete
Ready Mix Concrete.
Plain Cement Concrete (PCC):
It is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. The proportion of these
ingredients depends upon the grade of mix required for meeting the requirements of a particular
job. The grades of P.C.C. are generally designated as M15, M20, M25 etc. Where M stand for
mix and the number stands for compressive strength of that mix after 28 days expressed in
N/mm2
The proportion ingredients for various mixes can be decided by using nominal mixes. For
example a mix of 1:2:4 i.e. 1 part of cement, 2 parts of fine aggregate and 4 parts of coarse
aggregate along with water in proportion to water-cement ratio makes a concrete of grade M15.
The concrete is manufactured either by hand mixing or machine mixing using volume batching
or weight batching techniques for measuring the quantities of the ingredients. Plain cement
concrete has very less tensile strength and therefore it is not used for flexural members.
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC):
As P.C.C has a little usable tensile strength (l/10 th of strength in compression) it is reinforced
with a tensile material usually steel. Due to bonding between steel and concrete stresses are
transferred from one material to another thus concrete caters for compressive stresses and steel
for tensile stresses. Recently use of M15 concrete for any type of R.C.C. work is prohibited by
Indian standards. The minimum grade of concrete to be used is M20. The concrete manufactured
on site is termed as 'in-situ- concrete'.
Uses of PCC and RCC

PCC: Footing, Mass Concrete, Compound Walls, Concrete Flooring, Piers, Abutments,
etc.

RCC : Beams, Columns, Slabs, Stairs, Lintels, Foundations

Prestressed Concrete :
This is a reinforced concrete in which concrete is subjected to compressive stresses, before
the external loads are applied, by inducing tensile stresses in the reinforcement to counteract
tensile stresses caused in the concrete by external loads. If the tensile reinforcement is subjected
to tensile stresses before the external loads are applied compressive stresses are induced in the
concrete of the beam which absorbs or counteracts the tensile stresses caused by external loads in
concrete. Thus concrete can therefore be used effectively in resisting tensile stresses also. Steel

cables of high tensile strength are used as reinforcements along with rich concrete mix
(preferably above M30).
The prestressed concrete members are generally precast. The prestressing is done either by
pre-tensioning or post tensioning. In pre-tensioning the cables are prestressed in place in the
form, before concrete is placed. In post tensioning prestressing force is applied to already placed
cables after the concrete has completely set and attained the desired strength. The prestressing
force is applied using hydraulic jacks. The prestressing technique has eliminated the 'weakness of
concrete in tension resulting into crack free members.
Uses

Girders for bridges

Beams for large spans

Railway slippers

Electric poles

Precast Concrete:
The term precast concrete is applied to individual concrete members of various which are cast in
separate forms before they are placed in the structure. Precast members are cast either on
building sites or in casting yards located at distance or in precast concrete factories. Precast
members are then transported to the site and then placed in position by cranes other devices if
they are heavy like beam or slab units.

Uses

For casting various building elements such as beams, columns, slabs, water tank.

For manufacture of compound poles, electricity poles, ornamental structures.

Fabrication of RC.C. pipes, bridge girders, bridge piers, concrete piles.

Ready Mix Concrete:

Concrete supplied by ready mix concrete plants under controlled conditions like electronic
weightment, controlled materials and proper mixture proportioning.
Uses:

The first and foremost advantage is that, the concrete is produced exactly as per the mix
design.

The batching is very precise weight batching and hence it is very exact and sticks very
closely to the actual mix design.

Modern RMC plants are entirely computerized and automated and this gives consistent
quality, flexibility, immediate availability of any design mix you want to order, and high
grade of quality control.

Advantages of RMC:

Uniform assured quality of concrete.

Removes chances of mishandling and adulteration.

Faster construction speed.

Storage needs at construction sites are eliminated.

Reduction in the wastage of materials.

Documentation of mix design.

CAVITY WALL
A cavity wall or hollow wall is the one which consists of two separate walls called leader or
skins with a cavity or gap in between them. The two leaves of a cavity wall may be of equal
thickness if it is a non load bearing. The internal leaf may be thicker than the external leaf to
meet the structural requirements. Cavity walls are often constructed forgiving better thermal
insulation to the building. It also prevents the dampness to enter and act as sound insulation. The
inner and outer skins should not be less than 10cm each(half brick).
PORPOSE FOR PROVIDING A CAVITY WALL:1.PREVENTATION OF DAMPNESS:When cavity wall construction is adopted there is considerable decrease in the prevention of
dampness from outside to inside of the building.
2.HEAT INSULATION:The air in the cavity acts as a non-conductor of heat and hence the uniform temperature is maintained
inside the building.
3.SOUND INSULATION:The considerable portion of external noise is not allowed to enter inside the building by adopting
cavity wall construction.
4.LOAD ON FOUNDATION:Due to less solid thickness of wall the loads on foundation are considerably reduced.
5. EFFLORESCENCE:The construction of cavity wall results in the reduction of nuisance of efflorescence to a great extent.
6.ECONOMICAL:In addition to above mentioned advantages, it is found that the construction cost of a cavity wall is
20% less than the construction cost of a corresponding solid wall .

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF CAVITY WALL: A cavity wall is constructed of two leaves that is inner and outer with a hollow space in
between them.
The width of cavity varies from 50mm to 100mm and it stands vertically. The outer is
generally of brick thickness and the inner wall may be of of 1 brick thickness.
The two portions of the wall are connected by means of metal ties or specially prepared
bonded bricks. The metal ties are generally of wrought iron or mild steel and they are coated
with tar or galvanizedso as to have protection against rust.
Where corrosion is heavy, the metal ties of copper or bronze may be adopted. The metal ties
are placed at a horizontal distance of 900 mm and a vertical distance of 450 mm. The
arrangement of ties is kept staggered .
The outer wall is generally constructed in stretcher bond , but it may be constructed in the
flemish bond or english garden-wall bond or flemish garden-wall bond by using bats for
headers.
As far as possible, there should be no intimate contact between two leaves of the cavity wall.

Construction at base:The cavity may be started from the top of foundation concrete& the hollow space, up to a level of
about 100mm to 300mm below the damp-proofing course at plinth level, may be filled with plain
cement concrete of proportion 1:2:4.
But, as the cavity below damp-proof course does not serve any purpose ,the brickwork up to a level
of 100mm to 300mm below the damp-proofing course at plinth level may be constructed solidly.
The increased thickness of wall will also be helpful in supporting the load to be carried by the wall.
Construction at opening:In the plan, the cavity is discontinued at the opening such as doors, windows, etc. The jambs of
openings for doors and windows are constructed solid either in brickwork or with layers of slates or
tiles.
If metal windows are provided, specially prepared metal frames can be used for this purpose.
An inclined flexible D.P.C is provided to act as a bridge over the cavity. the D.P.C should be extend
lengthwise beyond the frame for a distance of about 150mm on either side.
Construction at top:It is necessary to take adequate steps at top to prevent the entry of dampness to the inside portion of
the wall.
The cavity may be constructed up to the coping of the parapet wall or alternatively it may be closed
at the bottom of the parapet wall by a damp proofing course.In case of a pitched roof, the tops of two
portions are connected by solid brickwork to support the roof truss and damp-proofing course is
inserted immediately below this solid portion.
Ventilation:It is necessary to provide enough ventilation to the hollow space of the cavity wall. This is achieved
by providing openings at top at bottom of the wall so that a free current of air is established. The
openings are to be fitted with gratings so that entry of rats and other varmintsto the hollow space is
prevented. Sometimes, the air bricks are used for this purpose.
Shape and slope of ties:The metal ties which are used to connect the outer and inner portions should be so shaped and placed
that water from outer portion does not pass along inner portions. They should thus be sloped away
from the inner portion.
Dropping of mortar, bats etc.:-

During construction of a cavity wall, it should be seen that mortar , bats, etc., do not fall in the
hollow space. The presence of such material in the hollow space seriously affects the working of a
cavity wall. For this purpose, a wooden strip of width slightly less than that of the hollow space, is
supported on ties and it is raised as the work proceeds. Also, some bricks at the bottom are left out
and bats, etc. Falling in the cavity are removed from these holes. When the work is completed, this
bottom portion is sealed by filling it with bricks. It also be seen that the vermins or mosquitoes do not
find access in the cavity.
Design:The outside portion of a cavity wall should be treated only as a protecting skin and not as a member
of a load bearing wall. The inside portion should have sufficient thickness to carry safely the load
coming on it.