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%ilCROFlCHE
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LIBR~ARY

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A project of Volqnteers inAsia, -

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.
Manual -.for.Buil'dinu
,A Rammed Earth Wall .,,
r
by:'.Lydia*A
.,:-and D&id J . Miller
-

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Paper-copies.are'.$

5.00.

'

Available
'from:
-' _
Lydia A.. and David J. Miller
2819 21st Avenue
Greeley,..CO%O631
*uSA
Reproduced

*
4

Pub1ishe.d by:
-,Lydi'a A, and:I@X&J.
Miller
2319'21st
Avenue
*
Greeley,
CO 80631
USA

by permission

of the

h.

Y. '
-

authors.

%,
.,

-.

Reproduction-of
this
form is subject'to
the
of the original'document.

in'any
'
as th'ose

same restrictions

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Lydia

A.

8 David

J. Miller

2319

21st

Avenue

Greeley,Tolorodo

80631

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303-352-4775

~ ~i&&--~~980
_-

by Lydia

A. and.David-JimMiller

--

All
rights.
reserved.
No
reoroduced
or transmitted
electronic
or niechanicai,
any
.
information
storage
%
written
permission
of the

=G

--

- (I/

.
I

_-

part. of this
publication
may be
in any form
or by any means,
including
photocopy,
recording,
or
and retrieval
system without
the
authors.

Published

by

David J. and Lydia A. Miller

Post Office
Box 1424
Greeley,
Colorado
80632
_I -

.
I

L,

.___

We gratefully

acknowledge

NEWS, Number

61,

house

with

built

expertise

of

who designed
during

J.
the

the years

1980,

for

rammed
Palmer
f?ve

the magazine,

earth
Boggs,

houses

1944-19'51,

the

pictures
walls.

THE MOTHER EARTH

and

story

We acknowledge

of

our
the

Architect-Engineer-Designer,

we built
in

with

rammed earth

walls

1,
TABLE OF CONTENTS"
\
I
FoRWARD~...........r..............................l

,FAGE

INTRoD"dTION.......,...........:....................2

~
*

HISTORY............................,...............3

.
....
-.

RAMMED EARTH - Pise'

de Terre............:...:...:4
- ~__

-__

DESIGN. . . . . . a-.-.-;~.. . ;-;-;-I-:,-.'. _----~:';-; . .,.~,I-~;-.~~;r~,~I-~~.

-USING-LOCAL MATERIALS:.:..........'...........:...4
__ --- -~
=i%-- ---RAMMED EARTH NOT EASILY ACCEPTED.........:;.......5

. ,4-

____
r; .
c

'

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS......;.......:......:.......6
BUILDING CODES.......................-.......:....7
.

SIT;

SELECTi-QN..................,......,......::...8

SOIL SAMPLE TESTS.......:..................

, *

. . . . . . .8

SOIL TESTING..........................-.

STOCKPILING AND PREPARING THE SITE................12

MAKING A TES,T BLOCK...........:.-..................13
j

STABILIZATION
THEsTMPING

OF SOIL.............................13

--

TOOL--RAMMERS.......:.................15

RAMMING PROCESS...................................16

THE FORMING PROCESS FOR RAMMED EARTH..............20

BUILDING THE SIDE PANELS.....-.....................20
ASSEMBLING OF FORM PANELS.........................~~
_ LEAP FROGGING--MOVING PANELS UP AS WALL RISES.....24
REFERENCES.......................................-26

'

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_1

FORWARD

Living I,'in earth

houses is extremely
comfortable.
They,
are cool in' the summer and warm in the winter.
Prior
to the,
days of air conditioning,
adobe houses were preferred
in the
southwestern
",Unifed
States
because
of
their
well-known
quality
of balancing
the heat of the 'd&rywith
the cool of the .
nigh t.; the thicker
the rammed earth
wall;
the greater
its
regulating
value.
he.

Rammed ,earth
houses have been the subject
of numerous
technical
magazine articles,
phlets
by state and federal
agencies,
universities?
b
handbooks,.
independent
,
pamphlets and many unpublished
maAuscrip,ts..

~>

We wish you to know that we not only built

rammed earth
houses,
but we have lived
in a rammed earth house since the
spring.of
1945. The quality
of living
in a rammed earth house
.must be experienced
to
be
believed.
:
+
,
Earth
has proved
to be one .of the world's
greatest
building
materials
because it is:
--durable
and historically
the longest
used by man
.
--universally
available
'
,--accessible
to all
who own or1 can buy,a
lot or
a
building
site
--a solar-collector
which stores
heat. The heat is
naturally
transmitted
to the inside
of the home
--a natural
barrier
to cold winds and forces
of
nature including,
tornadoes,
earthquakes,
insects,,
and rodents
--not
rationed
--not
monopolized
by a;yone
.This manual presents
the rammed earth building
method
clearly
as we can state it.
It reflects
our own experiefies-.
We do not cover the technical
which
~encountered.
may
he
These
consulting
professionals.
'

(1)

as

and engineering
problems
best
are
resolved
by
.

.A & M University.

of
he came &it
earliest
kn
our standar
mud on poles wov
found shelter
t
except his cawe.
move around. He c

whole

.
f

was made of-earth.

lifetime.

most extreme
5

-durable

cave

c conditions.

ra

horn

was -'found
a 'technical
"available

if\learned
by work dqne in 'laboratories
men. It *now remains
to make
to the people.

this new knowledge,

since World War II,
by highly
trained..
these new techniques

The Uni??& States

of America has spent untold
millions
through
its international
agencies
and the United Nations
to
teach'undeveloped
nations
how to build
homes of earth.
At the
same time the bulletins
printed
are either
unpublished
or
only
by exhaustive
*their
exhausted
and available
supply
search and by special
duplication.
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HISTORY

Y
*
7

P
a

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-Earth is the'pworld's
mostrcommon building
material.
It
1 . is also one of the oldest;
one of the most universal;.one
of
the most comfortable,
and -one of-the
most used and abused.
The
1at.e
George
Borg,
of
Strasburg,
France,
said most of the
_,
'world's
people- live in earth homes.

'

>

3 .f

Extensive
experiments'in
the United
States Universities.
o'f Galif Prnia at Davis, Michigan
at Ann Arbor,
Texas A:& M.
at College
Station,
Oklahoma
at *Norman and South Dakota.
State College at Brookings,
have reached the conclusion
that.
rammed earth or adobe, properly
built
and planned,
make high
,
. .- . _
quality
homes.
c
..
1.To these distinguished
universities
must be added-the
-.
University
of Kansas, Clemson College,
The Universities
of
Saskatchwan
and
Iowa
and Massachussetts
Institute
05~
. Technology.
'for
studies
and
theses
demonstfating
the
feasibility
of rammed earth.
b.
The U. S. Department
of the Army., Agricul&re
Bureau
of Standards,
Housing %nd Urban Development
thro'&gh'A.I.D.,,
The Bureau. of. Public
@ads,
the. 8governments
0% England,
Germany, France,
Israel,
'Australia,
New Zealand;
Belgium,
Poland,
and the U. S. S. R.-have
experimented
with earth as
a building
material
and recommend its use for housing.
,

The United
housing.
_,
Outstanding
,built
of earth,

has.. sponsored
programs for
earth
0
c
.,
constructions
the world
throughout
are
including
the great wall of China.
*
-Sven Risov in his book, -Nordiske
Ler Jords Huse,
documented
fifty
rammed earth
houses
actually
built
in
--Europe-from
1295 -to 1955: He includes
photos of 60 homes of
L
rammed earth or cob 'in Denmark, France and England.

..

.*

Nations

Risbm als
or summary of earth houses
gives a history
from 200. .
. including
Assyria,
Mesopotamia,
Palestine,
Japan, d E
Greece,
Italy,
Nort.h
Africa,
Cameroon,
Guldsten,
Spain,
Portugal,
France,
Morocco,
Great Britain,
Ireland,
Wales,
Austria,
Hungary,
Germany,
Russia,
North I I
a
America and South.Amkrica.

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RAMMEDEARTH('(PI-SE! DE TERRE).. ._
an ,'
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I
The- following
'.is * q&oted'from
Endyclopedia'Brrtannica,
..
i.968 rditi'on,
volume 18, pages
1148,
1149: 6.
I
. _'
I
"RAMMED EART'I4 (Pise',
De Terre)
is a;building
mateeial
*esulting.
f/ro*m the application
of compaction
of certain
building
used
by
earth
the. forms
of
'soils.
Of
rammed,
civilizations
iof. varying
technical
development,
earth
is the .most -durable..
After.
World War ,I1 it .was
technique
for
underdeveloped
studied,',- as an economic
Its
'use
is
limited
to
soi-1s
with
high/sand
and,':,
regions.
being
a
usual
proportion;
low. clay
contents,
' ~es.~.The mix,
rious particle
with ,the 's&d, graded to
i"k ..compactedY in molds_,' by
with
about 10% w,dter added,
,I"'
ironheaded
rammers': weighing
5 to 20 lb.."
/ 3
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\ DESIGN ~
.'
'7
s
'1,
.'
,
I
: .
I-->
,Architect-Engineer
who ~designed
the 3
3"
and a discipleof Frank Lloyd,
are built
without
basements,
r)r hillside,
are without
a'
All
houses
enjoy
the/natural
g single
stair,
step anywhere.
with windows=toi,'the
garden
- look.
All are solar
orientated,
and sun and face away from the stre'et.
i
Frank Llo$d Wright expresses
accurately
J. Palme.r$oggs'
ideas for the rammed earlzh houses for the Millers,,quoting
as
c r

.I

!
I
G&sign
and ch0ic~~i-l-d
entirely
upon the person who wants'to

T.vi sta wi thin!'

A~

t L
Antimpendsbuidld with earth.

-I

_-USING'LObAL

MATERIALS

q__
:

The-use
of local
materials
in an attempt
to solve.'some
of thkproblems,
of housing
for people is of major importance,
although
cost
is not the primary
emphasis.
The higher
the
local
materials
used in these
ratio
of "non-manufact.ured"
attempts,
the more ,easily
the economie,s of any community
or
broadly
based programs
for
country
.will, be able to support
better
hb^using and mqre adequate community facilities.
---7

--__~

,143

-__

,,.
,.

Earth is nature's
prqduce.
'r

Use of earth

saves

Rammed earth

is

,:.

product.

!,, Rammed earth

Rammed earth

..

It

requires

energy.

labor

enduring,'
,construction

to
.

-.

intensive.

is massive'and
..
_
is, an accepted

no energy
F

l>

- I
material.

Comfort and Quiet:l*

Rammed earth massive walls are excellent
for. passive
solar
buildings,
contrary
to common belief,
and
are extremely
comfortable.
This is surprising\to
many, and
must be experienced
to be believed.
The comfort
results
from
more
balanced
surroundings,
particularly
theradiant
temperaturesyand
humidity.
c.
Earth structures
are. also very quiet 'due to mass, added
insulation,
and double
glazing.
.This
lack
of noisy
and
irksome
:fbrnaces,
compressors,
fans,
a?d
d&ts
helps
contribute
to peace of mind.

, ,..'.

a?2
ip

Acceptance
of rammed earthvs
not simple,nor
easy'. From J
35 years experience,
we have felt
the unspoken skepticism
andopen criticism
of engineers,
lders
and people generally.
This, general
skepticism
is
y described
by Anthony
F.
Merrill
in
his
book,
The Rammed-Earth House,
Harper
&
BroJzhers, N.Y. 1947 as follows:
11. ;

.'

"Int?odtiiing
soil
construction
meets the opposztion
of
many ,coneractors,
engineers,
"and
tra'desmen,
'who
immediately
reject
anything
new or unfamiliar.
Some feel
whether a new method of construction
will
give
_' uncertain
them'the
same.prsfits
and
to
others
the
customary
method
.
*.
of construction
seems much easier.
"Soil, as a material
for construction
is not simple.
Its
ap.plication
is not yet -based on an exact.knowledge
of
all. its
in spite
properties
of the fact- that
in many
Jcountries
there
are bui1ding.s
of unstabilized
soil,
which .havq given* service
for hundreds
of years.
This
* _ indicates
that satisfactory
results
can be obtained,
that the soil use,d for construction
is suitable
-E.4r provided
'for
the purpose,
_that
t@e work- is carried
out in a
;
correct
manner,
and
that
suitable.,,
maintenance
-is
.k .assured."y
. 1
B

._

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d

.
._-1
I
,

. Since the publishing

of, Merrill's
book much has been
learned
and written..
It is 'not possible
in this
manual to
detail
the progress
made. Our objective
is to pass on to you
what we ourselves
have learned
so you can build
the rammed
earth walls.of
your dream home.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS '

One reason'*for
Fitzmaurice,
et al
"In

,.
.,
1

resistance
as follows:

7to rammed earth

*

is

stated/by

the

.inspectionssmade
by the author
and members of
adverse
criticisms,
were frequentlyexpressed
by
o-f stabilized
soil
houses.
In very many cases
these
were' obviously
since
unjustified
the houses
were
entirely
-admirable
,and had no significant
defects.
It is 8
evident
that there is a considerable
prejudice
on the part of
ill-informed
persons,
and this
needs to be eradicated
if
stabilized
soil
is to take its
proper
place as one of the
methods of solving
the'housing
problem.
We have -interrogated
the' people
concerned
on -various
occasions
and we ar& forced to conclude%hat
the oreiudice
is
irrational.
We suspect
_that
in some cases
i't '&as been
building
fostered,..
by
contractors
and ' people
who are
financially
intqregted,
in
methods'
of
competitive
construction.
We think
that
this
apparent
prejudice
is
founded on the followings.
3.

Earth
walling
is associated
in the minds of the
with
the squalid.,
dilapidated,.
unstabilized
- A.\, people
hovels which have been the normal form of housing
in
many
parts
ofthe
world
for
generations
past.
%
b
I
B. It has been noted that as soon a's a family
attained
a' higher
level
of prosperity,
they immediately
had
builtfor
them a house
of brickwork
or
stone
masonry.
C.

of

Some of the. earlier

attempts
at stabilization
were
not entirely
Insufficient
was ,known
sat'sfactory:
about
were used.;
the
proce s; unsuitable
soils
control
,was lax.
This. gave the, opponents
of the
aterial
to work with and they were
to take advantage
of-it.
-.
If- stabilized
soil isi
o take the place it merits
as one
the methods of alleviating
the world housing
shortage
it
i;.
,W
:

-1_-.

A..

*
-._.

.--~-

n
I
-

to remove this prejudice

from the .minds of
is necessary
public
and ,the author 'can see only two ways of doing this.
The firstL
and foremost
is to ensure
that
stabilized
soil
is. first
class.
Get rid
of cracked
walls,
peeling
housing
plasters
and patches 'of
eroding
material
only
partially
stabilized.
It is the object
of this manual to' show how-this
c
can be done.

'

Having removed the techn%al

objections'
it r-emains to
educate
and inform
the public
that
stabiliied'soil
?s
in
material
and that their
houses dill
be -i'n no
fac.t , a durable
way inferior
to conventional
houses:
Emphasi$ must be placed :
and the wdrd "soil"
can be kept in the
"stabilization"
Eickground.
Perhap;
some of the psychological
difficulties
could be removed.if
a new.term
could be coined.
In,.France"the
stabilized
soil
experiments
after.the
war were described
as
"beton
de terre".
This translates
as "earth
concrete"
which
might
be shortened
to, "earthcrete"
or "soilcrete".
Alcock
refers
to the psychological
problem in his account of earth
I
technique
in West Africa."

Our
comment'
on
Fitzmaurice's
'that
stabilization
per 'se
does not
answer
The objective
of the authors 'is
t,o demonstrate
that
properly
selected
earth wil-1 build a/fine
home, We have done it.
Earth
"
homes must be presented
on their
intrinsic
qualities.
We -.-.
agree that cement is *needed in the soil cement place'd on the
reenforced
concrete
beam.
fb undation
$

BUILDING CODES

One Caution.
In many areas,
regula'tions
local
wfll
influence
what
can
be
built,'
where
it
can
be
built,
and
how
,
it.
can b'e built.
Building
and zoning
codes,
permits,
. .,licenses,
and accepted
practices
vary widely
from state
to
state'
and
locality
to
locality.,
To
avoid
wasted
or
illeg*
.J
,effort,
the
the owner,'designer
and builder,'
\ should know
7
restrictions
and,:qbligations
during
t.he planning'and
design
period.
This
should
always
be done BEFORE settling
on a
definite
site for construction.
Federal Housing Administration
and Veterans
kdmininstration- have refused
to -approve
rammed- ea'rth
thrdughouf'theyears.
The
successful
near
project
at
Mount
Olivet
Gardendale,Alabama
outsideBirmingham
it-~ 1936 has been
. i
ignored.
The authors
visited
these
both
homes,, vieie'd
interior
and exterior.
We found the owners happy,. and found-.
the houses in excellent
condition
in 1976.
.. b I
.,.
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_-_~--

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,
--.-----.-

iy-,....

.
.

.
f

and Weld and Boulder 'Counties.

in
Colorado
Greeley,
Colorado
have 'granted
building
code variances
'to
permit
all
built
prior
to z
rammed earth houses.
The Miller
houses,
Colorado
building
codes
of' the Weld County,
the adoption
and loan
Savings
the granting
of the variances.
enabled.
companies
and commercial
banks have
insurance
associations,
nd
all
made loans on the Miller
built
homes on their
sale
,
,
2
resale.
.I
-.
SITE SELECTION

'

house
sho d provide
for
a rammed earth
The site
Possible
ground water or seep ge problems
adequate .drainage.
digging Y as .deep as
testing,
will
.be discove$ed
by soil
required
and by asking former owners.
.'
Solar access must be substan & 'alaif
the structure
is to
The builder
must be careful
include
solar
heating.
a site not surrounded
by natural
obstructions,
tree
buildings
that shut out the sun.*
A standard
city
lot (50'~ 100')
is not an ade
for
solar
orientation.
House size
and style
selections
is
lots may have large trees
limited'fpr
such a lot.
Neighborin
lot.
~
pr str,uc*tures__that
would shad+youJ
We were fortunat'e
to acquire
an acre of landthrwgh
the
inheritance
of part of a'farm
owned by' Lydia's
parents.
Our
,hpuse in Colorado
was designed
and oriented
to the southeast
determinesthe solar
for
opeimum solar
benefitsiwde
positioning.of
a building.
Above all
make .the soil
tests
described
in this
to see that you have 70% sand and 30% clay and silt.

manual

.
0

SOIL SAMPLE-TESTS
Equipment

and tools needed to make sample tests:

.
1. A dirt
auger to drill
.holes
in t-he ground is excellent.
Post hole- diggers
are also good, especially
if you do not
plan to go very deep. You can extend the augur type digger
by
adding lengths
of pipe.
.

(8)

.. .

.-:

2. Pick-axes,
.shovel.

'

mattocks

or

a steel

bar

and

a long
.- 41 .

handled

3. A supply of cans or'plastic

cartons
large *enough to hold a
%
'pound of a variety
of soil
samples.
'
_ .
:
The depth to which .you are going to examine your
oil will
'. -k
depend on how you are going
to dig the soil
for your house,
later.
If you are going to dig by-hand,
you probably
will
not
'want to dig- more' than 3 to. 5 feet deep. If your.soil
will
be
.dug'by
machine,
you wil1.w
to examine the soil as deep as
the mach;i,ne wi;ll dig,
10 or more feet deep. Plan
where the sarth
is to be
the subsoil
there.
. First,
dig out and toss' aside
desert
areas,, there will
be little
wet, tropic-al
areas,
the top
Once you are through the top
'-from different
places on your

the organic
or 'no topsoil
be several

Take
the** soil
samples
by'
throughout
the ar'ea from which the
is preferable
to test -. each sample
together.
.
*Test t!he sample soils
separately
for' the st,ockpile
of? soil ready for
c

topsoil.
In
as such. In
feet thick.

I
auger'
or other
method
earth1 is to be taken.
It
rather
than' , to mix them
,in the'.same
constr.uction.

manner

.'

as

Send: one pound samples

to 'your 'nearest
Soil
Testing
.
Laboratory
for
technical
analytical
tests
to verify
your
"home wash pan" t st if you .have any {doubts.
Professional
help is always enco % raged by us.
f
'-5.
Mother Earth
asked us':'to
lead -a work shop on rammed
earth
this
coming .summer, 1980. In preparation
for -the work
shops, we visited,Mother Earth's
EC0 Village
to personally
examine the site.
We tested
the >oil
by hand and shovel-and
.the.-~.wa-s~h~pan test in the motel room (roughly)..
We found the
70% sand aggregate
and----30% silt
and clay similar
to our own
tests
in Greeley.
We also built
a test
wall
that
is now
\
weathering
in EC0 Village,
Hendersonville,
N.C.
Weso*r=ughL
samples -rromCCVillage
to Colorado
and
had the sample-s tested
at the Soil
Testing
Labpratory
at
Cqlorado-Skate
University
at Fort'Coll&ns.
The tests cost $30
for
each sample.
The test
verified
our minimum-.70%
sand
aggregate
and gravel,
30% clay,
which we had made by the wash
pan test at EGO.Village.
1 0
d .
I
-7-

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(9)

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'I'h e Laboratory
Scientist,
Professor
P.N.
Soltanpour,
;jsked for samples
of the soils
used by us in Gree IeY,
for our
rammed earth
construction.
He compared
the Greeley,
soils
with
!
EC0 \i 1 Lage soi Is.
soils
states
\;all.

Scientifically,
the
Grecley
soils
and the EC0 Village
are very different
in composition.
Professor
Soltanpour
that
both
soils
will
make an excellent
rammed earth

SOIL

TESTING

Soils
can be tested
in laboratories,
test
can accurately
determine
if
the
ramming.
If in doubt,
ask for laboratory

but a home washpan

soil
is suitable
for
verification.

The wa'shpan method

of testing
soils
has proved
to
tccurate
measure
for us. You may rely
on it for
testing
soil
for your building
project.
-

be an
the

Mix the subsoil

thoroughly.
Fill
three
one-pound
coffee
cans of mixed
soil
from different
places
on the site
and in
the
stockpile
and put
each into
a separate
flat
pan.
Mark
these
pans 1, 2, and 3. Dry the earth
for about
four
hours
in
a household
oven until
thoroughly
dry.
Remove sample
1 from
the oven;
weigh
it carefully
and write
down the weight.
Put
the soil
in a pan at least
six inches
deep and five
inches
in
diameter
(a 2 lb. coffee
can will
do).
Put the pan underneath
the
faucet
in a sink
and let
a small
stream
of water
run
slowly
into
the
pan.
Stir
the dried
aggregate
slowly.
The
object
is to dissolve
all
clay
and let
it run over the lip of
the
pan.
The muddy water
along
with
all
humus,
bits
of
foreign
matter
and non-sand
materials
will
flow out with
the
water
over
the lip.
When the water
is clear,
pour
the water
carefully
out of the pan. What is left
is the sand r sidue,
the sand residue
in the oven.
Dry
the residue
weight
against
the
original
down the findings
for
sample
1. Repeat
remaining
two samples.
Here

is

18 ounces
24 ounces
is

If
50%,

an example

of

wh'at

sand residue
dr,ied
aggregate

the aggregate
it is poor to

is 70-80%
fair.

the
:

Weigh it-and
camp te
dry
weight. i-i
Wr te
the process
foy,the

data

/5X
sand,

might

be

is

optimum.

sand
it

If

sand

_ ----5-..~---

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.._______-___.
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Average the. percentages

of the three
samples.
If the
of the three
average
samples
is 60-80%, you have optimum
F aggregate.
If
the
averageis 50%, it
is poor
to fair
In the latter
situation,'
you can add river
run
aggregate.gravel
or, a comparable
material
such as roadbase,
to bring
the sand content,,up
to at least
60-70%.
In our work,
we
.brought.the
sand up to 75%.
r/
.
..
*
)>
T. TESTING FOR'MOISTURE CdNTENT

~.

..

\
,

Excessive
surface cracks

moisture
prevents
on drying.

proper

compaction

and5 causes
,'
/'

The proportion
of moisture
in the soil
is important
to
rammed~earth.
The earth
should
feel, damp when picked
up by
._
,,hand:
Water
determines
the
.s.esistanceof
soil
-"
to
-'
the
moisture,
its
pIasticit'y
and
the.ease-'with
which
"it
.can
be0
*
..
used for ramming.
P
,',L _ '-__
-..._
'Take a handful
of the' earth and squeeze -Iit in your hand'to form a ball.
If the soil
fails.to
make a firm~bal&
it is
too dr-y f add, water to the soil
until
it will
bind.
Drop.the
1
ball- to a-firm
surface
from shoulder
height.
.If it shatters'.:'

__-__--

I 5

ca--smaLl+

e-*--&he---

m&-s-P;u-re+1~

i t

*ati*gpt

too wet i&--does not shatter.

Repetition
you the ,,'l_f.e-el" of the correct
moisture.
is.

or y . l?-ly

of the test

gives

..,---On'ce the/moisture
level
is right
(feels
damp) cover the
-soil
heap
wdth
a
plastic
sheet.
Us-e
-the
*hand
")feel"
test
_,-"__-"several
times .daily
to make certain
the.moisture
percentage
. A..'
*remains 'at a' good l,evel$ Ten percent
is the optimum moisture
r "
, .
level.
.I/
*
.
. .
rect moisture
level
is one of.the
main factors
in
.
I
rammed earth
c-onstruction.
-Too much -water make&'
'
the soil
sticky
.and hard to ram. ,Too/,little
wate,r limits
the ~ .-' :,'
/'
?,
cohesion
the
soil;,
I
i /'
'.
.. The 'aggregate,
should, be 'kept
dry from rain,
yet- kept
moist;< A'heavy
rain will
moisten
the soil
too much end time
will
be wasted waiting
for the soil to dry.
: ;' ~
..
i
.Anthony
Merrill,
in his
book THE RAMMED-EARTH-HOUSEiJl.
recommends -that
the. builder
keep the stockpile
,'
moist.
3Ie
\ I .' suggests
if the Pile
is not cover.ed,'
th.e top 'of the pile
2 .~
I -- should be wetted with a garden hose,in
.th'e.evening,
to give a
good mix in the morning.
Wet soil will
have greater
shrinkage. a
- and the walls wil-1 crack.
,,'1. :
,I.. _
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I
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Surface.c,racks
wirll
not 'a.ffect
the d'urabilityt.*of
t.he
Dry soil will
appear to ram solid
wall and should.be
ignored.
but the particles
of soil .,will
not .bind
properly.
With a
little
experience,
the person
tamping.. wil?
learn
to add a
a garden
-little
moisture
spray'from
a hose,
sprayer
or a
builder
quickly
learns
the "right
sawed off broom. Also ,,the
-feel"
of the moisture.and
texture
of the soils
used.

_I

-S-TO&PILING

AND PREPARING.THF SITE

..,

.?t
:

It was our experience

,that
it 'was more ef,ficient
to
-build
the
stockpile
at
the
time
the.,site
was
leveled
for
.
We engaged an earth
mo,ving contractor
who '$t
i construction.
one time used a,b_ulldozer
and at one time used a carry-alf.
The top soil was stockpiledfor use for theelawn
and garden;
The subsoil/was
stockpiled.
We..had rqcks up to several
inches
in diameter
so it-was
necessary
that.the
soil be'screened.
On
the'first
house, we screened the soil by hand. The,,screen was
made from a potato
sorter
with
a 1" mesh. We used whatever
went through
the screen and stockpiled.the
rock for rockfill
underneath
the concrete
floor.,
Th.e screen
was mounted at
approximately
a~ 60' angle on 2 x 6s. We actually
used&.thescreen for all of the-houses
except the Ruyle addition.
.
.At -the time we built
the house in which we live,
we had
. .
We' borrowed
a front
lift
loader'. and
a Ferguson- tractor.
actually
scree.ned the soil by dumping the earth on the screen
from the -front lift
loader.
The rock that did,"not
go through ., '
,&the screen rolled
to.fhe
bottom and formed its own stockpile
.and the screened earth also formed a stockpile.
We teste-d the
moisture
of the>soil,,,by,
hand '&St.-and
if the soil was t_o dry;
we added water withs
hose as e. the
stockpile
was built.
#
//
I
_, (' -4 ..
On the test wal$s that we built,
in.1979,
roto-tiller'
did a better.jbb
in.mixing
the soil
get the dry/earth
mixediwith
the moist-earth
than
a pug-mill- or concrete
mixer.
On the,.workshop
had soil,that-was
quite. dry and was lumpy. We 'actually
put
together
'a makeshift
of
+s.creen out of a double? thickness
chicken wire to screenout
the lumps. The first
day we had to
break up what lumps were -left with a shdve%,',or.~by hand. The.
.L 4
second day we- had avmble
a roto-till'er
which did ,a very,
; :
8 .>,'.-.0
,
fine Qob. ... .

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I &I-t is important
to point
out that the 'stockpile'for-the
*
the wall,
earth
that
goes .into
'whether
it
is to include
be mixed
cement or not, _ should
in advance
to -permit
.any r
moisture
that is added to distribute
itself,
evenly throughout
Later
on in this
manual we will
'repeat
the
1
the ,aggregate.
statement
that if. during actual,ramming
operations,
the earth
.
, 'C.. .turns
out to be too dry then water
can be added. with
a sprinkling
can, a bucket -and 'a sawed off. broom, a spray- out ;
of a hose or a garden sprayer
filled
with water.
The latter
is somewhat safer, since
it-gives
a,greater
"control
of the.
amount'
of
moisture
applied.
I.
...
:
t
If only a small amount of soil'cement
is $0 be used, 'i-t '
might
be that
this
can .be done by m'ixing
it
in
the
whe.elbarrow
and just turning
the earth and the cement &ith a
shovel.
Our experience
indicates
t&at if you have the time to .. ,
.i~plan it, mixing with a ro-to-tiller
!
is d'e'sircble.
,44F
*.
1
'. b
&
w
.I MAKING A TEST BLOCK '.
.*
5
..
<
ia
I
\
Before beginning
to ram the dctual,.wall,
the s-oil.m&y be. ";:
further
tested
by making-a
test block.
A simple forrn'~an:be'~;.
.made by nailing
2 x 6-inch
lumber'.to.
make a block6Lin.
x
8-in.
x *16-in.
The form must be boited
together,.nails
will'
not hold.
Lay .the form on 7a flat .surface
and tdmp.'the
soi$
into
place.*4LRemove
the ,form and let &he block
dry.
When
dried,
the blo,ck sh6uld not crumble, or show excessive
cracks.""
If the' block. test
is satisfactory,
the soil
w:ill. surely
be
suitable
and you may begin to build
a wall.
*
.
(7
.
,
.
i
.'
._
.
I
* I .STABILIZINGc THg SOIL
_:
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i
1
We- have. built
two soil
cement".walls:
Mixing
of the
properly
selected
aggregate
is important.
Mixture,in
one wall
was simply by the shovel and screening,methoh.
One was mixed /
in part.by
a: low speed pugmill,
in part
bya
concrete
mixerby a rototiller.'Observations
;indidated
the
d - and in part
plaster
puginill
-worked better
than ,the concrete
mixer even
+
though it seemed to be less efficient
from the point
of t-he
hand' labor
involved.
A-rototiller
worked better
thanei:her
the pugmillr or the -concrete
mixer.
Here again .the time spent
on the job:.depends.upon"the
supervisor,
the amount of hand 4 4'
labor
available
and' the motivation
of .the worker
If -the
owner himself
is the forem;;,
he wily see to. it that--the'-w.ork
.
-progresses.
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NO.

.,
The percentage
of ikement ,to be 'addeddepends
upon' t;he,
: :_
The higher
the sand'confent,
the' better,the
wall.
aggregate.
Seventy per cent of sand, .as determined
by the wash pan 'test
that
needs, go~.soil*
.gives
an aggregate
cement except
for,
I,
.foundation.
High sand content
plus good compaction
produces, a
,.-g?
wall.
It is also true that whethercompaction
is
high quality
*.
operated
by an air compressor,
with a-backfill
a low ,_
pressure
15,poun
per square
inch electric
tampe\r, ,or by
1
-.
hand, the-quality
of the wall depends upon"high
s nd. content
"i,
;
.
and proper cbmpaction,
*
c
: I
The authors,
know that-.no
stabilization
is needed in: '
rammed ea_rth if the'soil
aggregate
hasf'a minimum 70% sand and .0
30% clay (Sticky
when'weta but hard when dry):.:
4
The-advocates-of
stablilization,
whether it is needed or *'
.
not,
hav. not,
by adding cement, overcome the resistance
to
0
rammed earth as a build+'ng'material.
d 4?
I
.
.
-. 14 *,- I .Professors R.L. Patty .,in AGRICULTURAL ENGINEER; Septe'mbe-r,
'
.B
- 1942, Vo'l. 23-j
9, states
the:following:
'.:
i
*t
/
"At least 80 pe-r cent of all soil:types,
"as they'will
be
:
found on farms over the United
States,
will+ be satisfactory
-.
for use-in
rammed earth walls.*
Two-thirds
of these, could be
used ju.st as they are ?lug up providing
the outside.surface
of
the wall is to be protected,
with-!stuc'co,or
plaster.
The-other
one-third
will
need at least
a small. amount of sand added,
althpugh
they are--to be plastered.
A rec;mmended admixture
of
sand will
make a- high percentage
of these walls,good
enough
~

>Jzo stand,indefinitely
as
bare
wall.
.T
.
.l
L
"Fbr farm. building
,no zadmixtures
other
than sand are:
"
necessary:
The sand will
make, a high quality
.soil
and the*.
w.all may be left
standing
for a y&ar or two. If it begins to- .
. .I* sr
r:oughen tbo much, it will
ju-st be right
for stuccoing..
,
"Cinders
can be substituted
for sand as an admixture
to.
a low quality
soil,
Cinders
reduce shrinkage
and cra.cking ,of ',
,the walP in the same way as sand, and reduce the strength,ih
the sam,+z.proportion.
They canarbe 'used up to, one%measure of'.,
I
*
cinders.to'one
of soil,if
the wall is to be plastered.",
---. -_
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THE'TAMPING TOOL--RAMMERS
,,---i-

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f
I

' From looking

at.many 'drawings
and. fr-omactual
experienhe
we
recommend--the
weight
ofthe
handle
and
.head
to
be
between
'*f.;
,8!
and-15
@unds.
The
tampers
'are
constructed
.of
- I 1
:iron
pipe fo?-thee-handles
arid steel for the heads.
I,.:vairy'
in,
size
(s-eedrawing)
IL It is corrue-n-i-ent-to--lhav~-v~ry--I:
.. _-.__------"head sizes ,
--L
depending
on t%e size of the,,structure,
shown in <he--drawing
have_;.protien
and' need. The three-sizes
7
. s'atisfac6ory.
1
'.
.
T;;i; *, The weight
of hand tampers
is yery
important.
tampe , the faster
. heavier-.the
the.earth
can be rammed. So
use the heaviest
tamper your workmen can handle all day long
without
tiring
or 4overtiring.
Short work,men cannot lift
hand
t.ampe%s weighing-more
than 15-18-pounds
for veqy long 'without
tiring.
Experience
'has
proven
for ,the
Millers
that
hand
tampers weighing
8 to 15 pounds are a good average-,&or
mo;t
laborers.
. (Ii '
& .Aj
.,
*
It is generally:.,assumed
that .t"ne workers
forms to do the ramming,
though as a matier
of
them p+efef
to stand: up on.. the edges of the
case, the handle
will
have to be lpng
worker 'to ;g,et- ,the tamp down into the
to--op$rate'
comfortably
working,,
inside.
the form at.
/
the form.
w
_I
-,
1
'.
The weight
of the rammer will
be somewhere around 8 to
15 pounds, depending
upon whether ,the person using it is by ,'
nature
a lifter-upper
or a pusher-d,owner.
If he is going -to
-push down on the tamp he won'#need
as much weight as he will
..if
he is. just- goin
to lift
it up and let it fall-with
its
weight.
own
Bo f-h
systems _ work
well.
especially
interchangeably.
d

1
:

Tamping will
go faster
if you do not need. to tamp -around
,' _-the bolts.
The form is designed
so that the two bottom bolts
will
.hold
the form. together
for tamping.
This is the. only
time that you need to tamp,.around,the
bolts.
All other.bolts
and spacers
are placed
in,the
wall
as the tamped earth
is
I within
one or,two
inches
of the hole.
When you -get to the
bpttomofthe
n&t
hole in the form, then stop and slip
in
the. spacer and- the<<'tie bolt
on uprights
B and C attach'
the
washer and tighten.;he
nut . When the earth reaches within
an
inch or:two
of-the
top holes- in]Panels
3 and 4 you' are ready
:
for leap, frogging,
described
later.

I
I

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-

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.*.

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- -_ __ _ _ ^__._

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I I 67
b

RAMMING PROCESS
The proper
amount
of loose
soil
to' be put
on in one
layer
or lift
inside
the rammed earth
form is four
inches.
Layers
which
are placed
too thick
will
be loose
at the bottom
and will
cause
probkems.
The man working
in the form spreads
the earth
evenly.

,-

The earth
.in the corners
and sides
of the form
should
be
evenly
tamped
first,
and then
the rest
of thee surface
evenly
is tamped.
A good'rammed
earth
wall
needs to be well
tamped.
Ramming should
be done on each layer
untiol. the noise
from the
tamping
tool
changes
from
a dull
thud
to a clear,
ringing
sound.
The strokes
of the rammer will
press-l.thc
earth
in all
directions
and compact
all
of -the earth
in the form if tamped
evenly.
The worker
should
tamp from one end ,of the form to
the
other
end.
Then
follow
the
same pat,tern
aboust
three
times,
or more, until
the rammed earth
rings.
Pa
Most 'rammed hearth
tampers
are the hand type,
but if you
want
to tamp the soil
fasteg,
.@wo back fill
tampers
from- an
air
will
compressor
speed 'up
the
This
is
-job.
expensive
.I
equipment.
One man using
an air
tamper
can tamp the amount of soil
in one-half
to one-third
the time that
he could
using
a hand
tamper.
Many types
of air
tampers
are available.
Get a light
does not weigh
more than 25-30
pounds.
one that
It should
be
a long
stroke
machine
of mod&-$te
feed
that
delivers
sharp
blows.
A 4 x 6 inch
tamping
face can be used with'
this
type
of machine.
Do not
use
a jack i hammer.
Be sure
that
the
corners
of the tampers
are rounded.
Grind
off
the corners
&
to % inch.
*:
..
A constant
air
pressure
of approximately
70 pounds
square
inch
is necessary.
An air
compressor
with
a free
deLivery
of 24 to 39 cubic
.feet
per minute
will
operate
We used
two back
fill
tampers
from
a 105 lb.
tamper.
run by a gasoline
engine.
compressor

per
air
one
air

The tamping
should
be rapid,
equable,
and should
not be
in unison;
that
is,
the
if more than one man is in the form,
men must not keep time
striking
the earth.
Heavy blows
must
be avoided.
Heavy strokes
are apt to crumble
the earth
rather
than compact
it into
a hard mass.

(16)

.-...

.-

,P

.-...
1
.
.

ie sure that no fresh or new loose earth is put into the4 form until
the previous
layer
is well
tamped. Layer after
layer
is placed
into
the form and tamped until
the tamper
hitting
the earth
rings.
*Check the moisture
content
often
ou
ram
the
wall..
whq$ Y ( _

/.

__--

L--

When a delay occurs,

as a bre k for lunch or over night,
the layer
must be moistened.
You hh ay use a sawed off broom
and a bucket of w ter,
a garden spray or a hose with.a
spray.
nozzle.
.
~~~-.~-.
.-- -~--..- L
The moisture
of the earth should be"checked
often-while
ramming, both in
e stockpile
and as it-is
put in the wall.
.,
i
spots *discovered
sti uldtiammed
some more.
Any soft
-~ ~_ -~ --Impdrtant
places
to then
are directly
against
the form, in
the corners and a-i-ound the beveled strips
of the endgates.
We
do not recommend the heavie.st
types,
16-18 and 20-30 pounds.
-*After the bottom form is filled
to the bottom of the
top hole, place the sec~ond panels by lifting
form 3 on top of
form'1
on ne side and form 4 on-top
of form 2 on the other
side. This
orms the second lift.

J
,put in
bolt,
and spin on
is put into
the
moistened
so that
already
tamped in
lifts
and tamping
desired
height.

the washers
and space&,
.slip
in the .tie
the acme nuts on uprights.
Before any earth
second-lift,
the earth
should be slightly
the fresh
earth will
adhere to the earth
the first
lift
of the form. Continue, adding
the earth until
the walls are raised
to the
.
*
i
.~ ..- -.While -bui-ldingwa+lls; -provide
-openings --at---the--proper
ocations
for
telephone
cable,
door, @l*.?windows,
plugs,
i
anchors,
electrical.
auflets
and gas and water lines.
Avoid.
, the need cut. out for an electrical
conduit,
box or a.hole
for
a pipe after
th?! earth wall is finished.
You can cut a hole
for conduit,
boxes, or pipes
so long as the earth is sti,ll
"green'2
(not
thoroughly
dry).
The drilling
is difficult
, because
(.pise')
rammed. earth
becomes almost
as solid
as
mncrete.
-, _FOUNDATION

*\

.
i

should

the foundation
immense
the
asphaltum
to
\

be in two parts.
The first
sS~ulX ~~a basement
beam. In a house without
that the bottom of the trench excavated
for
you pour a concrete
beam,' which is to hold up
be treated
with
weight
of ,the earth
wall,
harden the soil.
It should
be engineered
by a
(171

c
_

*
9

-__.___.________._
-- . ..__-___..-__-__..

engineer
to
construction
the
proper
width
and. depth,
and height
of the ,wall.
depending
on the width
A vapor
(moisture)
barrier
should be placed .on top of the concrete
,or tar, are good vapor,. barriers.
In our own /
beam. Plastic
was all concrete.
home s theOfoundation

I!

The second part of the foundation

could be soil cement.
./The top of the soil cement part of.the
foundation
should be
built
on the concrete
beam up to a point
12 inche.s above the e soil
cement should
again
be
ground level.
The top of
sealed with a vapor
the rammed earth wall
is x
started.
The vapor barrier
ill
prevent
capillary
at-traction
of moisture
into
the
of the rammed earth wall.
lne reason ror WthFEundatlon
extending
12 inches
above the
-Tl
ground level
is
o"r washing against
the
the rammed earth'
/--xx'
Iffthe
earth
foundation
were started
at the ground
level,
the wall
could *be damaged as the rain from.the
roof
drops on-the lawn or the patio
and splashes
against
the earth
1
wall.
4
If the concrete
beam is used in the virgin
soil
it
should'be
% again as wide. as the thickness
of the wall.
The'
forms could then be placed
directly
upon the concrete
beam
I
after
the moisture
barrier
is installed.
(

..
!

.-

---_.

'

-- ---

The following
drawing
is from J. Palker 'Boggg*blueprint
of the.house
in which we live.
The three changes tie recomm'end
a-re a vapor barrier,
2 inches of insulation
on the outside
of
the foundation
down two feet
below ground
level
and the
foundation
run 12 inchks
above ground level
before
ramming
the earth,
nr

~.

Finish

.L:ine

0f +errace
5)ope
3
-?

ekcted

Finish
Slope
Cor

Grade.
min.

a+

lea&

/4

Gravel

Concr&
Welded

Slab
b-./ire

Fil I

:lr

2 -

% 19 Wh~

Join+

- Place

FlescclI-

CCeiotew

Co;)

before

permdnently

Exp.

{ lnsulat&

paur

-$..

LEVEL
end

TYPicol

Exterior
SLalC. 3/4

Foundat;on

WNnlI

Fabrlc

,-_
&.

..

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.*
.

THE FORMING PROCESS FOR RAMMED EARTH

.
We-have briefly
traced
the history
o-f the experiments
apd studies
conducted
over the years on rammed earth
fogis
and decribed
the research
done and results.
We want to pass
on to you our" experience
so that you may make your own choice
as to which form you will
build
or rent.
Concrete
forms can
be rented
and *used We have- used hand tampers and b'ackfill

tampers-operated
off of an air compressor
and found either
to
_,
be satisfactory.
* r-4'. '_
. .,
",'
SC---,
The following
zre -requirements
*for. a successful
fo f m:
It must .be strong;
it must not bend; it
should
be l&ght
enough for one person to lift-,
or not heavier
than a man and
his wife
could
lift.
The form suggested
is a minimum' size
form for multilpurpose
use. We would rather
have the form a
bit too strong
than too light.rWhatever
type of soil you use
and-whatever
type ol$-forrnU you use, ~'you will
be surprised
.that
almost
anything
will-work
with
a 'little
care,
common sense
and judgment.
.
. 1
0
The forms should be interchangeable,
side for side and
top to bottom, .which
means that
you would have to cut a
pattern
or a j,ig to place the ho.les accurately.
When drilling
the holes
the forms 'are to be laid
with
tempered masonite
facing
each' other
and--3/4"
holes drilled
through
both forms
at-once.
Number the outside
of the facing, pairs
1, nI 2 and 3,
. "'
4.
,,,. * "
.I...
.-..-,,,, ,,,,,
We developed
a corner- form 8' high that
could. also be
used a-S side
panels- by drilling
the holes
on the same
horizontal--s-pacing
a-&
panels.
Placed opposite
each other,
the come? panels twill
serve as side panels.
As a corner,
it
--is' Zused. vertically.
All
panels
are
interchangeable,
?
,therefore,
standardiied.
B
Each of us has different
abilities,
each of us has
available
different.
supplies
and materials.
The purpose
of
ea ih~i1~yoUb~d~
wall
de
form Is io-hol-c-the
If
you intend
to (stucco
it5 t 1 en small bulges
or even laiger
'ones make no' great
diffe/rence.
Neither
do the joints
nor
I your objective
rough $pots.
is to have a smooth wall that
ed to weather
can be permit
for a year or two while
you
decide what el i e you want to do with it,
t
15 optimum appearance.
.Our form is des,&gned to
7

.-

---

--

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..,. .,

,'3

An alternative
plan is to have eight
..four,
Th.is would
be particularly
helpful
organized
.to help
build
all
each other'
consecut%velv J on
h;lsis.
~ a mass
--- -nrnd~~rtinn
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The Boggs form& though

they were quite
heavy had two
advantages.
One was the wall
great
height
forming
which
protected
the wall
until
the entire
form was -removed.
The
second was that the.end
gates were the height
of. the wall and
assisted
in the alignment
both horizontally
and vertically.
'ii
3
.1
BUILDING THE SIDE PANELS

.'

_i

LI

To make enough panels

so that the bottom panel can be
leap frogged
(that
is panel 1 put over panel 3 in order to
fill
lift
4) it takes two 4' x 8" x 3/4"s plywood as well as
two k" x 4' x. 8's tempered masonite.
The lumber yard will
-ordinarily,
cut 4' x-,&L in two for you to make four 2' x' 8'
panels.
Y&u will
also need four quarts
of contact
glue to
bond the tempered

.through
.through

and
from

1 .
:'

the
L

t glue should be placed

,the rough side of
Contact,glue
bonds
.
so you need three
pieces
of scrap
o lay on the 2" x 4' plywood so-- thaws.,.,..,.,,
masonite
iri place_- above t$e ,,/-"
one to square-each:
end.'0
'
scrap
lumber
to .hrop,,t 275
the plywood
with
the corners
e@ctl?y
1 the middle
piece of scrap to/l'et
the
and finally
the opposite
end 2s
the last scrap. Ee"$areful
'$0
th the plywoop'before
making
./'
x 4s to-the
plywood,
and before
side of the nqywoncl;
yn11
TIPPET
to mark the 2 x 4 with the spot tiher'e the 3/4" hole will
be
~~'2 .-I
drilled.' *
1
Mark the true
end and the top edge of each piece. of
plywood and each 2 x 4 with a red marking pencil.
These will
be the
edges
from
which
all.measurements
will
be
made.
'
* .
--..-.
,/
Start with 'fhe.piece
of plywood that has the str$<ghtest
edges, usually
the'mill
cut edge. Lay it down flat;
Mark the'
truest
edge red.
Do the same with
all
the 2 x 4 plywo'&d
panels.
Place the one 2 x 4 on the top red marked,,edge
of\
each of the two' panels
or of the four panels
if--'you
have'
_*
r'oom.
_..
/

,/

,/.
__I_

---

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.*

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_,
1,

irst
panel after
we had drilled-the
d t-iY'me pwtting,in
the 3/4',' x l$" x
k';" on the width of the wall.
to get t,hem in place
They got 10,sf and we foufid .it'difficult
i
when
we,
Lea"p
frogged
form
No.
.1
over
form
No. 3.
..
1"
_,
We decided
to.,/&ill
a hoi:
in the tempered masonite
1%" '_
holds for t-he t,ie bolts.
wide and 118'2 de,& before we drilled
.Thg drilling
of 1/8'lY.deep 5 1%" wide on masonite
side is the
glue the elusive
.1/S" washer. in assembling,
space needed/to
,'tha form. We used quick dry contact
adhesive
for this.
We* also/drove
three
wide head nails
on' the edge of the
-(r
washer,'
-~.
,
.
needs four washers ,fo~r the -over .a11 process.
One bolt
I:.
j-ben--oTky-- tcJoTcs"neTs -~~' ~~
ued-~Zrt p&ace .zY~--~~;~-- -hel@T
."
,/remain loose for assembling.
By standing
panel No. 1 with the
,/ red edge up, we.Bf~o-un'd.,it e .sy to mark the edge with a pencil
4
marked.
to match the masonite
side 4.0 the 2 x 4 side,already
and square and the chalk line,
we marked
Then, with a pencil
the center of the holes onthe-masonite
side. We started
each
hole
by- ~~drilli-ng--a~~J
--S..S.
hole,-entirely
through
the panel.
-~ .After we drilled
qe 1%" x l/8"
inset-for
the washer, we also __ _
drilled
the 2 x 4 ,side an inch deep with
a 3/4" drill
'to
avoid..the
splinteringFinally,
we turned
the panel over and
theIdd.1411d11",,
m-3/4"
holes
.",,'1""~~,,'I,'.,'r,r..Ir.r
.d. .drilled
r.II.uY.Ll.il~>l,Il.LI.II~L,."
.,lIOIO.,c
Id.,,
A.t
.a.1.I.,through
1,,./,.,.,.,. i ..panel 'Ijp.. 1 from. the.ma,s.on,it.e, . ,_,
.side.
.
We built
panels Number 2, 3 and 4 the .same way.
i 7-~~ ~~-~-. h>
/
,'
Tie IYfolts:
The tie bait
is a '5/8" bolt
de" of cold rolled
steel.
It is 40 inches long with 10 inches of acme thread on
e'ach end. Acme nuts must be used with the bolts.
The 40-inch
Length
of the bolt adjusts
to
the>_pat-in-gs
-of--a
-12-~inc'n,~,
14
.~
Tncm7iEh
or 18-&h
wall.
I
I
The innsile
strength
ofthe!-';ln~-bolf--rs
3-5333-pounds.
..-. . ._____.___,..,
\The tie bolts
and nuts were built
at a machine shop (special
"order),.
The builder
should ignore
trade names when purchasing
the acme bolt.'
The acme thread is a wide thread and holds the
'
bolt .more securely.i
The acme thread is commonly called
a "worm gear"
There are eight
threads
per inch.
The acme thread.is
automobile
steering
gears.

thread.7
used in
!<
Of course all thread bolts
and nuts can be purchgsed
in
stores.
These are not !as durable'
as the acme cold rolled
steel,
but better
than ,standared
all thread bolts which have
finer
threads.
These strip
easily
and n,eed replacements.
The
acme threaded
.boTt .i's durable
and will
la,st afor a s,longer
period of time.
r

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(21)

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-,

To keep *the earth from coming ',ut.'of

the forms at
use a piece call
an "endgate."
Endg'ates,alsr,'serve
as spacer blocks
at the ends of the forms: so,.they
sho,uld be
as wide as the-walls
and a means of ho.ldfngthe
walls plumb.
In most cases e-ndgates @ill
be:u<ed?ightS7at
the end.of
the
forms,
but tvey;li should be made so they tiill,fit
at any place
inside
the forms in case you have to ram 'short wall se%tions.
Try to space endgates
so .they twill
be at,'least
8 inches- fromthe nearest bo.lt.
If you do not leave enough room;"it
k-i.11 be
difficult
'to/r%m*the
soil corr'e,ctly.'
I t
,g,' * I I nr: '.a
.
Always nail
a beveled'piece
of' wood on the, endgate so
that
it faces the inside
wall.
When the e&-th is rammed in
the forms, the beveled piece will* form a -groove in the end of
the wall.
When the next sectioh
of wall,is
rammed .the groove
will
be filled
with earth
to form a so'lid join;
that bonds
the sections,together.
*
-.

vapor

step in'assembly
is to' place pane< I *opposite
1. First
panel 2 with masotiite
of both panels facing-in.
Slip%ebolt
through
top ho1e.s rows B and C without
spacer to simply hold
c
form together
loosely.
*;'
2, Next, *place
the
left
endgate..
One cperson
holds
e,ndgate upright
tihile
pthe other- -slips
on the- ~&ee
-t-&ebolts-A.
Repeat- for the opposite
en~-;~-Row-~
_----t
ie bolts.in
bottom holes rows A, B, C, and D
- ~~--. 3. Pm
without
spacers.
D
4. Place the tie bolts,
washers and spacers through
the
middle holes o.n* rows B and C. .
l

5. Place all
uprighGs
on rows' A, B and
and acme nuts and spin nuts to,leave
about
Pull out &he_top tie bolts
rows B and C. They
the way until
t e earth is rammed-up to the
the bottom.
.

C with7washers
one inch play;
willDonly
be in
third
hole from

'-~~~n~~~g~~s~o'~~~~~p:~~~h~
6. One person
plum
edge);
If it is out of plum
side, drive a wedge under
the &nd of$~+--%&--You
+
._

may need to

*.,:
1 ., -$
\>

r.

barrier
bver? foundation
before
'setting
_- _
.Vertical
rows'of
bolts
are referred
fib as Ai, B, C'and D
:
from right
on the drawing page.

->

a -

ASSEMBLING OF FORM PANE?%

Place

'

forms.

.--~ ..-

(22)

-_ .~---

.-s-.

. -.

_
1

.-- _..~

% _
.
.

-. .

-*
n
n
D

pi4.e up blocks
on the ground
level*
to get high enough +to
wedge the endgate
leve.1.
If
the' endgate
leans
toward
the
panel
2 side,
the wedge must -be placed
under the ed-ge of
on panels.
Use wedged on panel
panel
2.; Then place -level
sides if needed to, level and plumb.
0
7. ,Plumbthe
endgate on the o&side
plywood side.
Ifit'
is not plumb, put wedges vertically
agai'nst
both ends of the
tie ,bolts
next
to the 2 x 2s edge.
If
the, endgate 'leans
to3ard
the oppbsit&
endgate,
then one' of the bolt holes is
.
off plumb.
:
8". You must then :pull
out the nut, upright.,,washer
and
find which bolt hole is out of line.
Get a rat-tail
wood rasp
and file
out ;the hole'until
the ,endgate can be pIa.ce'd plumb.
-

h.,-. .
.:

..

in

10..

6
.
--_

9. Install,
the szme way.

plumb
.,

and

eve1

the

other

endgate 2 and panels

1 :.. . ,, ('I
**
..z-It
is most ...important
to plumb and level
panels
on the first
assembling
for a successful
wall.

accurately
D
11. If you DO NOT do this,
alignment
cannot be corrected
as with lumber or masonry. Rammed earth is massive,
heavy and '.
cannot .be adjusted.
You can only break it up, tear it-down
and 'start
over.
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i-.d
3I
7
0)
2
B
=
:o
.L
.xJ
.;

5
a
cc
111
2
h

5
d
z
Lu
I
1

e.r

,
:,..

(234

12"
.F/lat

WALL STANDARD*CORNF,R PANEL

(hrot to scale).

2x4
\

Flat
-

12"
F

2x4

-.e

Wall
,,.

18"

,--I

_-

Wall

. c1. .
c

&
I
I
/

I
;
'
I '
i
I

Note:.
Cross blbck
should
be'put
in as.on
standard
form.
Holes,
on 2x4s as on standard
F--fern.
---.~

II.

_s

The
slip
the
the

-L

I
I

l/4"
x 2" iron
straps
over the tie
bolt
in
hole 3" from the end of
standard
form sections.

Three
strap
iron
angles
are
lef
in place
when panel-3
:
laced
on
panel
1.
At
4
I
.that
point,
two.more
strap
iron
angles
are needed'to
avoid;
moving
the uprights
an-extra
j
i
time.
No strap
iron
angle
I
is needed for the bottom
hole on the second
form panel.:
Short
blocks
the standard
'scale.

'and holes
fit
panel. hole

/,
r
I
I
:
I
L
1
I
I

I
I

!
I
i:
I I

I
c
-___
Al,Ej

l/2-

______l_..l_--____....

(23f)

.f3

.,I...

~...

-_
1

ENDGATE CROSS BAR (YOKE)

(Not to scale)

-jolx'2 11~4II

extended
. *

2'

il

Cross

bar

2 "x4 '# b&ce

2" on edge
-sides-endgate
y ,
1 ,

on beveled

F
n
-3

.
P

Yoke:
The endgate
has a,beveled
2x4 ko act as a keyway
binder
for the next
section
of the wall.
'This
is extended
two
feet.
A cross
bar is placed
in slots
at'the
too
of the
extende Id 2x4 to serve
as a positive
alignment
and as a be lam.
to which a.~ old-fashioned.fence
stretcher
may be'placed
to
lift
rhe bottom
form in -leap frog
fashion.
The corners
are
braced
with
2x4 with
3/8"*~6"
bolts,nuts
and washers.
L

a,
C
L-4
*
___--

a,
2
D.44
..
ii

\ , \
,

.-A-\

$
t-

___

^_

-:
,

g LEAP-FR.OGGING-MOVING PANELS UP AS WALL RISES

,

Tamp earth between panels 1 and 2 within

three inched of
.the.tp.p
of -*he fqrm, just under the tie *bolts.
Put panel~s 3
and 4 in place:+Wdd
bolts,
washers,
spacers
and nuts.
Leap
frogging
begins
after
panels. 3 and 4 are. filled
w+th ramme*
earth to the bottom of the top holes.
Release all of the nuts---=
--and washers.'
Remove the four uprights
fmm-bo+krs;i-desmth
- the bolts to remain inxlac&-----1
1
- : _-- -~/- .--Cr&ully'
slide
panel, 0 n i-he t i'e b 0 1 t s a way,d_-,fr,om4-t he~----~'-"-l-'~'
completed
wall without
twisting
so-' the g~~~-$*--~~ll
will
not
;spai- at an? point.

._

.I

Carefully
lift
panel 1 and blace it against
the endgate
on top of form 3. Each person has one end ofform
1. Each
person should have a 5/8" x 5" long bolt with a washer-and
-+
nut in his pocket.
Each slips
a bolt through
the side 2 x.2
on the eqdgate
into
the midd1.e of the three
end holes
and
spins on the nut.
Panel 1 is now secure,ly
in,<place.
Repeat
the operation
on the other
side of the wall be removing
the :
nuts, washers and the up rights
and finally
Form 2.
\
9
I!
Each has a 5/8" x 5" bolt and w'asher in his pocket.
Lift
form 2 and place it carefully
on form 4. Fasten form 2 by'the
2 bolts, through
each end of the.endgate
through
the. middle '
I
hole on the end to hold -form 4 in plaice.,
You are now ready

to install,uprights

B and C.

'!F.,

Slip uprights
B and C over the bolts
5 and 6 on-ea"ch of
uprights
B and G, Slip on'the'washer
and' spin on the nuts and
r spin them tight By hand. Repeat the same on the other'side.
'.
_------y
-Ncinirt
the tie bolts
through
the-gam."Do
not -'
insert
the tie bolts
and spacers on the top hole uprights
B
and C untif*the
earth reaches the hole.
c

At this
coint,
panels
1, 2, 3, 4- and endgates
are
holding
the rammed earth wall . .Remove paneis 1 and 2 and- you
will
see the first
strip
of rammed earth wall.
Place uprights
B and C onto -bolts
5 and,6 on panels 3 and 4 (both sides).
j
Place panels
1 and 2 on top of 3 and 4. In order
to leap
to bolts
frog > lyou must nod place th,e bottom of the upright
in holes
4,- 5 and 6. Looseiy
+fasten the nuts and bolts.
(Later-tofasten
tightly
al.1 nuts and bolts 'as when changing,
a car tire.)
Add uprights
A and 'II... in same manner.
Leap
frogging
is accomplished.
II~-~
---~
.-7
.i
'3'
(i
rf
(24)
! .
!-,.I
!
.
I
_'
,.

1.__~-;-------A

*,

,,?

,/

hole
for
the leap frogging
so
Hole 4 is the bottom
uprights
B and C are set first
with panels 1 and 2 on top of
The insertion
of the nuts and
panels
3 and 4 and bolted.
washers will
fit
exactly
as they did in the first
setting
of
are now holding
panels 3 and
panels 1, 2, 3 and 4. (Uprights
4 tight
with panels 1 and 2 above them; This is the leap frog
position.)
You are moving only "two
feet
Panels 1 and 2 are now,ram.med; panels
but holding
the forms; panels 1 and 2
panels
3
and 4. Bolt
together
Qf
described
earlier.

of upright
at a time.
3 a$d 4 are now rammed,
are leap frogged on top
with
the same process

It is our experience
that no concrete
cap is needed.on
$the wall.
We recommend that you insert
an eye bolt 12 inches
long with a 12 inch piece of reinforcing
rod through
the eye
of the bolt.
The bolt should be set in the earth 8 inches or
three lifts
before,tamping
in the last 8 inches of earth.
One
bolt in the center of each 8 foot sectioneis
sufficient.

We have not p&vided

the specifications
and plans.
That
is beyond our abilities..
We urge you to consult
one of the
many good b oks on- house
construction.
As you know we N
ourselves
retained@an
architect.
He
provided
the plans and
c"
part -of theesupervision.
- c
!;
This manual is writtenat
those who can help themselves.
We challenge
you to join
those of us who have become rammed
earth builders
.and believers.

(25)

'

,
/

-_ --_

_
_

,_ -.
5
1

/+
:

/'

The First
Instijtute,

Passive
19/8.

BoggsG'J. Palmer, The Architecitural

/'
I
.Commonwealth
Experimental
Building
3 -.
Australia,
Earth Wall Construction
*
/

Forum,

i,rt

,T*'
,

6. Encyclopedia
1148, 1149.

Nations

9< Lee,,
1937.

Britannica,

ml968

Catalog.
d
~-. ~~_
$3,

1946.
_
Station,
NSB No.

Jerusalum:
edition;,

University,
The

volume

Weiz'mann
18,

'

pages

New

A.B.

10.
Long,
J-D.,
Station
Bulletin

Solar
*

Cooper'ative
Extension
Service,
&olorado
State
Collins,
Colorado.
Soil Testing
Laboratory.

5. Cytryn
Soil Construction.
S.,
,Science
Press of Israel,
195/.
*

j II

472.

'

0*12
-1l:'Merrill
Anthony F., The Rammed Earth House:New
,1
London: Warier and Brothers
Pub 1.ishers,
lY4/ .
12.
Middleton-;
G.F;,
Australian
Government
Building
Station
Bulletin,
13.:Miller,
1820-18.54. U.S.

A.,
Solar

2.

1. Bainbridge,
,,Dak.d
Davis,
Calif .,j,,,Passive

EFERENCES

Earth-wall
Construction.'
Publishing
S'ervice,
No. 5, 1976.

Yor

'Canb elrra:
Experimd tal
f

$.
'

Rammed Earth Buildings

BLilt
Thomas
A.H.,
Department
of Agriculture,
August,
1926.
i
,
a
li.
Vol.
23, No. '9.,
Patty,
R.L.,
Agricultu.ral
Engineer.
1942. (Rammed4Earth Wa 11s for Farm Buildings
Sept.
~S",D. 'Exp
.
<!
St. Bulletin
r//.
'
'._.
b
-"._.__
------.-.__
1 ---__
_..
5
~
'Lfl

15. Risom Sven Nordcske

,OG Bagger
..;

Ler Jords

16. U.S. Dep&tment

of Agriculture,
tion,
Experiments
on Rammed Earth

Huse Copenhagen,

Farm Security
AdministraConstruction.
PSA Pub. 59;
.$

.:

Rosenkilde

17. U.S.
Department
of Commerce,
Adobe Structures--A
Status Report.
\ Standards
Note 934 > February
19/i,.

, ,111

Preservition,of
IBureau
*
,

Historic
.

1
18. U.S. Department
of Commerce, Structual,
He-at-Transfer,
and Water Permeability
Properties
of Five Earth Wall
'
Constructions.
National
Bureau
of Standards,
Washington,
D.C.: October 1, 1941. *
19. U.S.
Standards

Department
of C . ..rce..:.UnF.tP'd
..P
Bulletin
BMS 78. * .

_,

States

Bureau

of

20. Van Dresser,

Lightning
Press,

Peter.
Hom~egrown Sundweylings.
1977.. *

Sante

21. Wolfskill,
Lyle A., Dualap,
Wayne' A., Galloway,
Handbook for Building
Homes of Earth.
Washington
Department
of Housing and Urban Development.*
22. Wright,.
1954.

*-Available

Frank

for

Lloyd,

The Natural

purchase

(27)

House,

Horizon

Fe: The
Bob M D.C:;
Press

*APPENDICES

'

A-

Material
and lPrice
List,
Greeley,
Colorado,
Feb. 1980.
List i.ncludes
enough materials
for 4 standard
panels,
2'x
-corner panels,
brace, .and other materials
8 ' ) 2 endgates,
monolithic
rammed earth .wall
one 8' '*high
to complete
section.
.

B.. ,Pictures,
form.
P

,
.

C.

annotated,
I

Colorado
Analysis: .

of

the

building

Soil

Univer.sity
IState
'
.- ,0
.

of

the

standard

Laboratory

Testing
I

--1 sample
the Miller

of earth from Greeley,

rammed-earth
house.

--2 samples of
Hendersonville,
--Letter
Soltanpour,
D,
.

E.

Architectural
First
House.
1

Lydia
Soil-Test

from

Mother,Earth,
t
Prof.

Miller
A.
Specialist,

from
CSU.

1946

Rammed Earth,

Dec.

Forum,

EC0 Village,

.P

from

P.N.

I
Miller's

m:

NSB 18, Notes 'on the Science ;' of

Pise' Construction,
(Available'.
for .p&rchase-address
at
'Building,
Australia
Reprinted
by permission.
end of article).
0

to

soils
NC.

Colorado

>

-.

NSB 13, Notes on ;the Science

F+.- Earth-Wail
Construction,
Building,
Australia
(Available
for puichase-address.
\ end of article).
0 D

of
at

MATERIAL

.
-.A

.
Quantity
-..

AND PRICE LIST

.. .--.-

_.._.

1'

.a

Description

.----_..._^_.--_.._.

,
.*.

-_

Unit
-Price

------z-d

Total
Price'

,.
-.....i

.._.....................

.,.....

.L

..,..,,,_,.,.,.,

---WOOD--,
24

2x4x8

Hem Fir

$ 1.75

c;.

2x2x8

Hem Fir

2x4~10

Hem Fir
P

-:
8

a. 2x4x4

$42.00
.'4.48

1.12

2.63

1x4~12

4x8

3/4"

AD P"lywood

4x8

l/2"

Tempered

7.90

.1;;;
u
.

Hem Fir

Pine

Masonite

21.00

10s -20

8.00

40: 00

---BOLTS---LVASHERS---SCREWS
1

5/8x36
All
Thread
Course
. (For Example
Only)
.No:.6
x 2;' Flat
Head

6 box
96
,,
-ii c

--

5/8 Flat
(Double
setting.)

36

2 lb.,:

1"

16d

Hex

5/8

I
Smooth

--~ ,.~ _.-._ _=_~

2 lb.

8-Penny

-2 lb.

16-Penny

3.59
1.99

Cold
long

Box .

6-Penvv---;-

2 lb.

7-Penny

Box

form

-09
.

Steel
9.22

l L
_

(
,

165.9.6

'5.25,'

\.

189.06

\
T m-y:-- ~-

--=--.?-.59._I-_-.

-50
-

2lb.

Rolled
part

---NAILS---

Box
Box

full

8 Acme'Nut

'i

=~-.

for

11:94

Threadof 40"

L-.

.-

Bolt

1 l/2"
Washers
this
amount
needed

" 18* .i'3,.

548 - 8.Acme
.I?%
c
,Pn-. 1
c 10 " each end

-50
-. .

.I
;

.I.
.

Quantity

Unit
Price

Desc-I-.i'ptQbn..
_'---CEMENT---GLUE---

-.mq!al--.
Price

---

2 qt.
..

Contact

Cement

1 qt.

Pastewood

1 ,gal;

Contact

1 qt.

.Resin

4.93,

Filler

3.95

Cement

13.'95

Wood Glue

4.50

'$9.86

F
-'-MISCELLANEOUS---

Tools,
..

Miscellaneous

.Triangle

,___II ;.

11.20
6.59

1:

1"

Wood chisel

4. 2.0

l/2=!'

Wood Chisel

3.70

Wood Chisel
1
Ch'alk Line

3.25

Carpenter's

'-50

1;oo

1.49

2.98

l/4"

Electric

. 90

Pencils
Drill

Bits

Sealer
3/4"

36

Thin

Wall

Conduit

at

$.33

per

',

ft.

. 9e

'-

33

11.88

,----WORK EXPENSES---

16 hr.
--._
30 hr.
--_

Greeley
Planing
Mill
.* -.
To Plane
Endgates
2x4~10
Bevel

20:oo

David Atkinson
Drawing
and Form

75.00

At $3.50
Building

'
a
Construction

per hr.,
Craig
Forms
'

Hansen
:-

v
,At-$3.10
Typing

per hr:,.Linda
and -Editing

56.00

Cuplini
43.00
856.99

1ot

ClosS up view of process.,

*

Bolts withocr!
spacer.

spacers

fit on outside

Close

of &tdgate.

Endgate

is

Spacers

up view of panels

and washers

1, 2, 3.

must be placed

inside

df the forms.

Close up side view of endgate

Beveled 2~4xlO
nailed
12 wide for 12 Wall.

in place.

on center

End view of endgate in place.

~_ --A_-*

of inside

of endgate;

Endgate

before

the bevel, showing

m

spacers.

Both endgates

2~4xlO
plumb.

in place.

brace

serves

One end before

as balance

yoke

bevel.

tu hold form baneIs

Putting

2~4xlO

Completed

seiting

brace

on top of 10 bevel,

of &&s
:

notched.

1, 2, 3, 4, endgates

and brace.

3aP-l
m 0 3w.
I hho+*l-l

u
f&ua,b
:
H>C

r
s:
<

uu

4 13s

s-Il-2
i---i

0.5

oe-4

4 muu

L
c
-

_. i
F
i
u

-4
,

C
\
-

i-

>

4
-

2
Q

b
-

7
- 7
-J 4

-;

:
-

ll
-

.
1
-

-cc

c--T

:;
A

$j
-

a
g?
P
L

L
C
--

i
6
-

d
<
-

4
-

o@

e-

s
L
<
fI
-c

Y
P
IL
-

1
-

b
- w
- L-I -

0
-

f
-

->
-3
-4

:!
-

-i

-2
-

--I
-i
7
:
1(

c
c
.
cc
-

L
/
3
-

c:
C
- -

-I
A;
!,
!
-iI.
-I.I
i

1
,

5
. ..

D
-

0
s

I
<

-I

6
-

_
.i

:
-

,!

.(
V

i
L

<
c

j
5

!
.-T-4

.,.

7
-\

s:

i
-

Lz

i
c
2k
Y,
:
-8

i
i
1

.i:

I----

IJ
7.
c
-

.
0

s
-

l?
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5
c
.
-

- b\
2.2
L -

b
,
n

_._

/
I

,4
..,I
,* .1

-,,
._
y,

:*

;I

Colorado
idrt
Collins.
80523

Servict

Stqte,University
C+lorado

.c

Mrs.. "Lydia-A!,
Box 1424-..--.:
CO
Greeley,
Oea~'.T;,fs'~

. ,Cooperative.E;l~ension

: ,I
.s

&IS i
. ., A.._
TEST

SOIL

*I

'

February

26,

1980

,
.

Miller
-.

-.-.__.,

80631

__.

-5

- I.,.

1 .-..

'(
.

Miller:'

Y-f
Enclosed
please
find
the
'analytical
results
on the
soil,
, ,'
From
the
soil
properties.
that
we:
samples
you
sent
us.
determined,
it
seems
a-l.1 three
samples
couldobe
used
for
rammed
eart$l
construction.
C_!.ay~~and
organic
matter
con*
tents
are
low
in all.soils:
.
!-ne
insulation
PropertY.(R
value)
of
rammed
earth
is
determi'ed
mainly
by its
degree
of
porosity,,mQisture
content,
and Fh'ickness.
As\the
degree
of
c-ompa&ness
of
rammed
earth
increases4
its.
porosity
decreases
and,-&s+ns-elation
porperty
'lowers.
The
higher
the
moisture
content
of
rammed
earth
the
lower
<ts
insulation
value.
Theretfore',
as rammed earth
wall'ages
and
loses
its
initial
moisture,
it
becom'es
a better
insulator.
Obviously
the
thicker
a rammed
earth
wall
C'
th,e
higher
its
insulating
value.
We d'b not
determine
ea'rth
wall
Solar
Ener
and
ask. th

insulation-properties
'other
objects.
However,
ch Institute
(SERI)
in
u, can
have
R value

value-)
of
rammed
you
may write
to.
Golden,
Colorado
of
rammed
earth

(R

Sincerely,

P. N.
'Professor

Soltanpour

PSfbn
I,,

.
w-

.
Coloraqio

State

University

and

-..----_--'~

U.S.

_-

Deparhen;_.

._-,

Cooperating

of Agriculture

,
'.

-\

.,

RAMMED
EARTiiOne of- mans

oldesi building materials /

.
engineer to build a modern house.
a

is used by a.Denver

7
u

*
llwrc I> A jlrrwlll~i
Illllrr>l 11, ralllnled CLtllll
~~h~tion, Hill) a minimum of trtrhy del.i~ll~~~
1-l;,,. C,,lnrilll#, h<D11.VfC~llS8~L.IllP Inl..cf iI, II
howvs. I;a.ed ~~~rt.l~ a,,, tlw idea that tlw\
tlc.ps 111 rilmn~f=~l earli
c~~natructi~4n IIIcLII~,J,.
ougl~t 111be dir1 cheap and purlly on Lim8llv
Iopsoil
was
rrn~~nr~l
II\
I~~~llrl~~~~rand ~IIII.~,II
a&e*~,enl
that
any
material
as
lu~~x~
and
i_
m&l
fur I~nll\l~llivlll
.lfllll~
alIll Il,,\i,l;
fri;lblv
a, .01l I ould ever be ma& 111 11~~ld
;I;.3
r,tl,f. III timwof matcrials
~Ilurlag~~i.
l.orms wLLc prefallrir alnl.
Moisture
contv~~t .
was ~conlr~,llr4 tIllI: mix mu>t he ,ust m,,i.t
tl~: idu 01 brrildmp a hou.-c out (11 11r11tniln
dirt has an irrrsislihle
lure. Aa a matter of
r.notigl~ to ball in tile hand), as was the curing
, 0,
earth Illllbtr,,(.llllll
f~roces~3 (like ~orl~r~l~. ;;i;e stre?igth of ramnlecl
~!Jld fact, rammr,l
~~llr~l .it 1 1~:
eartli increases with age I. Even the intencit)
reriu piw, a,.Cth,~ Spani-II
nun!, merit-.
\\llvrl. h&dlrd
wilt1 v:ir~ an11
IIf the tamping s1r11kC ivus imporiant
(a h dla\y
intl:i,lipvnrr
d. ill ~IIP n~w.bou>e (If IJa\ili
5lroke yields a wall five timt~i 35 strong a5 il
hfiller at (;rccll~!.
t:~lllrrn~lrl-rilmnl~ll
cartI
light 0~). C~mlpwssrd air tlammers, equi$prd
and durable
wall>.
yivlda IKI~I~.-c~~~~, .tr,,rq
with stwial lumping hea~ls. were used to eqrr~.
Damm~,l &II:
111i\ twat ri~nrlucli\~it)
mak0
pat1 the coil. And, in f~lrrnin~ 111~ wall, Art,
(it good Ior both hot and cold .climalr+.
Was takCn III keep lllc: wall rjpill:: unifr,TmlF
!
-- -~
.:Altb~U&
nit a> ctw~p~ as mipht at 6rztappe.w.
alnhg it: vnlitc. ltr~flb.
ReWrlt
on well-managed
jobs jt ma)* LUII .I. much a>
a~lvarlvr;s
ill Gtnil tll,illwrlrr~~
70 per cent lower than con\elltllmat
Irlulttl+
. wpecially
wmlime cxprrir.llvc
in airport. tt~:taThe limitations
of rammed gut11 IY~SI~IIV
,wpy ,and dam C~NL~~IISIion .4111~li~.dtf. 08r1.
\ _
firm ;i,re, Iwwewr, scwr~. Fir<t (!I all. it is nw
ciderablr
p6wibllilie*
1x1 enrlb ~xm~truut~,,~~
4
~~ssary tn use suitnhle wil--prt~f(:rahl!
70 per
bcvonrl tbrw jndivBts-(i 111 thr Rwz~s IIOUS~.
wnt sand and small ~ra\el tu 30 per wnt
For esamplr. ltil~.StrrrJ~ltl
,>f CarIll walls ma\
clay --and it must he car~4ully sifted. miw~l.
bc incrwvd
by a. mtlcll 3~ 80 p-r rwnt.,accord
d8111[~l~rif~d,turnpi=d and currrl. RecaII.5? i,f ,tw
_ . .ing
In vm nuthorily,
by rrirrl~~rl.ini:
wit11
wt~5..ary frlrm-work
and sraffnlditlp. .I, IL
venctal,l~~ fil~re. TIIP a,l~lili,,n r~l ~fn~~r~l to
arld~,m eronomlc
14. build edrlb walls morn
tllr wil mistllre
also invreasrs
it. strenglb,
lban n story high. Ilearns are irrllactica!rle.ir1
nllhwgb
it apparently
reduce:s tbe thermal
Icrra pise (altb~~ll~h rllrwnt
leil.. indicate the
rr+ancc
of the rammed earth wall. (Asphalt
pos5ihility
of rr~inf~nced ~ cart11 beams of
:

DESIGNER BDGGS ,,,a,,~ a hose on a new earth

wall to denlonstrate
Its srpr151g res,stancc
to wcathmng.
SOlI fro? the FxCavatlO (left
above, wa* uSed to by
the house at r,gtlr.

1
to many l trll<~lurec whivtl Ila\ tl vn~lured ((,I,
klowe\er.
centuries
,wiltI~~ut any surfnclrlg.
some fir&b i. pr,,t,~b~~lesiral,l~~,
and ,..rvcral
types art available.
(:~nlrnl sturcos ifrv ~11..
*
factory but vxtwn91\c br+u~e
ttlrvwlluire
4
t)llllll wtl1,
rtinfon,IIl::
t,> il,,tli<,\v 3 pernlallrlll
tlle wall It-elf. [Jagpa t,l;;l<twr (a IIIIICI mix of
-~!llm= par,< :,l,ll 11%
11,,. s\r ,.13).) !:a5 !,ern !r.l,..l
II\ ~lllllll I)llh,,ta Ilalv (:<lll~gr~ and f~lLHl,l 11,
rlldhv <I 11:11111~,111~~
hlli4l.
Howrwr,
,la~gu WBE
ii411 p~rriidn~~nl unlit
(tufter a Ifl-d;i>- rnrin; r
It wds :irtvl and givrw Iwo roiltj uf lead oil
paint.
A trrv
satisfaory
.~ltcir~~t~~-~~~.~~~.----.--.-found in the addition of asphalt emulsion ln
thv daggx at tlw rate of 5 gal. twr 100 lb>. of
IIn &ix Ill15 yirld cc
I a p~rmanenl finish with
\
,lr wilhotlt painting.
Aru,rdinF
tu the Departmfwt of A~ricultuw,
tlw ramrod
Barth wall
-- ~rnay al-o Iw waled wilb soll,ium Lilicate or wittr _
parallir~ di~s~alved in benzine.
Or it may be
paintid
with a formula
of casrin slur, l&oIdiom $lo~ptlntr,
lime p &
and fllrmaldehyde
a mix whirh ran be tinted anv color desired.

PRODUCTS

TOPSOIL

REMOVED

&

PRACTICE

by

bu~~darer

cxposel
.LlbbC,I rultable
for ram
,n,e* +a-iil
coTIIIrt.cllo
17 bar15
.,nt,
to ? !3rlr,i C,IS and gravel,

EXTERIJR
l,i,!,b?
II
;,o/.<0. ,f., r/
T?:
i:
r .1 2,

SiiRinSINt
or
-. =:i
daga.3
..-i,
(.A
.%(I
,111 I,
-- *mtn 3
.
tsamuirr
f .i,
,f ren f

Mlllcr
CCmCnl
x,>?er
re..-r,!
r :n,r
A?

SOIL IS SIFTED
through
coarse
mesh to
remove stone.5 and debrlr.
Aggregates
tan
range
from
fine sand UP to large grave1
articles
,must
Dredamlnate
but
flnel

MIX IS DAMPENED
by hand
unyoke .~r(obc.
SOlIS Wl,h
terra
,,ise I* barely
10l5tened
hay!7 clay content
are nsullable
clue to
high
s!lr1n!iage
and hsqh P,ICN
Of Clay

FORMS ARE OILED before use to pcrmct rc

l,,Oa,
as 500 a5 ranirwng
IS Eolnplete..
concrete
ootlng
15 scored
to as~rc
good
w.,t,-r
ArId frbt
ornot bd
w,tll tllc wall

ED

HIGH

EARTH HOUSE-

LOW

WINDOW
,,

,,Rdina
_ ,/-Rigid

WINDOW
Pa&w,
IMUI Bd\

LIVING
rJs*ipn.

ROOM
There

CORNER #aces
,I no sash I

routt,ea,t
COentlOnal

and haa
sense.

t,oor.to-cc,,,ng
,enestrat,on
a, .,mph
Both the louvered
VentilPtlD
paela

and the plarr

itself
are ml directly
in a dressed
2 x 6 8n frame
cartll
walls.
thll ralnr
IS bolted
onto a grdovc
formed
to receive
I,

Y.Y..I

KC:

lOt&

8, abut6

.- ZmvCmt
i

1,:.
/J .

V,ALL

Where

.I
SINCE

IMTERIOR

WALLS

arc

~XCIU~IY~I~

lormed
by story.h,yh
case8 ot arlol
,orta.
the hO6C h;rgi4
YnSal
amOUnt
of
atorage
space
,nter,or
sur,:,ca,
of earth
wall6 arc liagpa
plaslcr.
waterproofed
Pd
then brushed
w,th
one coat ot 011 PA,,

s,,m,.r
to,n~,tallat,on
(~h,or~n
above,
I

RADIAYT

FLOORS

in

the

~,,,er

accond o, (our comp,eted

ho~scs.
arc topped Wllh ,ntegrally.ct~larcd

house

are

All labs
ccrncnt

UK

693.31

Revised
ExperImental

Bullding

St31on

Departmenl

of

June 1964

Construction

The pose or rammed-earth method of wall construction

consists of rammmg sultable morstened sandy loam
betwee/n shutters. The dense, hard walls thus obtnined are
somewhat similar in appearance to yalls of soft sandstone.
Designs for earth-wall buildings closely resemble those
used for other forms of construction. However,
certBin peculiarities of the- material should; be taken
Into consideration, particularly the low lateral strength
of earth. a,factor which dicrares not only the minimum
thicknesses of walls, but also the minimum widths of piers
between openings for windows and doors.
cnmmonly

The following notes briefly outline the methods of construction recommended as a result of investigation, ex-

periment, and test to eliminate the risk of failure and

reduce the labour factor to a minimum. Careful site organisation is essential in order to achieve economical
earth-wall structures. Since labour is the principal factor affecting costs, any building time that is non-productlve owing to lack of foresight in planning the work,
or to any other cause, will Inevitably result in an excessive rise in the cost of the work. For greater detail,
reference should be made to CEBS BltlletIn ,No. 5, Earth
wall Construction.
i
FOOTINGS
Footings.
Footings for pi@ walls should be the
1.01.
same as footings for solid brick walls of similar thickness ori the same type of foundation.

8
.
a
INVERTED

External

T-BEAM

FOOTINGS

wa19 --&f%i

DPC
T
min.

230

mm

Jnder

according
Jnd

Depth
rkmlre
600

mm

REINFORCED

to nature

TiGz

CONCRETE

STRIP

FOOTINGS

230
mm
External
Ventilation

wall
brck

concrete
P

bloc
mm

r-cement
t-

Types

of footing

t-----d

600

0 ml

as requlr

mm

460

t
mm

for pi& walls

:J

.. -

WALLS
Protection
of wall base. Because earth wallspe
1.02.
very vulnerable at the ground line to damage by theFrod2.01.
Rammed-earth walls are built solid, with a
ing action of stormwater and back-splash, it is important
minimum thickness of 300 mm for external walls of singlethat the bases of walls should be built of material that
is in itself strongly water-resistanf. This is best 8storey domestic tjuildings, and 230 mm for partition walls.
The density and thickness of such walls make the use of a
effected hi, using an inverted T-beam type of reinforced
cavity unnecesy
concrete loting, the stem of the T being continued to a
minimur
height of 230 mm above ground level.
2.02.
Walls are built in situ, in courses between 600 mm
Alternat ly, commencing from the footing, the base of
and
900
mm
in height, and each course is constructed by
the wall , I the foundation wall may be built of brick,
progressively rarhming sections about 2 m long at a time;
stone, or Portland-cement-stabilised earth to the required
it is unnecessary for any section to be cured before comheight above ground level.
mencing the next. The newly rammed work is strong and
self-supporting, and can be walked on; thus the sections
1.03.
Damp-proof
course.
Dampproofing should be
can be regarded as large masonry units made and laid in
provided, and placed at svch a height as may be required
the one operation.
by the design of the building. Usually a convenient

position is immediately on top of the foundation wall.

Most of the recognised types are suitable, but one of the
more flexible types,that will molfld itself without fracture
to the irregularities of its bed, is to be preferred.
Ant-proofing.
Extensive enquiries indicate that
I .04.
termites (white ants) do not tunnel through earth wails,
although they have been known to construct their galleries
on the outer surfaces in search of suitable timber. If the
bases .of the walls are kept clear, the galleries can be
seen and broken. Continuous strip shields should be fitted
. - to the insides of the foundation and sleeper walls, laid
directly on the damp-proof course. Free piers should be
fitted with termite caps in the usual manner.. (See also
NSE No. 11; hite Ants.)

I _,.._,..,.,,-..
_,,T~,_)
_l,l>L--.-

..
r

FORMWORK
/

One of the advantages of earth-wall construction

3.01.
is the simplicity of the equipment needed for the work.
The formwork!c&d
hand-rammer are comparatively
inexpensive, a&d can be made by a carpenter.
A type of formwork has been designed at CEBS
3.02.
that can be nY6ved in a horizontal direction without being
dismantled. The sides of this type lapil!O mm over the
base-wZd1,and are supported by two built-in rollers, one
placed in a low position d one end of the form to ride
on the base-wall or previous course, and one placed in a
high position at the other end of the form to ride along

-1

I
\

N$B No. r8
I
0

.,..-

SIDE

_,_._....

VIEW

1 hmm-ciia

I.1 Y
-

__--

I .I

,,a-cn

-Y AC, mm
nrnmn
,111, ),X-r.
,,,, ,..y.I--.--,
butt-jointed
I----

SECTION

I-.---

rod

mm

hnarrk
-~-

---

,.

.,

CZtipleted
footingwall,

part

of wall
_i _

or

1
75mmdia.
300 mm

iron
long,

or

pipe,
similar,

75mmX50mm

II
75mmdia.

roller

PLAN

Details

of crawler

formwork

em-------

L>_

the newly completed section. When a section is rammed,

the nuts are loosened on the tie-bolts to free thefhutters
c. from the wall surfaces, and the formwork is pushedalong,
supported by the rollers, until the high, roller reaches the
end of the section. Finally the formwork is plumbed with
a level and the nuts are tightened. An L-shaped box is required for the corners; each wall-angle is rammed as one
piece.
3.03. . If the partitions are also to be of earth, a Tshaped box can be used for ramming the junctions with the
exterior walls. But a considerable amount of manipulation
is saved if the shell of the building is completed first,

thrown in it isadvisable to roughen and moisten the compacted surface of the,previous ramming. *

-. -.. . . . . .

__ _,,,,,,.,_.

,. ..^..

The rammer used for manual tamping should

4.02.
weigh from 8 to 9 kg; it may be of metal or wood, about
1.5 m in length overall, and should have a ramming face
100 mm to 150 mm square. Suitable wooden rammers that
are easily made are illustrated They are shod with wearing-*
plates of mild steel 6 mm or 7 mm thick, which are screwed
through countersunk holes into the hardwood blocks.

without bending, boards 40 mm thick are use6 for the

sides of the formwork. The use of Oregon or similar
lightweight timber will facilitate handling.
RAMMING

Prepared moist earth is shovetled into the form to

4.01.
a depth of approximately 100 mm. This depth is important, as any more would result in incomplete compaction of the lower part of the layer due to the cushioning
effect of the top stratum. The 100~mm layer is rammed
until it is dense and hard, and then its depth should be
approximately 60 mm. Ramming should be continued
until the blows produce a ringing sound and no further
impression can be made in the surface. It is best to ram
along the sides of the form tirsf occasionally crossing!over;
and gradually moving towards.@ centre. Layers are
successively rammed in this manner GYitiHhe fm is fdled
to the invert of the high roller. Before fresh eartIi%-

1..

txamples

-i
i.
-..-.J
of hand-rammers

A mechanisad
ramming
showing
guide
rods to
rotatioh
of hammer-head

device
prevent

Mechanical ramming by ,ieans of a tamper

4.03.
operated by compressed air has be& developed. The time
required by the use of this equipmept is half that for
manual ramming, and a considerable reduction in cost
can be effected as a result of the elirliination of the most
laborious part of the work. A full description of amachine
is given in C,EBSBulletin, No. 5.
The pbsitions of wooden fixing plugs for skirt4.04.
ings, picture rails, architraves, door frames, window
linings, fixtures, and fittings should be planned in advance, and these then placed in position as their locations
are reached. A suggested type of plug with anch.qring
cross-piece is illustrated. Openi gs for doors and windows may be formed by stoppin -off the formwork with
shutters in the desired positions%$

$jI

100 mCn

/%.

.-.

Typical wooden fixing plug with

cross-piece for anchorage

~OPSOF WALLS
/-

,D

3.01.
The. top&of external wallsieqpir,e protection
against, darnage,acy water. k bed of mortar laid beforeplacing the wallplate will provide adequate protection.
i
_
2
- ,:,,, jj\2.
Wall pl+ttes &ould be attached to the tops of the
w& b$ means of some form of tie. Heavy wire OJ hoop-1.
iron ties may be laid across the walls at about300 mm
.G : :i .:x3
3:. ., ; :; f&m the top, with the, ends left projedting each side
+=- .. sufficidntly to pass up and over the plate to which they
will
be: stapled. A better 1. ,qthod ii tobo&..ihe plate to
p3..b
J
the wall, and this shoulL be &rried o)lt as fbllo~s:
with a brace and. auier bit, holes-are drilled in thetop
_of the wall at l-m centres, and 250-mm bolts are placed
heid down in .them,.with ends protruding.75 mm. The
8
,bolts
are th$n grouted in, and mortar spread over the wall.
.t
I k; The wall .pl$tes, wi&,l@l,%les drilled at l-m centres, are
do&:
-,-i _I later set fn &&ion andr;hsl?ea
,.:
;.
:. 1
_.

6.02.
fortland-cement tendering is the treatment most
commonly used. Adhesion of the rendering i oproblem,
however, and the characteristic shrinkage
e mater/al
increases the risk of failure. Thk render-36shotild there-.
fore be well keyed to the wall by means of wire netting

stapled on, or by one of several *other suitable methpds.

Shrinkage .is also;&ponsible
for cracking or crazing of

the rendering,. and, to reduce this tendency, rich mixes

sh6uld be avoided. A .mix of 1 part cement, 1 partlime,
and 6 parts sand should be used.

~_

+
6.63.
Viscousrriaterlals,sucnas-basedresinouscom
pounds, bind well with the earth surfaces and have greater
adhesive properties thm water-mixe-d materials.
6.04.
TWO coats of standard-gradepaint have been used
successfully for exterior surfice finishes, but it is
important that a penetrating priming coat such as raw lin- 1
seed CIJshould be applied first. The greatest disadvantages
o;f thisvamethod of protection are the vulnerability of the
thin skin to inecdanical damagc,.and the necessiti for rey,
painting every 3 to 4 years.
_

6.07.
Intekor
surfaces. Interiorwall surfaces may be
finished wi!h a great range of materials.. In ,geneyal, aRy
finish noimally used in other forms of construction may
equally well be applied t: earth walls, and plaster,
paint, kalsomine, board lining, fibrous-plaster sheet,
.
and wood panelling are each satisfactory.

REFERENCES

1. MIDDLETON,
G.F. Earth Wall Construction.
Bulletin, -
No. 5. Commonwealth
Experimenksl
Building
Statiq
Sydney, 195.2.
2. Earth-wall
Construction.
Notes
on the Science
of
Building;
No. 13. Commonwealth
&perimentay
Building
,
Station, Sydney, revised 1971.
i
,

,/

g$!.?

%OTES ON THE SCIENCE OF BUILDING

Compiled by the Exper$mentll
Bulidlng Station ~Deperbentof
Construction)
and published
by the Australian
Government
Publishing Service.
Copies may be obtained from:
,ExperlmeXtaf
Bulldlng Station
?, P.b. Box 30, dhatswood.
N.S :W. 2067
.
or by appllcatlon to:
The Asslstant Dlrector (Sales 8 Dl@$lbutlon),
Australian

Govnrnmanl

Pklhllr

..

6.05.
In addition to thk paints discussed above. there
are several others that will provide various degrees of
protect&;
these
include Portland-cement washes, lime
washes, cement- se paints, and resin-base paints.
:
9
a
6.06.
The WAS may be faced with more durable
yaterials such as asbestos-cement flat sheeting nailed into
position, flat field-stones on edge tied or keyed to thedwall,
tied brick veneer, qr terra-cotta facing tiles..
t
d

.-

.:

NSBNo.

13

I.

SfB
~---UDC

-7
Revised

August

1971

,I

Dg 1
693.3

US,;
ES

Q?d

THE

.CIEfUCE

OF

INTRODUCTION

BUILDING

EXPERIMENTAL

Clzl&lQ-NWEALTH

/ Earth -waI

BLJILDING

IJ

STAtION

GonstP~uction.
fi :
rr
METHODS

.,

OF CONSTRUCTION

Earth-\vall construction in Australia has a history dating tion, wattle and daub, cob, and
from the earliest buildings of wattle and daub and extending to two-storey contemporary dwellings and even to
three!-storey blocks of flats. There are earth-wall buildings here over 100 years old that can be expected-to give
many more years of se-sviceif adequate mainrenance-rs
continued. The strength of earth Lvalls increases with
al systems is to use a stabilised-earth material instead
their age. The heavyweight construction is conducive to
of natural soil. A brief summaryvof the .methods now in
comfortable thermal condilions indoors particularly in
I
use is given in the accompanyinptable. %
regions where the climate is predominantly hot and dry.
There hasbeen some improvement in the methods, structural details, and equipment used in, present-day earthwall construction;so
that a reliable result is ensured
provided that good woxkmanship is employed and suitable
earth material is used.;ihis Note compares the methods

of construction and discusses the choice of soil. 9

BRIEF

Sl?MMARV

OF METt+ODS

.glSi

METHOD

1.

-Description

Earth
ramme,
in forms
into

bricks

binder)
----LA.-

Soil

type

Over
50%
sand;
remainder
clay
and
silt
_,

..I
:Constr~ctiol
3

In situ

1
LI
I
t
T
1
-

Over
50%
Flayand
silt;
remiin&r
sand
and
granular
&aterial

Over
50%;sand.;
remainder
clay,
silt
c
and cement
./

Sun-dried
pWZlst
blocks

Bricks,
USUFJlly
machi+
made

*i

-----

Pi&

house

Mpinure

7-10%

Eq;ipment

Formwork
and rammer

Stabili-x
sation

Now

(bitumen
prefefred)

Approx.

10%

(cement
preferred)
,

1.02.
The marked difference in method between pisi
and ad e construction arises from the clay and silt conti
tent, including the colloidal fraction that is required
to bind the sand and granular particle7 together.. Where
A
,
/

NOTES

ON

THE

SCIENCE

OF

BUILDING

is usually resorted
Adobe block constructioy
1.07.
to when soils of a high clay content only are available and it would be uneconomic to transport sand to
the sitet. In certain circumstances it may be advantageous to mould the blocks under cqver during winter,
and stack them JO, dry out ready for building operations in summer.

the clay content is less than 50 per cent it is necessary to use ramming in formwork (pise) in or er ta obtain adequate binding; but there is not x, fficient
clay for its- drying shrinkage to cause cracking problems. A clay content of more than 50 per cent is
needed to bind adobe blocks; but cracking in the wall is
limited because the blocks are left to complete their
large drying shrinkage before being built into the
wail.

1.08.
The use of cement.-stabilised earth bricks in
Australia is belie&d to cave been limiied to large
operations involving brick-making machinery or plant.
The bricks have been laid in the same way as conventional burnt-clay bricks in areas where the latter were
_
not produced in quantity. *

Soil
stabilisation.
The addition of gbrtIand
1.03.
cement as a stabiliser to soil types that are suitable for pisi construction increases their water resistance and adds to their strength. This type of
stabilised soil can also be used for the production of
4
stabilised earth bricks.

SOILS

Bitumen ip most suithble for the stabilisation

1.04.
of soils for making, adobe blocks. 11 increases their
water resistance and durability but not their compressive strength.
!
Chpice of- method. De method of constru.ction
I .os.
used depends mainly bn the soil types available at the
site, but is influenced by dther factors.that include
local building@-laws, availability of labour, site condi.
mnd
the facilities and equipment obtainable.
.

FOR

EARTH-WALL

CONSTRUCTION

I..

The apprdximate composition of the soil should

2.01.
be ascertained first, as the type of soil available deterrnines_$e method ofconstruction that can be adopted.
The final choice should be made after analysis. Earth
that is found to be oiunsuitable proportions may sometimes be brought to the desirabje conditipn by adding
_ sand or clay, or by mixing together two types of soil.
Soil texture.
The composition of a soil A& be
2.02.
gauged roughly by visual examination and by feeling its
texture. The texture is determined by the combination of
gravel, sand, silt, and clay, including the colloidal
L
fraction of the clay constituent. When the soil is dry
and rubbed between the fingers, the sand particles are
gritty to the touch, and the silt and fine partides
adhere closely to the skin and have a silky feel wh&,
\
the sand particles are discarded:
Y
%\
\,
Soil suitable for ramming (pise) is reasonably
2.03.
stable in its naltiral state, and contains enough silt
and clay. to ,bind~ the sand together, but not enough to
cause high shrinkage in drying. A soil having 65 to 70
,,:per cent of sand meets-these requirements besf. _.

The labour time for pi& construction in situ

1.06.
compares favourably wi!h that for the double handling
entailed in the moulding and stacking operations Qf
adobe block structures and in the subsequent building
of blocks into the walls. The absence of crack%g of
pisi walls, owing to their high sand content, density,
and low moisture conten! after ramming, contrasts strongly b,tith the prolific surface cracking which is charac&tic
of adobe walls.

In the accor$panying bar-graph, the a&rage

' 2.04.
equivalent diameters of the-pa?licles of a common soil are
shown according to the International System of soiltexture-classification.
\
0.0020 mm

Common
2.05.
textural groups:

0.026 mm

0.20 mm

w 3 2.0 mm

may be divided into these main

soils

FRIABLE

UNSUITABLE

SAND

&ANDY LOAM SUITABLi FOR Pl&

3
LOAM

f SOFT

SlLi LOti
, CLAY LOAM
CLAY
c

27
Experimental
20 years
sfler

pavilion
of unrendhred
construction

adobe

Ablxkr

o, $$&,~:A
i ..))l&Y
3. I G-e,*- <:

I
-

Colour
characteristics.
c,p%Gr gives some indi2.06.
,gtion of the cbnstitution of .tl;le soil, b,ut cprov;des
no more than a guide to its suitability. The main
--- *.
colours encountered are:

 COMMONWEALTH

EXPERIMENTAL

BUILDING

STATION

A: Black, and dark brown, indicating the presence of

undesirable organic matter originating from the
decay of plant or animal remains
B: Ked, and reddish-brown, indicating the presence of
iron, possibly unhydrated iron oxide (haematite).
C:
Yellow:
and yellowish-brown, indicating the presence
>.
of some iron, possibly hydrated i
aide (limonjte).
D: Crey, greyish-blue, and yellow cz ottled, usually of
high clay content indicating poor drainage.
E: Khite.

will usually absorb between I 5 and 20 per cent of water

by weight before becoming workable.
, _
.
NOTES

3.01.
The main operations involved in the construction
of a building such as a cottage, using the pise and adobe
systems are listed below. More detailed information
appears in Bullerirl No. 5 which is listed in the references
at the end of this Note.
3.02.
Pi@ construction. The construction of walls of
rammed earth in&ludes the following operations:

.
2.01.
Soils op!our
A are unsuitable for earth wall
construction, bLt sods of any other<olour may generally
B
;
be used.
/
2.08.
Analysis. The follo\~~ing method of physical analysis is sufficiently accurate to enable a final selection of the soil to be made. A quantity of the selected
earth is pulve,rised, placed in a shallow tray or dish,
arid heated in an oven to lU5C to extract moisture. A
litre measure is filled with the dried earth; this exact
quantity is put into a large shallow baking dish, and
\vashed in repeated changes of watcr until all clay and
silt have floated off and the uater becomes clear. The
residue is the sand, gravel, and- granular mineral content. This residue*is dried asab fore, and replaced in
the measure. The amount removed$, during washing, in relation to the amount of dry re-frdue, represents the proportion of clay and silt to the sand, gravel, and granular mineral present in the earth mixture.
Moisture. When the soil is prep-ired for ramming,
2.09.
the moisture content should be carefully regulated. If
the earth is too wet, ,,difficulty will be experienced in
attaining good compaction, and the excess moisture will
cause extensive surface cracks as ihe \valls dry.

2.10.
The mcPistu;e%ontent of loose soil may be estimated by firmly pressing a handful between the two
cupped hands to form a solid ball. (If the soil will not press
into a ball without falling away, it is too dry.) The
ball should then be heldout at shoulder height, and
dropped onto,a smooth hard piece of ground. 7 he .snatI
tering of theball jnto itsformer loose state indicates
aconsistency cor.rect for ramming; if, however, the breakage is into a comparatively few pieces only, or into
large pieces remaining unfragmented, the soil is too wet.

ON CONSTRUCTION

soil from the borrbw:pit or the location

ia>ofGaining
selected soil.
the soil (if necessary) by pulverising
@IPreparing
it to reduce any clods, and by removing any
organic material,. large stones, and other
unwanted .-substances present in undesirable
quantities.
Setting the fornwork in position, and ramming
loose soil in successive layers 10 0 mm deep until
it is dense and hard. Each layer compacts to
about 60mm in depth.
Resetting the: formwork, and repeating the
ramming operations for each successive section
of weal1until an entire course is completed.
Repeating (c) and (d) for each successive course
of 600mm to 900 mm height until the walls are
corrpleted.
Stopping-off by inserting shutters across the jterior of the formwork, to provide openings for
doors and windows.
Providing \vall-plugs and ties for fLxing door and
window frames, linings, skirtings, cupboards, and I
fittings generally.
Providing for the attachment of partitions, wall
plhtes, and similar components.
-9

cc>

Cd)

(e>
(0
(h)

k-.w.JQe found that with a soil of 65 to 70 per

2.1 i:
cent sand contentby-loose volume, the optimum morsture
content is usually from 7 to IO per cent by weight.
The test should be repeated during the ramming
operations to ensure uniformity of moisture content.
To obtain a workable plastic state, adobe soils
2.12.
(soils containinthan 50 per cent silt and clay)
require a higher propprtron of water than soils of high
sand content. This/is;due to the fineness of ,the silt
and clay particles, each ofwhich must become surrounded
by a fdrn of ka&..befw
even distribution can take
place and the soil is of the proper consistency. The
degree of plasticity -will depend upon the fineness and
quantity of these silt and clay particles; a soil containing approximately 60 per cent clay and 40 per cent sand

Ramming

a section

of

pid

wall

by

hand

NOTES

ON

Adobe Construction.
Adobe-block walls are built
3.03.
in the same way as masonry walls. It is estimated that
a team of three men can make about 300 blocks a day.
For this, purpose, a fairly large area of level ground
is desirable, as it is necessary to leave the freshly
moulded blocks unmoved for 2 to 3 days to harden sufficiently before handling. The b1ock.s are then placed in
stacks, and the moulding area cleared for-another batch.
A simple mould of the bottomless, multi-unit type is
necessary fo.r each team of two or three operatives. Immediately the mould has been filled, and the mud
kneaded into the corners and pressed to remove air
bubbles, the top is screededand struck off, and the mould
lifted and placed in position for the next fdling.

THE

SCIEIdCE

OF

elJlLDlNG

Stabilised-earth
bricks.- Cement-stabilised-earth
3.05.
bricks tidy be laid by tradesmen in walls using mortar
in the same way as with burnt-clay bricks. The initial
problem, of course, is to provide the mechanical mixlng g
and brick-making plant that will ensure the production
of strong bricks of consistent quality.

The construction of walls of earth blocks(adobe)

3.04.
involves the following operations;
(a)

pit of Sufficient area to

ast three days suppIy,of earth

(b)

Preparation of soil by puddling in the pit and

mixing in straw or other suitable binding
material.
(c) hloulding blocks in bottomless moulds, on level
Dwelling constructed of cement-stabilisedearth
bricks
ground ofsufficient area to acdommodate 3 days
(Norihern
Territory
Housing Commission)
production (approximately 200, m2 in area)>
(d) Stacking blocks on edge with space; between ,
CONCLUSION
their sides so that air can circulate agd facilitate
drying.
4.01.
It is reasonable t-0 regard earth-wall constmction
(e) Building walls - bonding the blocks as in brickas a proven method of building, but the labour content is
work or masonry - 2nd building-in lintels to
high and its cost may not be justified unless spare time
openings, sills where required, brickwork or
is utilised. Some people may use earth-wall construStion
masonry fireplaces and chimneys, and all usup
because of the romantic appeal of earth as a builditig
building compone ts.
material and others se,eonly that earth is there for the
(f)
Providing wall-plu s and ties for fixing frame 6,
,takingon their land. Any decision that is based on a
linings--1_partitioris:
t&i, wall plates, fLxtures,
broad economic assessmenL however, must consider the -~~
~_..
~

and fittings!
availabihty and cost of alternative materials and of
Iabour familiar with their use. Personal preference can y
(g) Arrangements for crd -w&Is, floors, services,
&n be aercised with some knowledge of the costs ,
.P\.~
. and roof.
involved.
Providink protective cQat$g to all exterior VW
* (h)
.
suiface< and providir$.@prior
finishes and
,
decoration.
R-EFERENCES
*
1. hlIDDLETON,
G.F. Earth Wall Constructron.
No. 5. Commonwealth
Experimental
Ruilding
_a
Sydney, 1952.

Bulle in,
St %-t-J
ran,

2. Pi&
(RammedEarth)
Construction.
Xoores
Science of Building.
No. 18. Commonwealth
/
mental Building Station, Sydney. 1964.

on rhe
EspeTj-

NOTES

ON

-y

SCIENCE

OF

6lLDlNcG

IGotes on the Science of Building are prodqced and distributed

by the COhlhlONWEALTH
/ DEPARTMENT OF WORKS.-

The Notes are prepared by the

CQMMONWEALTH
EXPERIMENTAL
BUILDING
STFTION,
P.O. Bbx 30. Chatswood. 2067.
a-18 are distrihutephy
the S.tatibn and by> tl-ie
COhlhlONUEALl-H
BUILDING DATA SERVICE,
P.O. Bpx 280vAA, SIelhoume, 3001.
* 1

>

Screeding-off

adobe blocks in the mould

,

Price 7 cents

drown

t
.
-

Copyr$hL

.i

.
E

;
-8

I
._

._. .._ $