Valo S.

Gonzalez

GEO-151

Assignment 3

1. How does sea-floor spreading account for the age of the sea floor?

Princeton University geologist, Harry Hess’ theory of Sea-Floor spreading accounts for the age

of the sea-floor in relation to its movement. His theory works in tandem with the Theory of

Plate Tectonics in that it accounts for the movement of the sea-floor, which he theorized

moved in a manner similar to a conveyor belt away from the crest of the mid-oceanic ridge,

down the flanks of the ridge, and across the deep-ocean basin, to disappear finally by moving

beneath a continent or island arc. As with Plate Tectonics, the movement of the sea-floor is

the result of slow, convective circulation in the asthenosphere which accounts for many of

the features of the sea-floor as well as the relatively young age of the sea-floor rocks. Hess

demonstrated how the existence of the ridge and its high heat flow are caused by the rise of

this hot mantle rock since convection drives sea-floor spreading as hot mantle rock rises

under the mid-oceanic ridge situated above an area of divergent mantle flow beneath the

surface. Divergence that occurs on the sea-floor gives way to new mantle rock which

spreads horizontally outward from ridges. The result of this activity produces new, young

sea-floor. This basalt is then carried sideways by convection and is subducted into the

mantle at an oceanic trench. Thus, old sea floor is continually being destroyed at trenches,

while new sea floor is being formed at the ridge crest. An important prediction of Hess’s

hypothesis was that the youngest sea floor should be at the ridge crest, with the age of the sea

floor becoming progressively older toward a trench. Though this increase in age away from

the ridge crest was not known to exist at the time of Hess’s proposal, it has been successfully

tested.

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GEO-151

Assignment 3

2. Describe the three types of plate boundaries.

Plate boundaries are found at the edge of lithospheric plates and are named according to their

behavior. There are three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform.

Divergent boundaries, where plates move away from each other, can occur in the middle of

the ocean or in the middle of a continent. Divergent boundaries are marked by rifting,

basaltic volcanism, and uplift. Most active divergent plate boundaries exist between oceanic

plates those that do are called mid-oceanic ridges. Divergent boundaries also form volcanic

islands which occur when the plates move apart to produce gaps which molten lava rises to

fill. During rifting, the continental crust is stretched and thinned which results in shallow-

focus earthquakes on normal faults which act as pathways for basaltic magma that rises from

the mantle to erupt on the surface as cider cones and basalt flows. The result of divergent

plate boundaries is to create, or open, new ocean basins as the continental crust on the upper

part of the plate clearly separates, and seawater floods into the linear basin between the two

divergent continents. At the same time, hot mantle rock wells up beneath the stretched crust.

The rising diaper of hot mantle rock would cause uplift by thermal expansion. The seawater

flooding into the rift may evaporate which leaves behind a thick layer of rock salt overlying

the continental sediments. The trailing edges of the continents begin to subside as they are

lowered by erosion and as the hot rock beneath them cools. Subsidence continues until the

edges of the continents are under water.

Convergent plate boundaries are locations where lithospheric plates are moving towards one

another which occur in three distinct ways: oceanic to continental convergence, oceanic to

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GEO-151

Assignment 3

oceanic convergence, and continental to continental convergence. When continental and

oceanic plates collide the thinner and denser oceanic plate is overridden by the thicker and

less dense continental plate. The oceanic plate is forced down into the mantle in a process

known as "subduction". As the oceanic plate descends it is forced into higher temperature

environments. At a depth of about 100 miles (160 km) materials in the subducting plate begin

to approach their melting temperatures and a process of partial melting begins. Effects of a

convergent boundary between an oceanic and continental plate include: a zone of earthquake

activity that is shallow along the continent margin but deepens beneath the continent,

sometimes an ocean trench immediately off shore of the continent, a line of volcanic

eruptions a few hundred miles inland from the shoreline, destruction of oceanic lithosphere.

When a convergent boundary occurs between two oceanic plates one of those plates will

subduct beneath the other. Normally the older plate will subduct because of its higher

density. The subducting plate is heated as it is forced deeper into the mantle and at a depth of

about 100 miles (150 km) the plate begins to melt. Magma chambers are produced as a result

of this melting and the magma is lower in density than the surrounding rock material. It

begins ascending by melting and fracturing its way through the overlying rock material.

Magma chambers that reach the surface break through to form a volcanic eruption cone. In

the early stages of this type of boundary the cones will be deep beneath the ocean surface but

later grow to be higher than sea level. This produces an island chain. With continued

development the islands grow larger, merge and an elongate landmass is created. Effects that

are found at this type of plate boundary include: a zone of progressively deeper earthquakes,

an oceanic trench, a chain of volcanic islands, and the destruction of oceanic lithosphere. In
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GEO-151

Assignment 3

the case of continental to continental convergence two thick continental plates collide and

both of them have a density that is much lower than the mantle, which prevents subduction.

Effects found at a convergent boundary between continental plates include: intense folding

and faulting, a broad folded mountain range, shallow earthquake activity, shortening and

thickening of the plates within the collision zone.

Transform Plate Boundaries are locations where two plates slide past one another. The fracture

zone that forms a transform plate boundary is known as a transform fault. Most transform

faults are found in the ocean basin and connect offsets in the mid-ocean ridges. A smaller

number connect mid-ocean ridges and subduction zones. Transform faults are locations of

recurring earthquake activity and faulting. The earthquakes are usually shallow because they

occur within and between plates that are not involved in subduction. Volcanic activity is

normally not present because the typical magma sources of an upwelling convection current

or a melting subducting plate are not present.

3. According to Dr. Jason Saleeby, there are also three basic types of converging plate

boundaries. List them, tell where they occur, and describe unique features.

Answered in question #2 under convergent plate boundaries.