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p r e s e n t w or k i s i n te n d e d as a s e qu e l t o o u r E lem en tar y
Th e r s t fe w c h ap t e r s are d e v o t e d t o
A lg eb r a fo r Sch o o ls
Pro p or t i o n V ar i at i o n an d t h e
a fu l l e r d i s c u ss i o n o f R at i o
Pro g r e ss i o n s wh ic h i n t h e for m e r w or k w e r e t r e at e d i n a n
e l e m e n t ar y m an n e r ; an d we h av e h e r e i n t ro d u c e d t h e or e m s
u n s u i tab l e for a rs t c o u rs e o f
an d e x am p l e s w h i c h ar e
r e ad i n g
Fro m t h i s p o i n t t h e wor k c o v e r s g ro u n d for t h e m o s t
p ar t n e w t o t h e s tu d e n t an d e n t e r s u p o n s u bje c t s o f s p e c i al
i m p or tan c e : th e s e we h av e e n d e av o u r e d t o t r e at m i n ut e ly
a n d t horo u h l y
d
i
s
c
u
ss
i
n
g
b
o
t
h
b
oo
k
w
or
k
n d e x am p le s
a
g
wi t h t h at fu l n e ss w h i c h we h av e alw ay s fo u n d n e c e ss ary i n
o u r e x p e r i e n c e as t e ac h e r s

I t h as b e e n o u r aim t o d i s c u ss al l t h e e s se n t ial p ar t s
w i th in t h e l i m i t s o f a s in gl e
a s c o m p l e t e l y as p o ss i b l e
v o l u m e b ut i n a fe w o f t h e l at e r c h ap t e r s i t h as b e e n im
e t o n d roo m for m or e t h an an i n tro d u c t or y s k e t c h
o
ss
i
b
l
p
i n al l s u c h c as e s o u r o bje c t h as b e e n t o m ap o ut a s u i t ab l e
rs t c o u r s e o f r e ad i n g r e fe rr i n g t h e s tu d e n t t o s p e ci al t re at i s e s
for fu ll e r i n for mat i o n
I n t h e c h ap t e r o n Pe r m ut at i o n s an d C o m b i n at i o n s we
ar e m u c h i n d e b t e d t o t h e Re v
A W h i t wor t h for p e r
m i ss i o n t o m ak e u se o f s o m e o f t h e p roo fs g i v e n i n h i s
Ch o ice a n d Ch an c e
Fo r m an y y e ar s we h av e u s e d t h e s e
p roo fs i n o u r o w n t e ac h i ng an d we ar e c o n v i n c e d th at t h i s
TH E

PR E F A C E

vi

p ar t o f A lg eb ra i s m ad e far m or e i n t e ll ig ib le t o t h e b eg i nn e r
b y a s y s t e m o f c o m m o n s e n s e r e as o n i n g fro m r s t p r i n c i p l e s
t h an by t h e p roo fs u s u all y fo u n d i n alge b r ai c al t ex t b ook s
Th e d i s c u ss i o n o f Co n v e r g e n c y an d D i v e r g e n cy o f Se r i e s
alw ay s p r e s e n t s gr e at d i fc u l ty t o t h e s tu d e n t o n h i s r s t
r e ad i n g Th e i n h e r e n t d i fc u l t i e s o f t h e s u bje c t ar e n o
d o u b t c o n s i d e rab l e an d t h e s e are i n c r e as e d b y t h e p l ac e i t
h as or d i n ar i l y o cc u p i e d an d b y t h e s o m e w h at i n ad e qu at e
t r e at m e n t i t h as h i th e rt o r e c e i v e d A cc or d i n gly we h av e
p l ac e d t h i s s e c t i o n s o m e w h at l at e r t h an i s u s u al ; m u c h
tho u gh t h as b e e n b e s t o w e d o n i t s g e n e ral arran ge m e n t an d
o n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s u itabl e e x am p l e s t o i ll u s t r at e t h e t e x t ;
an d we h av e e n d e av o u r e d t o m ak e i t m or e i n t e r e s t i n g a n d
in te ll i g i b l e b y p r e v i o u s l y i n t ro d u c i n g a s hor t c h ap t e r o n
L i m i ti n g V al u e s an d V an i s h i n g Fr ac t i o n s
I n t h e c h ap t e r o n Su m m at i o n o f Se r i e s we h av e l ai d

m u c h s t r e ss o n t h e Me th o d o f D i ffe r e n c e s an d i t s w i d e an d
i m p or t an t app l i c ati o n s Th e b as i s o f t h i s m e t ho d i s a we ll
k n o w n form u l a i n t h e Calc u l u s o f Fi n i t e D i ffe r e n c e s w h i c h i n
t h e ab s e n c e o f a p u r e l y alg e b rai c al p roo f c an h ar dl y b e c o n
Th e p roo f o f t h e
side r e d ad m i ss i b l e i n a t r e at i s e o n A lg e b r a
Fin i t e D i ffe r e n c e for m u l a w h i c h we h av e g i v e n i n A r t s 3 9 5
3 9 6 we b e l i e v e t o b e n e w an d or i g i n al an d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
o f t h e D i ffe r e n c e Me tho d fro m th i s for m u l a h as e n ab l e d u s t o
i n t ro d u c e m an y i n t e r e s t i n g ty p e s o f s e r i e s w h i c h h av e h i t h e r t o

b e e n r e l e gat e d t o a m u c h l at e r s t ag e i n t h e s tu d e n t s r e ad in g
W e h av e r e c e i v e d ab l e an d m at e r i al ass i s t an c e i n t h e
c h ap te r o n Pro b ab i l i ty fro m t h e Re v T C Si m m o n s o f

C hr i s t s C o ll e g e Br e c o n an d o u r w ar m e s t t h an k s ar e du e
t o h im b o t h for h i s aid i n c r i tic i s in g an d i m p ro v i ng t h e
t e x t an d for p l ac in g at o u r d i s p o s al s ev e ral i n t e re s ti n g an d
or i gi n al p ro b l e m s
I t i s h ar dl y p o ss i b l e t o r e ad an y m o d e r n t re at i s e o n
A n alyt i c al C o m e s or So l i d G e o m e t ry w i t ho ut s o m e k n o w
-

PR E FA C E

vii

l e dge o f D e t e r m i n an t s an d t h e i r app l i c at i o n s
W e h ave
th e re fore gi v e n a b r i e f e l e m e n tary d i s c u ss i o n o f D e te rm i
n an t s i n Ch ap t e r X X X II I i n t h e h 0p e t h at i t m ay p ro v i d e
t h e s tu d e n t w i t h a u s e fu l i n t ro d u c t ory c o u r s e an d p r e p ar e
h im for a m or e c o m p l e t e s tu d y o f t h e s u bje c t
Th e l as t c h ap t e r c o n tai n s all t h e m o s t u s e fu l p ro p o s i t i o n s
i n t h e T h e ory o f Equ at i o n s s u i t ab l e for a rs t r e ad i n g Th e
T h e ory o f Equ at i o n s fo ll o ws s o n atu r all y o n t h e s tu d y o f
A lg e b ra t h at n o ap o l o gy i s n e e d e d for h e r e i n t ro d u c i n g p ro
p o s i t i o n s wh i c h u s u all y n d p l ace in a s e p ar at e t r e at i s e I n
fac t a c o n s i d e rabl e p ar t o f Ch ap t e r XXX V m ay b e r e ad
wi t h advan t ag e at a m u c h e ar l i e r s t ag e an d m ay c o n v e n i e n t l y
b e s tu d i e d b e for e s o m e o f t h e h ar d e r s e c t i o n s o f p r e v i o u s
c h ap t e r s
I t w ill b e fo u n d t h at e ac h c h ap t e r i s as n e ar l y as p o ss i bl e
c o m p l e t e i n i t s e l f s o th at t h e or d e r o f t h e i r s u cc e ss i o n c an
b e v ar i e d at t h e d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e t e ac h e r ; b ut i t i s re c o m
m e n d e d t h at al l s e c t i o n s m ar k e d w i t h an as t e r i s k s ho u ld b e
r e s e r v e d for a s e c o n d r e ad i n g
I n e n u m e r at i n g t h e s o u r c e s fro m w h i c h we h av e d e r i v e d
ass i s t an c e i n t h e p r e p ar at i o n o f t h i s w or k t h e r e i s o n e b oo k
t o w h i c h it i s d i ffi c u l t t o say h o w far we are i n d e b t e d

T o d h u n t e r s A lg eb r a fo r Sch o o ls an d Co lleg es h as b e e n t h e
r e c o gn i s e d En gl i s h t ex t b oo k for s o l o n g t h at i t i s h ar dly
p o ss i b l e t h at an y o n e wr i t i ng a tex t b o o k o n A lg eb ra at t h e
p r e s en t day s ho u ld n o t b e l arg e l y i n u e n c e d b y i t A t t h e

s am e t i m e t ho u g h for m an y y e ar s T o d h u n t e r s A lg ebr a h as
b e e n i n c o n s t an t u se am o n g o u r p u p i l s we h av e rar e ly
ad o p t e d t h e or d e r an d arr an g e m e n t t h e r e l ai d d o w n ; i n
m an y c h ap t e r s we h av e fo u n d i t e x p e d i e n t t o m ak e fr e qu e n t
u se o f al t e r n at i v e p roo fs ; an d we h av e al way s l ar g e l y s u p
es
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w h i ch n o w app e ar s c att e r e d thro u g ho ut t h e p r e s e n t w ork
h av e b e e n c o ll e c t e d at diffe r e n t t i m e s du ri n g t h e l as t t we n ty
.

H H A
.

PRE FA C E

vi

y e ar s s o t h at i t i s i m p o ssi b l e t o m ak e d e n i t e ac k n o wl e dge
m e n t i n e v e ry c as e w h e r e ass i s t an c e h as b e e n o b tai n e d fro m
o t h e r w ri te r s Bu t Sp e ak i n g g e n e r ally o u r ac k n o wl e dg e
m e n t s ar e c h i e y du e t o t h e t r e at i s e s o f Sc h l tim il ch Se rr e t

a d L au r e n t ; an d am o n g En gl i s h wr i t e r s b e s i d e s T o d h u n t e r s
A lg eb r a we h av e o cc as i o n all y c o n s u l t e d t h e w ork s o f D e
Morgan Co l e n s o G ro ss an d Chry s t al
T o t h e Re J W o l st en ho l m e D Sc Pro fe ss or o f Math e
m at ics a t t h e R oy al I n d i an En g i n e e ri n g Co ll e g e o u r t h ank s
a e du e for h i s k i n d n e ss i n all o wi n g u s t o s e l e c t qu e s t i o n s
fro m h i s u n i qu e c o ll e c t i o n o f p ro b l e m s ; a d t h e c o n s e qu e n t
gai n t o o u r l at e r c h ap te r s we gr at e fu lly ack n o wl e dge
I t r e m ai n s for u s t o e p r e ss o u r t h an k s t o o u r c o ll e ag u e s
an d fr i e n d s wh o h av e s o l ar g e l y ass i s t e d u s i n r e ad i n g a d
c orr e c t i n g t h e p roo f s h e e t s ; i n p ar t i c u l ar we a e i d e b t e d t o
t h e Re v H C W at s o n o f Cl i ft o n Co ll e g e for h i s k i n d n e ss
r e v i s i n g t h e w ho l e w ork a d for m an y val u ab l e s u gge s t i o n
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,

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n o t e x cl u s i v e ly fro m Sc ho l ars h i p or Se n at e H o u s e p ap e r s
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an

no

on

104

1 03

no

on

1 01

1 00

on

ro c

no

one

on

97

u an

111

on

113

C HA P TER

XI

P ER M U TA TIO N S

A ND

C O M BI N A TIO N S

P elim in ary pr o p o s i t io n

1 15

N u mb e o f p e m u t at io s O f th i g s r at a t ime
N umb e o f c mb in at i s O f n th i g s r at a t im e
T h e n umb er O f c o mb i at io n s O f n th i g s r at a t im e i s e qual t o th e
s o f n th in g s n r at a t im e
n u mb e r o f c o m b i at i o
N umb er O f way s in wh i ch m + a +p
th i g s c an b e d i vi d e d i t o
n
a
th
i
g
s
s
e
v
e
lly
cl ass e s c o n t ai n i g m
p
E am p le s X I 3

Sig i cat i n o f th e t erm s li k e a d u l ik e

N umb e o f a ran gem e t s o f 72 th in g s t ak e all at a t i m e w h en p th i n g s
a e ali k e o f o e k i d q th i g s a e al i k e O f a s e c o n d k i d & c
N umb e r Of p e mu t at i s o f 71 th i g s r at a t im e wh e n e ach m ay b e
r e p e at e d
T h e t o tal n umb e O f o m b i atio n s o f n th i g s
TO n d fo w h at v al u e o f r th e e p e ss i o
i s g e ate s t
A b i itio p o f O f th e fo rm u l a fo r th e n umb e r O f c o m b i at i
s of
th i g s at a t im e
T t al n umb e O f s ele ct i s O f p + q + + th i g s wh e e f p a e alike
O f o e kin d q alik e o f a s e c d k i d &c
E ample s XI b
n

on

on

on

on

on

no

ac o r

r o

1 25

H E M A TI CA L I N D U C TIO N

AT

1 26
1 27
127
1 28

1 29
131

133

ro o

1 24

C HA P TE R X II M
I ll us t t i s f th e m e th d f p f
P du t f b i m i l f t s f th e f
E mple s X II
on

ra

1 22

ro

xa

1 20

ro

1 19

1 17

115

o rm a:+ a

1 34

135

C O N T EN T S

C H A P TER X I I I
E pa si
n

I N OM I A L TH E O R E M

wh e

on

n n

is

G en e r al t erm o f th e e xp an s i o n
Th e exp an sio n may b e mad e t o

p o s i tiv e
n

137

ca

r a

co

141

1 42

fr o m th e b

egi

n n in

an

en

143

1 43

su m

to

Of

co

e f ie t s
n

e ve

1 46
n

1 46

an

on o

xa

146

no

1 47

C H A P TE R X I V
I N O M I L H E O RE M
INDE
N
E l e s p f f th e b i mi l th e e m f
y i de
1+ )
G e e l t e m f th e e p s i
f(
E m p le s X I V
f(
1
E p si
i s l y i th m e t i lly i t ell igib le wh e < 1
T h e e p e ss i (+ y )
lw y s b e p d e d b y th e b i m i l
th e em
f(
1
G e e l t e m O f th e e p s i
1
P t i ul
s e f th e e p si s O f (
im t i s Ob t i e d b y th e b i m i l th e e m
A pp
E m p le s XI V b
1+ )
f(
N um e i ll y g e t e s t t e m i th e e p s i
N um b e f h m g e e us p du t s f di m e s i s f m e d t O f
le tt e s
mi l
f m ul t i
N um b e O f t e m s i th e e p s i
N um b e f mb i t i s f th i g s t t im e e p e t i t i s b ei g ll we d
E m p le s X I V
u

ro o

ra

xa

on

ar

on

on

o r an

or

on

an

an

no

33

c an

ca

an

no

ra

ar c a

ro x

ar

s o

or

an

ro

on o

"

r o

na

co

xa

on

an

71.

on

r a a

ra

a ra

xa

ona
.

an

H E O RE M

an

an

on

2
023

161
1 62

1 64
1 65

166
1 67

wh e

on

p is

170

ra

o n

C H A P TER X V M U L I N O M I
G e e l t e m i th e p s i O f (
p si t iv e i t eg e
f (
G e e l t e m i th e e p s i
+b +
i s ti l qu t i ty
E mple s XV
n

no

1 59

o u

or

on

1 57

1 58

1 55

on

no

1 55

1 57

r a

1 53

a n

r ca

on

an

on

xa

an

1 50

or

139

co

on o

na

AG E

1 40

e qu l
f th e g e te s t t e m
ti
D et e mi
ef ie t s
S m f th e
ef ie t s f dd t e m s i s e qu
S m f
te m s
E p si
f m u l ti
mi l s
E mp le s XIII b
u

i tege

on

ar e

or

P O SI TI V E I N TE G RA L I N D E X

d ep e d up th e s e i w h i h th e s t

t erm i s u n i ty
S eco n d p o o f o f th e b in o m i al th e em
E xam p le s X II I a
T h e c o e f cien t s O f t e m s e qui di stan t
r

3
(
+ Lr +

wh e

17 1

17 3

C O N TEN TS

x iv

C H A P TE R

XV I

L O G A RI I

'

HMS

AG E

e i ti
E l em e t y p p s i t i s
E m p l e s XV I
C mm L g i thm s
De t e m i t i f th e h t e i s ti b y i sp e t i
A dv t ge s f l g i th m s t b s e 1 0
t g e s f l w y s k ee p i g th e m t i ss p s i t i ve
A dv
G i v e th l g i thm s f ll u mb e s t b s e t
t b se b
l gb l g 1
E mp le s XVI b
D n

on

ar

na

on o

ar

an a

an

1 82

a,

th e l o g a i thm s
r

183

an

on o

I IA L

'

n n

on

on

an

ar

or

ra

n co

xa

L O G A R I THM I C

ER I E S

191

192
1 94

1 95
1 95

C HA P TER X V I II

I N TE R E ST

A ND

NNU I I E
T

I n t ere s t an d A mo un t o f a g i ven su m at s im p le i n t er e s t
Pr e s e n t Val u e an d Di s c o un t o f a gi v en su m at Sim p le i n t er e s t
I n t ere s t an d A m o u n t O f a gi v en su m at c o m p o un d i n te re s t

u l tes O f i te est
C s e O f m p u d i t e e s t p y b le e v e y m m e t
P e s e t V l u e d Di s u t O f g i v e
m t
m p u d i te e st
E m ple s XVII I
A
u itie s De i ti s
Am u t f u p id
ui ty s imp l e i te e s t
A m u t f u p id
u i ty m p u d i t e e st
P e s e t v lu e f
uity m p u d i t e e s t
N um b e O f y e s p u h s e
P e se t v l u e f d e fe e d
u i ty m p u d i t e e s t
Fi e f th e e ew l O f le s e
E mple s XVII I b
N o m i al a
n

co

t ue a

an

xa

an n

an n

xa

or

ar

rc

co

co

an n

1 98

1 99
2 00

co

co

2 00

rr

n su

an an n

r n

on

a a

1 98

ra

co

nn

nn

1 87

96

co n

1 85

or e

an

1 83

on

181

C HA P TER X VI I E P NEN
N

E p si f
S e ie s f
1
i s th e li m it O f
wh e
i s i ite
1
E p si f l g (
)
f T b le s O f L g i thm s
C st u ti
R pidl y
v e gi g s e ie s f l g ( 1 ) l g
Th e qu t i ty i s i mm e su b l e
E mple s XVI I
x

1 80

on

ba

xa

179

ar

ar ac

an a

17 8

ar

on

17 6

on

ro

xa

17 5

N = alo gaN

2 01
2 02

2 02
2 03
2 03

2 04
2 04
205

2 06
2 06

C O N T EN TS

C H A P TER

X IX

XV

I NE QU A L I TI E S

E le m e t a y P o p s t o s
A i th m e t i c m e a
f t wo p o s i t i v e qu a t i t ie s i s g e t
th
r

an

su m

Th e

th ey

Of

an

a : ro

ar e

a er

qu t i t ie s b ei g gi v e th ei
e qu l p du t b ei g g i v e th e

t wo

2 08

i i

n o

AG E

an

p r o du c t

su

th e ge

et i

r c

i s g e t e s t wh e
m i s le s t wh e th e y
r

2 09
n

ar e

e qu l
Th e i thm e t i m e f umb e O f p s i t iv e qu t i t ie s i s g e te th
th g e m e t i m e
G i ve
t d th e g e t e s t v l u e f
m f
b
E sy s e s O f m i m
d m i im
E mp le s X I X
m
T h e i th me t i m e
p we s O f
um b e f p s it iv e
f th e m
qu t i t ie s i s g e t e th m p w e f th ei i thm e ti m e
e ep t wh e m lie s b e twee 0 d 1
1+
d >b
If
p s i t iv e i t eg e s
d b
3
a

ar

an o

n su

a,

xa

a an

an

an

an

ih

an

an

xc

ar

c,

ax

ca

an

an

r c

a n

ar

210

211
212
212
21 3

an

214

ar e

a an

1+

If
a

an

21 6

217

>

217

bb

e s XIX

m pl

xa

2 18

C H A P TE R XX L I M I I N G V L U E S A N V A N I HI N G FRA C IO N
22 0
f L imi t
D e i t i
222
L im it f
i s wh e x i s e
sm ll e ug h y t e m O f th e e ie s
By t k i g
l g e w e p le s e m p e d w ith th e m O f ll
m y b m de
th t f ll w i t ; d b y t k i g l ge e ug h y t e m m y b
l g e we p le s e mp e d wi th th e m O f ll th t
m de
2 22
p e ed e i t
2 24
Me th d f d e t e mi i g th e l im i t s O f v i sh i g f t i s
f
Di s uss i
th e s l u t i
im ul t e us
f s m e p e u li i t ie s i
2 26
e qu ti s
2 27
f qu d t i e qu t i
P e u li i t ie s i th e s l u t i
s
2
2
8
E m p le s XX
a:

n o

ar

as

an

ro

n o

ar

an

su

ar

co

su

ar

co

a:

on

an

n n

r ac

on

ar

on

an

OF

on

ar

a ra

on o

xa

on

C H A P TER X X I C O N V ER G EN C Y N D I V ER G E N C Y
d eg t i v e
C s e O f t e m s l te
t el y p s i t i v e
Se es
ve ge t f L m
le ss th 1
A

ri

S r

as

ar

as

an

as

ao

on o

13 co n

a
r

an

rn a

Is

ER I E S

23 0

an

2 32

C O N TEN TS

XV I

AG E

i s O f 2 wi th
u ili e ie s
1
1
1
Th e u ili y s e e s 1 2 3
mi l E p e t i l L g i thm i S e ie s
t Bi
A pp li t i
l g
L imit s O f
d
wh e i s i i t e
P d u t f i i t e u mb e O f f t s
E mp le s XXI
n
s e ie s i s v e ge t wh e s e ie s i s ve g e t i f
C o m p ar

on

ar

a x
ca

ri

no

on

,,

na

an

n n

on

23 5

. H

23 4

ary s r

an a x

ar

23 7

2 38

71.

ro

an

xa

23 8

ac o r

24 1

co n

S e ie s i s
r

co n

ve ge t i f L im 3

S e ie s i s ve ge t i f L im l g
S e ie s 23 (
) m p e d wi th s e e s Z
1
Th e h y
l gm
(
S e ie s i s ve ge t i f L im
P du t O f tw i it e s e ie s
E m pl e s XXI b
r

co n

co n

au XI

ar

co

ar

ri

SBI IGS

)E

2 44

2 45
n

a c

(
)

247

2 48

co n

243

n +1

an

vn

an

_1

n +1

ro

xa

2 49

2 52

C HA P TER XX I I U N D E ER MI N E D C O E FF I C I EN
m
I f th e e qu t i f (
0
h
e
th
t
s
i
t
i
s
i
d
e
t
i
t
y
)
P f f p i ip le f u d e t e m i e d i t f i t e s e ie s
E m p l e s XXII
P f f p i i ple f u de t e m i e d e f ie t s f i it e s e ie s
E mple s XXII b
T

ro o

on

r n c

xa

ro o

r nc

as

co e

co

se o

on

ar

r ac

xa

ar

on

r ac

e l ti
e u i g s e ie s
S m f
G e e t i g fu t i
E mp le s XX IV
o

fr

xa

or

an

ra

a r c
n

2 54

2 54
2 56

2 57
2 60

PA RTI A L F R A C TIO N S

26 1
265

on

265

S le
u

or

on

C H A PTER XX I V
ca

C H A P TER XX II I
De mp si t i i t p ti l f ti s
U
f p ti l f
ti s i e p s i s
E mp le s XXI II
co

c en

an

xa

an n r o o

or

TS

R ECU RRI NG

ER I E S

on

rr n

nc

on

2 69

269

27 2

C O N T EN TS

viii

AG E

S l ut i f m Ng
G e e l s lut i O f
S l ut i f
3;
Di ph t i e P b lem s
E mp le s XXV II I
on o

on o

N31

1
3 08

3 09

ro

an

on

ra

3 05

311

xa

C HA P TER XX I X

SU

M M A TIO N

OF

ER I E S

Summ y O f p evi us m eth ds

th e p du t f f t s i A P
th e e ip l f th e p du t f f t s i A P
Me th d f Sub t t i
m f f t i ls
E p e ss i f
P lyg l d Fig t e N mb e s
P s l T i gle
E m ple s XXI X
Me th d f D iffe e e s
f
i
s
t
l
i
t
eg
l
fu
t
i
i
e
th
d
su
ee
ds
w
h
e
M

Z
h
f
i
s
t
l
i
t
eg
l
fu
t
i
t
s
e
ie
s
n is e u i g
i
If
s e ie s
s e s O f e u i g s e ie s
Fu th e
E m ple s XX IX b
Mi s ell e us m e th ds f sum m t i
+
S m f s e ie s
ulli s N um b e s
Be
E m p le s XXIX
ar

r an

a ca s
xa

r nc

ona

a ra

an

on

a r c

a e

nc

ra

on o

nc

ra

ona

a ra

n an

cc

r ca

an

rn o

on

"

xa

C H A P TER XXX

TH

EO RY

OF

r o

on a

o ra

e r

r o

or

ro

r co n

xa

on o

co n

co n

ru en

on

n on

on e

ac o r

r c an

or

an

a c an r

or

or

321
3 22

3 26

32 7
3 29
3 32

a n

3 38

342

3 43

3 43

ac o r

3 44
345

3 45

337

3 42

3 36

3 42

e r

334

'

34 1

ra c a

r c an

32 0

r n c

319

N U M ERS

S t t em e t f p i iple s
N umb e f p i m e s i s i it e
ti l lgeb i l f m ul
ep e s e t p im e s ly
N
e s l v e d i t p im e f t s i ly w y
A u mb e
b
N umb e f div i s s f g iv e i t ege
N um b e O f w y s i t ege
e s lv e d i t t w f t s
b
S m f th e di vi s s f gi v e i t ege
Hig h e s t p we O f p im e
t i ed i (
1
P du t f
se u t iv e i t eg e s i s divi sib l e b y E
Fe m t s T h e em N
1 =M(
d N p im e t
p ) wh e e p i s p im e
E m ple s XXX
De it i f g
a

3 18

rr n

r c

xa

3 18

rr n

316

u ra

an

ona

ac o r

ac o r a

3 14

on

a n as su

on o

ro

r ac

ro c a

an

ac o r

ro

an

3 12

an

12

3 47
3 48

3 50

C O N TEN TS

If

i s p im e t b th e
d iffe e t em i d e s
b) w)
15(
G) <
r

a n

N)
(

96

b
wh e d i v i d e d b y b le ve
1)
(

2a, 3 a ,

a,

35

35

35

i l s s T h e em 1 lp
w
h
e
e
i
s
p
)
( p
A p p e t y p u li
t p im e u m b e s
s T h e em (
se d p f)
W ils
P fs b y i du t i
E mp le s XXX b
W

on

or

ro

on

ar

ec

p r im e

35

35

35

ro o

on

xa

co n

or

ro o

PA G

35

C H A P TER XXX I

TH E

H EO RY

E NE R A L

OF

C O N TI N U E

F R A C TIO N S

L aw o f

ti

o rm a

f;

on

h as

(
i

su e ssiv e v e ge t s
d e i t e v l u e i f L im 2
f

cc

co n

35

:
:
1

>0

36

v e ge t s t
p sit i v e p p e f t i s i s e d
i g
d e f m g i t ud e i f s 1 b
d b
G e e l v l u e f nv e ge t wh e
st t
C s e s wh e e g e e l v l u e O f
v e ge t b f u d
b
b
I
mm e su b le i f
+
+
E m p le s X XXI
S e ie s e p e ss e d
ti ued f ti s
C ve si
Of
i t a th e
t i ued f
ti
E m p le s XXX I b
The

co n

ra

r o

or

co

IS

co n

n co

ra

on

r ac

o n e co n

xa

c an

itio n s

an

rac

on

on

no

C HA PTE R XXX I I PR O
S imp le E ve t s
d ill us t t i s
.

e n

an

ar e c o n

as c o n

n a c n

on

r ac

ro

an an

xa

on

an

ra

a
l

a n

ar e

ra

on

BA B

I L I TY

37

XXX I I a
C mp u d E v e t s

P b ab ili ty t h at t wo i d e p e de t ev e t s will b th h pp e i s pp
T h e f m ula h o l ds al s f dep e de t ev e t s
C ha c e O f a eve t wh i h
h pp e i m u t u all y e lus i v e w ay s
E am pl e s XXX II b
C h a e O f a e v e t h pp e i g e a tl y t im e s i
til
E p e t t i a d p b ab l e v l u e

P b l em f p i t s
mpl e s

xa

or

nc

c a

ro

or

ro

on

ro

c an

xc

n n

n n

37

37

r a s

37
38

38
38
38
38

C O N TEN TS

XX

AGE

XX XII
I ve s e p b ab il ity

S tat eme t o f Be ulli s T h e em

Em i n ple s

ro

or

rn o

Pr o o f o f fo

PA P.
z PP)

ul Q (
C
e t t e s tim y
T d i t i y t e s t im y
E mp le s XXX II d
L
l P b b il i ty G e m e t i
Mi s ell e us e m p le s
E mp le s XXXII e
r

on

o n cu rr n

xa

ro

an

3 99

o ca

3 98

on

o n ar

ra

l m e th o ds

401

r ca

4 02

xa

xa

4 05

C H A P TER XXX I I I D E ER M I N N
E limi t f tw h m g e e us li e e qu t i s
E lim i t f th ee h m ge e us li e eq u t i s
De t e mi t i s t l t e e d b y i t e h gi g w s d lum s
Dev el pm e t O f de t e m i t f thi d d e
S ig f de te m i t i s l t e e d b y i te h gi g t w dj e t
l um s
If tw w s
l m s i de t i l th e d e t m i t v i sh e s
i
A f t
mm
d
l
u
p
l
e
u
t
s
de
w
m
m
t
b
y
y
C s e s wh e e
s t i t u e t s m d e u p f u mb f t m s
f dete m i
R e du ti
t s b y s im pl i t i O f ws
l um s
P du t f tw d e t e m i t s
E mple s XXXIII
A pp li t i
t s luti
f s i m ul t
e us e qu t i s
Dete m i t f f u th d e
Det e m i t O f y de
N t ti 2
b
d
E mp le s XXXIII b
n an

n an

n an

n an

o ro

o r co u

ac o r c o

or

co n

an

ro

an

rc

co

on

n an

n an

a n

ca

o n

on o

an

a1

an

or

or

2 c3

xa

ac

er o

4 10

on

4 10

ac n

an

ro

ws o r

411

412

4 12

4 12

er

413

o r co

ro

:1:

on

ca

n an

er

o r co

are

4 09

o n

n an

xa

ca

n an

ro

on o

ar e

o an

on

an

on

rc

TS

co

n an

ar

no

n o

ro

ar

4 14

4 17
4 19

4 22
4 23
4 23
425
427

C H A P TER XXX I V MI SC E LL A NE O U S TH E O RE M S A ND E X A M PL E S!
R ev iew f th e fu d m e t l l w s f A l geb
42 9
wh e div i de d b y
le ve s em i de f ()
432
f
.

a:

ra

a n

u tie t f f (
d i vi d e d b y
) wh
Me th d f De t h e d C e f ie t s
H
e s Me th d f Sy th e ti D ivis i
S ymm e t i l d Al t e ti g Fu ti s
E mp l e s O f i d e t i t ie s w k e d t
Lis t f us e fu l f m u l e
Q

o rn

r ca

xa

en

ac
o

an

or

or

rn a

a
;

nc

ou

4 33
4 34

on

43 4

on

4 35

437

4 38

E xamp le s XXXIV a
I d e t i t ie s p v e d b y p p er t ie s O f c u b e
L i e a fac t s O f
3 bc
+b +
Valu e o f
wh e n a + b + c = 0
E xam p le s XXXIV b
E lim in at i n
E limin ati o n b y symme t i c al fun c t i s
E le s m e th o d f e l i min at i o n
Sy lv e s t e s D i aly ti c Me th d

Be o u t s m e th o d
Mi s c ellan e o us e am p le s o f elim i at i o n
E am p le s XXXI V 0
.

ro

or

ro

3
c

ro o

t s O f un it y

on

C H A PTE R XXX V H E O R Y O F E QU A IO N S
f th e
E v e y e qu t i
d eg e h
ts d m e
R el t i s b e twee th e
t s d th e e f ie t s
T h e s el t i s
t s f ie t f th e s l u t i
C se s f s lut i
u de g i v e
di t i s
E sy s e O f sym m e t i l fu t i s f th e t s
E mp le s XXXV
Im gi y d su d
ts u i p i s
F m ti
s wi th su d t s
d s lu ti
f e qu t i
D es
t e s R u le f S i g s
E m pl e s XXXV b
V lu e f f (
D e i v e d Fu t i
s
+ h)
C l ul t i
e s p e ss
ff(
+ h) b y H
h g e s it v l u e g du lly
f
=
b
i
h
t
e
t
w
ee
If f (
0
b
t
y
s
g
f
d
)
f(
f(
)
)
T

on o

on

e r

ca

on

an

or

car

a c

on o

An

ra

ar e o

on o

f an

on o

e t e mi ti
r

)_
(

f
f

()
x

Su m

na

x am

on o

dd

f an

sf m t i
E q u t i wi th
E qu t i w i th
T

r an

or

on

ro o

on

ro o

as

ro o

a,

h as

ro o

th e ro t s
o

on

as

t wo

t s e qual t

r o

ro o

e qu t i s
0
t s O f ig O pp s i t e t th s e O f f (
)
0
t s m ul t iple s f th s e O f f

n s,

ro o

on o

ro c

as o n e r a

ple s XXXV

ro o

on

r ar

e qu l t
f e qu l
ts

m
ss ig e d p w e

on

co n

o ts
h
a
s
r
o
x
If f (
0
r
)
:

ro o

d e g ee h
el t
e v e deg ee wi th i t s l s t t e m eg t iv e h

an

ro o

a r

o rn

e qu t i
equ t i
ts

on

nc

db

a an

on

on

an

an

or

o cc

on o

xa

An

ro o

nc

no

o n an

or

n co n

an

n ar

co

r ca

xa

an

as n r o o

r e

ro o

ar e n o

on

th

o a

el
a

C ON T EN TS

xx

t s r e ci p ro cal s o f th s e O f f (
) 0
Di sc uss io n o f ec ip c al e qu at i s
= 0
E qu at i o n wi th o o t s squ a e s o f th o s e o f f (
)
E qu at i o w i th o o t s e c ee di g b y h th o s e O f f (
) 0
R em o val o f an ass i gn e d t e m
E qu at i o n wi th o o t s giv en fun c t i o n s o f th s e f f (
)
E am p le s XXX V (
1

C ub i c e qu at i o s C a d a s S l u t i
D iscuss i o n o f th e s o l u ti o
S o l uti o b y T ig o m e t y in th e i e duc ib l e c as e

Fe a i s S o l u t i o n
Bi qu ad at i c E qu at i o s

De sc ar t e s S o l ut i o n
U d e t e m i e d m u lt i p lie s
D i s c imi n at i g c ub i c ; o o t s al l e al

E qu at i

on

wi th

ro o

ro

47 5
47 5

47 6

47 3

47 2

on

AG E

477

478

4 80

on

481

on

S lu t

io n

An

s we s
r

484
486

486

th ee S mul t a e o us e quat o
E xam p le s XXX V e
Mis ell a e o us E am p l e s
o

483

rr

4 82

rr

:
1:

(
H

l/

2
c

1 , &0

4 87
488
490
52 5

HI G H E R

A L G E BRA

CH A PT ER I
RA

EF IN I
oth

b e a r s t o an
c o n sid e r in
g
o

th

er

IO N

er

wh at

ut

u tt

u tt

'

uu

a ll

w itte

u titi s
t t m i

A
B
Th e q
ter ms o f t h e r a io
Th e r s
se c o n d e r m t h e c o s eq e
s

an

er

t
t
n u nt
2
T o d wh t m u ltipl
p t A i f B w di id A
th
tio A B m y b m u d b y t h f ti
B; h
t t
d p t t h is ot ti
d w s h ll u u lly d t

by

en ce

In
e rm s

by

or

Of

to

an

u it
n

ra

or

15
x

ws

er

f llo w th t
l
th t i th
a

an d

s,

th e

c o n v e n l en

tt

th
o

re

rac

utb

e ex

on

on

p re sse d

f 2 t o 1 5s is m ea s
.

in

u d
re

r a tio

nu

mb er

r a t io

r ac

is

t i m e s th at

a n a b s t ra c t

one

q u a n t ity

qu t i ty
an

co n

ti

o n s,

ma
mb

the

H H A
.

eas

b is e q al t o t h e r a io m a
mb ;
t h e a n t ec ed e n t
e v a u e of a r a tio r em a in s u n al ter ed
c o n se u e n t a r e m u l t ip lied o r di v ided b g th e sa m e q u a n tity
q
s

it

Sin c e b y t h e l a

ar

Thu

t i o e p e ss e s th e
o th e r a d th e e fo e v
y
.

o r

t wo q u a n i ie s
s t h e r a io

20

co m p are

s am e

the

h e fra c t l o n

NO T E
n

de r

ra

an

t ai

Ra io is t h e r e la io n wh ic h o n e
an i y
q
o f t h e sa m e k in d, t h e c o m pa r iso n b e in
m
ade b
g
y
m l ipl e , p ar , o r pa r s, o n e q a n i y is o f t h e
.

Th e r a io o f A o B is
A an d B a r e c all e d t h e
c all e d t h e ant e c e den , t h e

TIO

HI G HE R A LG E BRA

2
4
i
e
q

Two

uv

al e n

rac

a
c

ti

ra

a:

ratio s

t wo

ar e

Th e

5
.

in

f t wo

ra

r edu c in g t h e ir
T hu s s u ppo se

m or e r a io s m ay b e c o m pa r e d b y
io n s t o a c omm o n d e n o m in a o r

ti

e rs

ay

b
e

by

to ,

u
q

c an

be

ra

l to ,
ex

is

6x

th

l e ss

o r

he

b
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y
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le ss

or
a

n
a

al

an

on

r ac

eq

t th
ti s
f tw f
Th u s t h
tio
o

No w

b is g r e a e r h an ,
rea er
a c c o r d in
a s ag is
g
g
g

th e

t f

an

o r

p r e sse d

as

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m e as

an

re

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ti

ra

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ra

ti

th e

by

a
ad

fra c t I o n

o r

an

be

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th

ere o re

eq

uv
i

al e n

the

to

ra io

d
ad

be
6

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eas

ex

re

p r e ss e d

b o h, o f t h e e rm s
h e n n o t wo in e ge r s c a n b e o
h e ir r a io
h s t h e r a io J 2
b y a n y t wo in e ge r s

u
t
t
y
t
i
q
u t
m
an

th

ei

or

e r,

ra tio

b e a s rd
il l ex a c tly
b e e x a c ly

f u d wh i h w
1
t

c an n o

IO N I f t h e r atio o f an y t wo q u an t itie s c an b e
o f t w o in t e e rs t h e
u an t itie s
e x p r e s se d e x a c t l y b y t h e r a t io
g
q
t h e y a re said t o b e
a r e s a id t o b e c o mmen s u r ab l e ; o t h e r w is e
in c o mmen s u r ab l e
A l t h ou gh w e c a n n o t n d t wo in t eg e r s wh ic h w ill e x a c tly
m e a s u r e t h e r atio o f t w o in c o m m e n s u r ab l e q u an t it ie s w e c a n
a l w ay s n d t wo in t e g e r s w h o s e r at io d iffe r s f r o m t h at r e u ir e d
q
b y a s s m al l a q u an t ity a s we pl e as e
7

E FI N I

t
T u
t

Thus

t h fo
th t t h diff
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an

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re

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c a r r y in
an
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r
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00
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c l o se r app r o x im a io n m ay h e a r r i e d a t

th
th

g
e
g
fo r

tw

E x an zp l e

R at io s

ar e

en o

wh i h d

ts f
u t
Fi d th e
ti
n

f u th

'

D F I N I TIO
r a c io n s
er t h e
e r t h e a n e c e de n
a n e w c o n se
en
q
8

or a n e

ut
ut

b y m l iply in g t o
m
l
l
i
p
em ; o r b
i
n
o
t
y
y g
e c e de n , a n d t h e c o n se
en s
q

co mp o u n ded

t th
w
t
e

an

ra

o co

mp o

u ded

o f th e

2a :3 b , 6 a b

2
0 , c

th ee at i

t a

u t

H IGH ER

th e

L G EB RA

i m p o rta n t th e o re m w ill illu s t r a te

Th e p r oo f o f t h e f o ll o w i n g
m e th o d o f p r o c e du r e
.

If

wh er e p , q ,

h of these

r a ti o s

ea c

f
'1

ar e a n

y q

L et

tities

wh e n c e

"

a
p

d
bh,

qc

re

wh a tev er

k3

dh,
h
d
q
"

0
9
"

e =
"

"

u an

'

th e n

+ rf +

"

"

re

"

"

q d Vc

"

pb

qd

#
+ rf

"

"

"

k ;
n

"

By g i v i n g diffe r e n t

v lues to p g
se s
m n y p r ti ul r
d ; o r th y m y b
o f this g e n e r l p r o p o siti o n m y b e de d u
r
ov
F
o
r
i
st
n
e d i n de p e n de n t l y b y usi n g t h e s m e m th o d
p
a

r, n

ce

if
eac

ca

ce,

th e s e r at i o s

su c h f r e q u e n t utility th a t t h e f oll o w i n g v e rb a l e q u i
v al e n t sh o ul d b e n o ti c e d : W hen a ser ies of fr a c tio n s ar e equ a l
e n u m er a t o r s div ided b y th e
ea c h of th em is e u a l t o th e su m o
a
l
t
h
l
q
f
s u m of a l l t h e d en o m in a to r s

r e s u lt

Ex amp le 1

If

e
:

3
a

Sh e W

20

3 ae f

b 4 + 2 d if
a

en

b k,

3 bf
8

ac e

R A TIO
a n)

(
M 2 d ft
(+ 2 d

3(
1l

an

b 4 + z al f

3b

3 bf 3 k 3

4
2

_
_
L
s

3 bf3

6
x

ac e

If

E x a mp l e 2

:
1:

%
a

+c

at x = a7c,

m+ a
x

+a

so th

pr o v e t

y +b

+a

L et

y
b

y +b
+
+
y+b

k + 1)
2

k+1

k + 1)

1) b

k+1

k+1

+c

ck ;

+a

c2

k 2 + a2

ak

b k,

k+1

k+1

I f a n e q u a ti o n is h o m og e n e ous w ith r e sp e c t t o c e r ta in
u
a n titi e s we m a
f
o
r
th
e s e q u an titi e s s u b st i t u t e in t h e e u a ti o n
q
y
q
a l t o th e m
an c e t h e e u a t i o n
o
th
r
o
o
r
ti
o
n
F
o
r
i
n
st
an
e rs
p p
q
y
13

lx y

L et
is h om og e n e o us i n x y z
n al t o x
c ti v e l
o
r
ti
o
r
e
s
e
z
y
p
y
p
,

Pu t h

th e n

i
n the
8
,
,
y

la
a

m a IB yk

len /
310

u
ti
o
n
q

b
e
8
,
,
y

k, y

h
,

h
By
Q-

an titi e s
u
q

ro

ma y

0,

o r igi n l

f the

l
;
y

03

s am e f o r m a s t h e
l
a c e s o f x y 2 r e s p e c ti v e l y
p
o

th r e e

7
s

th at is
an

3
,

f
y

Z = 5 s o th a t
E Z
a

a,

o n e,

w i th

H IGHER

6
14

If B

L G EB R A

b2

an

th e sam e

b2

sig n

b3

le ast

f r ac ti o n

an

t h e de n m i n at

al l

bn
'

an

ors

by h

d least qf th em

ar e

p o siti v e

L et

b e th e

th e n

h 3

'

r a c tio n

o t e it

d de n

wh ich th e de

t h en th e

lies in m ag n it u de b etween th e g r ea test

th at

fra c tio n s of

u n eq u a l

be

bn

n o min a to r s ar e a ll o

Su pp o s e

f o ll o w i n g th e o r e m is i m p o r tan t

Th e

hb ;

kb , ;

>

b2

an

iti o n

a dd

by
a

h3

>

so

on

+
a

Si m il a r l y we m ay p r ov e
a

+ a

+ a

is

the g

re at e st

t ll a t

l q >

h ;

th a t
3

+ a ,,

wh e r e

h bg ;

+ a 2 + a3 +
a

>

f t h e gi ve n

a,

6,

"

f rac ti o n s

I n li k e m an n e r t h e
de n m i n at r s a r e n e gati

th e o re m

ve

m ay b e p r ov e d wh e n

al l

th e

o
v u

vo v

15
Th e r e a dy appli c a ti n o f t h e g en er a l p r in cip le i n
l ed
in A rt 1 2 is o f su c h g r e a t al e in all b ran c h e s o f m ath e m a ti c s ,
t h a t t h e stu de n t sh ul d b e ab l e t u se it with s m e f ree d m in
an
a rti c ul a r c a s e th a t m a
c
d
n
r
is
ith
ut
ss
r
il
i
t
r
u
i
n
a
n
e
c
e
a
w
e
y p
g
,
y
y
a n au x ili a r
s
l
m
b
y y
.

E x amp le 1
1
e
r
o
v
mt
t
p

If

x
b +c

+b +c

+a

+b

RA TIO

u e r or

m o f n m at
su m o f en mi n at
su

d o

g in

ul l

+y +z

+b +c

g i v en r

e ac h

o s

o h u e r or d den omin t or
r e s e vely

w+ a

fr ac tio n

ors
0)

if we m t i p y b t n m at
f ac t i n b y y + z , e + x , a:+ y
p cti
a

an

f th e t

k+

e+

ro

f m

an

+y +z

Ex a mp l e 2
p r o v e th at

2 ax + 2 b y + 2 cz

(
1)

n um e rat ors
o f d e n o m in at ors

su m o
su

h r ee

If

'

a:

we h av e

+b +c

a:

l mb +

nc

mb + u c

la

nc

+ la

b y + cz
a
:

no

cz

'

3
.

l a + mb

7n b

nc

71.

2 1a
t wo
+ mz

ny

s i m i l r e p r e ss i on s ;
a

lz + n x

mx + ly

Mu l t i ply
y,

an

th e

h rd

d th e t i

rst

h s e fr
hen

ft
by 2 ; t
o

an y

mxz

ac t

i on s

ly z

am

b y + cz

ab

ov

e an

r
a:

l ow b y

th e

ly z
cz

simil r e pr ss i on s ;

y (+
cz

d be

n xy

by

t wo

m
ax

by)

cz

s on d b y
ec

HI GH ER

I f we h a e two
a n tit i e s i n t h e r st de
u
q
g
16

a x
l

a a
g

we

c an n

fo rm

by

o rdi n a ry

re

wa y

a r dm

an

+ c z =

b eg

c z

t by w

bl

b2

an

u n k n own

as

riti n g th e m

0,

u n k n o w n s s ol v e

the

in t h e

0,

z :

t
h
r ee
g

ln

the

a n

b gc l

b l e2
a

m o re

b ly

ob t i

a:

o r,

a n

as

e e

su c h

c an

o t s o l v th e s e c om pl t l y ;
a

we

L GEB RA

u
t
i
o
n
s
o
n
t
i
i
q

ee,

a b
2 l

b
l
2

s y m m e t r i c all y

0 a

b
l
g

b
2
l

a:

b gcl

b l ez

c ,a

e a
l

z
c al

b
l
z

b
z
l

thus app e ar s th at wh e n we h av e t wo e q u a ti o n s o f t h e ty p e
r e p r e s en t e d b y 1 ) an d 2) we m ay a l w ay s b y t h e ab ov e f o rm u l a
w r it e do w n t h e r a tio s a: 2 g z in t e r m s o f t h e c o ef c i e n ts o f t h e
e u ati o n s b
e :
h
f
o
ll
o
w
i
n
r
u
l
t
e
q
g
y
It

W r it

th o s e

f1 3

ow n
an

the

o e f i ts o f a
c en

r e p e a t th e s e

c,

as

in

in

t h e di ag

o rde r

ra m

b e g i nn i n g wi t h

Mu ltip l y t h e c o e f c i e n ts a c r o ss i n t h e way i n di c ate d b y t h e

a rr o w s
r e m e m b e r i n g th a t i n fo r m i n g t h e p r o du c ts a n y o n e
ob tai n e d b y de s c e n di n g is p o siti v e an d an y o n e ob t ai n e d b y
a s c e n di n
n e a ti v e
i
s
th
r
r
s
u
l
ts
T
h
e
e
e
e
g
g
,

b l ee
a re

al t o
r
o
o
r
ti
o
n
p p

Th i

s is

ca

ll

b 2 01 ,

a,
'

d th e

c a
l

c a
z

l ,

b
l g

b
z
l

r
s
ti
v
l
e
e
ec
g
p
y
Rul e o f Cr o ss Mu l t iplic at io n
,

R A TIO
E x a mp le 1

By t

rom th e q u tion s

Find th e rat i os o f x z y z

r n sp os i t i on w h ve
a

1 1g

4y

7x

8e ,

1 2x

8z

1 1y

0,

3z = 0

r i te do wn th o e f i ents thu s
c

e c

'

when e we o b tain th
c

or

4)

3)

l1

11

12

8)

7,

11

12

1 2 5;
z

125

75

3)

7 5,

1 00
a

12

1 00,

h t is

11,

rodu t s
x

Z
:: E
yj
-

E x amp l e 2

E i m in at

2 ) an d
F rom (

by

x,

e q u t i on s

ro

f m th e

a1 x

+ b 1 y + c 1z

a x
3

+ b 3 y + c 3z = 0

ross m ul ti p l i

c at

i on

z
o

d en o t i g e h
d divi din g
ac

an

This

he s e r i os
o in

f t
at
b y k, b y m
o u t b y k , we
b ta
o

r e l ati o n is

E x amp le 3

o lv

b ac al

11 203

ca

c 0
2 3

ll e d

th e

the

(
1)

an

by

y
c

()

k b

t h e gi

c at

()

h en e
c

( )( )(
b

b)

s upp os e
,

b)

{b c b

u ti o n s

k,

i on

u s i u in g i

S b t t t

eq

en

()(
c

b , g/ =

b)

)<

b)

in

Z
b
0
z
l
s

ross mul tip li

s ub s t i t u t i g

e q u t i on s

ab s

l imin an t o f

F rom

u l t i ply ing

( b)
a

( )(
a

b) ;

10

H I GH ER
17

an

I f in A rt

1 6 w e pu t

L GEB RA
1,

( (

ati o n s
u
q

a ,x

b ,g

a x +

b 9y

+ cg =

1)

an

d 2) b e c om e

0,

03

3) b ec m es

b l cg
o r

bgc l

c a

b l c2

b $,c l

He n c e

k n o wn s

y
the

m ultip li c a ti o n
S

o a

b
g l

a ,b

5x

3y

0,

12

2y

3y

0,

2y

12

0;

b
z
l

b
g l

13

59

38

whe n e

EXA MPL ES

c a

b
l 2

5x

o lve
By t r n sp os i ti on

E x amp l e

b
l g

0 a

t w o si m ultan e o us e q u ati o n s i n vo l v i n g t w o u n
rst deg re e m ay b e s o l v e d b y t h e r u l e o f c r o ss

an

in

F in d t h e rati o c o m po u n d e d o f
2
1
a
2
a
b
a
n
d
t
h
e
t
he
r
t
i
o
d
u
l
i
t
r
t
i
o
3
a
e
o
a
f
9
b
)
(
p
2
t
h
e
b
s
u
d upl i cate rat i o o f 6 4 9 an d t h e rati o 2 7
(
)
c

ab

(
)

u l i ate rat i o

th e d p

If x + 7

22 +

14)

in

F in d t wo n u mb e rs in

an

th e

d up l i
r ti o

th e

f 7

rat i o

f5

12

so

8,

th at

56

2 bg

3 ax

n d x

th e g

reate r

es

d th e

t rat i o

ca e

ds t h l s b y 2 7 5
4 Wh t n um b r m u s t b
dd d t o
m k it qu l t 1
3?
5 If m g 3
4 nd t h r ti o f 7
If 1 5 (
2
6
n d t h r ti o

e xc e e

to

2a

e a

e ac

h te rm

of

th e

4g

fx

3x + g

rati o

37

H I GH ER

12
i/

18

h w th
e

19

z,
b
+
y
y

If

G i ve n t h a t
t

be

ca

3x

3x

y
y

72

O,

22

0,

3=
z
+

3x

23

7x

th e

b)

eq

3y

/b

/c

J b + Jc

Jc + Ja

()(

a/db)

Jf

( (

5x

16 7

2y +

/b

2y + 1 7 z

3y + 2 2

at

4 9:y ,

If

'

21

19

ol v

+ 2abc = 1

+ ab

4x y ,

2lyz

y,

18

7y z

2x

s h w th

+ x)

oll owin g q u t i on s

th e f

24

20

22

b x + ay ,

z =

+ cx ,

ro
v
t
h
p
olv

= az

L GEB RA

x = c

_ O

( )(

x/b c)

Vac)

u ati on s :

25
.

b cx + cay

26

a bc a x

ro
v
t
h
p
28

at

(
l

b c)

b l

ca

(
l

ab

If

ro
v
t
h
p
e

If

O,

()(

27

by

a bz =

O,

at

(b
1)

$
c

y
2

f
2
f)

ca

ab

( (e)(
60

ca

ab

h3

)<
yh

f) W

59 )

C HA PTER I I

P R O P O R TI O N

Wh

D EF I N I TI O N
u
an titi e s c m p si n g
q

18

if

th e n

a,

? 5
2
:

s ay i n g th a t

b,

is t o

n t w o ra ti o s
a r e s ai d t o b e

th e m

a ls
r
o
o
r
ti
o
n
p p

0, cl

are

as c

is t o

d,

ll e d

the

an

d the

u l th
p r o p o r t i o n al s

a re

eq

fo u r
Th u s

r
ss
e
ed
p
r
o
o
r
ti
o
is
wr
itt
n
n
e
p p
Th i s

is

by

ex

o r

Th e

t e rm s

a an

dd

a re c a

ex tr e

mes, b

an

t h e me a n s

If fo u r q u a n tities a r e in p r op o r tio n , th e p r o du ct
19
ex tr em es is equ a l to t h e p r o du c t of th e m ea n s

L et

a,

b,

o o rti o ls

d b e t h e pr p

c,

Th e n b y de n iti o n

an

th r e e t e rm s

fo u n d

m ay b e

o n v e r s e ly if th r
e

th a t ad
e x t re m e s

if

bo
o

a , c,

fo u r

r
o
o
r
ti
o
n
p p

an

ar

o r

ce

Qu a n titi e s

a re

n
i
v
th
n
e
e
g

ar e

u
n
titi
s
y
q
a
d
e p r o p o r ti o n ls
s
v i v e rs a

a re

b e, th e n a , b c ,
b an d c t h e m e an

20
D EFI N I TI O N
p ro p rt i n w h e n t h e
t t h e thi r d, a s t h e
ar e i n c
a , b , c , d,

Th u

ad =

H e n c e if

w h en ce
f o u r th

na

i
v
en
g
b

the

b , c , d, s c h
h
an d d b ei n
t
e
g
a,

s ai d t o b e i n c o n t i n u e d
r st is t o t h e s e c o n d as t h e s e c o n d is
Thus
thi r d t o t h e f o u rth ; an d s o o n
o n ti n u e d p r op o r t i o n wh e n
a re

H I GHER

14
I f th r e e q

u n titi e s
a

a,

b,

c ar e
a z

ac

In

this

an

z c

d p r o p o r ti o n ,

th e n

3
rt
A
[

2
.

a an

r st

is to

th e

th r e e qu an t i t i e s

be

NO W

a
X

If

th e n

c = a

I t will b e s e e n th a t
f du p li c at e ra ti g i

b
is:

b,

a,

e
.

this p r o p o siti o n is t h e s am e
v e n i n Eu c li d Book V

as

t h e de n itio n

bf

ae

gE z

For

an

ae

o r

cg

bf

ae

dh

cg

If

CO R

th e n
Thi

is s a i d t o b e a mean p r o p o rt io n al b e t w e e n
is sai d t o b e a t h ir d p r o p o rt io n al t o a an d b

L et t h e

an

o ti u

in

If th r ee q u a n tit ies a r e p r o p o r tio n a ls th e

th e du p lic a te r a tio of th e r st t o the seco n d

21
thir d in

th a t

L G EB RA

ca e

z x

a :x = c

s is th

th e o r e m k n o w n

a s ex ce

u a

y,
y

li in G e o m e t ry

fou r q u an titi e s a b c d f o r m a p r op o r ti o n man y

o th e r p r opo r ti on s m ay b e de du c e d b y t h e p rop e r t i e s o f f ra c t i o n s
Th e r e s u lts o f th e s e op e r a ti o n s ar e v e ry u s e ful a n d s o m e o f
th e m a r e o fte n q uo t e d b y t h e an n e x e d n am e s b o rr o w e d f r o m
G e o m e t ry
23

If

PRO PO R T

ION

(
1)

If
a

Fo

a 22

th e n

d,

a :b = c

th e re fo re

If

th at

ad

d,

t h e r e fO I e

bc

(
3)

Fo r

t h at
o r

If

a
c

t h e 1 e fo

(
For

Z:
,

a,

a +

th e r e fo r e

gl

If

= c

a +

3)

f
l

a +

a +

This p r o p o siti o n

D
v ide n da
i
[

b
c +

a +

= c +

d
3

d
3

d
d

:a

is usu ally

13

d
b

b y d1 v 1 s 1 0 n ,

or

cl

(
I, th e n

(
(
)

Fo r b y

cl

o m o n en da
C
p
[

13

c +

6
a

den do

i s,

d by

b
=

(
l, th e n

o r

an

I)

If

5)

th e n

re

z a

bc

Is

4)

th a t

d,

a z c =

o r

A
l
t
r n a n da
e
[

ad

i s,

z a =

th e n

I
n v er t en cl a
[

o r

Fo r

th a t i s

a =

15

u
o
t
ed
q

as

Co mp o n en do
'

an

d D iv i

Se v e ra l

o th e r pr opo rti o s
n

m ay b e p r ov e d in

s i m il r w
a

H I GH ER

16

L G EB R A

Th e r e s lts o f t h e p r e c e di n g a rti c l e a r e t h e al g e b a i ca l
24
k
o f Eu c li d,
u iv al e n t s o f s m e o f t h e p r p siti n s in t h e fth b
q
m ak e hi m s e lf fam ili a r w ith th e m
a n d t h e st de n t is a d is e d t
r e x ampl e , dividen do may b e q u t e d a s
in th e i r e r b a l f r m
.

fo ll o w s

Wh en

th er e

o o
o

Fo

ar e

fo u r

ro

oo

t he

r tio n a ls,
o
p

d is to th e seco n d,
u r th
i
t
t
h
e
o
o
f
o
u
r
t
h
s
f
th e

th e

as

s eco n

o
b
v
e

f
th e th ir d a b o v e the

th e

exc ess o

ex c ess

r st a

om p r e t h e l geb r i l de n iti o
E
c li d
o
r
ti
o
w
ith
th
t
i
v
i
n
u
e
g
p

Eu c li d s de n iti o n is s f o ll o w s
F o u r q u an tit i e s e s i d t o b e p r op o r ti o ls wh e if a
W e sh a ll

25
.

n o

a ca

f pro

ar

na

n y eq u

m u ltip les wh a te v er b e t ak e n o f t h e r st a n d thi r d, an d als o a n y

e qu im u ltip l es wh a t ev er o f t h e s e c o n d a n d f ou r th , t h e m ult i p l e o f
t h e thi r d is g r e a t e r th an , e q u a l t o , o r l e ss th a n t h e m u ti p l e o f t h e
f o u r th , a c c o r di n g as t h e m u ti pl e o f t h e fir st is g re a te r th an , e q u a l
t o , o r l e ss th a n t h e m u lti p l e o f t h e s e c o n d

In

l geb ra i c a l sy m b o ls

Fou r qu
a c c o r dl n

as

b,

a,

b
q , p

c,

an

thus sta t e d

be

r
o
o
r
ti
o
n
w
h
n
e
p p

in

a re

O
b ei ng

d q

an

iti o n m ay

y p o si ti v e

To de du c e t h e g e o m e t r i c a l de n iti o n
a l e b r a i c al de n iti o n
g

I
the

titi e s

an

t h e de n

in

teg er s

:qd

wha t ev er

f p r o p o r ti o n

f r om

3
:gl
e

Sin c e

b y m ulti p l y i n g b o

th si de s

by

3
,

we

ob t i

a n

P0
96

h e n c e f r om
,

the p

r op e r ti e s
qd

pc

w hi c h p r ov e s
II

the p

G I V en

r i c al
at

de n iti
c

f f ra c ti

ac c

r o po siti o n

To de du c e t h e

t h e ge m e t

qd

on

9d

o r di

on s

as

b
q ,

l g e b ra i c a l

de n iti o n

f p r o p o r ti o n

o rdi n (
O

ac c

as

:2

qb,

t o p1 o v e

f r om

PR O PO R T

ION

If

a
Is

Su p p o s e
w hi c h

n o

u
al t o
q

g5
>

b e t we e n

li e s

th e m

one

Cl

it w i

th e n

ll

be p

an

dp

m ust b e t h e g r e a t e r

th e m

o ssib l e t o d s o m f r t i n
b i n g p o siti v e i n t eg e r s
n

ac

9
9

9
>
[3 20

He n c e
an

17

F r om

(
)
(
1)

f rom 2
an d th e s e

Z
5
9 3

d
9 }

o t r adi t
n

th e

di

h y p o th e sis

g (;

Th e r e f o r e
t he p

an

r op o siti o n

ar e n o

u n e q u al 3 th at is

g5

w
hi
c
h
r
o
s
v
e
3
p

I t sh ul d b e n ti c e d th a t t h e g e m e t r i c a l de n iti n o f r o
p
a ls w ith c o n c r et e m a n itu de s ,
n
d
r
ti
e
su
c
h
li
n
s
r
s
a
s
e
o
r
a
e
a
g
p
,
r e p r e s en t e d g e m e t r i c ally b u t n o t r e fe rr e d t an y c m m n u n it

So th a t Eu c li d s de n iti n is appli c ab l e t in
o f m e a su r e m e n t
c mm e n su r ab l e
c m m e n su r ab l e a s w e ll a s t
an t i ti e s 3 w h e r e a s
q
n ly t c o m
t h e a l ge b ra i c a l de n iti n , st r i c tl y s p e ak i n g , app li e s
m e n su r ab l e q uan titi e s, si n c e it t a c it y a ssu m e s th a t a is t h e s am e
de t e rm i n at e m ulti p l e , p a r t , o r p a r ts , o f b th a t c is o f d
Bu t t h e
r
fs
hi
i
u
w
ch ha e b ee n
e n f r c m m e n su r ab l e
a
n titi e s will
p
g
q
still b e t r u e f r i n c mm e n su r ab l e s , sin c e t h e r ati o f t w in c o m
m e n su r ab l e s c an al w ay s b e m ade t di ffe r f r m t h e r a ti o f t w
i n t e ge r s b y less th an an y a ssign a ble q u a n tity This h as b ee n
sh e w n in A r t 7 3 it m ay als b e p r v e d m r e g e n e ra lly a s in t h e
26

o o

o o

oo

o
o

n ex

t a rti c l e

th a t a an d b a r e i n c o mm e n su rab l e ; di v i de b
in t o
e q u a l p a rts e ac h e q u al t o B s o th a t b
m B wh e r e m is a
o
siti
v e i n te e r
A
ls
o
su
o
s
e B is c o n t a i n e d in a m o r e th an n
p
g
pp
t im e s an d l e ss th an n 1 ti m e s 3
27
m
.

Su pp o s e

E>
6

th en
th at is
so

a
,

th a t

d i ffe

li e s

r s f om 2

mB

mB

b e twe e n
by

Z
Z

an

u
n
t
i
t
y
q
a

d
le

ss th

l
In

d sm c e we

H I G HE R

18
c an c

m a de

as

ho o s e B ou r u n it

r
eat
g

as

we p l e a

e , an

we p

d t wo

r ss th a t o f

w ill

ex p e

o o

f m e a su r e m e n t )

as

L G EB RA

ea e

s m all
1

He n c e

we pl e a s e , m

as

c an

b e m ade

as

772.

i n tege r s
an d b t o

as

c an

s m al l

b e f u n d w h s e r a ti
an
r
e ui r e d de r e e o f a c c u r a c
y
q
g
y
d m

an

c an

ov

Th e p r p siti n s p r e d in A r t 2 3 ar e ft e n us e ful i n
s l i n g p r b e m s I n p a r ti c ul a r, t h e s uti n o f c e r t ai n e q a
ti n s is g r e atly fac ilit at e d b y a s k ilful u s e o f t h e p e r a ti n s co m
o
n en do an d div iden do
p
28

o l

ov
o

ol

E x a mp l e 1

I f 2 ma

6 mb

(
2m

9 n d) 2ma

3720

b
ro
v
e
h
t
t
d
p
p ro p or t i on l s
2m
6 mb 3
9 d
W h ve
6 mb
2m
3
9 d
o m p on endo d divi d ndo
a

a,

ar e

c,

2 ma

6a

3n c

9n d

nc

2ma

6 mb

3 71 0

9n d

(
2 (
6 mb

2 2 ma + 3 n c)

2 2ma

3n o )

9 n d)

2 6 mb

9 nd )

an

2 ma

3 11 0

6 mb

9n d

2 ma

3no

6 mb

9nd

d ividendo

1 2 mb

(
i

18nd

nc

h en e
or

g in om p on n do
a

an

b=

l 6x

x
1 6x

1 6x + 1 0

3 2x
2

'

3 2x 2

when e

divi d ndo

2x

6 mb

4 ma

7 10

l e rn ndo
A g in
om p on endo
a

9 u d)
9 n d) 2 ma

an

A t

3 m:
3 716

6 mb
6 mb

8x + 5
.

1 6x

4 x 2 1 6x 2
D

8x + 53

3nc

9 n d) ,

H I GHER

20
18
by

by

1 m e n in

a
19
2 1 , t h e su m o f t h e m ean s 1 9 ,
n m b e rs i s 4 4 2
.

d th e

ne

t re m e s i s
s q u ar e s o f all fo u r

m
su m o f t h e

an

s to t h wo rk do

1 ay s i
1 0, n d

00+

d y s in t h r t i o f 9
F in d fo u r p roport i o n l s s u h t h t t h
in

m en

+2

or k d on

If t h e w

L G EBR A

e su

f th e

ex

sk

we r e l l e d wi t h two kinds

sh

f e rry , mix e
r ati o f 2 7 , an d in t h e c a B in t h e ati o f
at q an t i ty m st b e t a e n fr m e ac h t o f rm a m i x t u re
in an d 9 a n s o f t h e t e r ?
c n s i s t o f 2 ga
n s o fo n e

20 Two c a s A
t h e c as A in t h e

dB

an

sk
r o
u
u
k
o
o
5 Wh
1
ll o
k d
g ll o
oh
wh i h sh ll o
s k fu ll f win ; i t i s th
dr w fr om
Nin g ll o s
21
ll d wi th w t r the nin g ll o s f t h m i t u r
dr wn d t h
s k i s g in ll d wi t h w t r I f t h q u t i ty f wi n ow in t h
sk
1 6 t o 9 h ow m u h d o s t h
sk
b t o t h q u n t i ty o f w t r i i t
h ol d
in o t i u d p rop o rt i o n sh w
If fou r p o s i t i v q u n t i t i s
22
t h r t
d l s t i s t l st t h r
t h t t h d i ff r n b t w
tim s
t
h
b
t
h
r
t
i
r
t
w
n
o
h r tw
t
d
f
f
g
I En g l n d t h p op u l t i on in r s d 1 5 9 p
n t b tw
23
nt d t h
1 87 1
d 1 8 8 1 3 if t h to w p op u l t i o in r
d 18 p
o u n t ry p o p u l t i o n 4 p
n t o m p r t h t ow
d ou n t ry p p l
in

a e

a e

ea

ce

e e

as

e e n ce

in 1 8 7 1

er c e

a e

e ca

e ca

ea

ee

as

er

c eas e

an

c ea e

t i on s

en

ne

an

an

an

ee

e ar e

ar e

as

e en

a e

a ca

ar e

a a

ca

ce

er ce

an

ee n

an

u a

o u m p t i o n f t a i t i m es t h
If a pe
o su
on f off
n t m or t a a d b p
n t m or
o ff w r on s um d t h aggr g t m o u nt o n s u m d wo u l d b 7 p
n t m or ; b t if 6 p
nt m or t a a d p
n t m or off
w r on s um d t h aggr gat e am ou n t on s um d w o u l d b 3 p
nt
m or
c om p r
a d b
i
ll oy
25 Brass i s a
all oy
f opp r a d in ; b r on
on t inin g 80 p
t f op pe r 4 f in a d 1 6 f t in A f s d
m as s f b r as s
d b ro n
i fou d t o o ta in 7 4 p
nt f opp r 1 6
f in a d 1 0 f t in n d t h rat i o f opp r t o in in t h
om p o s i t i o n
In
24
n mp t i

a ce

c
c

ce

r tain c o ntry

ee

e e c

er

fb

er

ce

ve

er

ce

er

e c

ee

e r ce

c en

an

c,

r ss

ns

a e a

r ce

e r ce

a e a

ee

e e c

th e

ze

c,

er c e

an

ze

e c

rtain c o u r s e u p st r am in 84 min u te s ;
th ey c an r w t h e s am e c o u r s e down s t r eam in 9 m in u te s l e ss t h an
they c o u l d w i t in s ti ll wate r : h o w l on g w o u l d t hey take t o r o w down
wi t h t h e st r eam ?
26

rw

c e

ro

c an

ro

a ce

C HA PTER I I I

VA

su c h
i

r at o

o
o

NO TE

as

On e q u an tity A is s a i d t v ar y dir ect l y

D EF I N I TI O N
th e r B, wh e n t h e t w q u a n titi e s de p e n d u p n e a c h th e r in
a m an n e r th a t if B is c h an e d, A is c h a n e d in th e sa m e
g
g

29
a s an

R IA TI O N

word

Th e

d irectly

i s ofte n

o mi tt d
e

an

is

d A

s i d t o v ry
a

Fo r i n st a n c e : if a t r a i n m ov i n g at a u n if o r m r a t e t ra v e ls
4 0 m il e s in 6 0 m i n ut e s , it wi l l t ra v e l 2 0 m il e s i n 3 0 m i n ut e s ,
8 0 m il e s in 1 2 0 m i n ut e s , a n d s o o n 3 t h e dist an c e in e a c h c as e
b e in g i n c r e a s e d o r di m i n ish e d i n t h e s am e r a ti o a s t h e ti m e
This is e x p r e ss e d b y s ay i n g th at w h e n t h e v e l o c ity is u ni f o r m
th e dista n c e is p r op o r tio n a l t o the t ime , o r th e dista n c e v a r ies a s
t h e t im e
.

Th e

30
A at B
.

31

is r e ad
If A

c o n sta n

v ri e s

fA

th at

d B

th a t

so

so

a, a

1,

b , b , , 62 ,

2,

are c

me

o rr sp o n di
e

al

6]

62

6
a
:

(
i,

e ac

63

v
alu e o f A
y
o rr e sp o n di g v a l u
n

A
I s,

62

m,

e o

w h e re
A

f B

m
=

b el n g

an

the

o t v r i ti o n 3

Th e n , b y de n I t I o n ,

He n c e

de n

B, then A is equ a l to B m u ltip lied b y

an

as

su pp o s e th at

is u s e d t o

or

v a r es a s

t q u an tity

Fo r

v lu e s

sy m b o l

al t o
u
q

mB

o n st n t
a

so

is a l w ay s

18 c

an

the

sam e

on

H I GHE R

22
If
the

an

y p

a r o

o st nt m
a

L G EB RA

o rre sp o n di n g v lu e s

f A

b e de t e r m i n e d

c an

Fo r

an

d B

i n stan c e if
,

a re

k n o wn

3 wh e n

B = 1a

have

we

an

d
32

as a

D EF I N I TI O N

n o th e r

Thus if

B
i

v a r i e s i n v e r s e ly

12 3

O n e q u a n tity A is s ai d t o v ary in v ers el y

A v a r i e s dir ec tly a s t h e r e c i p r o c al o f B

when

B,

B, A

as

wh e r e m

is

o stan t
n

f o ll o w i n g is an illust rati o n o f i n v e r s e v a ri ati on I f 6 m en

do a c e rt ai n w o rk in 8 h o u r s 1 2 m e n w o ul d do t h e s a m e w o rk in
Thus it app e a r s th at
4 h o u r s 2 m e n in 2 4 h o u r s 3 an d s o o n
w h e n t h e n u mb e r o f m e n is i n c r ea s e d t h e ti m e is p r opo r ti on ate ly
de c r e as e d ; an d v i c e v e r s a
Th e

E x a mp le 1
x

when y = 3

By

Th e

n d

upp osi t i on

P u tt ing a = 8

ub roo t
e

when g =

3 , we

v ri s invers ly
a

as

th e

s qu r

a e o

f y ; if

whe re m i s c o n s tant

77L
x:

f
1

hv

a e

m : 1 8,
an

18

he n e
c

b y p t t in

gy

we

ob t

in

u re

l e s r vo l u o v r e
e
e u s r vo l u o
e u s ro

o f t h e ti m
Th e sq a
o f a p an t
e
t i n a i s as
Ex a mp le 2

t h e c b o f it s i t an c f m th e Su n ; n d t h e t i m o f V n
e
ti n ,
an d V n
f m t h e Su n t o b e 9 1 } an d
o f t h e Ea t
m in t h e di tan c
a
66 mi i n o f m i
y
p cti

ue
ssu g

d s e ro
s es
rh
ll o s
le s r e s e vel
L t P b t h p r i od i t i m e m e s u r e d i d y s
D
P
f m i le s ; w h ve

P
kD
or
whe r e k i s som e on s t n t
3 6 5 36 5 k
F or th E rth
9 11
.

0:

when e
c

365

P =
2

365

3
.

D th e

di s t

a c

ei

mi

ll i ons

VA

F or V e nu s

R I A TI O N

3 6o

wh en e

P=

66

2 64

264

H en

ce

23

th e t m e

'

2 24 4

264

'

7 2 33 ,

ap p

ro

i m at ely

85

r v o l u t i o n i s n e r ly

d ys

33
D EF I N I TI O N
On e q u an tity is s ai d t o v ary j i n tl y
n u m b e r o f th e r s , w h e n it v a r i e s di r e c tl
r
u
t
a s th e i r
d
c
y
p
.

v a r i e s j o i tly

Thus A
stan c e , t h e

i n t e r e st o n
r
i
n c i a l t h e ti m e a n d
p
p
,

34

D EF I N I TI O N

d 0, wh e n A = m BC
o f m on e
v
a r i e s j o i n tl
y
y
.

r ce
e
p

is s a i d t o

nt

Fo r
as

in
the

v ary di re c tly

as

an

d in

B
as

3 5 If A v ar ies a s B wh en G is
wh en B is co n stan t, th en will A v a r y
.

v a r i ti on

an

rate

th e

v ari e s

0, w h e n A

v e r se l
as
y

B
su m

as

as a

d A v a r ies a s C
B C wh en b o th B a n d C

co n s ta n

as

an

th a t o f B an d p a rtly o n
th a t o f 0 Su pp o s e th e s e l att e r v a r i ati o n s t o ta k e p l ac e s e pa
a c h in its tu r n p r o du c i n g its o wn e ffe c t o n A ; a ls o l e t
r at e l
e
y
B 0
a b c b e c e rt a i n si m ult an e o us v a lu e s o f A
Th e

f A dep e n ds par tl y

t,

on

1
L et C b e
u n de rg a pa r ti a l

c o n sta n
c

whil e B c h an g e s t o b 3 th e n A m ust
a n d will a ssu m e s o m e i n t e rm e di at e v a lu e

h an ge

A
a

L et B b e

A
a

'

t,

th a t is
o r

( (
an

d 2)

'

1)

F rom

th at is l e t it r e t a i n its v alu e b w hil e 0

m ust c o m p l e t e its c h a n g e an d pa ss f r o m its
t o its n al v a lu e a w h e re

co n s ta n

h an g e s t o c 3 th e n
i n te rm e di a t e v a lu e

w h e re

a
;

be

v rie s
a

3 0,

as

BC

H I GHER

24
36

Th e

f ol l o w i n g

ar e

L G EB RA

illust r a ti o n s o f

th e

th e o r e m

r
ov
e
i
d
n
p

l a st a rt i c l e
Th e am o u n t o f w o rk do n e b y a g iv en n u m b er of men v a ri e s
di r ec tl y as t h e n u m b e r o f day s th e y w o rk an d t h e am o u n t o f
w o rk do n e in a g iv en time v a r i e s di r e c tly a s t h e n u m b e r o f m e n ;
th e r e f o r e wh e n t h e n u m b e r o f day s an d t h e n u m b e r o f m e n ar e
b o th v a r i ab l e t h e am o u n t o f w o rk w ill v a ry a s t h e p r o du c t o f
t h e n u m b e r o f m e n a n d t h e n u m b e r o f day s
A gai n in G e o m e t ry t h e a r e a o f a t r i an gl e v a r i e s di r e c tl y a s
its b a s e wh en t h e h e ig ht is c o n stan t an d di r e c tly as t h e h e i g ht
w h en t h e b as e is c o n sta n t 3 an d wh e n b o th t h e h e ig ht an d b as e
v a r i ab l e t h e a rea v ar i e s a s t h e p r o du c t o f t h e n u m b e r s
ar e
r e p r e s e n ti n g t h e h e ig ht an d t h e b as e
th e

v ol um e

r i g h t i r ul r o n e v r i e s th s q u r e f th
r diu s
s e when th he i gh t i s on s t n t d th he ight when t h
I f t h r d i u s f t h b s e i s 7 fee t
d t h he i gh t 1 5 feet
b se i s o st nt
on e wh os e vo l m e i s 1 32
t h v o l u m e i s 7 7 0 u b i fee t ; d t h he i g h t f
ub i fee t d wh i h s t nds on b s e wh os e r di u s i s 3 feet
L t h
d
deno t e r e sp e t ively t h he i ght d r diu s f th b s
m e su r e d i fee t ; l so l t V b t h v o l u m e i
ub i fee t
m h whe r e m i s o n s t n t
Then V
By s upp os i t i on
15
7 7 0_ m 7
22
whe n e
E x amp l e Th e
o f th e b a
.

an

a c

an

as

an

as

an

an

fa

a e

22

V _

by

s ub s ti tut ing

132,

21

he r efor e th heig h t i s 1 4 feet

e

o o
o

h : 14 ;

o o
v

21

22

when e
dt

3 , we g et

132

an

Th e p r p siti n f A r t 3 5 c a n e a sil y b e e x t e n de d t t h e
c a s e i n w hi c h t h e
a r i a ti n o f A de e n ds u
n
th
a
t
r
th
f
m
o
an
e
p
p
t wo
a r i ab e s
u r th e r, t h e a r i ati n s m ay b e e ith e r di r e c t o r
i n e r s e Th e p r i n c i p e is i n t e r e sti n g b e c a s e o f its f r e q u en t o c
c u rr e n c e in P
a l Sc i e n c e
i
c
Fo r e x am p l e , in t h e th e ry o f
y
a s e s it is f u n d b
x
r
i
m
n
t
th
a
t
h
r
ssu
r
e
e
e
t
e
e
e
o
f
a
a
s
g
y
p
p
p)
g

v a ri e s a s t h e
ab s lut e t e m e r a tu r e
w
h
its
l
is
t
n
m
e
e
v
p
)
)
c n st a n t , a n d th a t t h e
r
ssu
r
ar i e s i n e r s e l
lu
e
e
a
s
t
h
e
m
e
p
y
wh e n t h e t e m p e r a tu r e is c n st a n t 3 th at is
37

h s

or

t,

when

(v

is

o n st n t ;
a

(
vo u

(
vo

A R I ATI O N

an

at

w hen

25

is

o st n t
a

Fr o m th e s e r e s u lts we sh ou l d e x p e c t th a t w h e n b o th
v a r i ab l e we sh o ul d h a v e t h e fo rm ul a

an

v a re

an

d by

ac

0c:

tu a l

ex

E x amp le
t a c an d

o r p v = ht w h e re

It

Is c

o n sta t
n

r i m e n t this is f o u n d t o b e t h e c a s e
durat i on f a r i lway jou rn ey vari e s di re tly

pe

Th e

as

th e
th e
th e

th
di s n e
inve rs ely
vel o i ty ; t h v el o i ty v r i e s d i re tly
s qu r e roo t f th q u n t i ty f o l u s ed p m i le d inve rs ely
n um b e r f rr i g e s i t h t r in I jo ur ey f 2 5 m i le s i h l f h o u r
rri g e s 1 0 wt f o l i s r eq ui r ed ; h w mu h o l wi ll b
wi th 1 8
on sum ed i jou rn ey f 2 1 m i le s i 28 m inu t e s wi th 1 6 rr i g e s ?
L t t b t h t i m e e p r e ss e d i h o u rs
d t h d i s t n e in m i le s
t h v el o i ty in m i le s p
h ou r
wt
q t h q u n t i ty f o l i
rr i ge s
th n u m b e r f
W h ve
t
g
.

as

ca

n a

an

ca

n c

at

an

ca

er

as

as

an

er

ca

1)

when e

Cd

t o:

or

s/q

M whe r e k i s on s t
/q
v l u e s g i v en w h v
t

nt

u sti tu t in g th

S b

at

is

H ence

u s u g
q ue st i on w h v
S b t i t t in
,

no

w th e

v lues
a

60

at

is

Jq

2 5x 3 6

2 5x 3 6
o

f t,

cd

/q

c,

16

g ive n

1 5X 28
32

5
e

q u n t i ty
a

fc

o l is 6
a

21
.

2 5x 3 6

whenc e
H ence th

25

a e

28

J ib
JE

79

18

a e

c wt

Jq
5

in th e

s ond
ec

rt

pa

f th e

H I GHER

26

L G EB RA

EXA MPL ES

III

If x

lu

e ac

h v ry
6

If A

Q
8

is

as

t ly ; if A

vari s

as

Qw

as

f 0,

as

y , pr

wh en

th en

0,

an

B=

4,

an d

'

C=

27

an d

VA B wi l l

ove th t
a

su

an

as

R;

d in v e rs e y

+y

v ri s a
a

l so

s x

P=

wh e n

one
x =

vari s
e

an d

4,

an

as x

as

P = x/48 an d

en

e su

f t wo q u an t i ti e s , o f wh i c h
t e in e e y as x ; an d if y = 6 w e n
t h e eq at i n b e tween x an d y
th e

t i ti e s

an

one o

wh i c h var i es

d if y = 1 9 wh en

x =

2,

or

ec

d if A

th e

as

s q u r r o ot
a e

w h en B = 2 56

an d

inv er s e ly as
n d B wh e n A = 2 4

fB

G i ven that x + y var i e s as 2 + an d th at x

rel at i on b e tween x an d 2 p r o v i d e d th at z =

12

nd

th e

an d

r i es

y
2

as z

va

wh en

x =

1
d

an

an

d 0

13

If A

vari s

as

an

d C

'

o
in
t
l
w
h
i
l
j
y

v ar i s i v r s ly a A s h ew th at A v r i es a D
I f y v ar i e s
th
m f th
14
q u an t i t i s
on s t n t t h s on d var i s a a d t h th i rd
.

ec

e su
e

s x,

as

'

wh i c h

of
2
as x 3 an

r ee

vari s

rs t i s
d if y = 0 w h e n
th e

= 7
= 3

d
e
x
w
h
w
h
n
en
x
3
y
y
1 5 Wh e n a b o dy fall s fro m r e s t i t s d i s tan c e from t h e s tart i n g
p oin t v ar i e s as t h e s q u ar e o f t h e t i m e i t h as b e e n fall in g :if a b od y fall s
th ro ug h 4 02 fee t in 5 sec on ds h ow fa do e s i t fall in 1 0 seco n ds Z
,

1, y
.

lso h

wh en

as

vari s in v r s ly

o h r v rs l
u o
3 3 n d
t
h
t
m f two q u
u
l
q
d t h ot h r
i v r s ly ;

d th e

an d

n d

an

R=

If y

ub e

3 wh en y

x =

d B

d i r tl y
n d y in t rm s f
I f A v r i s di r t l y
11
c

o in

th e n

ec

th e

an

B 0,

ec

J3

B= 3

vari s d i r tly

as x an

as 9:
.

vari s a

an

v ri s
I f y v ari s

10

d C

0,

wh e n x =

an d

54

an

vari es a

If x

d i r tly
ec

va

wh en
s

ri e s as t h e c ub e o f y

fx

as

an d

If A

u re

e o fy

n d U wh en A

vari s a

If t h e s q
va

ri es as y an d x = 8 wh en y = 1 5 n d x wh e n y = 1 0
v ar i e s in v e rse l y as Q an d P = 7 w h en Q= 3 n d P wh e n

va

If P

n d t h e

x=

2,

w far

do

an d

s i t fall in

th

th e l 0

s e c on d ?

'

C HA PTER I V

R ITH M ETI CA L P R O GR ESSI O N

D EF I NI TI O N
Q a n t i ti e s
Pr o gressio n w h e n th e y i n c re as e
38

sai d to

are
o r

de c r e a

b e in A r it h met ic al
b y a co mm o n dif1

er en c e

Thus

e ac

Pr o g r e ssi o n

fol l ow i ng

f th e

i s fo rms

er e

an

r ith me tica l

3, 7 , l l , 1 5

8 , 2,

10

d,

a +

a,

4,

a +

2 d,

a +

3 d,

o mm o n diffe re n e is fo u n d b y sub t r c ti g a y t e rm f
I t h e r st f t h e ab ov e
th e s e r i e s f r o m th a t w h i h f ll w it
6 i
m p l e s t h e c o m m o di ffe r e e is 4 3 i t h e s e c o d it is
e
Th e

thi rd it is

39

I f we

o ti

ce

t h an th e

th a t

nu

e x am

in

m b er

the

a +

2 d,

a +

lfd

th

t e rm
te rm
t e rm
te rm

th

is
is
is
is

a+

2d 3
5d ;

1 9d ;

b e t h e n u m b e r o f t e r m s, an d
t e rm , w e h a e
I: a
1) d
n

To
Pr o g r essio n

fin d

d is

o ne

th e

su

m of

nu

l) d
if

l de n o t e t h e

l a st

o r

m b er qf ter ms in A r ith metica l

de n o t e t h e r t t e rm , d t h e c omm o n di ffe r e n c e ,
n u m b e r o f t e rm s
A ls o l e t I de n o t e t h e l a st t e r m ,

L et
th e

d,

d, g e n e ra ll y , t h e

40

s e ri e s

e ic ie n t
t
r
t
h
co
e
m
e
y
th e ter m in th e ser ies

2O

th

an

th

If

nc

ine

Thus t h e

an

a,

we

xa

the

d
an d

an

P R O GR ESSI O N

A R ITHMETI OA L

r e qui re d su m 3 th e n

the

29

(
l

an

d, b y

wr iti n g t h e s e r i e s i n

s =

A ddi n g

l+ l

2 d)

t oge th e r th e s e t w o s e ri e s

(
a

r e v e r s e o r de r

the

a +

+ a

to

t e rm s

l) ,

an

= a +

(
n

l)d

1) d}

h a v e th re e u s e fu l fo r m u l ae
th e s e an y o n e o f t h e l e tt e r s m ay de n o te
Fo r
t h e u n k n o w n q u a n tity w h e n t h e th r e e o th e r s a r e k n o w n
in stan c e i n 1 ) if we su b stitut e g i v e n v alu e s f o r s n l we ob tai n
a
a n d si m il a r l
e
a n e u a ti o n f o r n di n
i
n t h e o th e r f o r m u l a
3
q
g
y
Bu t it is n ec e s s a r y t o g u a r d ag ai n st a t oo m e c h a n i c a l u se o f th e s e
e n e r a l f o r m ul ae a n d it w ill o ft e n b e f o u n d b e tt e r t o s o l v e si m pl e
g
a n a c tu al r e fe r e n c e t o t h e
u
sti
o
n s b
a m e n t a l r a th e r th an b
e
q
y
y
r e quisit e f o rm ul a
41

I n t h e la t
in e a c h o f

r ti

we

c e

Ex amp le 1
e t h e c mm

Her
th e

Find th e s m o f t h e s e r i e s
on d iffe r enc e i s 1 1 ; henc e from

17

su m

to 1 7 t

8,

e rm s

l
x

17

17

31

rs e r f s e r i e s i s 5 th l t 4 5
u e r er s d th o m m on di ffe ren e
1)
num b e r f t e rm s t hen from (

Th e t t m
E x a mp l e 2
4 00 : n d t h e n m b
o ft
m ,
.

If n b e th e

an

e c

4 004

when e
c

3
2
16

as

an

d th e

su

30

H I GH ER

If d b e

L G EBRA

th e c omm on diffe ren ce

4 5 the 1 6 te rm
th

wh en ce
42

1 5d ;

If

an

t e rm s o f

r ithm e ti c l Pr ogre i on b e
co m pl e t e l y de t e rm i ne d 3 f o r th e d t a

t wo

an

ss

g i ven th e ser i e s c an b e
fu r n i s h two si m ultan eo u s e qu ati on s th e s o luti on o f
g i v e th e rst t e rm an d th e co mm o n di ffe r en ce
term s o f an A P are 6 1 an d
Th e
E x amp le
an d 4
2 3 te rm
If a b e th e rst te rm an d d th e c omm on differen ce
,

w hi c h will

th

64 ; n d

the

'

61 =
an

64

when ce we ob tai n
an d

the 23 te rm
rd

43

%
a

d:
a

er

71

22d

E F I NI TI O N W h e th ree qu a titi e s a

th e 54 t m = a + 53d ;
3d
th e
term
th

Progre ssi o n

th e

m i ddl e

is

one

th e o th e r t w o
Thu s a is th e a r ith m e ti c

sa

id t o

th e

in A ith m e ti c al
ar it h met ic mean o f
re

44

To

Let

Th e n

nd

th e

m e an b e t ween

d b b e th e t w o qu a n titi e s ; A th e
a , A , b a re in A P we m u s t h a ve
.

an

r ith m e ti c

tities

m e an

diffe r e n ce

e ac h b e i ng e qu al t o th e co mm o n
w h e n ce

mean b etween two g iv en q u

ar ithm etic

an

i nce

an

Be t wee n t wo g i ve n qu an titi e s it is al way s p o ssi b l e t o

i n ser t an y n u m b e r o f t e rm s s u c h th a t th e w h o l e s er i e s thu s
fo rm e d sh al l b e i n A P ; an d b y an e x t e n si o n o f th e den iti on in
A r t 43 , th e t e rm s thu s i n s e rt e d ar e c all e d th e ar ith metic mean s
45
.

t
ithmeti c m ean s b etween 4 a d 6 7
In cl ud i n g th e e trem es th e n um b e r f t e rm s wi ll b 2 2 ; s o th at w e have
to d a seri es f 22 te rm s i n A P o f w h i ch 4 i s the rst a d 6 7 th e l ast
L et d b e the c ommon d ifferen c e ;
6 7 = th e 22 te rm 4 21 d
th en
wh en ce d 3 a d th e seri es i s 4 7 1 0 6 1 6 4 6 7
a d th e r equ i re d m e an s a
7 10 13
58 7 1 6 4
E x amp le

In ser 20 ar

"d

re

A R I TH

M ETI CA L P R O G RESSIO N

To in se t a g iv en
46
two g iv en q u a n t ities
.

m b e r of

n u

31

r ith metic

m ea n s b etween

th e g i v e n qu an titi e s n th e n u m b e r o f m e an s
I nc lu di n g th e e x t r e m e s th e n u m b e r o f t e rm s w ill b e n + 2 3
2 t e r m s in A P o f w hi c h
so th a t we h a ve t o n d a s er i e s o f n
a is th e r st an d b is th e l as t
L e t d b e th e co m m on di b r e n c e 3
h
b
th en
th e n 2 ) t er m
Le t

a an

be

w h ence
d

b _a
n +

()

2 b
a +

a,

a +

n +

is

27 ,

an d

th e

su m

()
b

thre e numb ers i n A

th e i r squares i s
th em
L t
b
the middl numb er
d
nu m b e r s a e
a+d
e

n +

Th e su m
29 3 3 n d

1) d 3

th e r e qui r e d m e a n s ar e
(
0+

Ex a mp le 1

an

th e c omm on di ffere n ce ; th e n the three

He n ce

wh en ce a = 9

an d

th e th ree num b er s a

d, 9, 9 + d

re

wh e nce
an d th e nu m b e r s
Ex amp le 2
e rm
1
3n

is

By p

utti ng

ar e

4, 9 , 1 4

F i d the
n

d:

5;

su m o

the rst

an

d n =p

r esp ectively we o b tai n

,

st te rm
su m

st t

2, l a

2 + 3p
(

9
1
=

Su m 4 9 , 4 4 ,
3

t o 2 0 t e rm s
t o 1 7 term s

to

19

t erm s

3p

1
=

IV

Su m 2 , 3 i,

erm =

EX A MPLES
.

te rm s

1 ;

the

ri es wh o s e

se

H I GH ER

32
4

Su m 3 ,

Su m 3 7 5,

Su m

73

Su m

10
.

Su m

11

Su m 2 a

12

13

14

15
.

16

17

18
n d t

en c

Su m

12

J3

t o 50 term s

to

3 b, 2 a

+h

a,

t o 4 0 terms
t o n term s

t o 2 1 te rm s

r i th m e ti c

I n se t 1 9

te rm s

3b, 6a
3a

25

56, 3 a

6, 4 a

m e an s b etween

%
an d

t 1 7 arith m eti c m ean s b e twe e n 3 a d

a
I n se rt 1 8 arith m et i c m e an s b etween
a d 1
I n ser t x ar i t h m et i c m ean s b e tween
Fi nd t h e s m o f th e rst odd n u m b ers
I an A P t h e r st ter m i s 2 t h e l as t t er m
I n ser

d 3x

h e d i fferen c e
.

7,

3 l,

t o 1 6 term s
t o 2 4 ter m s
t o 1 0 term s

Su m

L G EBRA

Su m

t o n terms

29 ,

th e

su

m 1 553

Th e su m o f 1 5 t erm s
19
e is 53 n d th e rst ter m
.

f an A P is 6 00,
.

an

th e c omm on d iffer

th i rd term f an A P is 1 8 an d th e seven th term is 30 3

he
o f 1 7 t er m s
Th e s m o f t h ree n u m b ers i n A P is 2 7 a d t h e i r p rod u c t is
21
504 3 n d th em
Th e su m o f th ree n u m b ers i n A P is 1 2 an d th e s m o f t h ei r
22
c ub es is 4 08 3 nd th em
F i nd th e su m o f 1 5 t erm s o f t h e seri es w h ose n te rm i 4 + 1
23

20
n d t

Th e
su m

th

24

Fi nd th e

25

F i nd th e

su

su

m
m

of

35

term s

o f 2? term s

f the

f th e

eri e s wh os e

e ri e w h o s e
s

m
n

te

2
rm is 3
7
n

t erm is a
]

26

i nd t h

e su

fn

t erm

s o

th e s e r i e s

I)

A R ITH

r ith m e ti c l

I n an A
47
de t e m i ne th e

v alu e s

33

Pr o g r e ssi on w h e n

to

M ETICA L P R OG RESSIO N

3 , a,

(
l a r e g i ven ,

we h a ve th e q u adra ti c e q u a ti o n

2a

(
n

1)d

w h e n b o th r oo t s ar e p o siti ve an d i n t eg ral th e r e is no di fc ulty

in i n te rp r e ti n g th e r e s ult c o rr e sp o n di ng t o e ac h
I n s o m e c a se s
a s uit ab l e i n t e r r e t ati o n c a n b e g i ve n f o r a neg ati ve v alu e o f n
p
.

E x a mp le

te rm s

Ho w m any

tak en t h at the su m m ay b e 6 6 ?

Here

th at i s

18 +

th e seri es

e t ke 1 1 t e rm s
a

9,

the su m o f w h i ch i s 6 6

6,

ust

(
44

7n

O,

or

Ifw

9,

(l l)

or

the ser ie s w e h ave

,

6,

3,

6 , 9, 12,

f th es e t rm a d
e ei
th
t b
k w r d fo
term s th e
is s
thu s lth ug h th e n eg tive s oluti on does not d i rectly
n s w er th e qu esti on p rop o sed we
en b l e d to give it i ntell i gi b l e m e n in g
th t it n s w er s qu sti on lo sely c onn cte d with th t to wh i c h
d we
th e p o s itive oluti on ppl i es

e la st
If w b g n at
al o 6 6 ; an d
su m

see

ac

ur

ar e

co u n

an

an

We c an j u stify thi s i n t e rpr e t ati o n i n th e ge n e ra l c ase

th e f o ll o w in g way
48

in

e qu ati o n t o de t e r m i n e

Th e

is

d)

2s

th e c ase u n de r di sc u ssi o n th e r o o t s o f thi s e qu ati on h a ve

Th e l ast
n
o ppo sit e si g n s l e t u s de n o t e th e m b y n an d
t e rm o f th e se r i e s c o rr e spon di n g t o n is
Si n ce in

(
n

1) d 3

thi s t e rm an d co u n t b ackwar ds th e c o mm o n
d an d th e su m o f n t er m s is
di e r e n c e m u st b e de n o t e d b y
if we

b eg i n

at

2
an

a + n

we sh a ll sh ew th at thi s
H H A
.

is

e qu a l t o

d)

34

H I GH ER
Fo r

Tl

th e e x p r e ssi on

2an 2

2n

2n

O
L

L G EBR A

2a

2n

l)d

d
2

d
2

cl / 2
.

(
n

2a

l) d
n

is th e
i nce n sati se s da
n
2a
d) n
23
O a d
d
o f th e r oo t s o f thi s e qu a ti on
ro
u
c
t
p
49
W h e n th e v alu e o f n is f ra c ti on a l th ere is n o e a c t n u m
b e r o f t e rm s w hi c h corre sp o n ds t o s u c h a s o luti o n
H w m ny te rm s o f th e ser i es 2 6 2 1
E
mp l
b t k en t
am o u t t
74 ?
s

xa

um o

f7

2
2

5n

h u th e n m b e r
i s g r e ter w h i l e t h
s

a dd s

We

or

term s i s 4 It will b found th at th e s

m f 8 t erm s i s l ess th an 7 4

e su

50

71

n =

148

57 n

5
( 4) (

or

o m e Mi s c e ll a neo u s

Th e

sum

s o

Ex a m p l e s

ar e

i n the

th

te rm s

term s f two rithm eti c seri es

4 + 2 7 ; d th e r ti o f th e i r 1 1 te rm s
rati
L t th e r s t t e rm a d c o mm on d i ffer en ce f th e t w se r i es b
d r es p ecti vely
2
7 +1
+ (1 ) d
we h ve
2
1 d
4
27
E x amp l e 1
o o f 7n + 1

a2 ,

He r e
a

th t i s

e a

a,

an

a1

a2

No w W e h av e

to

thu s th e requi r e d r ti o i s 4

se i es w h se

1, 2, 3,

by p

utti ng

21 ,

we

th e s
an

g1 + S2 + S3 +

ar e

h ence

+ 1 0d 2

111

1 0dl

2 a2 + 2 0d2

are

a u

1 48

S2 ,

st t e r m s
th e v l e

2 a1 + 2 0d1

th e value

ob tai n

E x amp le 2
If
r
o r
n d
1 , 3 , 5,

"

term s

ith eti c

m
f ar
ff r n

wh se com m on d i e e ces

+q

ar e

36

H I GH ER
9

If

10

nd th e
11

that

su

th e

su

term s

f7

o f n term s

If th e p

1
x

is 4 9 ,

term s o f an

th

Th e su m o f p t e m s o f
12
m
s
t
e
0 ; n d th e su m o fp
3
g

Th e su m
13
9 4 53 n d th em

Jx

an

th e

t o n terms

su

ar e a,

b,

f 17

terms is 289

(
g

L G EBRA

th e seri e s

Su m

A P

A P is g,

an

re pectively sh ew
s

th e su m o f

an d

terms is

o f fo ur i n tegers i n

A P is 2 4 ,
.

th ei r prod u c t

an

is

D i v i de 20 i n t o fo u p a ts w hi h are i n A P , an d s u h th at t h e
14
o
u
c
t
th
e

s t an d fou r th is t o th e p od u c t o f th e second an d thi rd

o
f
d
p
in th e ati o o f 2 t o 3
.

Th e p

15
th

t erm

th

term o f

A P is g,

an

an

the

th

t erm

is p ; n d

th e

Ho w man y
16
mak e 3 06 ?
.

o f n term s o f an

m u st b e

9 , 1 2,

tak en t o

the r term
If th e su m o f m t erm s o f an A P is to th e su m o f n t erm s as
18
2
2
1 is to 2
m t o n sh ew th at th e m te rm is t o th e n t erm as 2 72
l
Prove th at th e su m o f an o dd n umb er o f term s i n A P is eq u al
19
t o th e mi ddl e term m ultipli ed b y th e n umb e r o f term s

5n
3 ) fo r all v alu es o f n nd th e p
t er m
20 I f s n (
Th e n u m b e r o f t er m s i n an A P is even ; th e su m o f th e o dd
21
term s is 24 o f th e even terms 3 0 an d th e las t t erm excee ds th e rst b y
n d th e n u mb e r o f t e rm s
Th ere are two se ts o f n um b e rs eac h con sisti ng o f 3 term s i n A P
22
an d th e su m o f e ac h se t is 1 5
Th e co m m o n d i fference o f th e rst se t
is greater b y 1 th an th e co mm on di fferen c e o f th e se c ond se t an d th e
s
s
e
t
i
s
d
ro
u
c
t
o
f
th
e

r
t
to th e product o f th e secon d set as 7 to 8 : n d
p
th e n u mb ers
23
F i n d th e rel ati on b e tween 1: an d g i n o rder th at th e
m ean
b etween x an d 2g m ay b e th e s am e as t h e
me an b e tween
an d g
n me an s b ei n g i n se r ted in e ac h c as e
If th e su m o f an A P is th e sam e fo r p as fo r 9 t erm s sh ew
24
that I ts su m fo r p + g t erms is z ero
17

If th e

terms o f th e seri es

su

A P is 2 n + 3 a
.

11

n d

tn

th

7.

72.

th

C H A P TER

D E FI N I TIO N
Pro gr essio n w h e n th e y
.

PR O GR ESSI O N

G EO M ETRI C A L
51

Qu an titi e s

sa

a re

id t o

b e in G e o me t rical

i n c r e a se o r dec r e ase b y a co n sta n t fa c to r

Thu s e a c h o f th e f o ll ow i n g se r i e s f o rm s a G e o m e t r i c a l Pr o
.

r e ssio n :
g

3 , 6 , 1 2, 2 4 ,
1

27

a, a r , ar

g
,

ar

3
,

Th e co n st an t fa c t o r is al so c a ll e d th e co m mo n r a t io , a n d it is
f o u n d b y di v i di ng a n y t e rm b y th a t w hi c h i mm e di at e ly p r ecedes
it I n th e rst o f th e ab o ve ex am pl e s th e comm o n r a ti o is 2 3 in
1
th e sec o n d it is
3 in th e thi r d it is r
.

5
-

52

I f we

e x am i n e

t he

a , ar , a r

e ri es

ar

a
,

ar

we n o ti ce th a t in a n y te m th e in d ex of
t ha n th e n u m b er of th e ter m in th e ser ies

a lwa y s

less b y

on e

th e 3 t e rm is ar 3
th
th e 6 t e rm is ar 3
m
th
th e 20 t e r m is ar ;
u
a n d ge n e r all
i
s
th
e
t
r
m
e
y
p
If n b e th e n u m b e r o f te r m s an d if l deno t e th e l a s t
t e rm we h a ve
2
Thu s

o r n

th

E F I N ITI O N

W h e n th r ee qu an titi e s ar e in G eo m e t r i c al
Pr o g r e ssi o n th e m i ddl e o ne is c all e d th e g e o met r i c me an b e t wee n
t h e o th e r t wo
53

H I GH ER

38

L G EBRA

To n d th e g eo m etr ic m ea n b etween t wo g iv en qu

Let

Th en

d b b e th e t wo qu a n titi e s 3 G
'
a , G, b a r e i n G
P,

an

ince

tities

th e g eom e t r i c

m e an

e a c h b e i ng e qu a l t o th e c o mm on

r ti o 3
a

ab

w h en c e

To in ser t a g iv en
t wo g iv en q u a n tities
54

an

n u

mbe

r f
o

eo
g

me t r ic m ea n s b et ween

Let

th e gi ven qu a n titi e s n th e n u m b er o f m e a n s
I n all th e r e w ill b e n + 2 t e rm s 3 s o th a t we h a ve t o d a
2 t erm s i n G P o f w hi c h a is th e r st a n d b th e l a st
se r i e s o f n
L e t r b e th e co m m o n r ati o 3
h
b
th en
th e n 2 ) t erm
a an

d b be

ar

+ l

(
1)

th e r e qui re d

H ence

v alu e f o u n d

m e an s

a re

ar ,

ar

"

wh e re

s i th
x

In

be

th e c omm n r ti o ;
th en 5 th e si th term
o

1
32

h ence
d th e m e s

w
an

an

L et

an

th e

in

s rt 4 g eo m etri c m e n s b etw ee n 1 60 d 5
We h ve to d 6 term i n G P f w hi ch 1 6 0 i s th e rst

E x amp le

h as

ar e

8 0, 4 0, 2 0, 1 0

an

d 5

th e

G EO M ETR ICA L
To
P o g r essio n

n d th e
i
f

55
.

Le t

t e rm s

b e th e r s t
an d s th e s u m

m ulti pl y i ng

n u

mb e

ar

u b t ra c ti o n

by

ar

we h a ve

r,

'"

ar

1)

ar

"

th e sig n s in n u m era t o r

ar

'

form

Th e

Su m

th e se r es

com mon r ti o

ar

"

(
1)

d deno m i n a t o r ,
"

"

os

n r

wh i ch i s s om eti me u sef l

E x a mp le

th e

r
(
)
s
r
1
N E I t wi l l b found c onven i ent to r em e mb e r
2 ) i n ll c ses e ce p t w h e
usi g (
i s p it i
Si n ce
th e formul (
1 ) m y b w ri tten
a7

an

"

s,

(
l
( )
r

a r

th e n u mb r

OT

G eo m et ic a l

fo r

t er m s i n

rs

Ch a ng i ng

r (
3f

t e rm r th e co m m o n rati o
r e qui re d Th e n

eve ry t e rm
rs

Hence b y

su

39

PR O G REsSI O N

1,

g re a t e r

t o 7 term s

h
e
n ce b y form ul
3
;

su m

ve an d

th form give n ab ove

bo

4 63

23 1 5
1 28

X a
5

(
2)

th an 1

H I GH ER

40
56

C o n si de r

th e se r i e s

L G EBRA

3 ,

1
Th e

su

to

t e rm s

1
2

e
a r s th a t h oweve r m an y t e rm s b e
pp
t ak en th e su m o f th e ab o ve seri e s is al way s l e ss th an 2 A l so we
se e th at b y m ak i ng n sufc i en tl y l a r ge we c an m ak e th e f r a c ti o n
F

r o m thi s r e sult it

1
2
o

11

a s sm al

t e rm s th e

fr om

Thu s b y

t ak i ng

t o differ

b e m ade

s u m c an

by

as

F r om

A rt

m ore

55 we

ge n e ral c ase
a

littl e

as

um b e r

we p l ea se

h ave

1
l

Su pp o se

th e

u f c i e n t

is di sc u sse d

a s

th e n e x t a r ti c l e

In
57

l
e
ase
p

we

as

sm a

is

a c ti o n
ro
e
r
f
r
p p

ar

th en th e gre at e r th e v alu e o f
a7
a n d co n se qu e n tl
o
f
n d
a
y
3

ll e r

is

th e v alu e o f

"

th e r e f o r e b y m ak i ng n su ffic i en tly l a rge we c an m ak e th e su m o f

a
n
t e rm s o f th e se ri e s di ffe r f r o m
b y a s sm all a qu an tity as
l r
we p l e ase
Thi s r e sult is u su all y st at e d thu s : th e su m of a n inn it e
,

nu

mb er

ter m s of a decr ea sin g Geo m etr ical

o r m o r e b r i e fly
E xamp le 1
is 2 1 6
p rod

u ct

D eno

th e

su

Pr o gr essio n is

F i nd thr e numb er i n G P w ho e
s

m to in n ity is
e

su m

is

19,

an

wh o se

te the num b er s

the num b ers a e 3 6

r

6r

by
.

2
,

a , ar

th e n

Cz

x a x ar

21 6 ;

h nce
e

a:

6,

an

P R O GRESSIO N

GEO M ETR IC A L

41

6
Wh

en ce

'

hu the numb e rs

ar e

4, 6, 9

3
_

i n nite n um b er f term s in G P i s 1 5 d
m f their squ r s i s 45; d the e ri s
th
d enot the r s t t e rm r th e c mmon ti o ; th e n th e m f th e
L t
m f th e i r squ r e i s
t rm s i s I
d th
1
Ex amp le 2

e su

su m o

Th e

an

a e

ra

e su

an

2)
(

45

( (
rom (
)
) d(

df

g 2) b y

1 an

wh en ce r

hu the

1)

iii

th e r efore

an

eri e s

is 5,

5;

= 5
.

3
3

EXA MPLES

Su m

Su m

Su m

1
,

2
,

Su m 1 6 2

Su m 1 , 5,

Su m 3 ,

Su m 1 ,

J3

term s

to

t erm s
t o 7 term s
m
s
t
r
e
p

2,

to

10

to

to

4,

t o 8 te rms

Su m

to 6 t erm s

to

2,

Su m 2 ,

an

Hen ce

su

ivi d i

an

2n

12

term s

te rm s

to

te rm s

H IGH ER

42
10

Su m

11

I n se r

12

13

14

18

ge

o m e tr i c

1,

1 6 6 5,

J3

3,

1 1 1,
-

74 ,

19

%3

fa

an

4 5,

01 5, 0 005

an

14

J42

7,

t erm

Th e fth

eri es

17

h e r t 6 term s f
t h e c omm on r t i o

15

is

ti m es th e

th e se c ond t e rm i s

su

P is 8 1 ,

an

2 4 3 n d

c om m on r ti o

Th e s u m o f a G P w h o s e
term is 4 8 6 3 n d t e rst term

22
l as

t 6 geom etr i c m ean s b etween

th e foll owi ng s er i es to i n n i ty :

th e

e n s b e twe n 2

tr i c m ean s b etw e en 3 3 a

20 Th e su m o f t
e rs t 3 t e rm 3 n d
21

I n s er

t3

t o 7 t e rm s

16

I n se r 5 geom e

Su m

th

L GEBR A

is 3 is 7 2 8,

an

th e

G P th e rs t t erm is 7 th e l ast t er m 4 4 8 an d th e su m
h e com m on rati o
Th e s u m o f th ree n u m b ers i n G P i s 3 8 an d t h e i r p rod u c t is
24
1 7 2 8 ; n d th em
25 Th e con t i n u ed p rod u c t o f t h ree n u m b ers i n G P is 2 1 6 an d
th e su m o f th e p rod u c t o f th em i n p ai rs is 1 56 3 n d th e n u m b ers
If
a d in
denot e t h e su m o f th e s e r i es
an d
26
f
2
p
th e s u m o f th e s eri es 1 r + r p
a
a d in
rove
t
h
t
f p

In
23
8 89 3 n d t

27

th at

If

th e p

th

terms o f
aq

l c p

P be
.

q=

su

it

a,

b,

r es p ec t i v e ly

f an n n e n m b er
is 1 9 2 3 nd
e s er

xa

e.

23

4 2 32 3 23
4

23

23

10

4
10

23
+

i0

23

+
5

rove
p

o f t erm s o f a G P i
u
h i c ub e s
th
i es
58
R ec u r r i ng dec i m al s fu rn i sh a goo d illu st ra ti o n
G eo m e t r i c a l Pr ogre ssi on s
E mp l
F ind th e value f

Th e
28
su m o f t e r

4,

an

th e

f in n it e

44

H I GH ER

To

60

d th e

d)

a,

su

2 d)

L G EBRA

t er ms

th e

(
a

in wh ic h ea ch ter m is th e p o du c t
a r ith m etic a n d g eo me tr ic ser ies

ser ies

3 d)

co

rr

3
,

esp o n

din g ter m s in

an

D en o t e

th e

su

By

S 3 th e n

m by

a+n

ar

u b t ra c ti o n

S l

(
(
(
(
()

dr 1
a +

COR

W r it e

a + n

dr

dr

I d)

"

"

() ()

l d)

a + n

th e f o rm

S in

l d)

dr 1

a + n

a + n

th e n if r< l we c an m ak e r as sm all as we pl ease b y t ak i n g n

h
i
ch
s ufc i en tl
m
w
g
r
e
a
t
I
thi
c
a
e
a
u
i
n
h
a
l
t
h
t
e
r
s
s
n
s
s
m
t
t
a
l
e
s
y
g
,

in v o lv e

o b t ai n

b e ma de so sm a ll t h a t they m ay b e n eg lec ted, we

d7
i
n n it
We
sh all r e f e r
o r th e su m t o
f
2
y
1
r)
a g ai n in C h a
X
I
X
p

ca n

t o thi s p o i n t

u mm i n g to i n n ity se ri e s o f thi s cl ass it

d
a
i
s
r
o
cee
n th e f o ll ow i n g e x am l e
p
p
In

E x amp le 1

If x < 1 ,

su m

the s eri e s
to in n ity

L et

3
xS

S l

2
3
2
x
3
x
+
+
+

is

u ally b e st t o

us

G EO M ETR IC A L
Ex amp le 2

Su m

PRO G R EssIO N

th e se ri es
4

Let

10

S:

1 +

3n

3 11

16

'

v b

Su m

Su m

Su m

t o n terms

Su m 1 +

Su m 1

Su m

EXA MPLES

35

oo

1 +

31

15

t o i nn ity

t o i n n ity
3

22

te rm s

45

+
5

t o i nn ity

t o n t er m

t o i n n ity

that th e (
term o f a G P o f wh i c h th e r t ter m
n + l )
is a an th e thi rd ter m b is e q ual t o th e
t e rm o f a G P o f
whi c h th e rs t term is a an d th e fth te rm 5
Th e su m o f 2 n term s o f a G P wh os e r t t erm i s a a d c m
8
m o n rati o r is eq u al to th e su m o f n o f a G P w h o s e r t term i b a d
c ommon rati o r Prove that b is eq ual to t h e su m o f t h rs t t w o
terms o f th e rs t s eri es
7

Prove

46

H IGH ER
9

F i nd th e

r an

d b b ei n g p ro p e

+ 1+b+b

r frac ti on

3
r

o f th ree n u mb ers In G P is 7 0 3 if th e two e x trem es

c h b y 4 an d th e m ean b y 5 th e p rod u c ts are i n A P ;

10 Th e su m
b e m ult pl ed e a
n d th e n u m b er s
.

G EBR A

o f th e i nn it e seri e s

su

AL

i i

Th e rs t two t erm s
11
an d every t er m is 3 t m e s t

it

togeth er eq ual t o 5
th e term s t h at foll ow it 3 nd
G

f an in n e
e su m o f al l
o

th e seri es
Su m th e fo ll owi n g s er i e s

ar e

12

13

+ a,

14

15

3a

t o n term

+ 2 a,

y)

1
a

to

i2

16

17

t o n t erm s

2p

term s

t o Inn i ty

(y )

+x x

5a +

7
I f a, b ,

d be

c,

in G

P , p rove
.

th at

d)

2
.

th e arithm eti c m ean b etween a a d b is twi c e as gre at as th e

= 2+
eo
m
e
t
r
i
c
m
e
a
n
s
h
ew
t
h
a
t
2
a
b
3
J
J3
g
Fi nd th e su m o f n t erm s o f th e seri es th e
19
t e rm o f whi c h is
18

If

th

1)

27

'

F i nd th e s u m o f 2 n t erm s o f a seri es o f whi c h every even t erm

is at ti m e s th e t er m b e fore it an d every odd t erm 0 t i m es th e t erm
b efore it th e rs t term b ei n g u n ity
20

21
an d
.

a,

22

deno te th e su m o f n term s o f a G
c om m on rati o r n d th e su m o f SI 8 3
If

If

wh o se rs t term s

ar e

1 , 2,

ar e

rove
t
h
a
t
p
23

If r

wh ose rst term

is

th e s um s o f i nn it e geom etri c seri es

an d w h o s e co m m on r ati o s are

il

S2 ,

I
+
P

r e sp e c t iv e ly ,

Hen c e sh ew th at

r h

d p os iti ve, an d m is a p o siti ve i n tege , s ew th at

2m + 1
m
<
r
1
1
r)
2m l ) r
n
r
is i n den itel y s m all wh en n is i n den it l y g re at
n
an

(
-

C H A P TER V I

H A R M O N I CA L

P R O GR ESSIO N TH EO R EM S
THE P R O G RESS I O N S
.

CO

NN EC TE D

W IT H

61

E F I N ITIO N

Th r e e

o
o
Harm o m c al Pr o gr e ssmn

qu a n titi e s

wh en

b,

a,

c a r e sa

u
er
qu
a n titi e s
ar e
sa i d t o b e in
m
b
f
o
y
Progre ssi on w h e n eve ry th ree con sec uti ve t er m s
m o n ic a l Pr og r e ssi on
A

id to

b e in

Ha r m o mc a l
ar e
i n Ha r

62
Th e r ec ip o ca ls of q u a n tit ies in fl a r m o n ic a l Pr o g r e ss io n
a r e in A r ith m et ic a l Pr o r essi o n
g
.

By den iti on ,

if

a,

b,

c a re

in
a

Ha r m on i c a l Progre ssi o n ,
b

d i v i di ng

e very t erm

by

()
b

b) ,

a b c,

l
c

w hi c h

rove
th
e
ro
o
iti
on
s
s
p
p p

Ha rm on i c a l p ro p er ti e s

c hi e y i n t ere ti g

b ec a u s e
o f th e i
i m p o rt a nce i n G eo m e t ry an d in th e Th eory o f So u n d
i n A l ge b a th e p o p o siti o n j u st p rove d is th e on ly o n e o f a n y
i m p or ta nce Th ere is n o ge n eral f or m ul a fo r th e su m o f a n y
n u m b e r o f qu a n titi e s in
Ha r m on i a l P ogre ssi on
Qu e ti on s i n
H P a r e ge n e a ll y so l ve d b y i n ver ti ng th e t e r m s, a n d m a k i ng u s e
o f th e
P
o
e
ti
e
o
f
th
e
cor
e
o
i
ng
A
s
n
d
s
p p
p
63

ar e

r
.

H I GH ER

48
64

a,

To fin d th e h ar mo n ic m ean b etween two g iv en q u

Let
l

h en

L GEBRA

t w o qu an titi e s H th e i r h arm o n i c

b e the
1

I
;

2a b

Here 6 is

sert 4 0 h rm on i c m e n s b twee n 7
a

th e

m e an 3

H
In

[I

tit ies

A P 3

are In

Examp le

an

term

an

an

P wh o se r st t rm i s

3 let d b

th e

c ommon di fferen ce ; th n
e

hu the

m on

i c me

r thm eti c

a i

41d ,

ar e

41

3 an d

th er e fo e
r

t h e h ar

a s are

65
.

I f A , G,

m e an s b e t wee n

H be

a an

d b,

th e a r ith m e ti c ge o m e t r i c
we h av e p r o ve d
,

H
Th e r e f ore

th at

wh en c e d

mean s

AH

2 ab

h a rm on i c

my

H
J

ab

th e ge o m e t r i c m e an b e t wee n
th e se r e sult s we se e th at
a

an

is, G is

F r om

5
6
J

G 3
2

an

dH

P R O GRESSI O N

H A R M O N IC A L
w hi c h
m ea n
me a n

49

is p o siti v e if a a n d b a r e p o s iti ve 3 th ere f ore th e

o
a n y t wo p o s it iv e q u a n t it ies is g r ea t e
h
t
a
n
t
h
e
i
f

a r ith m etic

m e tr ic

eo

A H, we s e e th a t G is i n t er
A l s o f ro m th e e qu a ti on
m e di a t e in v alu e b e t ween A a n d H 3 an d it h as b een p rove d th a t

th ere fo re 0 H 3 th at is, th e a r ith metic, g eo met ic, a n d

A
h a r m o n ic me a n s b e tween a n y t wo p o sit iv e q u a n t ities a r e in d escen d in g
of m ag n itu de
o r de

66
fo r sk ill
b y so m e
.

Mi scell a neo u s qu e sti on s i n th e Progre ssi on s a ffor d s c o p e

a n d i n en uit y
s o luti on b e i ng o ft en n e a tl
th
e
e
e
c
t
e
f
f
d
g
y
a r ti ce
Th e stu den t w il l n d th e f o ll ow i ng
s p ec i al
,

hi n ts u se ful

I f th e sa m e qu an tity b e a dde d t o , o r s u b t r a t e d f ro m , a l l
t e ms O f a n A P , th e e sulti ng t e m s w ill f or m a n A P w ith
rt
s a m e co m m on difference a s b e f o e
A
[

th e
th e

I f all th e t er m s o f a n A P b e m ulti p li e d
th e sam e qu an tity , th e e sulti n g t er m s w ill f orm
w ith a new co m m on di ffe ence [ A r t
2

r
r

3
sa m e
sa m e
4

all

a re i n G P ,
I f a, b , c,
s i nce , b y d en iti on ,
.

r ti

on

th e y

E x amp le 1

in H P
.

If

ar e

di v i d e d b y
G P w ith
.

in

A P
.

co n

t in

d p ro

u e

i n con ti n u e d p ro p or ti on

s h ew th t
a

e ch te rm w e
a

th t i s
a

(
a

b + c,

d ivi d i n g

e c h t rm b y
a

( (
a

+c,

b +c

+ c b + ab

ca

+ b ) ar e

ar e

in A P
.

in A P
.

1
c

+b

re

In

A P

H P

t h a t is ,

H H A
.

m ay

+h

+ b ) b + c)

1
,

th at

see

( (

b + c)

+ h)

th e
th e

ddi n g a b + ac + b e to

By

l o in

r r

o r

ar e a s

C onver s e l y , a ser i e s O f qu a n titi e s

e
e p e sen t e d b y x , xr , a r ,

be

an

di v i de d b y
A P, but

th e t erm s o f a G P b e m ulti p li e d
qu an tity th e r e sulti ng t erm s w ill f or m
co mm on r ati o a s b e f o r e [A r t
If

o r

are

H I GH ER

50
.

o r an

l:

H en ce b y sub stituti on

(
d

o r

8ad
2

2 a)

q g

r, r

I f th e

n um b e r

e ch
a

1) d

f an A P
.

1) d

{ +
{a +

He n c e p

q, q

(
p

r, r

(
()

68
mb e

7 2.

To

n u

t e rm s is

rs

d}

+ a

1) d }

s ar e

in G

pu

in G

su

a
a

1 d

(
n

im il a rl y

l)

(
n

(
( 1 ) d}
r

66

1 ) d}

1) d }

()
-

1 d}

o ft en r e f e r re d t o a s th e
o f th e ser i e s is n
an d th e s u m o f
ar e

s h ew th t

[A rt

1 d

su

th e

sq u a es

th e

r st

th en
+ n

th e n

(
;

m b e deno t e d b y S 3

d th e

We h a ve
c
h
ang i ng
an d b
y

P,

L e t th e

th e rst

+ q

1 ) d}

Th e n u m b er s 1 , 2 , 3 ,
th
te m
n a tu r a l n u m b er s ; th e n
67

l) dl

(
-

1) d

th ese r ati o s
a

ar e

()
()

(
(1 ) d

+ q

a+

t e rm s

+ p

2 a) 2 ,

With th e u su l not ti on w e h ve
a

3.

te rm s

th

in G P

s ar e

O;

d : 2a

d
(

th e s m
p rov e th t

Si n ce th e g i v e n r el ti on i s ru e f
a

d : 2a

E x amp le 3

th e l st te rm d th e com m n di ffer e n ce a
d + 2 l)
P b c o n ecte d b y th e equati on 8 d (

If l
E x amp l e 2
rm o f an A
o fn

te s

L GEBR A

in

(
to
( (
( (

1)

3n

3
2

3n

1,

2
.

l 3

(
()
n

1)

1 3

13

n a tu r a

52

H I GH ER

L G EBRA

re f e r r i ng t o th e re sult s we h av e j u st p rove d it w ill

b e conven i en t t o i n t ro du ce a no t a ti on w hi c h th e s tu de n t will fr e
qu en tl y m ee t w ith in H i gh e r Ma th em ati c s We sh al l deno te th e
s er i e s
In

70
.

En ;

En

by

b y 2n 3

w h e r e 2 p l a ce d
w hi c h th a t t e rm
E x amp l e 1

b e f ore a t erm si g n i e s
is th e ge n e a l ty p e

Su m

the seri es
an

d by

s im i l r form w e s h ll h ve two c lum n s

um b e rs d th e other f th e i r squ r es
a

an

th e s

um

Eu

L et

th e s

um

be
S

2 2

one

1
2
-

( (

+ 1 ) 2n + 1 )

( 1)
+

82

8u

2,

2,

I n s er
In

th

te rm i s

(
n

2
1
+ )

6n

2
( 1) (
n

+ 1)

2n

2n

F i nd th e fo u rth t erm i n eac h

(
)
)
(

n n

2u

VI

se rt fou r h rm on i c m e n
a

th e followi ng s eries :

t two h arm on i c m ea n s b e twe e n

a

t erm s o f

EXA MPLES
1

all

term s th e se ri es wh o se
d enot e d b y S th en

Su m t o

E x amp l e 2

te rm s
writi n g dow n e ch te rm i n a
c on s i stin g f th e r st atural
n

th

su

Th e

th e

b etwe

5 an d 1 1

en 3

an d

2
'

13

8n 3

6n

2
.

EX A

M P L ES

PRO GR ESSI O N S

O N THE

I f 1 2 an d 9 3 ar e th geo m e t r i
4
iv ely , b e twee n two n u m b ers, n d th e m
.

If

5
.

e c

th e

h an

m t ri m e an s
o f 4 to 9

n o n ic

to

12

as

53

an

rm on i c

m e an s ,

re p e c t
s

two q ua ti ti es is to th eir geo

i n th e rati o
p rove th at t h q u an t i ti e s a

m ean b e tween

13,

re

If a , b ,

be

H P,

in

h e w t h at

a :a

eq ual t o
8

th at
9

m,

I f b is

(
q
q

term s o f a H

th e h arm on i c

p)

F i nd t h e
10

3n

13
16
P,

11

14

2n +

17

I f l , m,

f an A P w o s e
d fferen e as m + l
o

19

7,

re pe c tiv e ly p rov e
s

+ p

a an

c,

rove
t
h
t
a
p

ri es wh o s e

"

12

3 4 + 2n
n

f
) t e rm
(
h ew t h t th e r ti o
d

+ 1

th

4n 3

A P

an
o

in

th e c om m on

7t

th

to

f
of

term s o f a ser i e s

n d

be

t h e s er i e s
F ind th e su m o f n term s o f th e s erie s wh o se n term

th e

is

(
n

+ 1)

(
6n

u titi t h

i se rted two arith m et i c

two h arm oni c m ean

If b ween an y wo q an
e s ere b e n
o geo m e
m ean s A 1 , A 2 3
m e an s G 1 , 0 2 ; an d
H2 ; s ew a G 1 0, H, H,

20

th

4n

et

ar e

A P is
.

is

15

"

term

th

th

t e rm h e

th ree mm b e s i n G P p rove that th e r t ter m

m
m an d n ter m s ar e i n H P is t o th e c o mm on

ar e

If th e s u m
18
term an d th e n atu re
.

se

an

b,

a,

r ar e i n H P
G
d i fferen c e t o th e rst term i n th e
.

P be

the

d
mn

'

th

If
e
an d m , n ,

t e rm s o f th e

fn

ca

m e a n b e twe e n

su

th

If t h e

H P be

t rm o f
e q u al t o n a
m i 7%
p rov th at th e (
) t erm is eq ual t o

If t h e m

th

tw
tri c
h th t
I f p b e th e rs t o f n ar ith m et i c m e an s b e tween two n u m b e s
21
an d q th e rs t o f n h ar m on i c m ean s b e tween th e s am e two n u m b e
p
p rove th at th e v alu e o f q c anno t l i e b etween p a d
.

rs ,

F i n d th e su m o f t h e c u b es o f th e t e r m s o f an
th at it is exac tly d i vi s i b l e b y th e s u m o f th e term s
22

A P,
.

an d

s hew

54

H I GH ER

Pi L Es
To
71
n
r
mi
o
a
d
py

d th e

a sq u ar e

to p

ex t

sh o

ELLS

g ed

arr an

in

(
( )(
+

2u

1)

To n d t h e n u m b er
m
i
a se of wh ich is a n
r
a
d
t
h
e
b
py

Su pp o se th a t e a c h
o f s h o t in th e
n um b e

th a t

A
rt
[

sh o

eq u

ila ter a l tr ian g le

in

g ed

a r an

(
)
(
;
n

S
n

thi s r e sul t wr it e n
th e n u mb e r o f s h o t i n th e

o r

f or n an d w e thu s o b tai n
l ay e rs

1, n
2,
2 n d, 3 r d,
:

13

1
2

( (
l)

n +

n +

2)

A
rt
[

r f

To n d the n u mb e
73
r a m id th e b ase o
i
w
h
i
c
h
s
a
py
f
.

an

re sp ec ti ve ly o f

Il t

b e th e
th e b ase

Th e t o p l ay e r
n l l Sh 0t
3
-

ho t
r ec tan le
g
o

ar r an

so

d in

u m b e r o f s h o t i n th e l o n g

an

co n si st s

i gl e r ow o f

s n

mp le te

h or t si de

on

co

th e n ex t l ay e r th e n u m b e r is 2
i n th e nex t l ay e r th e n u m b er is 3
d

e
g

in

an

mp le te

i de o f th e b ase co n ta i n s n sh o t 3 th en th e
l owe st l ay e r is

In

L et

co

is

mp lete

i de o f th e b a se con t ai n s n s h o t 3 th e n th e
l owe st l ay er is n 3 i n th e ne t it is n l ) 3
u
on
an d so
p t o a s i n g l e sh o t at th e
s

72

co

SH

A ND

b ase

L GEBRA

SH O T

m b er

n u

Su pp o s e th a t e ac h
n u m b e r o f sh o t in th e

i n th e

OF

i n th e l owe st l ay er th e n u m b er

is

(
m
(
m

(
m

2) 3

3) 3

l ),

o r

P I L ES
S

OF S

HOT

A ND

H ELL S

55

(
(
(
m

+ u

n + n

2
n

0
2

1)

3
m
{

( (
n +

1 ) 3m

n +

2n

l}

l)

74
To fin d th e n u m b er of sh o t a r r a n g ed in
a
m
i
r
d th e b ase of which is a r ec ta n g le
py
.

in co mp le te

an

Let a
to p l yer
a

o f s h o t i n th e

t wo

i de s o f t h e

( (
( (

in
in

d b de n o t e th e n u m b e r
th e n u m b e r o f l ay e rs

th e t o p l ay e r th e n u m b e r o f sh o t is a b 3
th e ne x t l ay e r th e n u mb e r is a l ) b l ) 3
th e n e x t l ay e r th e n u m b e r is a 2 ) b 2) 3

In

an

an

so

0 11

( (
( )( ) (

i n th e l o we st l ay e r th e n u m b e r
ab +

o r

ab n

a +

is

l)

l)

(
n

l)

l)

l)

(
2n

u m er i c al e x am pl e s it is gener a lly e asi e r t o u se th e

f o ll o wi n g m e th o d
F i nd th e n um b er f s h ot i n a i n com p l ete squ r e pi l e f 1 6
E mp l
c our ses h aving 1 2 s h ot i n e ach i d e f th e t p
I f w e p l ace on th e g i ve n p i l e a squ ar e p i l e h avi n g 1 1 s h o t i n e h s i d e f
th e b se we ob tai n a c om p l ete square p i l e f 2 7 c ourses ;
75

In

xa

ac

an

al

n um b e r

s o n um b e r

27

s hot i n th e dd e d p i l e

11

sh ot i n th e c om p l et

pil

n um b e r o f s h o t i n t h e i n c o m p l ete p i l e

28

6930

12

23

6
6 42 4

506 3

[ A rt

56

H I GH ER

L GEBRA

EX A MPLES

VI b

F i nd th e n um b er o f sh o t i n
A sq u ar e p i l e h avi n g 1 5 s h o t i n e ac h Si de o f th e b ase
1
A tri an g ular p il e h av i n g 1 8 s h o t i n e ac h s i de o f th e b ase
2
A re c tan gul ar p il e th e l eng th an d th e b readth o f th e b ase c on
3
tai n in g 50 an d 2 8 s h o t resp e cti vely
A n i n co mp l et e t ri an gul ar p il e a si de o f th e b as e h avin g 25s h o t
4
an d a Si de o f th e t o p 1 4
5 A n i nco m pl ete sq u ar e p i l e o f 2 7 co u rs es h avi n g 4 0 sh o t i n eac h
s i de o f th e b as e
Th e n u m b e r o f sh o t i n a c o m p l e te re c tan gul ar p i l e is 2 4 3 9 5 ; if
6
th ere are 3 4 s h ot i n th e b read t h o f th e b ase h ow m any ar e t h ere i n it s
l en gth l
Th e n u m b er o f sh o t i n t h e t o p l ay er o f a sq u are p il e is 1 6 9
7
an d i n th e l owe st l ay e r is 1 08 9 ; h ow m an y S h o t doe s th e p i l e con tai n ?
Fi nd th e n um b er o f s h o t i n a com pl et e re c tangul ar pil e o f
8
1 5 c o u r se s h av i n g 2 0 s h o t i n t h e l on ger s i de o f it s b ase
F i nd th e n um b er o f Sh o t i n an i n c om pl et e rec tang ul ar p i le
9
th e n um b er o f s h o t i n th e s i des o f it s u pp er c o urs e b ei ng 1 1 an d 1 8
an d th e n u mb er i n t h e s h or t er S i de o f it s l owe s t c o u r s e b e i n g 3 0
1 0 W h at is th e n u m b er o f sh o t r e q ui red t o c o m p l et e a r e c tan gul ar
a
n
d
a
n
d
l
i
l
e
h
v
i
n
1
s
h
o
t
i
n
th
e
l
on
er
h
or
t
er
i
de
re
e
c
ti
e
a
5
6
S
s
s
o
f
v
p
g
g
p
y
it s u pp er c o ms e ?
Th e n u m b er o f sh o t i n a t ri an g ul ar p i l e is gr eat er b y 1 50 t h an
11
h alf t h e n u m b er o f sh o t i n a sq uare p i le the n um b er o f lay ers i n eac h
b ei n g th e sam e 3 nd t h e n um b er o f S h o t i n t h e l owes t l ay er o f t h e t ri
an gu lar p il e
Fi nd t h e n u m b er o f Sh o t i n an i n c o m pl ete sq uare pil e o f 1 6
12
c o u rses wh en th e n u m b er o f sh o t i n t h e upp er cou rse is 1 005 l ess th an
i n th e l owest c ou rse
Sh ew th at t h e n u m b e r o f s h o t i n a s q uare p i l e is one fo ur th th e
13
n u m b er o f sh ot i n a t ri angular p i l e o f do ub l e t h e n um b er o f c o urse s
If th e n u m b er o f s h o t i n a t r i an g ular p il e is t o th e n u m b er o f
14
s h o t i n a s u are
l
i
q
p e o f do u b l e t h e n u m b er o f c o ur s es as 1 3 t o 1 7 53 nd
th e n um b er o f sh ot i n e ac h p i l e
1 5 Th e valu e o f a tri an gul ar p i le o f 1 6 lb s h o t is 51 3 if t h e
v alu e o f i ron b e 1 03 6 d p er cwt nd th e n um b er o f s h o t i n t h e
l owest l ay er
I f from a co m pl et e sq u are p i l e o f n c o u r ses a t r i an g ular p il e o f
16
th e sam e n umb er o f c ou rse s b e form ed 3 sh ew that th e r e m aining sh o t
wi ll b e just s uf c i en t to form anot h er t ri ang u l ar pil e an d n d th e
n um b er o f sh o t i n it s s i de
,

C H A PTER V II

L ES

SCA

N OTA TI O N

OF

o r di n a ry n u m b er s w ith w hi c h we a r e a c qu ai n t e d i n
A r ith m e ti c a r e e x p r e sse d b y m e an s o f m ulti pl e s o f p o we rs o f 10 3
f o r i n stan ce
76

Th e

2 5= 2

1 0 + 53

Thi s m e th o d o f r e p re s en ti ng n u m b er s is c a ll e d th e c o mmo n o r
d en ary scal e o f n o t at io n , an d t e n is sa i d t o b e th e r adix o f th e
s c al e
Th e sy m b o l s e m p l oy e d i n thi s sy st e m o f n o t ati o n a r e th e
n i n e di g it s a n d z ero
.

li k e m a nne r
th e ra di x o f a sc al e

r th a n t e n m a
m
u
e
r
o
th
e
b
b
e t ak en a s
y
y
o f n o t a ti on 3 thu s if 7 is th e r a di x a n u m b er
e x p re sse d b y 24 53 re p r e sen t s 2 7 + 4 7
5 7
3 3 an d i n
thi s sc al e n o d igit hi g h e r th a n 6 c an o c c u r
A g a i n i n a s c al e w h o s e r a di x is deno t e d b y r th e a b ove
n u m b er 2 453 st a n ds f o r 2r
5r
3
More genera lly if i n
th e sc al e w h o s e r adi x is r w e den o t e th e dig it s b eg i n n i n g w ith

s
th a t in th e u n it s pl ace b y d a
m
th
en
th
e
n
u
b
e
r
o
3
f or m e d w ill b e r ep r e sen t e d b y

In

an

a ?

n
,

+ a _ r
2
"

o ,

re

2
1

a r

o ,

a r e i n t eger s a ll l e ss th an
w h ere th e coe ffi c i en t s a
w hi c h a n y o n e o r m o r e a ft e r th e r s t m ay b e z ero
n

Hence i n

ran g i ng f r o m

thi s scal e th e di g it s
0 to r
l

are

i n n u m b er th e i r v alu e s
,

Th e n am e s Bi n a ry , Tern a ry , Qu a t ern a r y , Qui n a ry , Sen a ry ,

Se pt e n a ry , O c t e n a r y , No n a r y , D en a ry , U n de n a r y , a n d D u o den a ry
a re u se d t o de n o t e th e s c a l e s co rre s on di ng t o th e v a lu e s t wo ,
p
o f th e r a di x

77

58

H I GH ER

th e

In

AL

G EBRA

c l e we h ll r e qui re Sy m b o l
w hi c h a e gre at e r th n n i e I t is u u su l
s c l e hi g h e r th an th at w ith r di x t we l ve 3 w h e

de n ar y ,
th e di git s

un

s a

r
a
t o r e p re sen t
n
n
a
t o con si de r an y a
a
n
n ece ssa r
we
s h a ll e m l o
th
e
m
b
o
l
s t e T a s di g it s t o den o t e
s
y
p y
y

t en
e l eve n an d t we l v e
I t is e sp ec i all y wo r th y o f n o ti ce th a t in e v e ry s c a l e 1 0 is th e
s m b ol n o t fo r
t
n
f
o
r
th
e
r
a di x it se lf
e
b
u
t
y
.

or di n a ry o p e rati o n s o f A r ith m e ti c m ay b e p e rf orm e d

in an y s c al e 3 b u t b e ar i n g in m i n d th at th e su cce ssi ve p ower s o f
th e ra dix ar e n o l onge r p owe rs o f t en in de t erm i n i ng th e c ar r y in g
g u r es we m u st n o t di v i de b y t en b u t b y th e r a dix o f th e sc a l e
in qu e sti o n
78

Th e

th e sc le

E x amp le 1
In
m l ip l y
d ff r n

th e i e e ce b y
.

ut

27

e i ght ub tr ct

rom

3 7 1 53 2 f

53 022 5,

an

53 022 5
3 7 1 53 2

1 3 647 3
27

1 3 647 3

1 22 6 2 3 5
2 7 51 6 6
4 2001 1 5

st u e f th e s ub tr cti on s i nce w c nn t
w
thu s w e h e t t k e 3 from ten which l e ves 7 ; t h e n
h i ch e es th e
ei ght wh i c h l e ves 6 ; d s o
te

E xp la n a t io n
A f r th e r
g r
3 from 2
e add 8 ;
o
ak
av
n, w
l av
4;
n 2 from
6 fro m
.

t e

te

in i n multiply i ng b y 7

A ga

w e there fore p u t
Next
p u t down 3 an d c arry
In th e additi on

we

do w n

an

on

E xp l a n a t io n

we p

7
63

an

s o on until th e m ultipli c tion i c omplet d

3+6=
1

an

c rry
a

n in e = 1 x 8 + 1 3
1

ivi d e l 5

e t 20 b

i n ce 1 5

i th e sc l e f twelve

y 9 n
9 ) l 5e t2 o

T+ 5

eventeen

down 1 an d c arry 8
A l s o 8 x T e one h undr e d an d sev en e
we th erefore p u t do wn e an d c arry 8 ; an d s o o n
u

7 + 2 : fty

o n

E x a mp le 2

an d so

an

w e th erefore p
Sim il rly

ve
3 x 7 = t wenty one
do wn 5 an d c arry 2

8,

60

HG HER A L G EBRA

th en th e r e m a i n der

D i v i de N b y

a r

"

+ a

"

is

c,

+ a r + a,

an

th e qu o ti en t

is

qu o ti en t is di v i de d b y r th e rem ai n de r is a 3
if th e ne x t qu o ti en t
a ;
an d so on u n til th e r e is n o fu r th e r qu o ti en t
a r e de t er m i ne d
Thu s al l th e r e qui re d di g it s a a
s u cce ss i ve di v i si on s b y th e r a dix o f th e p rop o s e d s c a l e
E p r ess th e d en ary nu m b e r 52 1 3 i n th e sc l e f eve n
E
mp l 1
If thi s

,,

by

xa

5
2

1
2

hu s
d th e n um b e r r equ i re d i s 2 1 1 2 5
T

an

E x a mp le 2

Tran form 2 1 1 2 5 from

sc l e seven to sc l e el eve n
a

) 21 1 25

) 1 2 44
e) 6 1

th e requi re d n um b er i s 3 t0t
E p l a ti
I th e r s t l i e

an

on

work

7 + 1 = ft e e n

x e

+4;

th e e for e on divi di n g b y we p t down 1 a d c rry 4

N e t 4 7 + 1 = twenty n i n e = 2
th erefor e w e p t down 2 a d c rry 7 ; d s o on
E
mp l 3
I d
2 1 5 from sc l e tw el ve to sc al e t e n
7
t
fy th e r es ult b y w ork i n g i n th e sc l e tw elve
sc al e t e n a d
r

xa

an

u ce

v er 1

f
i?

7 21 5

by

work i n g in

21
7
0 5

1.
86

t ) t4

12

t) 1 0

1 03 3
12

In
Of

8 03 Ie

tw elve

1 24 01

h u s th e esult i s 1 2401 i n e ch c se
ti
E pl
7 2 1 5 i n sc l e t w el v e m e n s 7
12 + 2
12
5 in
Th c l cul t i n i s m o t r e di ly e ffecte d b w r iti n th i s e
sc l e t
r
ess
i
n
y
g
p
th e form
thu s w e m ulti p ly 7 b y 1 2 d
dd 2 t th e p r du ct ; th e n w e m ulti p ly 8 6 b y 1 2
d dd 1 t t h p roduct ;
th e n 1 03 3 b y 1 2 d dd 5 to th e p roduct
T

an a

en

on

1n

an

an

an

SCA

80

Hith e r t o we

f ra c ti on s m ay al so

be

'

'

c le

c le

s a

'

deno t e s

10

deno t e s

s ix

s a

in

61

h a ve on l y di sc u sse d w h o l e n u m b er s ; b u t
e x p re sse d i n a y s c a l e o f no t ati on 3 thu s
s a

25 in

20

N O TA TIO N

o r

c l e t en de n o t e s

2 5 in

'

L ES

10

"

F r ac ti o n s thu s e x p r e sse d i n a f orm an a l ogo u s t o th a t o f

o rdi n a ry dec i m al f ra c ti on s a r e c all e d radix frac t i on s an d th e p o i n t
Th e gene ra l t yp e o f su c h f r a c ti on s i n
is c all e d th e r adix p o in t
s c al e r is
b
b
0
o
-

w h ere
o r m o re
81

Let

c le

s a

62 ,
m ay b e

To

exp

a re
z

e ro

i n t eger s

r, o

w hi c h

an

o ne

r ess a g i

v en

r a alix

th e g i ven f ra c ti on

F be

l e ss th a n

al l

f c tio n

in

ra

an

an

y p

ro

o sed sc a le

th e r a di x o f th e p ro po se d

Let

be,

l e ft ; th en

th e re qui re d di g it s b egi nn i ng f ro m th e

Z+
r

We h a ve

t o n d th e v alu e s o f
Multi p l y b o th s i de s o f th e e qu ati on
no

rF =

+J

H ence 6 1 is e qu a l t o

th e f ra c ti on al

Multi ply

rt

by

b e , 63 ,
by

th en

L +
2

th e i n t egral
a
we
h
ve
R

rt of

an

d,

if we deno t e

i
s th e i n t g r a l p a rt
i
n
th
en
e
f
ore
b
a
b
6
r
s
g
y
ac h o f
o f
u
c
ce
e
a n d s i mil a r l
b
s
ss i ve m ulti pli c a ti on s b y r
y y
th e di g it s m ay b e f o u n d a d th e f ra c ti on e p re sse d i n th e p o
se d sca l e
o
p
a

62

H I GH ER

I f in th e
o
u
c
t
s is an
d
p

L GEBRA

u cce ssi ve m ulti pli ca ti on s b y r an y one o f th e

r
i n t ege r th e p r oce ss t erm i n at e s at thi s sta ge an d
th e gi ve n f rac ti on c an b e ex p r e sse d b y a n it e n u m b e r o f di g its
B u t if n on e o f th e p r o du c t s is an i n t ege r th e p r oce ss w ill n eve r
t e rm i n at e an d i n thi s c ase th e di g it s r ec u r f o rm i ng a radi x
f ra c ti o n an al ogo u s t o a r ec u rri ng dec im al
s

E x amp l e 1

Ex p r

es

rad i x fracti on i n

as a

3
i

:
the requi re d
E x amp l e 2

fr ac t io n

5+

r al an

5
+
2

3 :
5

c e e ight to sc le
d th e fr cti on l p rt s ep ar te ly
-

We mu st t re t the i nteg

Tr an form 1 6 06 4 24 from

al e six

62 3

sc

s al

s
-

ve

24

5
5
2 64

A f er t

n um b er

h i th e d ig it i n
s

racti on al

th e f

is 2 1 2 3 40 12 4 0

p ar

t recur ; hen ce th e requi red

82
I n a n y sca le of n o ta tio n of which th e r a dix is
th e su m
,
of th e dig its of a n y wh o le n u m b er div ided by r
l wil l lea v e th e
sa me r em a in der a s th e wh o le n u m b er div ided b
1
y
e t [ V den o t e th e n u m b e , a o , a , , a2 ,
a th e di it s b eg i n
g

n n
g w ith th at i n th e u n it s p l a ce, an d S th e su m o f th e di git s ;
t l en

a r
l

a r

a r

l)

"

l)

SCA

No w every t er m

L ES

th e r i g ht h a n d si de

o n

is,

w h ere

I is

o m e i n t e g er

1 3

'

r
o
ve
ro
o
iti
on
s th e
p
p p
s

n u m b e r in sc al e r w ill
di g it s is di v i si b l e b y r

b e d i v i si b l e b y
1

f it s

is di v i si b l e b
y

S
r

w hi c h

63

n t eger ;

Hence

su

an

_ 1

th a t

N O TA TIO N

o r

w h e n th e

By t ak i ng r = 1 0 we l e a n f ro m th e ab ove p r o o siti on
p
th at a n u mb e di v i de d b y 9 w ill l e a ve th e sam e e m ai n de as th e

s u m o f it s di g it s di v i de d b
ul
e
now
c
ti
ng
9
T
k
h
e
a
n
s
a
s
out
y
83

th e n i ne s f o r t e sti ng th e a cc u ra cy
o n thi s
ro
e
r
t
p p
y

f m ulti pli c ati on is

f o u n de d

r ul e

Th e

m ay b e

thu s e

l
a i ne d :
p

Le t t wo n u m b e rs b e re pr e e t e d
th e i r p r o du c t b y P; th e
s n

b y 9a

an

d 9c

an

th ere f o re th e

d,

an

H ence

h as

th e

8 1a c

sa

9bc

9 ad

bd

r e m i n de r

me

bd

as

9
su m o
i
P
n
d
d
d
b
w
h
e
i
v
i
e
g
i
ve
th
e
e
t
h
d
i
t
o
f
9
s
e
s
s
a
m
,
,
g
f
y
e m ai n de a s th e su m of th e digits o f b d, w h e n di v i de d b y 9 I f
o n t i a l thi s sh o ul d n o t b e th e c as e , th e m ulti li c a ti o n m u s t h a ve
p
I n p a c ti ce b an d d ar e e a dil y
b ee n in co ec tl y p e f o m e d
f o u n d f o m th e sum s o f th e di g it s o f th e t wo n u m b e s t o b e
m ulti pli e d t o ge th e

rr

r r

the p roduct f 3 1 256 a d 8 42 7 b e 2 6 3 3 9 53 1 2 ?

Th e s um s o f th e d i g its f th e m ul ti pl i cand m ul ti p l i e r a d p roduct a 1 7
2 1 a d 3 4 r es pec tively ; ag i n th e s um s f th e di g i ts f th ese t h ree n um b e r s
wh i ch h s 6 f th e m f th e
8 3 a d 7 w h en ce b d = 8
a
d ig i t s ; thus we h ave tw o d iffe r ent rem aind ers 6 a d 7 a d the mul ti pl i c ti on
is i n c or ect
Ex amp le

Can

re

re

o r

su

84
If N den o te a n y n u mb e r in th e sc a le of r , a n d D den o te
i
i
t
s in th e
o
d
h
u
t
e
u
i
v
t
e
n
t
h
e
s
m
s
w
th e d
er
en
c
e
o
se
d
s
t
i
e
b
e
e
s
o
,
g
f
,
f
pp
p
D o r N + D is a m u ltip le of
o dd a n d th e ev en p l a ces ; th en N
r 1
.

64

H I GH ER
Let

a,

o ,

i n th e u n it s pl a ce ; th en
N

a r

a ,r

L GEBR A

deno t e

2 ,

a r

th e di g it s b e g i nn i ng w ith th at

"

"

a r

"
.

(
(

l) + a r l) + a r
th e r ig ht w ill b e a r + 1 ) o r a r
1)
Thu s every t er m o n th e r i ght is
o r eve n

A
an d

th e l ast t erm o n
is o dd
a cco r di ng a s n
1
h e n ce
di v i si b l e b y r
N

(
i
2

+ a

CO R
th e su m
by r
1

an

r
o
o
iti
on
p p
s

i n te e r

an

i s squ
a

re n um b e r i n

In

b e th e

wh at

c e

s al

h ence
th t i s

(
77

th e r d i i s 4
So m e ti m e s it is b e s t t o

E x amp le 3
b y 1 01 2 1 5

se

7r

h en

tati on

sc l e i s th e d en ry numb e r 2 4 3 7 5 r epr e nte d b y

2+

Hen ce

f no

thu s th e g iven num b e r i s th e squar e o f 2 1

.

E x amp l e 2

c e

an y s al

2 +

P rove th t
who se r di i s gre ter th n 4
L t b th e r d i
th en

i n t eger

th e su m o f th e di git s i n th e e ven p l a ce s is e qu al t o
th e di g it s i n th e o dd p l a ce s D O an d N is di v i si b l e

E x a mp l e 1

L et

If

is

ro
ve
s th e
p

N; D

wh i c h

(
"

r +

No w

"

'

7
1 67

1 2)

'

48

(
r

4) = 0

In

wh at

u se

th e f o ll ow i n g

m e th o d

c e wi ll th e non ry num b e r

s al

2 5607 b e

e p ress d
x

r equ i re d scal e m u st b e l ess th an 9 s i n ce th e n e w num b er app ears

th e gr e at e r ; al s o i t m u st b e g re ater th an 5 ; th erefor e t h e requi red scal e
m u s t b e 6 7 o r 8 ; an d b y t r ia l we n d th at i t i s 7
Th e

SC A

L ES

N O TA TI O N

or

65

w ork i n g i n th e duod en ry sc l e d th e h ei gh t f
r ec t ngul r s ol i d w h o se volu m e i 3 64 b it 1 048 b i
d th e r e
f
wh o se b s i s 4 6 sq ft 8 q i n
b ft w h i c h e p re sse d i n th e c l e f tw e lve i
Th volum e i 3 6 4 493
E x amp le 4

By

a e

26 4 7 3 4

cu b

ft

cu

cu

an

a o

}
5

3 cu

s a

r esse d i n th e scal e o f twe lv e i s

Th e ar e a i s
1
We h ave th er efor e to d ivide 26 4 7 3 4 b y 3 t 08 i n th e sc al e o f twelve

sq

4 6T

ft

wh i ch e

xp

3 t 08
'

22 t 4 8

hu s th e h e ight i s 7 ft

3 627 4
3627 4
.

1 1 in

EXA MPLES

V II b
.

Ex p

s a

12

Exp

17

ss

%
as a

c et

t o sc al e twel ve
Tran sform 2 002 1 1 fro m th e t ern ary t o t h e non ary s c al e
Tran sfo rm 7 1 0 3 fro m th e d u o den ary t o th e oct en ary s c ale
s al

en

re th e septe ary fracti o

l owe t te rm
Exp

ss

1 552
n

26 2 6

as a

r v ulgar fracti on

20
21

In

'

den a y

F i n d th e v al u e o f 4 an d O f 42 in t h e s c al e o f seven
I n wh at s cal e is th e den ary n u mb e r 1 82 deno ted b y

19

rad i fracti on i n th e epten ary sc l e

'

16

re

Tran sform 1 7 1 56 2 5 fro m

15

i n it s

18

14

s a

th e sc al e o f th re e
Ex p re ss 53 8 1 i n p owers o f n i ne
Tran sfor m 2 1 223 1 fro m s c al e fo u r t o s c al e ve
Ex p ress th e d u o den ary n um b er 3 9 8 6 i n p owers o f 1 0
Tran sform 6 t 1 2 fro m sc ale twe l v e to s c al e e l even
Tr an s form 2 1 3 01 4 fro m th e sen ary t o th e non ary s c al e
Tran s form 2 3 8 6 1 fro m sc al e n i ne t o s c al e eig ht
Tran sfor m 4 008 03 fro m t h e non ary t o th e q ui n ary s c al e
Exp ress th e sep t en ary n um b er 206 6 51 52 i n p owers o f 1 2
Tran s for m ttteee fro m s c al e tw e l ve t o t h e c o mm on s c al e

10

13

ss

e s a

Exp re ss 1 4 58 in

re

Ex pres s

11

in th c le f e en
6 2 4 i n t h e c l e f ve
206 i th e b i n ry c l e

Ex p re ss 4 9 54

'

H H
.

wh at
A

c le

s a

is

th e den ary fract i on

deno

ted

2 22 ?

b y 0302 ?

H I GH ER

66
22

f 24

F i nd t h e r ad i x o f th e

L G EBRA

c e i n wh i c h 554 repr e en t th e

s al

sq

uare

wh at s c al e is 51 1 1 9 7 d e not ed b y 1 7 4 6 3 3 5?
F i nd th e rad i x o f t h e s c al e i n w h i c h th e n u m b ers deno ted b y
24
4 7 9 6 9 8 9 07 ar e i n ar i t h m e t i c al p rogress i on
25 I n wh at s c al e are th e r ad i x frac t i on s 1 6 2 0 2 8 i n geo m e tric
?
ro
e
ss
i
on
r
g
p
Th e n u m b er 2 12 54 2 is i n t h e S c al e o f s ix ; i n wh at s c al e wi ll i t
26
b e deno ted b y 1 7 4 8 6 ?
Sh ew th at 1 4 8 8 4 i s a p erfe c t sq u are i n every s c al e i n wh i c h t h e
27
rad i x is greater th an ei ght
Sh ew th at 1 2 3 4 32 1 is a p erfec t sq u are i n an y s c al e wh o se radi x
28
is g re at e r th an 4 ; an d t h at t h e s q u are roo t is al way s ex p re ssed b y th e
s am e fo u r d i g i ts
Prove th at 1 3 3 1 is a p erfec t c u b e in an y s c al e wh os e r ad i x is
29
re
t
e
r
th
a
n
th
ree
a
g
lb s m u st b e u sed t o
30 F i nd wh i c h o f th e we i gh ts 1 2 4 8
w e ig h one t on
F i nd whi c h o f th e wei gh ts 1 3 9 2 7
lb s m u s t b e u sed
31
t o we i gh t en th o u s and l b s not m or e th an one o f e ac h k i nd b ei ng used
b u t i n e ith e r s c al e th at is n eces sary
Sh ew th at 1 3 6 7 6 3 1 is a per fec t c ub e i n e v e ry s c al e i n whi c h t h e
32
rad i x is greater th an seven
Prove t h at i n th e ord i n ary s c al e a n u m b er wil l b e d i vi sib l e b y
33
8 if t h e n u m b er for m ed b y it s l ast t h ree d i gi ts is d i v i s i b l e b y e i ght
Prove th at t h e sq u ar e o f r r r r i n th e s c al e o f s is rrr gOOOl wh e r e
34
r s are an y thr ee c on s e c u t i ve i n t eger s
q

35 If an y n um b er N b e t ak en i n th e s c al e r an d a new n u m b e r N
b e form ed b y alt er i n g t h e order o f it s d i g i ts i n an y way s h ew t h at th e

d ifference b etween N an d N is d i v i si b l e b y r 1
If a n um b e r h as an even n u m b er o f d i gi t s s h ew t h at it is
36
d i vi si b l e b y r + 1 if th e d i gi ts e q u i d i st an t fro m eac h end are th e sam e
If i n t h e ord i n ary s c al e Sl b e th e su m o f t h e d i gits o f a n u m b er
37
N an d 3 8 2 b e t h e su m o f t h e d i gi ts O f th e n u m b er 3 N p rove t h at th e
d i fferen c e b e tw e en S, an d 8 2 i s a m ult i pl e O f 3
Sh ew th at in t h e ord i n ary s c ale an y n u m b er form ed b y
38
wr i ti ng down t h ree digi ts an d t h en rep eati ng t h em i n t h e s am e ord e r
is a m ul t i pl e o f 7 1 1 an d 1 3
I n a s c al e wh o s e rad i x is odd s h ew t h at t he su m o f th e
39
di gi ts o f an y n u m b er wi l l b e odd if t h e n u m b er b e O dd an d even if
th e n umb er b e even
40 I f n b e odd an d a n um b er i n th e den ary s c al e b e for m ed
b y wri t i ng down n d i gi ts an d t h e n rep eat i n g t h em i n t h e s am e order
s h ew th at it w i ll b e d i v i s i b l e b y t h e n u m b e r for m ed b
i
i
t
t
h
e
n
d
y
g s
c on tai ni ng n 1 d igi t s
an d al s o b y
23

In

'

'

'

H I GH ER

68

To
86
m ia l su r d
.

fa c to r

d th e

L GEBRA

which will

r a tio n a lise a n

y g iv e

ASE

th e g i ven su r d is f/a f/b

an d q
n d l e t n b e th e L C M O f
a
x
b
L e t {/a
p
/ y
Z
a r e b o th r a ti on a l
an d y

an d
a ll v alu e s o f n
f
or
i
s di v i si b l e b y x
No w as
y
y
C

Su pp o s e

"

"

"

"

()

"

ASE I I
Le t x y

is

( (
,

"

x +

y)

"

I f n is

Thu s

dd,

"

"

is

"

"

E x amp l e 1

x +

y
2

is

is

y,
"

xy

an
"

y
2

'

"
.

then

= 3 2,

an

o r x an

d y,

3
2
3

32

E
3

dy

(
x

thus sub stituti n g f

ar e

4
x y

th rati onal

bo

+ wy
3

+x

an

the required factor i s

2
3
5

'

th e r ti onal p rodu ct i s

"

F i d th e f ctor wh i ch wil l r ti on l i se J 3 + 375

or

+ xy
,

is di v i si b l e b y

"

+ x

_2

is

th e ra ti on ali sin g fa c t o r

th e ra ti o n al p r o du c t

"

"

y
,

y
(y ) (

"

"

th e ra ti on a l p ro du c t
2)

"

an

th e rati o n ali sin g fa c t o r

Thu s

L et

"

is

"

th e g i ven su rd is i/a {/b

n h a ve th e sam e m e a n i ng s a s b e f ore ; th en

I f n is even x
i
s di v i s i b l e b
x
an d
y
y
y

1)

_2

Su pp o s e

an

th e ra ti on a l p ro du c t

an

"

th e rati on ali sin g fac t o r

Thu s

an

32

3
5

5
.

5 ;

E x amp le 2

Ex pr

A ND

IM AG I N A RY QUA NTIT IE S
l

ess

w h i c h i s qu
e

s
2
5

th e require d f ctor i s
a

3I

the rati on al de nom i n ator i s 5

1
3

() (

the e press i on
x

i 2
1
2
5
52 g l

al

3
3 : 52

1
2
5

3,
2

to
3

pu

t 53 =

3
-

+3

22

rati on al i se th e d eno m i n ator

th en s i n ce x 4 y

To

an

69

()

equiv lent fr cti on with r tion l denom i n tor

a s an

3
3

U RD S

2
4
3

2
3

22

22
i

1
!

11

We h a ve sh ewn i n th e Elem en ta r y A lg eb r a A r t 2 7 7
h o w t o n d th e squ ar e r o o t o f a b i no m i a l qu a dra ti c su r d We
m ay so m e ti m e s e x t ra c t th e s qu a r e r o o t o f an e x p r e ssi on con ta i n
in g m o r e th an t w o qu a dra ti c s u r ds s u c h as a
b
c
J
J
87

I f th e n
an
x

if

at

th e

a,

E x a mp le
A

ss um e
21

5
J

o,

Jy

2 =

d
J ,

e ti m e th e v alu e s o f x y z thu s f o u n d
we sh a ll h a ve O b t ai n e d th e r e qui r e d r oo t
sam

sa

ti sfy

F i d the qu re root
n

21

4J 5

4J 5+ 8J 3

P ut

=8

f 21

4J 5

4J 1 5=

8J 3

4J l 5z

8J 3

+Jy

J
2

+y +z

4J 1 5

J5

Jy

3
J ,

= 4 1 5;
u ti i c ti
xy = 2 4 0 ; th at is n
J
h e c it
th at J = 2J 3 J y = 2 J = J 5
A d s i n ce th e se val ue s sat i sfy th e e qu ati on
root i s 2J 3 2 J 5

b y m l pl a on ,
w n e foll ows

th e requi red

70

H I GH ER
88

L GEBRA
will

th en

Fo r

f/

b
J

Jy

c u b i n g we o b t a i n

by

b
J

Equ a ti ng

ra ti o n al

= x

3x

Jy

3x y

i rrati on a l

an

r ts we h a ve
,

J9

3x y ,

90 +

Jy

th a t

f/

b
J

Jy
Si m il a r l y b y th e h el p o f th e Bi no m i a l Th eo r e m
it m ay b e p r ove d th at if
is,

th en I/a J b =

h e re
89

f th e

is

an

o
siti ve i n t ege r
p

C h ap X I I I

Jy

By th e f o ll ow i ng m e th o d th e c u b e
f o rm a J b m ay so m e ti m e s b e f o u n d

r oo t

an

e x p re ssi o n

Su pp o s e

i/

th en

gai n

as

in

th e l ast a rti c l e
a

Th e

v a lu e s

fx

an

dy

(
we
)
(
In

b
J

I ) s u pp o s e
O b ta i n

th a t z/a

is,

4x

th en

3x

(
x

3 0x

f ro m thi s e qu a ti on th e v alu e
t r i al th e v alu e o f y is o b ta i ne d f r om
,

fr om

b e de t e m i ne d

If

N O TE
extracti on
h ave

Jy

b
3

3 xy

h a ve t o

a = x

th a t

= x

u b stituti ng f o r y i n

c an

b e de t e m i ne d b y

x
x

or

+ db =

or

w
a

an

as

s i nce every term on th e ri ght h nd s i d e i i r tion

r ti on l d i rr ti on l p rt s
a

We do not h er e ssum J + J y f th e cub e root

i n th e
f th e qu re ro t ; f with th i s ss u m pti n on cub i n g we s h o ul d
a

an

an

by

(
1)

ra

al

we

c not equ te
an

S U R DS
E xamp le

IM A G I N A RY

A ND

F ind th e cub e root

f72

UAN TITI ES

71

3 2J 5

s um e
s

th e n
u ti i cati on

By m l p l

that i s

4 = x2 _ y

A g ain

72

wh ence

1)
From (
th t i s

an

3 2J 5

3x

3
=
72 x

3x

3
x

we

B y tr ia l,

th at

3;

W h en th e

90
.

c o n si st s

n d

h ence y

f 9J 3

3 xy

5,

F ind th e cub e root

18

3x

b i no m i a l w h o se
q u adr ati c su ds, we p

f t wo

E x a mp le

Jy

an

th e c ub e root is 3

c u b e roo t we a r e
r ocee d a s f o ll ow s
.

1 1J 2

11

By p ro

cee ding

as

i n th e l st rti cl e w e d th t
a

N/

3 +

th e requir e d cub e root

91

We

E x a mp le 1

a dd a

Ex p r

1 +

3
J

J3

J2

f ew h a r de r ex amp l e s i n su r ds

es

wi th

rat1 0n al

de n o m in at O I

73

Th e

e press ion
x

3
33

(
3

N2 1 )
3

i+ 1 )

J5

ee k i ng

72

H I GH ER
E x a mp l e 2

Th e

h ence

e xp

by

F i nd the qu r e root
s

r e ss i on

2 +1) (
J(

3
x
{

L GE BR A

i n sp ection the qu re root i s

a

(
J
3

2x + 1 +

E x amp le 3

G iv n J 5= 2 2 3 607

J3
Multiply i ng num er tor a
a

th e

express i on

2+

J5

5
J
5
J

44 7 2 1

VIII

eq ui val en t frac ti on s with

1 + J2

J3

'

Fi nd

J 10+ J 5

J3 + J 10
a

J3
J5

6J 5

as

J5

EX A MPLES
Exp re ss

th e value

n d

d enom i nator b y J 2

14

rati on l denom in tor :

a

J2 + J3
2
A/a

am

J2 + J3 + J5

factor whi c h wi ll rati on alise :

I

10
.

J2
1

8
11

12

5
a

35

i
b

33

S U RDS
Exp res
13

A ND

UA NT I T I ES

M A G IN A R Y

73

s wi th r t i on l d e no m i n t or :
a

14

15

3 9 + f/8

J2
gy

8
.

/3
/2

l3

16

$3 41 79

17

Fi nd

th e

s q u re roo t

19

16

6 + J 12

21

23

21 + 3

24

J 20

J8

25

1 0+ 6

28

38 J 14

Find t h e
31

J3

c ub e roo t

th e

J3

sq

J35
.

20

24 + 4

22

V3 6

J7

V3 a b

J 24

Jl5

J IO

3S+ I7

29

54

J5

30

2a

J3 a

99

J5

J3
J 3 J2
2

2 + J3

36

F i nd
37

39

JL

th e

1 3 5J 3

1 5J 3

41

1 0J 3)

G i ven J

5=

7 + 4 J 3)

2a b

2
.

2 2 3 6 07 , n d t h e

43

A/3 + J 5

ivi de + 1 + 3 7: b y x
Fi nd t h e c ub e r o o t o f 9 a b
D

3
x

44

Of

7 a + 1 1 ab

lu e o f 3

va

Evalu at

V a:
2

J IB
.

J6

87

2
.

5xy

7b

2
.

3y

wh en

J3
19 J3

6+2

1
-

1 0J 2

42

valu e

n d th e

38

'

28

valu e o f

J26

70 J2

n d th e

J3 + J2

34
a

uare r oo t o f
32

If

27

J3 + 4 1

J35

J 56 + 2 J 2 1

26

35

J 1 5+ J 6

33

J2 1

100J 2

J8

+ 3b + 4 + 4 Ja

F ind
.

J 24

18

J 28 + 2

40

33

26 + 1 5 J 3 )

valu e

2 6 + 1 5J 3 )

J 10+ J 1 8
J 8 + A/3 J 5

2 4a

2v=

Jb

,(
N I

2
a

H I GH ER

74

AG I N ARY

L GEBRA

S
U
A
N
T
I
T
I
E
Q

IM

lth o u g h fr o m th e r ul e o f si gn s it is e v i den t th at a
m
a
a
a
t
t
a
s
e
eg
ti
ve
qu
tit
c
o
t
h
ve
a
r
e
l
qu
r
e
r
oo
i
g
i
n
r
a
n
a
n
a
n
n
a
y
y
y
ar e o f
qu an titi e s r e p r e sen t e d b y sy m b o l s o f th e f o rm J Td J
f re qu en t o cc u rr e n ce in m ath e m ati cal i n ve sti gati o n s an d th e i r
We th e r e f o r e p r o cee d t o e x p lai n
u se l e a ds t o v a lu ab l e r e sult s
in w h a t s e n se su c h r o o t s a r e t o b e r egar de d
W h en th e qu an tity u n de r th e radi c al Si gn is n ega ti ve we c an n o
l o n ge r con si der th e sy m b o l J as i n di cati ng a po ssi b l e a rithm e ti cal
o p e rati o n b u t j u st a s Ja m ay b e dene d as a sy m b o l w hi c h ob ey s
n
a
d
s
we
h
ll
e
e J a t o b e su c h th at
a
so
a
a
th e r e l ati on J J
:7 ;
L7 E
a a n d we Sh a ll a cce p t th e m e an i n g t o w hi c h thi s
J
a ssu m ti o n l e ads u s
p
I t w ill b e f o u n d th a t thi s den iti o n w ill e n ab l e u s t o b r i n g
i m ag i n ary qu a n titi e s u n de r th e do m i n i on o f or di n ary al geb rai ca l
r ul e s an d th at th r o u g h th e i r u se r e sult s m ay b e o b ta i ne d w hi c h
c an b e r e li e d o n w ith a s m u c h ce rt a i n ty a s o th e r s w hi c h de p e n d
s o l e l y o n th e u se o f r e a l qu an titi e s
92

93

th a t

By de n iti on ,
.

J
j
J

I I

j
J )

is,

th e p r o du c t Ja J:1
th e i magi n ary qu a n tity J a
Thu s

1
=

m ay b e

l) ;

r eg r de d
a

as

e qui v al en t t o

94

It

i m a gi n a r y
s mb o l
y
J

w ill gen e rall y b e f o u n d co n ven i en t t o i n di ca t e th e

c h a r a c t e r o f an e x p r e ssi o n b y th e p re sence o f th e
l

thu s

9 5 We sh all al w ay s c o n si de th at, i n th e ab sence o f an y

x ed
e
s t a t e m e n t t o th e con t r a ry , o f th e s i gn s w hi c h m a
b
e
y
p
b e f o e a a di c al th e p o siti ve Si gn is t o b e t ak en
Bu t in th e u se
o f i m ag i n a y qu an titi e s th e e is o n e p o i n t o f i m p o t a nce w hi c h
de se v e s n o ti ce
.

76

H I GH ER

L GEBRA

im ag in ar y exp r essio n s ma y b e eq u a l it
is n ec essar y a n d suicien t th a t th e r ea l p ar ts sho u ld b e eq u a l, a n d
th e ima gin a r y p a r ts sh o u ld b e eq u a l

Th u

in

o r der

th a t t wo

c o n u g at e

Thu s

Si m il a r ly

j
J

2
J

two

co n

g a te im ag in a r y

j
J

+ a

1)

:
1
J

2a

1 02
2
b is

(
a +

conj u gat e t o J 2

1 is

d th e p r o du c t
r ea l

a +

gai n

an

Fo r

conj u g at e t o

is

Th e su m
1 01
exp r essio n s ar e b o th

W h en t w o i m ag i n a ry ex p r e ssi on s diffe r
th e i m agi n a ry par t th ey a r e sa i d t o b e

D E FI N ITI ON
th e Si gn o f

1 00
o n ly in

Th e p o s iti ve
D EFI N I TI ON
c a ll e d th e mo du l u s o f e a c h
.

: I and
J

2
.

v a lu e o f th e squ a r e r oo t o f
o f th e co n j u g a t e e x re ssi on s
p

a +

:
I
J

1 03
Th e m o du lu s of the p o du ct Qf two im ag in a r y
s io n s is e u a l t o th e
r
u
o
t
h
e
r m o du li
o
d
i
c
t
q
p
f
.

exp

es

L e t th e t w o e p re ssi o
Th en th e i r p ro du c t
x

i m ag i n a r y

ex

r e ssI O n

w hi c h

s
rove
th e
p

bd
ad
m o dulu s

ac

w h o se

Ja

b e den o t e d b y

n s

b d

J( )
a

r
o
o
iti
on
s
p p

+ a

(
2

0 +

:1

an

d c+d

w hi c h

1,

an

r
deno m i n at o r b y th e co ju g t e e p re s i on
a

is

r
r

1 04 I f th e de n o m i n at o o f a f r a c ti o n is o f th e f o m a
m ay b e ati on ali se d b y m ulti p l y i ng th e n u m e at or
.

it

be

J
)J

a +b

:
1
J

b J 1,
a n d th e

S U RDS
Fo

i n st a n c e

IM A G I N A RY QUA N TI T I E S

A ND

c +

1)

h,/ l

a +

bc

bd

ac +

ad

J
5J f 1 )
:
I
)J

l)

77

bc

Thu s b y r e f erence t o A r t 9 7 , we se e th a t t h e su m , di er en ce,

m
u o t ie n t o
r
o du c t, a n d
t
w
o
i
a g in a r
x
i
n ea ch c a se
e
r
s
i
o
n
s
i
s
e
s
f
p
q
y
p
a n im ag in a r y exp r ess io n of th e sam e fo r m

To

1 05
.

d t h e sq u

ar e r o o

:
J

A s su m e

w h ere

x an

d y

ar e

r e l qu n titi e s
a

qu a r i ng a + b
th e r e f ore b y e qu a ti ng re a l
By

so

an

l,

1;

d i m a g i n a r y p a r t s,

"

( r) ( W
:

(
1)

Fro m

an

x
8

Thu s

we o b ta i n

d
2

+ a

th e r e qui r e d r o o t

is

o b ta i ne d

3)
d th e re for e i n (
ce
re l qu ntiti es
dy a
+ y i s p o s i t i ve
th e p s itive i gn must b p re e d b e fore th e qu ntity J
b ;
2 ) w e see th t th e p rodu c t y m u s t h ve th e s m e s i g n
Al s o from (
d u nl i k e i gn s if b i s
h e nce
d y m u s t h ve l i k e s i gn s if b i p o s i ti ve
n e g tive

Sin

x an

re

an

an

a2

an

as

H I GH ER

78
E x amp le 1
As

L GEBRA

F i nd th e qu r e root
a

24

s um e

th e n
an

1.

2x y

24

6 2 5;
x

Si n ce th e p rod uct

xy

i s n e g t iv e w e m u s t t k e
a

3, y

x =

h u s th e roots

I t r e m ai n s t o

As

ar e

s,

mp le 2

To n d

n d

4 J7 1

24

th e value

'

2
d

1
2

1
{13

d n all y

3, y

1 ;

64a

J:

:1
:

_ x _

2
J

:1:

2
J

2
J

d:

1
,

(J

1+

..

,
J

(J

2a l i

1 ;

x3
/

1
:

_1

2 8y

0 an d

or a:

an

N/

Sl ml l arl

an

su m e

Ge

or x

4;

t h e val u e

th e n

wh en

th at i

Ex a

+ y = 25
2

I)

H I G H ER

80
A

l so

sa

a)

ti se s th e e qu a ti on

is, th e

su

g ai n
th ere f o r e 1 )
2)
A

t h e th

r ec
e

(
(
,

th e p r o d u

ev er

+ w+ w =

03

be

to

L G EBRA

th a t

o we
n te r a l
i
g
p
y

ity is

u n

z er o

13

th e two

ct o

ts

ro o

im ag in

r f

is

r o o ts

ar

y
n it
y

is

u n

ity ;

u se ful t o n o ti ce th a t th e su c ce ssi ve p o siti ve

i n t e g ra l p ower s o f a r e 1 w a d ( f or if n b e a m ulti p l e o f 3

it m u s t b e o f th e f or m 3 m an d w ( 1
I f n b e n o t a m ulti pl e o f 3 it m u st b e o f th e f or m 3 m
1 or
1 09

is

It

a)

3m

If

If

3m

3m

1,

2,

"

01

3m

2 :

01

We n o w se e th a t every qu a n tity h as th ree c u b e oo t s,

1 10
3
Fo r th e c u b e oo t s O f a a r e th o se
t wo o f w hi c h a r e i m a g i n a y
3
Si m il a r l y th e c u b e oo t s
o f a x 1 , an d th e e f ore a r e a , a m, a m
i
w
9
9
s th e c u b e roo t f o u n d b
w
h
ere
th
e
9
o f 9 ar e
7
,
,
{
3
J
y
I n futu e , u n l e ss o th erw i se s t at e d,
o r di n a y a r ith m e ti c a l ul e
th e sy m b o l f/a w ill a l w ay s b e t a k e n t o de n o t e th e a ith m e ti cal
c u b e oo t o f a
.

J
(
Re duce

fo r

to th e form

exp re ss i on

is

th e r equi re d form

Ex amp le 2

i n ce

1 )2

J
2+ Ji
(

5+ 1 2

wh i c h

E x amp l e 1

Th e

R eso lv e

1 0+ 1 2 + 2 9

1)

+y

+y

in to t h

3=

w + w2 =

ree fac t o rs of t h e rst d egr ee

( )(
33

+y

1,

333
/+

H wy )
(

an

S U RDS
Ex a mp le 3

the p roduct f
th e c oef c ients o f b a
the coef ci ent o f b
th e coef c i ents o f a

(
a

ca

are

or

3
<
3 ,

w4

we ,

(+

bc

ca

ab .

1+w

w)

9
w
w+

2 3

0, we

h ve
a

2 3

w)

ab

ca

wb

+ w b + we ) :

i
'

be

h ew th t

l +

2
=
b
a
w + w:

in c

b + c2

u e an

w?

ao

+wb +

2
b
0
2
0
+w +
)

In

E x a mp le 4

M A G I N A RY QUA N T ITI ES

h ew th t

A ND

2 w)

2x l )3

3
6
8(
o + 8w
.

EX A MPLES

VIII

3 +3 JT 2 by 4

J3

Mu lt iply

Mu l ti ply

Multi p ly

Multi ply

Expre ss

I +
x

by

1
x

3+2

11

1 i
J

5J

with rati onal denom i n at or :

:
J 3

by

:
V 7 + 5V

5l T 2 b y 3
'

(V

+ A/

F i n d th e v alu e o f

:
/
1
A

v
cl a m / 7
a

a
a

"

T i

2+5

if
V

T
V

10
-

1)

4n + 3

wh en

is

p os

iti ve i n teger

H I GH ER

82

Fi nd t h e
13

16

18

8 x/

4 ab

3i

22

26

) /

28

29

co

1 + 2M

15

47 + 8

J3

20

21

Wb

( lb )

th e th r e e c ub e roots

are

a) , 00

i J2

_ i /2
3
J
~

u n ity

5 =
m

_ z

rove
p

ib

25 (
(
( )( )( )( l
(
( ) ((
1
1

30

1 + co

2 + 5w l
-

+ cu

co

Pr ove
3

th at
3
Z

34 3

If

to

x = a

+ 2)

+ b, y

43

= a co

+2

2w

+ bw

2 n fa

2
=
z
aw

c tor

s=

b w,

h ew that

(
)
(
(
)
1)

31
s

(
a

11

WW

17

23

If 1 ,

27

14

3 + 5i

'

24

i n th e form A + iB

Ex p ress
19

J
1

a-

uare root o f

5+ 1 2

sq

L G EBRA

h ew th t

3
x

If
a

3
=
x z
a
y

(
a

+b

+y +3
+y

+b +

3
.

6ab

3=
+z

z
c

bc

ca

ab

(y
x

Y,
2

+2

yz

X + Y +Z
2

ex
2

y)
YZ X Z

XY

H I GH ER

84

B
,

L G EBRA

l e t th e t wo r oo t s i n

In A r t 1 1 1
1 13
so t h a t
.

4ac

2a

2 ) b e de n o

te d b y

a an

4 ao
.

2a

th e f o ll ow i n g r e sults :
If b
4 ao th e qu an tity u n de r th e ra di c al ) is p o siti ve
1)
a r e re a l a n d u ne qu al
an d
B
an d
a r e r e a l a n d e qu al
If b
2)
4 a c is ero
eac h
B
6
re du c i ng i n thi s c ase t o

t h e n we

(
(

(
(
)
ne qu l
3)

h a ve

ga

If b

neg a ti ve or an d Ba r e i m a g i n a ry
is a p er f ec t s qu ar e a an d Ba r e

4 a o is

If b

4ac

u ne qu al
r a ti on al an d

an

th e n atu re o f th e r oo t s o f a n y
w ith o ut s o l v i ng th e e qu ati on
6 + 7 = 0 c annot b e s ati s e d
e qu ati on 2

By a pp ly i ng th e s e t e s t s
qu adrati c m ay b e de t e rm i n e d
E x amp l e 1
b y an y
al v al

re
Here

Sh ew th t t h

ues o f

a=

herefore th

E x amp l e 2

2, b

4o

ez

ar e

or

so

h ew th t th
a

ht
a

0 h as

9k

equ l roots
a

n d k

9k,

5k

0,

4 ) ls

or 1

roots o f th e

2p x + p

equ ti n
a

2
r
+
g
g

rati onal
2
2
l
Th e roo ts wi l l b e r ati on a p rovi d e d
p)
e
r
ec
t
sq
u
r
u t th i s e x p r ess i on r e du ce s t o 4
B
e
a
f
p
Hen c e th e roots ar e r ati on al
are

20

()

2 k

k = 4,

k
(

c onditi on f equ l roots gives

E x amp le 3

i m gin ry
If th e equ t i on

roots

x.

Th e

1 14

we h a ve

Si nce
by

iti on

a dd

(
q

is

or

4 q

T HE O R Y

THE
an d

b y m ulti pli c a ti o n

OF

QU A D RA TI O

85

we h av e

b)
4ao

4a

4a

4a

By

E QUA T I O NS

4 ao )

w r iti n g th e e qu ati o n

th e f o r m

in

(
6

th e se r e sults m ay al so b e e x p r e sse d as fo ll o w s
I n a qu adra ti c e qu a ti o n wh er e th e co elcien t of
.

u n

th e

ity ,

(
(

r st

te

rm

i ) th e su m o f th e r o o t s is e qu al t o th e c o e fc i e n t o f x w ith
it s si g n c h an ge d
ii ) th e p r o du c t o f th e r oo t s is e qu al t o th e thi r d t e r m
N E I a y e quati on th e term wh i ch does not contai n the u nk no w
quantity is fre quently c alled t h b l t t rm
OT

e a so u e

1 15

an

l n ce

CL

th e e qu ati o n

x +

c
x

0 m ay b e

0
x

B
,

w ritt e n

qu
adrati c m a
al s o b e e x r e ss e d i n th e f o r m
y
p
y
O
x
r
o
u
c
t
su m o f r o o t s x
d
o f r o o ts
p
)
A ga i n f ro m 1 ) we h av e
He n ce

an

(
(

( ) (B)
x

We m ay

e asil y fo rm

an

e qu ati o n w ith g i ve n r oo t s

F orm the qu ti on who e roots

equ ti on i s
0
3
)
(
(

E x a mp l e 1

Th e

n o

o r

W h e n th e r o o t s
me th o d
.

are

are

an

i rrati o n a l it

is

e asi e r t o

u se

th e f o ll o w i n g

H I GH ER

86

L GE B RA

F orm th e equ ti on wh o se roots

m f root s 4
We h ve
1
rod
u
c
t
roo
t
s
f
;
p
1 0
4
the qu ti on i s
2 ) f th e p r ese nt
ti cl e
b y u s i ng form ul (
E x amp le 2

su

ar e

2 +J3

an

d2

3
J

116

By

m e th o d

th e l ast a r ti c l e we
roo t s

ar

n al ogo u s t o th a t u se d in Ex am pl e 1 o f
f o rm an e qu ati on w ith th ree or m o r e gi ven

c an

F orm th e equ tion w h o se root s 2

ati s e d b y e ch
Th r equ i r e d equ ti on m u s t b
s iti on s :
E x amp l e 1

th er e fore th e equ ti on m u st b
a

h t is
a

or

i ng

f t h e foll ow

su p

{It

+3

(
x

2x

F orm th equ ti on wh o se roots a

equ ti on h to b s ti s e d b y

E x amp le 2

as

0,

th e re for e it i s

lx

117

Th e

r e ult s
s

a,

a,

()( )
( )(

or

re

0,

a,

5x

5x

th t i s

Th e

( )( )
(
(
x

an

+ 3 : 0,

3,

po

ar e

6x

bx

a l) x

f A rt

O,

1 14

are

m o st

i m p o r tan t an d th ey
connec t e d w ith th e
,

gener all y s u ffic i en t t o so l ve p ro b l e m s

roo t s o f qu a d r a ti c s I n s u c h qu e sti on s th e r o o ts sh o u ld n ev er b e
c o n sid er ed sin
l
u t u se sh o ul d b e m a de o f th e r e l a ti on s O b
b
g y
t a in e d b y w r iti ng d ow n th e su m o f th e r o o t s an d th e i r p r o du c t
in t er m s o f th e coe ffic i e n t s o f th e e qu ati o n
ar e

Ex a

(
1)

mp l e 1

(
2)

We h ve
a

If

+ l3

a
3

an

B ar e

the roots
a

p,

n d

th e val ue o f

H I G HE R

88
.

e q u a l i n m agn it u d e an d opp o s it e
i s z e r o 3 h en c e th e r e qu i r e d c o n diti o n i s

su m

will

O,

or

i n th e oot s will b e e i p o l s wh en th e i r
it y 3 h en c e we m u s t h ve
A ga

s ign if

in

u n

T h e r oo t s

th e i r

LG EBR A

h
h
e c o n d itio n
t
a t the r o o ts of th e eq u a t io n
d
t

1 ) eq u a l in m ag n itu de a n d o pp o site
c = 0 sh o u l d b e
r ecip r o c a ls

To

1 18
2
ax + b x
in sig n ,

ca

odu c t is

1,

or c = a

s t o f th ese es u lt s i s o f f e qu en t o
en e i A n aly t i
ti l a
se o f a m o e
a d th e se o n d i s a p
c l G e om et y
a
ene
b
l
e
t
o
e
ti
o
s
o
f
d
e
ee
r al c o n diti o n app li
y
g
q
g
The

c c u rr

ar

ca

ua

cu

ca

ind th c ond iti on th t th e roo ts f m + b w+ = o m

2 ) o pp o i t e i n s i gn b t th e gr e t e r f th e m n g t ive
b o th p o i t ive (
E x a mp le

W e h av e

oo t
) If
(
h v i e si gn
th e

l k

a e

Al
s

igns

s are

o th p o itiv
s

s.

s o i nc e
,

+ Bis p

osi t ive

1
,

(
1
5

e a

b e 1)

ay

is p

o i t iv
s

e , an

n e g t ive ; th e refor e b

is

e, a

%
a

th er e fore

an

an

da

h ave u nl ik e

r e u ir e d c on di t i on i th t th e signs f d sh oul d b l ik e
d o pp o i t e
ign f b
f
2
h
I
f
t
roo
t
o
o
i
t
e
i
gn
i
s
n
e
g
t
i
v
th
e
r
e
for
e
d
d
pp
5
(
)
h ve u nl ik si gn
A l o si c
th e i gn f th e g e t e r roo t i t i s n g t iv
d th e r
+ 5h
for fi p o it iv ; th e r e for e I d h ve l ik e ign
H nc e th e eq u i r d c o n d i ti on i th t th e si gn f
d b h ou l d b l i k e
d opp o i t e t th e i gn f
H enc e

an

th e
q
t o th e

a an

s, a

0 an

e , an

s are o

as

e a

r a

an

e a

e , an

an

IX

F o rm th e e q u at i o ns wh ose r oo ts
1

'

m
u

5
.

EXA MPLES

a an

s o

ar e
u

5
.

p
.

p +g

P
p

H EORY

THE T

3 i 5i

_3
,

10
,

13

Pr

l)

val u es o f m

'

2a i +
'

a2

2
72

l u es

what

va

s are r

8)

eq u al r oots fi n d th e

O h as

( m) 7 (

2 m)

((
b
(
)

If a

bx

m+ 1

[3

ar e

th e oot

3a

Fi n d th e v al u e
x

8 33

3
12

wh

l
w h en
+ 1 5 w h en :

s ar e

12 :

4 a wh e i
3

th e oots

73

b re + c

0,

n d th e v l u e s
a

20

s o

b)

((
ar
e

26

"

fo

rm

th e e q u a t i o n

an

ar e

ar

2)

2i

12 :

d B ar e

an

ab

2
a re

o e oot
( d
25 Pro ve th t t h e oo t s of ( )
If
th e root f + l w
26
1
b
+
<) ( )
.

ti on l

ar e r a

2
2a x

If

th e e q u t i o n

22

a
;
2

3x

6a

ox

19

s o

s o

+o

z 2
a c a

24

al

l)

wh t v l u e of m w i ll th e e q u t i o n

Fo r

23

w i ll th e eq u ti o n

have oo ts eq u al i n m agn it u de b t opp o site i n s i gn

P o ve th at th e oo t
17
f th e fo ll o wi ng e q u at i o ns

22

b)

ax

21

(
a

f 722

h ave e q u al r oot s ?

18

foll o w i ng eq u ti on

f th e

15

89

'

16

12

Fo r

15

o,

th e eq u ti o n

If

(
(
) (

11

E QU A TI O N S

ove th t th e oots
2

14

QU A D RA TI C

o r

(
a r2

ar

b)

3
.

b)

c=

O,

lw y e l
n d t h v l u e of
ar e a

s r

H I G HE R

9O
.

ti

28

are a

+B

an

th e d i ff e nce

er

f the

oots

119
o

f th e

i u s th e s i gns
sc

es u lt s

oots

m +n
f

2=

th e su m

If

is

ua

th e e q u ti o n
a

ra

a u

se fu l

li
c
ti
o
pp

11

2x

+ 2x

11

( 3)

so

()
3

an

ss

th e n m ul t i plying u p a

as

s ex e

ss

an d

l ill s t t es

xa

mp e
A r t 1 13

o ve d i n

th e sq u a es

ar e

th e oot s

f o ll o wi n g e
p

be

form th e eq u ti o n wh o s

re l q n t i ty p rove th t th e e p re i on
h ve ll n um e ri c l v l u e c p t u c h l i b e tween 2 d 6
L e t th e g ive n e p r e i o n b r ep r e e n t e d b y y
th t
E x amp le

c an

The

s h all

2x + 2 m + n )
.

30

roo t

one

ax

F o rm th e e q u ati o n wh o se

LG E BRA

ar e

a,

oots
29

i n d th e c onditi o n th t
the o th e
th e oo ts f
If B

F
27
m es

t r an sp o sing w e h ave

()

+ 2x 1

y + 6y

u dr t ic e u t i on
i n ord e r th t m y h v re l v l u e s
l
u
t
o
i
t
i
v
e
d
i
i
d
i
ng
i
m
i
f
y
i
ng
b
4
d
)
p
y
y
(
u t o i tive h t ( 6 ) (
H enc e
8y
y 2 ) m u t b p o i t ive
th e f c t or
th i roduc t u t
o th p o i t iv
I n th
b o th n e g t ive
form e r c e y i gre t e r th n 6 ; i n th e l tt e r y i l e th n 2 The r e for e
2
6
b
m
c
nn
o
t
e
t
w
e
en
h
v
e
o
th
e
r
v
u
e
l
i
b
d
l
t
y
y
3]
I thi s e m p l e it w ill b n o ti e d th t th e q
d ti
i
p
b
i
s
o
s
iti
ve
s
o
l
o
d
o
es
li
e
e
tw
ee
th
e
o
o
t
s
8
1
2
t
g
3/
p
g
9
hi

s is a
2

, an d
q a
q a a
4 6y
1 1) m s b e p s
;
12 m s b e p s
3 t a is , y
s o f
m s be b
s p

as

an

th e o esp o n di n g q
T hi s i s p r ti l
i n th e e t a ti c l e

rr

cu

u ad r a t ic e

ar c a

as

se o f th e g ene r a l

u a

ra

c ex

n o

u at o n

an

ss

e, o r
s

a e

an

xa

o r

a:

r ess o n

83/

12

op o s iti on i n ves ti gat e d

1 20
Fo r a ll r ea l v a lu es of x the exp r essio n a x
bx
2
t h e sa m e s ig n a s a , ex c ep t wh en th e r o o ts of th e e u a t io n ax + b x
q
a r e r ea l a n d u n e u a l, a n d x h a s a v a lu e l in
q
y g b etween th em
2

C A SE I

Su pp

o se th t th e oot s
a

ax
are r

ea l 3 d en ot e th e m

by

a an

bx

d ,8 ,

an

th e e q ati o
u

l et

be

th e

e ter

r a

h as
0
c

HI G H E R

92
Ex a mp le

in d th e l imit

twee n whi c h

be

dx

5x

m ay b e

ap ab

v lue

f all

ax

5x

th e n
a
5y )
(
In orde r th at the val u es o f as
e p re i o n
x

u t l i in ord e r th t

7x + a

re

an y

al

u n t i ty
a

7x + 5

'

7x 1

7x + 5

eing

s, :
1:b

Pu t

LG EBRA

y) 2 0

foun d from thi q u dr t i c m y b r l th e

49 (
1 y)
4 ( 5y ) (
5
y ) m u t b p o i t iv e
49 20 )
2
2(
1) y (
4 9 2 0 ) m u s t b p o s iti ve ;
th t i
(
2
4
9 2o ) mu t b
h enc e (
n e g t i ve
e ro d 49 2o m u t b
+
(
p o i t ive
2
4
2 +
N w(
9
( 0 ) i s neg tive e ro ccording
2 4 ) i n e g t iv
e ro ;
2 5) 2 (
2 ( 10
+ 10
4(
th t i cc or ding
(1 2) (2) i s n eg t ive ero
l o ng
l ie s b e tw ee n 2
d
12
Th i e p r e i o n i n e g t i ve
d f
s u ch v l u e 4 9 2 0 i p o i t ive ; th e e p r e i o n i e ro wh e n = 5 1 2 2
= 5
H enc e th e l i m i t ing v l u e s
2
b t 4 9 2 0 i n e g t i v e wh e n
d
12
m y h ve
d
y i n t e r m e d i t e v l ue
x

ea

ss

s,

or z

an

an

2
a

an

he w th at

If x b e

5
.

e l

r a

pr

o ve th t

IX b
.

are

or

or

an

n m

2=
c

2)

'

+x + 1

r
p

7:

u t lie i o de th t
s

lie

o ve th t

be

5x

tw een 3 a

+ 34x
2

u s t li e b etwee

9
.

e l

r a

an

5 an d 9

If a b e

h ave eal oots

or z

th e e q ua

s z

ss

e te mine th e l i mi ts b etween whi h

ti o n

e or z

an

as a

EX A MPLES
1

as

as

or z

ss

as

s, a
s

m ay

+ 2x

71
7

fo r all

an d

l
11

e l val u es o f x

r a

have n o val u e b etween

c an

Fi n d th e e q u at i o n
I f a , B ar e

oo t

( (3
(
) (
1)
2

s o

1 _

wh

ose oots
r

th e e q u ti o n
a

3) + 5 3
2

61

Ja

ar e

J a j; Va

px

+ q = 0,

nd th e v l u e
a

H EO R Y

TH E T

I f th e

If

cep t s u c h

oots

be

r a

f lx

QU A D R A TI C

o r

+ nx

e l th e e
,

as

e sio n

11

12

ex

s r a

13

ao

hew t h t i f

re ss

e l

r a

(
x

n o r eal v al u es b etwe e n
I f th e r oo t o f ax
13
t h e r oot s o f

ii

will b i m p o ss i b l e
e

14

he w th

val u es wh en

r
p

b e ) 2x

2 bx +

v ice v ers

r a

f al l

an d

e l v l u es of

fo r

le

0 be p

c=

o ss i b l e

an

i r en t th en

d d ffe

( b )(
2

ac

36

+ 1)

)
(
(
b c p b le
t th e e p ess i o n b
w
i
ll
) ( d)
(
d h ve th e s m e s i gn
e l if
b
d
b ) dx

r a

is

an

ess i o n

c ap ab

val u e b etween

+2

2 r + 3x

an d c

be

W l ll

2
_
4x
x

ax

th

an

ax

an

all

ex

W e s h ll o l u d e thi s h pt e with s om e m i s e ll e o s

122
e or em s

+ c)

s an

+ 2 bx +

( (
a

the

h as

B,

o ve th t

+ 3x

is

val u e

al l

Fi n d th e g r e ates t val u e

AO

d m i ts

ro
v
e
th
t
p

+ 2 b x + c = 0 b e a an d
b e a + 8 an d
r
p

h ew th t th e p m
3
+
P
v l u es wh en i e l p o v i d e d th t p h a
S

10

ax

fp

93

n an

ra

r
s
p

l i e b etwee 2
d 2m
If th e oo t s f th e e q u t i o n
9
th o e of t h e e q u ti o n
ex

i n th e t i o

0be

+n

E QU A TI O N S

nc

an

ex am pl es I t w ill b e c o nven i en t h e r e t o i n t r o d u c e
h
a
r a se o l o y an d n o t a ti o n whi c h th e s t u d en t will f r e u e n tl y
q
p
g
m ee t with in hi s m a th e m ati c a l r e a di n g
D EFI NI TI ON
A n y e x p r ess i o n whi c h i nv o l ves x a d wh o se
v al u e i s d ep en d e n t o n th at o f x i s c all e d a fu n c ti on o f
F u n c ti o ns o f x a r e u s u all y d e n o t e d b y s y m b o l s o f th e f o r m f x )
an

)
(

<
>
l

96

m y b e o ns id e e d
th e e q ti o n g f
e q u i v l en t
t o a s t te m en t th t a y h n g e m d e i n th e v l u e o f x will p o
du e
c o se q u e t h n g e i n g
T h e q n titi es
d i
l
d g
e c ll e d v ariab l e s
di s ti n g u i s h e d s th e
d
e f u th e
in dep e n de n t v ar i ab l e
d th e d e p e n d e n t v ar i ab l e

T hu s

ua

an

ar

an

an

an

ar

as

v c e v er s c
r

ua

94

H I GH ER

LG E BRA

i s a q u n tity whi c h m y h ve y
d th e o esp o n di n g d p n d t
v l e w c h o o se t o ss ig n t o it
s soo n
s th e v l e o f th e i n d e
a i b l h s it s v l u e d e t e m i ne d
en
d
en
t
i
l
e
i
s
k
n
o
w
b
v
p
A

r a

ar a

1 23

po

x
,

"

o
1

'

an

rr

en

a u

ex p r ess i on

an

a u

v a r ia b le

in dep en den t

fo

f th e

+ 29 2 2)

rm

th
e
o
e
c
i
en
t
s
d
p
p
p
an d in t egr al al g eb r aic al fu n c t io n
i s c ll d
t i nv o l ve
ofx
th e p esen t h apt e we s h all o n e o
tt e ti o t o
I
f nc ti o s o f thi s k i n d

wh er e

is

n o

x,

in teg er , an d
e a rat ion al

o sitiv e

,,

0,

u r a

f n ti o n i s s id t o

in ear wh e n it o tai ns n
high e p o w e r f th e v a i b l e th n th e s t 3 th s a b i s li ne
f nc ti o o f x A f u c ti o n i s s id t o b e q u adrat i c wh e it
o t i s o hi g h e p o w e o f th e v i b l e th an th e se o n d 3 th u s
f
a ti
x
f
t
h
d
u
d
f
n
ti
o
n
F
c
ti
o
ns
th
e
i
a
bx + c i s
q
d eg ees a e th o se i whi c h th e hi gh es t p o w e f th e
v a i b l e i s r esp ec ti ve l y th e th i d
T h s i n th e l s t
ti o n o f f th e
d eg ee
a ti c l e th e e p ess i o n i s a f u
*

1 24

1 25
ab es
.

i l

are r

x an

esp e c ti ve l y li near

The

ti

o,

o r di n g

un

an

x o

c, a n

()

f t wo

b xg cg + dx
u n c ti o n s o f x ,
g
2

s aid t o

( ()

f ) f

u n c t io n s

f nc ti o n

ax +

O a re

d q u a d r a ti c
x,

th

by

ax

th e f

as

ar

i
s
u
se
d
t
o
d
en
o
t
e
y)

O, f

eq u a t o n s

ac c
ra

y 3 th u s

n c

T h e sy m b o l f

r a

ar a

v ar

a n

r a

x,

be

ar e

ar ,

u
d
q

ar ,

ua

li ne
li e
n

W e h ve p o ve d i n A t 1 20 th t th e p i
d m it s o f b e i n g p t i th e f o m ( ) (B)
wh e e
d B
th e o o t s o f th e q ti
b
0
Th s
d
ti
e
ess
i
o
n
i
s
l
e
e
i
n
b
b
f
+
b
p
q
p
g
es ol ve d i n t o t w
ti o l f c t o s f th e s t d eg ee wh eneve
*

ax

126
bx

ua

ra

ra

na

th e e q ti on ax + b x + c
6
4 o i s a p e fe t sq
e
2

u a

u ar

ax

ra

ax

x + c

0 h as

on

ca

na

()
x,

ax

wh en

r ess o n

ti o l oo t s 3 th t i s

1 27
To n d th e co n ditio n th a t a q u a dr a t ic
m ay b e r eso lv ed in to t wo lin ear fa cto r s

o t e th e f n ti o n

D en

ex

e u a

are

a an

byf

+ 2hx y

(
x,

fu n ctio n of x y

w
re
h
e
y)

by

2g x + 2fy

c.

96

H IGH ER
*

LG EBR A

EX A M PLES

IX

Fo r

w h at v l u es
a

w ill t h e e

f 722

xpr

2
x
2
x +m
+
+
g
g
g
2

es i o n
s

es ol u ti o n i nt o t wo r ati o n al fac tor

Fi n d th e val u es o f m whi c h will m ak e
2
e q u ival en t t o th e p ro du c t o f t wo l i near factors
Sh e w t h at th e e p r ess i on
3

be

c ap ab l e

fr

A
a

( 0)

B
g

lways adm i t s f t w r eal l i ne f c t o s

I f th e e q u ati o ns
4
o

ar

h ve
a

a c

om m o n oot sh e w th t it m u t b eith e
r

Pi

33

0"

g
.

lx

m ay

mt g

lx

'

e p r e s i on
'

h ve c om mon li near f c tor

I f t h e e p ess i o
6
a

m my

'

2g

2d x

r s

4g

s,

ax

bg

2 hx g

espectivel y div i s ib l e b y

2
a x

2
,

fa

3 xg

c t o rs

Zg

'

'

2 h xg

be

one

th e

bg

th e for m g

If x

an d

ar e

mx ,

in

32
+
g
/

If
a ra

3 5= 0,

e l v l ue
a

f g,

an

t i o n al fu nc t i o n

9 2x

d 6,
o

fg

an

an d

fo r

eve r y r eal

tw o eal q u antities c o n ec te d
2 xg

t h en w i ll l i e b etween

133/

a r a

2x

ever y real val u e o f x t h e r e is

v al u e o f g t h er e is a r e al v al u e of

10
may b e

u st

fo r

h e w th t i n the eq u t i o n

m ay b e

e o l ve d i n to l i near fac t or p ro ve th at
r oo t s o f t h e e q u ati o n
Fi nd th e c o n diti o n th at t h e e press i o ns
7
be

'

2n

c an

F i n d the c o n d it i o n th at t h e

by

the e q u ti o n
a

2 0g +

dg be

tw een 1 d 1 0
n d th e c o n d iti o n that
an

a:

C HA P TER X
MIS C E LL A N E O U S

ION S

EQU A T

thi s h p t e r we pr op o se t o c o ns id e r som e m is
ti
o
s
it
will
b
e seen th at m a n y o f th ese
b
s e
e
c ella e o
;
q
s o l ve d b y th e o di a y u l es fo q u ad ati e q ati o s b t o th e s
e qu i e s om e s pe c i al arti c e fo th e i r s ol u ti o
1 29

In

ua

c an

E x amp le I
Mul t i pl y

by

371

an

S ol v e

8 x 27

8x

t r an sp o s e ; th us
3

5
8 17
3

8)
3

x 2n

8,

or

2n

or

E3
1

E xamp le 2

o ve

S l

L et

+ 3

= y ; t h en
2

6a

6 a g b y 3ab = o ;
3 a) = 0 3
2 ay
b) by

2 ab y

_
l

Z
;

th at

30

'

2a

74

o r

2
3

9a
o r

3
a
9
18,

H A
.

a
;

o r

98

H I GH ER

E x amp le

5)

7)

h ave
( 20) (
whi ch b eing arr ang e d as a q u adrat i c i n
We

(
x

wh enc e

0,

3,

3
:
x

Q
x
x

or x

2, 8,

g iv e

x,

6)

e qu a ti o n whi c h

An y

th o w i t o th e f

be

c an

56 2 0 ;

x + c =

m ay b e

s o l ve d

as

f o ll o w s

P u tti n g y

504

62

(
x

1 30

=
4
6
(
) ( ) 504
( (

S o l ve

LG E BRA

ax

o rm

bx

c,

ob t i n

we

w q
th e oo t s o f thi s e q ati o n s o th t
0

Let

an

f o m th ese e q ti o s w s h ll o b t i n f v l es f
W h en s ig i s p e e d t o
di l it i s s ll y n d e
h
en
e
i
f
th t it i s t o b t k en
o
s
iti
ve
d B
3
p
f
o
s
iti
ve
th
e
f
o
v
l
es
s
ti
s
f
y
th
e
i
e
ll
i
l
g
q
p
i
s
ne
ti
ve
th
e
oo
t
s
f
o
n
d
f
o
th
e
es
m
I f h o w eve
g
B
d
ti
will
s
ti
s
f
y
th
e
e
ti
o
q
q
ua

no

but

ra

n o

ua

th e o ig i l e qu ati o

na

E x amp le

2J
5
o ve
e c h s i d th n

S l

A dd 3 t o

u tt ing

S q uari ng

an

na

s t oo d
a r e b o th
u a ti on
r

lti n g

5x

12

5x + 3 = y ,

?
ar

or

u a

a u

r a o r

u a

ca

as

u r

a u

ou r

a ra

o in y

we b t a

when e y = 3

15

+ 2y

or

olving th r es l t ing q u dr ti cs we ob t i n from th e st

=6
1;
d from th e s c o n d
Th
r
t
i
r
f v lues
p
2
s ti es the given eq u t i on b t th e e c on d p ir t i e th e e q u t i on
or

an

an

2
x

5x

Jx

sa

1 00

H I GH ER

1 33

T h e s o l u ti o n

ax

e qu ati o n

f an
s

bx

LG EBR A

cx

bx

th e f o

O,

+ a

whi c h th e o e f c i en t s o f t e m s e q u idi s t t f o m th e b eg i n g
b
e m a d e t o d e p en d
l
th
e
s
o
l
ti
o
n
e e
f
d en d
o
q
d
E
ati o ns o f thi s t y p e
e know
ati
i
a
s
o
l
q
p
q
q
m e d b e c u se th e y
e n ot
lt e e d wh en i s
a d
e so
ti
1
h an ge d i n t o it s e c i p o al

in

ar

an

ua

o n s,

an

ua

c an

ar

na

ar

r ec

ar

i nn

on

ca

u a

o m pl e t e di s c u ss i on o f r e c ip r o c al e q u ati on s th e
s t u d en t i s r e f e r r e d t o A r t s 56 8 57 0
Fo r

m or e

E x amp l e
D

S olve

ivi ding b y

an

1 2x

56x

re rr nging
a

12

(
z

ai

o r

s o l ve d i n

E x amp le

ua

s i m ila r
Sol ve

W e h ave

m an n e r

o r

e o

2 5x 3

1 2x 2

25

r ec ip r o ca l

m ay

x=

b t am

n o

25

2 ;

13

(
( (
6x 4

wh enc e

wh nce w

= z2

l
+

f oll owi n g e q ti o th o g h

Th e

{Io

12

56z + 8 9 = 0 3

2)

wh nce w ob t n

1 34

56 x

2
= z
; t h en x +

12
e

56

89x

Pu t

+ 24 = O ;

2,

W h en o ne oo t

3,

f a q u a d r ati c e qu ati on i s o b v i o u s b y
i n spe c ti on , th e o th e r r oo t m ay o te n b e r e adi l y ob t ai ne d b y
m a k i n g u se o f th e p r op e r ti es o f th e r oo t s o f q u a d r ati c e qu a ti o n s
4
r o ve d i n A r t
1
1
p
135
.

MIS C E LL A N E O U S EQU A TI O N S

So v ( ) (
2 (
1
+ )
)
Thi s i a q u adr at i c o n e o f wh o e roo t s i s c l e ar l y
A l so s ince th e e q u at i o n m a b e wr i tt e n
y
E

xa

mp le

(
3

2 ax + 1

th e p rod u c t o f the roots i s

)x

an

(
1

th e refore th e o th e r roo t

EXA M PLES

1 01

l
is

g:

olve the foll owi ng e q u ti ons

a

1
3

Jx

+ 2x

5
.

+6

4
6x =

xm

5x n

7x

22 3

3x

2x

4
.

1
.

11

13

6Jx

5x

13

12
14

15

J2

2
x +3
2

57

65 2

'

16

T
i

21

H I G HE R

1 02

26

27

28

A LG

E BR A

7x

30
.

31

32

34

%
3
3

x4 + x 3

37

10

39

41

(
4
34

+ 1)

6 3x

(
x

1)

52 v
.

2=

+l

40

+ 2x + N/a

+ 2x

g a

4x

4x2

5x
a

42

Jx

8
.

2x =

JF
3x

7
3

48

49

5
2

44
46

~ x

43

45

J ae
x

+1

1 8 7x

47

5
2

2x + l

3)

250

2x + 1

3 N/7 x _ 3

2 3

50

51

v4

52

2 7 x + 2 1x + 8 = 0

1 04

H I GH ER

ro m

LG EBRA

7 x + 5y

29

e q u t i on

1, by

=
y 3

ga n from
i

19

7 x + 5y

43

82

29

82

Q
J

82

or x

Ex amp le 4

1 2 47

82

82

o ve
2

2x 3]

xy

s ub t i t u t e i n b o th e q u ati ons

an d

4 + 3m + m

8m + 1 9 m

s,

a e

an

1) m

I 2 = O;

mz 1 ,
m= l ,

an

or

3,

or

1)
s ub t i t u t e in ei th er (
s

or

1;

x=

13

d
=
k
ii
T
e
3
m
()
a

an

th u s

ub t i t u t e i n
s

iii )
(

5x 3 2 1 ;

d
I

Tak e m = 4 ; we

ob t i n
a

1 0x 3 _ 1

an d

an

3
m
(
)(
(

th at i

i) T k
(
From

S l

2x

Pu t y z mx ,

82

551

H enc e

e q u t ion

b y

1 24 7

551

1
1
10

hus

M ISC ELL A N EO U S

Q U A TI O N S

1 05

H enc e th e c omp l e t e sol u t i on i

s
3

{I}

=
1, 3
y
.

N O TE

e qu ti o s
a

Th e

ab

ove m eth od

f t he

ar e o

sa me

S o lv e

x amp l e

2 ) we h v e
rom (

3 1 x 3}

3 1 x 3]

3
4
7 xy + y

(7
x

3 1 x 3)

4y

xy
?

dz

i g th se c es in succ s ion
as

4y

7 xg

2=

0;

7 x 3/

()

0;

O3

9y

0;

or

an

e s

(
2

7xy

u e d wh e n th e

be

'

sub t i t u t ing i

14xy

( (
x

Z z

x4

h ence

d,

4g

7 x 31

an

w ys

64

s,

Tak

th at i

al

d h o mo g en eo u s

'

14x y
x

m ay

1 1 2 x 31

= x2

an

3 1 x 3)

deg r ee

so lu t i o n

sub st i t utin g i n

w e o b t in
a

m y=
z

l ;

I7

17

ob r e d th t e q u t i on (
3) i h m g
Th
m e th od h e r e e m p l oy e d b y wh i c h
eq u ti on i m d e h om og en eou b y
u i t b l e c omb in t i on wi th th e o th e r i s v lu b l e r ti e It i e p e ci lly
u e ful i A n ly ti c l G om try
N OTE

It sh oul d

be

se v

on e

E x amp le 6

S o ve
l

%
(m
(
e

iv i d e e c h t e r m
a

()
W

33

e )
r

(w

or

+g

en eo u s

13

2y

( (

f 1) b y

i?

3x

y)

ill

H I G H ER

1 06

L G EBRA

x
Thi s equati on i s a q uadrat i i n

5
17

31

w h i c h we e

from

asily

n d,

+y

or

wh ence

1 ;

a3 +

or

17

l ;

or y = 0

Co mb

in ing th ese equ ti on

a

w e ob t i n

wit

13

7;

or x

lve th e fo llo wm g e q u ati on

3x

2y

7,

11

y +y

19

5x

6x

2=

3,
25
.

12

13

14

16

17

19

s :

2=

EX A MPLES
So

=
y 0

+y

3=

+y

1 07 2 ,

20

18

20,

'

21

16

65
.

+y
l

5,

H I GH ER

1 08

so from
wh en c we ob t i n
Thu we h ve
Al

or

=7

6;

+y

E x a mp l e 2

Wr ite

Solv

+ x,

my 2 1 0

i,

0r

a
:

a:

6,

= 3 i ~/

+y

an d

( y) (

w fo r y + 2 ,

v,

10

or
or

2!

7,

xy

the solution s are

He n ce

or

=6

+ z = 13 ;

L G EBR A

w= 3 0, wu

3 0,

re sp ectively thus

+y

1 5, wv = 1 8

Multiply ing th ese e quati ons togeth er we h ave

,

u v

= 30

x 1 5x 1 8
uv

C omb

i n i ng th i r esult with e ch
u

wh en ce
Ex a
mp le 3

= 3,

xz

y + yz + z

u tracti ng (
2) from

S b

or

th at i s

2
2

+zx
+

)
(

xy

+y

an

(
4)

an

1,

wh en ce

22

39

3 ;

(
Z)
32

= 19

a:

5;

d ivi s i on
-

)
(

= 49

(
Z

4, y =

w e h ve

6 , w=

by

Hen ce from

x6

v =

3,

(
y
rom (
d(
)
)

S m il arly f

15

the equati on s i n

x=

d: 9 0.

or u =

4, y = 1,

Sol v

2x

3)
(

M ISC ELL A N EO U S
u stituti ng i n equati on

3z

From

332

2:

13

19

ing these h om og n e ou s equ tion s i n E mpl e 4

3;
d th er e for e y
1
11
d th e r fore 3;
x
/7
/7
z

Solv

yz

F om (
1)

by

an d

2 z
b o

x,

mr

k
a
:

0 a

2
b z

(
a

b6

5
.

2=

+y
2

z =

my

add

th e n

th e n

d add

sup po se

0 a

2
l
)
a

2 1,

5
.

50,

1
1

1 8,

3 x z + 3y z
x

5;

S2 = O,

an

3 a2b 2 02)

6
0

th e followi n g e q u ation s
9x +y

a n

th e give n equati on s ; th en

w e ob t i

= 0

EXA MPLES
Sol ve

my

ely an

y
2

res p ectively

esp ectiv

z
2

ny o n e o

2 2:

ro s s multi pli cati on

u stitute i n a

a:

S b

+a y +

Mul ti ply the e quation s b y

Art 1 3 6 ,

an

Mul ti ply the e quati on s b y y

xa

an

E x amp le 4

as

12 :

or

1 09

w e ob t i n

S b

Sol v

Q U A TIO N S

N/as

X c
.

3a b

2 2

H I G H ER

1 10
9

11

10

z z
z u

2
2

1 2,
12,

L G EBRA

8 , my z

2
2
zu

A
2

54 ,

7
x

3 2
2

13

14

+y

6z

52 ,

7 z , y z + x = 8z ,

15

3x

16

3y z + 31

xz

2m
g

12

zz 2 2
u
3 xy

72

I ND
1 38

ti on :

e
r
s o n sp en ds 4 6 1 i n
p
h orse co st s 2 3 an d e a c h cow
x,

b
y

E TE R MI NA TE

Let

6a

3x + y

2z

3a

EQU A TI O N S

th e f o ll ow i ng p r ob l e m were p r op o se d

Su pp o se

th e n u m b er

fo r

b u y i ng h or se s an d cow s
1 6 , h ow m a n y o f e a c h d oe s

h or se s

2 3 50 + 1 6 3/

an

46 1

o lu

if e a c h
he b u y ?

cow s r e sp ec ti ve l y

th en

He r e we

h a ve o n e e qu ati on i nvo l v i ng two u n k n own qu an titi e s

an d it is c l e a r th a t b y a s cr i b i ng an y v alu e we p l e a s e t o x we c an
ob t ai n a corre sp on di ng v alu e fo r y 3 thu s it wo ul d app e ar at r st
s i g ht th at th e p r o b l e m adm it s o f a n i n n it e n u m b e r o f so luti on s
Bu t it is c l e a r f r o m th e n atu r e o f th e qu e sti o n th a t a:an d 3; m u st
b e p o siti ve i n t ege rs ; an d w ith thi s r e st r i c ti on as we sh all see
l at e r th e n u m b e r o f so luti o n s is lim it e d
,

I f th e n u m b e o f u n k n o w n qu an titi e s is g e at e th an th e
o f i n de p e n den t e qu ati on s, th e e w ill b e an u n li m it e d
n u mb e
o f so luti on s, an d th e e qu ati on s a r e sai d t o b e in det er
n u mb e
min at e I n th e p e se n t s ec ti o n we Sh all o n ly di s c u ss th e Si m pl e st
k i n ds o f i n de t e m i n at e e qu a ti o n s, co n n i ng o u a tt e n ti o n t o p o si
tiv e in teg r a l v a lu es o f th e u n k n ow n qu an titi e s ; it w ill b e s ee n
that thi s e st i c ti on e n ab l e s u s t o e x p e ss th e so luti on s in a ve y
Si m l e f o m
p

r
r
.

r
r

in

Th e
C h ap

gene ra l th e o ry
XX V I
.

i n de t e rmi n at e e qu ati on s w ill

be

fou n d

H I GH ER

112

28

h n ce
e

th at

2+

i s,

d, fro m

te g e r ;

m t e g er

11

1 419

upp o se ;

h i s i s c lle d the g r l l ti f th e equ ti n d b y g ivi ng to p

y p o s i ti v e i nt egr l v l u e or e ro w e b t i n p o s i ti ve i ntegr l v l u es f
d y ; th u s we h v e
T

an

m t eger

11

an

in

11

an

L G EBRA

en e a

so u

on

an

0,

1,

2,

3,

= 6, 1 7 , 28, 39,

= 5, 1 9 , 33 , 4 7 ,
y

th e num b er o f soluti on s b e in g i n n ite

ny way s can 5 b e p ai d i n h al f crown s an d o rin s ?

b e th e n um b er o f h al f c ro w n s y th e num b e r o f o rin s ; th en

E x amp l e 3

L et

In

h ow m

5x

43]

2 00

50,

i nt g e r

50

an

5p

uppo se

uti n s a b tai n e d b y ascrib ing t p th e value s 1 2 3

a d
th ere fore th e num b e r f way s i s 9 If h ow eve r th e m may b p ai d it h r
i n h l f cro wn s i p m ay al s o h ave th e values 0 a d 1 0 If p 0
th en = 0 a d th e m i s p ai d e nti r ely i n i s ; if
th e n y = 0 a d
the m i s p i d entir ely i n half crown s Thus if ero valu es f a d y a
f way s i s 1 1
admi ss ib l e th e nu m b er
Th e p en s e s o f a p a ty num b er in g 4 3 w ere 5 1 4 6 d ; if
E mp l 4
Sol

re

or

e ch m p i d
th ere f e ch ?

re

3.

6d

an

e ch chil d
a

h ow m
.

s.

ny

w er e
.

L et

e ch wom n 2

an

or n

xa

su

o r n s,

su

su

x,

then we h ave

d enote th e numb e r o f m en women

,

l 0x

Elim

i n ti n g
a

Th e gen

er

al

we ob tai n
sol ut i on o f th i s
z

43

5y

2z = 2 29

8x

33;

1 43

equ ti on i s
a

an

ch il dren resp ectively ;

,

He n ce b y
He re
fro

p
m 1

s ub stituti n g i n

c nnot
a

to 5

be

hu s

U A TI O N S

N D ETER M I N A TE

EQ

113

in

we o b ta

n e gativ e or
x

5p

2
z

ero

4,

5,

1,

2,

4,

7 , 1 0, 1 3 , 1 6

3,

o
s
i
t
i
v
e
i
n
t
e
v
u
r
l
a
l
es
a
p
g

h ve

b u t m ay

5,
z

7 , 1 2, 1 7 , 22

EXA MPLES

So lve
1

i n p o itive i n tegers :
s

3 x + 8y

l 3 x + 1 1y

1 03
=

4 14

5x + 2y

53

2 3 m+ 2 5y

9l5

Fi nd th e general s olut i on i n p o s iti ve i n teger s

o f x an d
w
h
i
c
h
s at i sfy t h e e q u ati ons :
y
7

5x

1 7y

10
.

11

1 3x = 0

6x

l 3y

1 9y

2 3x

an

12

7 x + 12y

4 1x + 4 7y

d th e

8x

7 y

2 1y

33

3 0x

lu e s

va

2 19 1

l east

"

1 52

29 5
.

farm e r spend s 7 52 i n b uy i ng h or es a d c ows ; if eac h h orse

c o sts 3 7 an d ea c h c ow 2 3 h ow m any o f eac h does h e b u y ?
I n h ow m an y way s c an 5 b e p ai d i n s hilli n gs an d s i p e n ces
14
i n c lu di n g ero soluti on s
1 5 D i vi de 8 1 i n to two p art s s o th at on e m ay b e a m ulti p l e f 8
a d th e o th er o f 5
Wh at is th e s i mplest way fo r a per son wh o h as on ly gu i nea s
16
t o p ay 1 03
to anoth er wh o h as on ly h alf c rown s
F i nd a n u m b er w h i c h b ei n g d i v i ded b y 3 9 gi ve s a re mai nder 1 6
17
Ho w m any s u c h n u m b ers a e th ere ?
an d b y 56 a re m ai nder 2 7
W h at is th e small est n um b e r o f o r in s th at m u s t b e gi ven t o
18
di s c h arge a de b t o f 1 6 8 6 d if t h e c h ange is t o b e p ai d i n h alf c rown s
13

onl y

i t two p arts one o f whi c h wh en d i vi ded b y 5

l e aves remai
th e oth er d i v i ded b y 8 l eaves re m ai nder 3
20 I b u y 4 0 an i m al s c on si sti n g o f r am s at 4 p i gs a t 2 an d o en
19

iv i de

136 n o
nder 2 , an d

s pend 301 h ow m ny O f e c h do I b y ?
overei gn h l f c rown s
I my p o c k e t I h ve 2 7 c o i n w h i c h
21
or s h i lli n g s
f
d t h e m o u n t I h v e i s 5 0 6 d ; h ow m ny c o i n
e c h s or t h v e I 7
.

at

if I

17

an

ar e s

s,

s,

s o

H H A
.

C H A P TER X I

P ER M U TA TI O N S
13 9
s

om e

o r

EA C H
al l o f a

C O M B IN A TI O N S

A ND

O f th e a r r a n g em en ts w hi c h c an b e m a de b y t ak in g
n u m b e r o f thi ng s is c a ll e d a p ermu t at i o n
.

th e g r o u p s o r selectio n s w hi c h c an b e m ade b y tak i ng

s o m e o r all o f a n u m b e r o f th in g s is c all e d a c o mb in at io n
Thu s th e p er m u ta tio n s w hi c h c an b e m ade b y t ak i ng th e
l e tt e rs a b c d t wo at a tim e a r e t we l ve i n n u m b e r n am e ly
Ea c h

each
a,

ab,

a c,

a d,

b c,

b d,

b a,

ca,

da,

b,

db ,

do ;

di ffe

r en t

d,

l e tt er s
Th e c o m b in atio n s w hi c h c an b e m a de b y t ak i n g th e l e tt er s
b c d t w o at a ti m e ar e six i n n u m b e r : n am e l y
o

f th e s e p re se n ti ng

a r r an

e
m
en
g

f t wo

ab,

e a c h o f th e se

b c,

a d,

a c,

b d,

cd

d
f
ele ti
o f t wo l e tt er s
r
e
e
ti
ng
if
e
r
en
t
p
F r o m thi s it pp e rs th t i f o rm in g c m b i ti n s we e on l y
c once r e d w ith th e u mb e r o f thi g e c h se l ec ti o c o n t i n ;
w h ere s i f o rm i ng p m ta tio n s we h ve al o t o con i de r th e
o r der o f t h thi ng s w hi c h m k e u p e a c h r r nge m e t ; f or i n t a ce
if f ro m f o u r l e tt e r s a b
d we m k e
se l ec ti on O f th r ee s u c h
thi i ngl e co m b i ati on dm it s O f b e i ng rr ge d i th e
s ab
a

c,

s s

n a

an

so

g i ve s r i se t o

a cb ,
six

b ca ,

di ffe

b a c,

r en t p erm ut ti on
a

ca b ,

c b a,
s

f o ll ow i ng w ay s

ab c,

ar

c,

on

er

s n

an

116

H I GH ER

L G EBRA

th e s e w ay s th e se c on d pl a c e c a th en b e ll e d u p in n 1 way s
a n d s i n c e e a c h w ay o f lli ng u p th e r s t p l a ce c a n b e a ss o c i a t e d
w ith e a c h w ay o f lli n g u p th e s econ d th e n u m b e r o f w ay s i n
w hi c h th e rst t wo p l a ce s c an b e ll e d u p is g i ven b y th e p ro du c t
A n d w h en th e r st t w o p l a c e s h a ve b een ll e d u p i n
n
n
n
th
e
thi
r
d
l
a ce c an b e ll e d u
i
n
2
w
a s
w
an
a
nd
A
p
p
y
y
y
re a so n i ng as b e f o r e th e n u m b e r O f w ay s in w hi c h th ree p l ace s c an
1) n
b e ll e d u p is n n
Pr o cee di ng thu s a n d n o ti c in g th a t a new fa c t or is i n t r o du ce d
w ith e ac h n e w p l a c e ll e d u p an d th a t at an y s tage th e n u m b er
o f fa c t or s is th e sam e as th e n u m b e r o f p l a c e s ll e d u p we sh all
h a v e th e n um b e r o f w ay s i n w hi c h r p l a ce s c an b e ll e d u p
n

( (
,

u al

to

( (
(

an

th e

th

1)

fa c t o r

Th e

re

fa c t or s ;

r +

2)

2)

thi n g s t ak en

77.

thi n g s t ak e n

r at

1)

f p e m ut ati o n s

to

fa c t o r s

a ll a t

u su al t o de n o t e thi s p ro du c t b y th e sy m b o l L
n
w hi c h

fa c t o r i a l n
A l s o n ! is s o m e ti m e s u se d f or

is

is

We sh all in futu r e
thi ngs t ak en r at a ti m e

1 42

of

ad

( (
( )( )

It

l)

u mb e r

or

f p erm ut a ti on s

( (
u

or

th e n u m b e r
n

CO R
ti m e is

to

2)

is

Th ere f o r e
ti m e is

deno t e th e n u m b er
b y th e sy m b o l P
"

o f p erm uta ti o n s
so

th at

ri

l o

"

a s

wo rk i n g n u m e ri c a l ex am p l e s it is u se ful t o no ti ce th at th e
s u f x in th e s m b o l
P
a
a
s d e n o t e s th e n u m b e r o f fa c t o r s in
l
w
y
y
th e f o rm ul a we ar e u si n g
In

"

1 43
Th e n u m b e r o f p e rm uta ti on s O f 97 thi n gs
ti m e m ay a l so b e f o u n d i n th e f o ll ow i ng m an n er
.

t ak en

at

Let
t ak en

r at a

r ep r e se t th e
n

ti m e

u m b er o f

er
ut
ti
on
m
a
s
p

thi ng s

PER M U TA TI O N S A N D C OM B IN ATI O N S
Su pp o se we f o rm al l th e p er m ut a ti on s
a t a ti m e
th e n u m b e o f th e se w ill b e

1 17

thi n g s t ak en

W ith ea ch of th ese p u t o n e o f th e r e m a i n i n g n r 1 thi ng s

Ea c h ti m e we do thi s we sh a ll ge t o n e p er m ut a ti on O f n th in g s
r a t a ti m e
a n d th ere f o r e th e w h o l e n u m b e r o f th e
er
ut
m
a ti on s
p
o f n thi n g s 7 a t a ti m e is P
x
l ) th a t is
n
r
.

"

'

"

"

I"

"

wr iti ng

By

i mil a r ly

(
r
(

l f o r r i n thi s f orm ul a we

'

"

"

"

P3

x
_
r
3

"

"

P2

r _2

(
(
(

"

= n

( (
n

1)

tai n

Multi p l y t oge th er th e ve rti c a l co lu m n s

f ro m e ac h Si de an d we O b t ai n
,

Ob

an

c a nce l li k e f a c t ors

2)

rt

Four p er son s e nter r il w y c r i ge i n wh i c h th ere

i
se ts ; i n h ow m ny w y s
th y t k e th i p l c s
Th r s t p er s on m y se t him s el f i n 6 w y s ;
d th e n th e sec ond p er s on
i n 5 t h th ird i n 4 ; d th e fourt h i n 3 ; d s ince e ch f th se w y s m y
b
ssoc i te d with e ch f th e oth er s the requi r e d n s w er i s 6 5 4 3
E x amp le 1

o r

a r a
a e

e r

an

an

are s x

six

out

3 60

E x a mp le 2

Of

an

c an

Ho w m any di er en t n um b er s

t h e n i n e d i g i ts

we h

c an

1 , 2,

form

e d b y u sing

differe nt th in g s an d w e h ave t o n d the n u m b er

m u t ati on s O f th e m tak e n 6 at a tim e ;
9
th e requir e d re s ult P6
He r e

ve

f p er

5x 4

604 80

144

To

thin g s t a ken

L et

n
h
d
t
e

a t a tim e

m b er

n
n
o
a
c
o
m
b
i
t
i
o
s
n
f
of

dissim ila r

th e r e qui r e d n u m b e r o f co m b i n ati on s
Th en e a c h o f th e se co m b i n a ti on s co n si s t s O f a g r o u p o f r
b e a rr a nge d a m on g th e m se l v e s 11)
di ssi m il a r thi n g s w hi c h c a
A
rt
: w ay s
[
1
"

C"de n o t e

1 18

H I GH ER

GEBRA

AL

t o th e n u m b er O f a rr an g emen ts
tim e th at is

H en ce 0"x ]r is e qu al
"

thi ng s tak en
"

r at a

"

(
( )(
n

2)

(
n

1)

r +

L1
7

f o rm ul a f o r C m ay al so
r if we m ultip ly th e n u m e ra t or
we Ob t ai n
Thi s

COR
f orm ; f o
.

"

( (

1)

|I |
Th e n u m e r a t o r now
n u m b er s f r o m n t o 1

w r itt e n in a di ffe r en t
a n d th e deno m i n at o r b
y
be

r
o
u
c
t
d
p

co n si st s o f th e

all

th e

n a

tu r a l

(
2)

w ill b e conven i en t t o r e m e m b e r b o th th e se ex p r e ssi on s f o r

u si ng 1 ) i n all c ase s w h ere a n u m er i ca l re sult is r e qui re d
2 ) w h en it is s u fc i en t t o l e a ve it in an a l ge b r a i c al sh ap e

It
an

N O TE

If

2) we p
i n formul (
a

we h ve

= n,

th at if the form l a i s to b e true f

b e c on s i d er e d as e qu ival ent t o 1
but

On

so

or r

=n,

th e sy mb ol I
)
i

mu

st

s i h o w m ny w y s
sel ecti on f 5 b
2 ) wh en
e s ec i e
i s lw y s i nclude d (
sp eci e d

E x amp le
ro m 1 2 b o ok n
m ad , 1 )
en on p d b ook
b ook
alway s ex l ded ?

wh
(
is
.

c an

one

cu
1

i
n
c
e
t
h
e
ec
i
e d b ook i s t b i nclu ded i n every selecti on we
S
p
(
)
h v only to ch oo se 4 out f th e rem in ing 1 1
He n ce th e n um b e r f w y = 0
s

a e

a s

11

11

10x 9

3 30
.

1 20

H I GH ER

L G EBRA

146
To n d th e n u mb er of way s in wh ich m n th in g s c a n b e
div ided in to t wo g r o u p s co n tain in g m a/n d 11 thin g s r esp ec tiv e ly
.

t o n di n g th e n u m b e r O f co m b i
a ti m e
f o r every tim e we se l ec t
thi ngs we l ea ve a gro u p O f n th ings b e hi n d

Thi s is c l e a r ly e qui v a l en t
n thi n g s m at
n a ti o n s O f m

g ro up o f m

on e

th e r e qui r e d n u m b e r

Thu s

+ n

i n thi c e th e numb er f
i n y on e w y it i po ib l e
dif
f
t w y
f ub d i is i on i
t i :IE
t o i nterch n g e the two gro p with out ob t in i ng n ew distrib uti on
N OTE

If

az

a s o

eren

m,

the group s
s

equal

ar e

an

an

or

as

ss

h
n g s c an
147
To n d th e n u m b er of way s in which m n
t
i
p
div ide d in to th r ee g r o u p s c o n tain in m , n , p th in g s sev er a lly
.

be

F i r st
an

c an

n g s in t o t wo
n t a i n i ng m
thi
r
o
u
s
co
p
g
p
thi n g s r e sp ec ti v e l y th e n u m b er o f w ay s i n w hi c h thi s

d i v i de m

+ n +

b e do n e is

c an

Th en th e n u m b e o f w ay s i n w hi c h th e
b e di v i de d i n t o t wo g o u ps co n t a i n i ng

In

t iv e l y is

group
n

an

dp

thi ng s

thi ngs

res

c
e
p

10

th e n u m b e r O f w ay s in w hi c h th e s u b di v i si on i n t o th ree
co n t ai n i ng m n p thin g s c an b e m ade is

H ence

g r o u ps

m m m

)
as di ffe rent all th e p o ss i b l e ord e r s i n wh i o
Hie th r ee g roup s c an o ccur i n
an y on e m od e o f sub d i vi s i on
A n d s i n c e t h er e ar e 3 s u ch ord er s c or
)
r e sp ond in g to e ach mode o f sub di vi s i on the numb er 07 d ier en t way s i n
)

'

whi c h sub di vi s i on into th ree equ a l group s c an

E x amp le

th ee equal
r

c an

be

Th e

u s

gr o p

drafted i nto

n u m b er o

f way s
l5

W
h ee i e e

is

b e m ad

ei

i n which 1 5 recruit
b di vi ded i nto
d th e n um b er f w y i n wh i c h th ey
s c an

; an

d ff r nt regi m e nts

ve

a s

i nto e ch i s
a

15

'

Ef E
I

P ER M U TA TI O N S

A ND

CO

M BI N A TI O N S

1 21

th e e x am pl e s w hi c h f o ll ow it is i m p o rta n t t o no ti ce
th at th e f or m ul a fo r p er mu ta t io n s Sh o ul d no t b e u se d u n til th e
s uit ab l e selec tio n s r e qui r e d b
th
e
qu
e
sti on h a ve b een m a de
y
E mp l 1
From 7 Engl i sh m en a d 4 A m eri can s a c mm ittee f 6 i s to
b form e d ; i n h o w m any w ay s
1 ) w h e n th e c o mm i ttee
thi s b e don e (
tai n s e actly 2 A m eri c an s (
2 ) at l e ast 2 A m e r i c an s
1
2
m
A
We
h
a
v
e
t
o
c
h
oo
se
e
r
i
c
a
n
s
a
d
4
E
n
l
i
s
h
m
en
g
)
(
Th e n um b e r f w ay s i n wh i c h th e A m e ri c an s a b e c h o se n i s
d
th e numb e r f w ay s in w h i c h the Engl i sh m en
b e c h o se n i s
E ch f
t h s t grou p s a b ass o ci ate d wi th e ch f th e sec ond ; h e n ce
th e r equir e d num b er o f w y s 0 0
14 8

In

xa

c an

co n

an

c an

x 7

I]
2 10
2 2 3
L L1 :
2
c
o
i
tt
ee
m
T
h
m
m
ay c ontai n 2 3 or 4 A m e ri c an s
e
(
)
We s h all exh au st al l th e s uitab l e com b in ati on s b y form i ng all th e group s
c ontai n ing 2 A m eri c an s an d 4 En gl i s hm en ; th en 3 A m eri c an s an d 3 En gl i sh
m en ; an d l astly 4 A meri c an s an d 2 En gl i shm e n
He n ce th e r equ i re d
Th e su m o f t he th r e e r esul t s wi l l g iv e th e an s w e r
4
7
4
7
7
x 02
02 x 04 4 03 x 03
n um b er o f way s

L
4
2 2
| l
.

sw

e w e h ve only t o m k e u se f th e suit b l e form l e f

w e not con cern e d with th e po ss i b le rr ng em nts f th e
m b i ti
f
m emb e r s f th e c ommittee m on g th e m se lv s
In

thi s

l
1
3
11
7

na

co

Ex am pl

ar e

or

o n s,

u a

or

c s
t d 4 vo w e l s h w m ny w ord s
b
s
ts d 2 vow el ?
m d e e c h c ont in i
Th num b e r f w y s f c h oo s i n g th e th r e c on s on nt s i s 0
d th e
num b e r f w y s f c h o s i ng th e 2 vo w el s i s 0 ; d s i n ce e ch f th e r st
ss oci ted with e c h f th e second th e num b er f c om b in ed
b
g roup s
d 2 vo w e l s i 0
g roup s e c h c ont i n i n g 3 c on s on nt s
F urth e r e ch f th ese group s c ont in s 5 l etter s w h i ch m y b rr ged
m on g th e m se lves i n 5 w y s
H
en
c
e
[
the r equi re d n umb e r f word 0 0 [E
E x amp le 2

an

an

3 X

5x 7
2 52 00

E
I IE
Q

3 , an

an

c an

s an

e a

c an

f 7 on on an
n g 3 con on an

Ou t

s 7

e a

an

H I G H ER

1 22

word s c an b e form ed out

even pl aces ?

Ho w m any

E x amp l e 3
vowel s
a
.

th t th e

L G EBRA

o ccupy th e

the letters a

r tic le ,

h ve to p t th e 3 vow el i n 3 p ci e d pl ces
n n t i n th e 4 r e m i n i n g p l
b
; th e r t o per ti on
Hen e
d th e ec ond i n
L
4
3
4
t h re qu i ed n umb r f word s
' L
Her e we

an

c an

an

th e 4 c on s o

don e i n '3 way s

ace s

so

144

th i s E ampl e th e form ul a f p ermutati ons is i mm e di ately appl i cab l e

b ec au se b y th e st tem e nt f th e qu esti on th e r e is b t on e way f c h oo s i g th e
vo w el s a d one way f ch oos i ng th e c on s on ants
In

or

EXA MPLES XI

h ow m any way s c an a con son an t an d a vowel b e c h osen o ut o f

t h l e tt er s O f th e word co u r ag e ?
Th ere ar e 8 c and i d ates for a Cl assi c al 7 fo r a Math em ati c al a d
2
4 fo r a Natur al Sc i en c e Sc h ol ars h i p
I n h ow m an y way s c an t h e
Sc h ol arsh i ps b e awarded ?
5
8
Fi nd th e v alue o f P, P
3
Ho w m an y d i fferen t arrangem en t s c an b e m ade b y t ak i ng 5
4
O f th e l etters o f t h e word equ a tio n ?
5 If fou r ti m e s th e n u mb er o f p erm utat i on s o f n thi n gs 3 toge th er
1 t h i n gs
is e q u al t o ve t i m es th e n u mb er O f p erm utat i on s o f n
3 t ogeth er nd n
Ho w m an y p erm ut ati on s c an b e m ade o ut o f th e l e tters o f
6
th e word tr ian g le ? Ho w many O f th ese wi ll b egi n with t an d end
with e
Ho w m an y di fferen t s el e c ti on s c an b e m ade b y tak i n g fou r o f
7
th e d i gi ts 3 4 7 5 8 1 ? Ho w m any d ifferen t n umb ers c an b e form ed
wi th fou r O f t h ese d i git s ?
1

In

,,

10

3,

Ho w m any c h anges

c an

Ho w m an y

way s b ei ng l as t ?
.

al

nd

I f 2o,
2

c h n ge
a

s c an

be

Ho w man y arrang em en s
12
word dr a u g h t, e vowe s neve b
.

th

ru

w
ith
a
e
l
o
f
5
e
ll
s
a
b
?
g
p
r u n g with a p eal o f 7 b ells t h e t enor
n

be

On h ow m any n g hts m ay
11
re w Of 2 4 , so th at no two wat h es
wo ul d an y one m an b e tak en ?
.

wat c h o f 4 m en b e drafted from a

are i den ti c al ?
On h ow m an y o f t h e s e
a

b e m ade

c an

r e i n g ep r ted
s

a a

o ut o f th e

e tt e r

s o

f th e

H I G H ER

1 24

L GEBRA

eight o ared b oat is t o b e m anned b y a cr ew c h osen fro m 1 1

30
m e n o f w h o m 3 c an s teer b u t c anno t row an d t h e res t c an r o w b u t c an
no t steer I n h ow m any way s c an t h e c rew b e arran ged if two o f t h e
m en c an on ly row on b o w si de ?
An

t h at t h e n um b er o f way s i n wh i c h p p o si t i v e a d
n egati ve S i g n s m ay b p l aced i n a row s o th at no two n e gat i ve s i g ns s h all

H
P
b t og eth er is
C
31

Prove

32

33

I f P,
56

1,

+6

Ho w m an y d i fferen t

e n tly c ol ou red

h oi ted

m ay b e

34

ag

s one

a s c an

1 1,

an

If

i gn l
b m de b y h o i s t i n g 6 d i ffer
b
f
m
m
n
u
er
th
e
b ove t h e o t h e r w h en
y

on ce ?

at

nd

nd

H ith e t o , i n th e f or m ul ae we h a ve p o ve d, th e thin g s
149
h a ve b een ega de d a s u n like Be f o e c on si de i n g c ase s in w hi c h
b
s o m e o n e o r m o e s e t s o f thi ng s m a
e like, it is n ece ssa r
t
o
y
y
a t s en s e th e wo ds like an d u n lik e a r e
o
i
n
t
o
ut
e
w
h
x a c tl
i
n
p
y
u se d W h en we sp e ak o f thi ng s b e i ng dissimila , difer en t, u n
like, we i m p l y th at th e thi ng s ar e visib ly u n like, so a s t o b e
e asily di sti ng ui sh ab l e f o m e a c h o th e
O n th e o th er h an d we
s h all al w a s u se th e t e m l ik e thi ng s t o deno t e s u c h as a re a li k e
y
t o th e ey e an d c anno t b e di sti ng ui sh e d f o m e a c h o th e
Fo
i n st an ce , i n Ex 2, A rt 1 4 8 , th e con son an ts an d th e v owe l s m ay
b e sai d e a c h t o con si s t O f a gro u p O f thi ng s u n it e d b y a co mm o n
c h a a c t er i sti c , an d t hu s in a ce t ai n se n se t o b e o f th e sam e k i n d ;
b u t th ey c a n n o t b e reg a de d as lik e th ing s, b ec au se th e e is a n
i n di v i du ality e x i stin g am on g th e thi ng s o f e ac h gro u p w hi h
m ak e s th e m e a sil y disti ng ui sh ab l e f ro m e ac h o th e
H e n ce, in
th e n a l stage o f th e e x am pl e we con si de e d e ac h g o u p t o
co n si st o f ve dissim ila r thi n gs an d th e e f ore c apab l e o f L5
.

r
r

rrangem e ts
n

am

ong th em se l v e s

A
rt
[

1 4 1 Co n

1 50
Supp o se we h a ve t o n d al l th e p o ss i b l e w ay s o f a rr an g
a ti n , 4 Eng li s h , an d
1 2 b oo k s o n a s h e lf, 5 o f th e m b e i ng
em ai n de i n di ffe en t l an g u age s
.

i ng
th e r

e l ve s th ey

ar e

reg arde d as b e l on g i ng t o
co mm o n c h a rac t e r i sti c ; b u t if th ey were
r
e ac h o th er th e n u m b e r o f p erm ut a ti on s
r th e p u rp o se o f ar r a ngem en t am ong th e m
e ssen ti all y di ffe r en t

Th e b ook s in e a c h
O n e c l ass, u n it e d b
a
y
di sti n g ui sh ab l e f o m
wo ul d b e )1 2 , Si nce f o
s

l an g u age

m ay b e
,

P ER M U TA TIO N S

A ND

CO

M BI N A TI O N S

1 25

I f, h owever , th e b oo k s i n th e sam e l a n g u ag e a r e n o t dis

t in g u ish a b l e f ro m e a h o th er , we sh o ul d h a ve t o n d th e n u m b e
b e a rr a nge d am ong th e m se l ve s ,
o f way s i n w hi c h 1 2 thi ng s c an
w h en 5 o f th e m a r e e x ac tl y al ik e o f one k i n d, a n d 4 e x a c tl y a li k e
i
o f a s econ d k i n d : a p ro b l e m w hi c h is n o t di ec tl
n c lu de d i n a n
y
y
rev
i
o
u
sl
con
o f th e c ase s we h a ve
si d e e d
p
y

To n d th e n u m b er of way s in wh ic h 11 thin g s m a y b e
a rr a n g ed a m o n g t h emselv es, t a kin g th em a ll a t a tim e, wh en
p
of
t h e thin g s a r e ex a c tly a like of o n e k in d, q of t h em ex a c t ly
a like
a n o th er k in d, r of th em ex a c t ly a lik e of a t hir d k in d, a n d
qf
t h e r est a ll difer en t
1 51

to

Le t
b e b,

Le t

th e r e b e n l e tt e rs ; su ppo se p o f th e m t o b e
r O f th e m t o b e c an d th e re st t o b e u n li k e
,

a,

f th e m

th e r e qui re d n u m b e r Of p er m ut ati o n s ; th e n if i n
an
n e o f th e se p er m ut ati on s th e p l e tt e r s a were r e p l a ce d b
o
y
y p
u n li k e l e tt e r s differen t f r om a n y O f th e r e s t f ro m thi s si ng l e
er
ut
m
a ti on W ith o ut a lt e r i ng th e p o siti on O f an y o f th e re m a i n i ng
p
l e tt e rs we co ul d fo rm Ip n ew p e rm uta ti on s H e n ce if thi s c h a nge
we r e m ade in e a c h o f t h e x p e rm ut ati o n s we sh o ul d Ob t a in x [p
e
r
m
u
t
a ti o n s
p
be

th e

Sim il a r l y , if th e q l e tt e r s 5 were r e p l a ce d b y q
e
r
ut
n um b e r o f
m
a ti on s wo ul d b e
p

r x

u nl i k e l e tt er s

lik e m an n er b y re pl a c i n g th e r l e tt e rs 0 b y r u n li k e l e tt er s
er
m
ut
a ti on s
r
we sh o ul d n ally O b t ai n x I
p
lq ) p
In

th e th i n g s are n o w all diffe r en t an d th e r e fo r e

H
e
r
ut
ence
m
a ti o n s am o n g th e m se l ve s
p
Bu t

a dm

it

tr d

k r
=

it

th at

is

w hi c h

is

th e r e qui re d n u m b e r

Ek t
o

f p er mut ati on s

i
n
w
hi
c
h
th
e
thi
n
s
g
y
t r e a t e d si m il a r l y
A

a se

a re

no t

a ll

differe n

may b e

H I GH ER

1 26

L GEBRA

d i ffere nt p erm utati on s

l etters o f th e w ord assassin a tio n tak e n all tog eth er ?
E x amp le 1

Ho w m any

We h ve h er e 1 3 l etter f wh i ch
Hen ce th e num b e r f p ermut ti on

s o

ar e a ,

ar e

i,

e out
an

d2

th e

ar e n

ar e 3 ,

b e m ad

c an

13

EBIW
1 001

E x amp le 2
1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 3 , 2 , 1 ,
.

Th e

108 00: 108 1 08 00

num b er s c an b e form e d with th e d i g its

odd di git s al way s o ccupy th e O dd p l aces ?

Ho w m any

th at th e

so

odd di gi ts 1

3 , 3, 1

c an

rran g e d i n th e i r four p l ace s i n

be

) wa s
y
2 2
I7
b e arr ang e d i n thei r th r ee pl aces i n
4

Th e

even d i gits 2

4, 2

c an

Eway s

2,

1) a b
th e way s i n (
[4
H en ce the re qu ired numb er

ch

Of

Ea

tim es

sso ci te d with e ch
a

3 : 18

th e way s i n

u ta tio n s of 11 th in g s r
o
r
m
m
b
r
e
e

fp
u
wh en ea ch th in g m ay b e r ep ea ted o n c e, twic e,
p
in an y ar r an g em en t

1 52
t im e,

To

th e

n u

at a

to

He r e we

h av e t o con si de r th e n u mb e r o f w ay s in w hi c h r
l
a ce s c a n

ll
e
w
h
e
n we h a ve n differen t thi ng s a t o u r
b
e
d
u
p
p
di sp o sal e ac h o f th e n thi ng s b e i ng u se d a s o ft en a s we p l e a s e i n
an
a rran ge m e n t
y
Th e r st pl ace m ay b e ll e d u p i n
w ay s an d w h e n it h as
b een ll e d u p in an y o n e w ay th e s econ d p l a ce m ay al so b e ll e d
u
i
n n wa s
a r e n o t p re c lu de d f ro m u si n g th e sam e
i
nce
we
s
p
y
thi ng aga i n Th e r e f o r e th e n u mb e r o f w ay s i n w hi c h th e r st
t wo p l a ce s c an b e ll e d u p is n n o r n
Th e thi rd p l a ce c an
a l s o b e ll e d u
i
n n w a s an d th e r e f o r e th e r st th r ee
l
ce
i
n
a
s
p
p
y
,

w ay s
Pr ocee di ng i n thi s m an n e r an d n o ti c i ng th a t a t a n y st age th e
i n dex O f n is al way s th e sam e as th e n u m b e r o f p l a ce s ll e d u p
w e s h all h a ve th e n u m b e r o f w ay s i n w hi c h th e r p l a ce s c an b e
ll e d u p e qu al t o n

'

L G EBR A

1 28

H I GH ER

th e v a lu e s

i n su cce ssi on

u n til

1 , 2, 3

1 b

ecom e s e qu a l t o
1

No w

so

l ong

th a t

O is

on ti n u a ll y i ncre ase d

l e ss th a n

o r

1,

r
n

"

as

I S,

We h a ve t o
thi s i ne qu ality

c h oo se th e gre t e t v lu e

con si st en t w ith

Of r

(
1)

Let

be

even

2m

e qu a l t o

an

1
-

2
an

fo r

a ll

v a lu e s

H ence b y p uttin g

9,

1
+

i n c lu si ve thi s is grea t e r th a n r
we n d th at th e gre a t e st n u m b e r o f

to

th en

2m ;

c o m b i ti on s is
na

L et

dd,

e o

an

e qu a l t o
2m + 2
2

2
an

but

f o r all v alu e s o f r
w h en r m 1 th e
"

0m l
-

2m
=

th en

l ;

s i ve thi s is g r e a t e r th a n r ;
t
o
i
nc
lu
m
p
m ulti p l y i ng f a c t or b eco m e s e qu al t o 1 a n d
th at is
C

"

th ere f o re th e n u m b er o f c o m b i n a ti on s is g r e a t e s t w h en th e
n + 1
l
n
thin g s a r e t ak en
a t a ti m e ; th e r e s ult b e i n
th
e
o r
g
2
2
sam e i n t h e t wo c a se s
an

Th e f or m ul a f o r th e n u m b er o f co m b i n a ti on s Of n thi n g s
r a t a ti m e m a
b
e f o u n d w ith o ut a ssu m i ng th e f o rm ul a f o r th e
y
n u m b e r O f p er m ut a ti on s
1 55
.

Let
r

at

a,

b,

c,

deno t e th e n u m b e
tim e ; a n d l e t th e n
d,

co m b i n ati on s o f n thi ng s tak e n

thi ngs b e deno t e d b y th e l e tt e rs
Of

R M U T ATI O N S

A ND

PE

M BI N A TI O N S

CO

1 20

way a ; th e n w ith th e re m ai n i ng l e tte r s we c a n f or m

c o m b i n a ti on s o f n 1 l e tt e r s t ak en r 1 a t a ti m e W ith
e a c h O f th e s e w r it e a ; thu s w e se e th a t o f th e co m b i n a ti on s
thi ng s 7 a t a ti m e th e n u m b e r o f th o se w hi c h con t a i n
o f n
is
s i m il a r l y
th e n u m b e r O f th o se w hi c h c on ta i n
a
a n d s o f o r e a c h o f th e n l e tt er s
b is
Ta k e

'

Th e

re f ore

e qu a l t o th e n u m b e r O f co m b i n ati on s
con tai n a t oge th e r w ith th o se th a t con t a i n b
is

ti m e w hi c h
th o se th a t co n ta i n c an d so o n
Bu t b y f o rm i ng th e co mb i n a ti on s i n thi s m a n n e r e a c h p a r
t ic u la r o n e w ill b e r e p e a t e d r ti m e s
Fo r i n s ta n ce if r 3 th e
co m b i n a ti on a b c w ill b e f o u n d am o n g th o s e co n t ai n i ng a a m ong
th o se con tai n i n g b an d am o n g th o se c o n t ai n i n g 0 He n ce
at a

"

w riti ng

By

Si m il a r l y ,

"

n all y

X
_
1
r

+2

"

'

0 _3

+l

r +

91

'

( (
n

l)

2)

( (
r

1)

2)

r e p e c ti ve ly

C,

Multi ply t oge th e r th e ve r ti c al c o lu m n s

f r om e a c h si de ; thu s
n

an

C,

0 _2

i n st e a d o f n

'

an

an

it

an

(
n

r +

c a n c e l li k e fa c t or s
l)

1 56
To n d th e to ta l n u mb e of way s in wh ich it is p o ss ib le
t o m a ke a sel c tio n b y ta kin g so me o r a ll o u t of p
+
q
th in g s, wher eof p a r e a like of o n e kin d, q a lik e of a sec o n d k in d, r
a like o
f a thir d kin d ; a n d so o n
.

Th e p thi ng s m ay b e di spo se d O f i n p + l w ay s ; f or we m ay
b
e
s ma
t a k e 0, 1 , 2, 3 ,
o f th e m
i
il
r
l
th
e
thi
n
m
a
S
y
g
p
q
y
di s p o se d o f in q + l w ay s ; th e 7 thi ng s i n r + 1 way s ; a n d
.

'

SO o n

H A
.

1 30

H I GH ER

H en c e

di sp o se d

w ay s i n w hi c h

Of

( ( ()

f is

1) q

1)

th e thi n g s

all

m ay b e

+ 1

thi s i nc lu de s th e c as e in w hi c h none O f th e thi ngs

th ere f ore r ej ec tin g thi s ca se th e t o tal n u m b e r

Bu t

t ak en ;
w ay s

th e n u m b e r

L GEBRA

a re

is
1

A gene a l f or m ul a e x p e ssi ng th e n u m b e o f p e m ut a
ti o n s, o r com b i n ati on s, o f n thi ng s t ak e n r at a tim e , w h en th e
thi ng s a r e n o t all di fferen t , m ay b e s o m ew h at co m pli ca t e d b u t a
c
b
e s o l ve d i n th e f o ll ow i ng m a nne
ase m a
a ti c ul a
y
p
1 57

Ex amp le

rangem ent
t
i
o
n
r
o
r
o
p
p

F in d th e numb r
e

f fo

tters

le

1)
w s i wh i ch (
sel ecti on (
2)
e from th e l etters f th e word

f ay
n
b e m ad

c an

an

ar

tter s f i d i ffere nt s orts nam ely

r t; i
p p
I nd i n g group s o f four th ese m ay b cl ass i ed as foll o w s :
h
re
e
l
i
k
e
one
d
if
f
e
r
e
n
t
1
T
a
(
)
l
k
er s al i k e
i
e
t
w
o
o
t
h
2
T
w
o
a
(
)
h
lik
e
o
t
h
e
r
t
wo
d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
t
3
a
e
T
w
o
(
)
4
f
f
o
d
i
e r e nt
A
l
l
f
(
)
1)
Th sel ecti on a b e m ade i n 5 w y s ; f
e ac h f t h l etter s
(
k
si n gl e group
f
b
i
c
t
e
n
wi
t
h
t
h
e
the th ree l ik e l etter s
t
a
p
m
0
l
a
a
s
f
e
ec
t
i
on
de
i
n
2
T
h
c
a
b
e
s
w
we h ave to ch oos e two t
;
y
(
)
r Th i s gi ves 3 sel ecti on s
f th e three p ai r s 0 o p p ;
b
m
3
1
l
a
e
0
f
h
i
s
se
ec
t
i
on
d
e
i
n
w
we sel ect on e f th e
3
T
a
s
;
y
(
)
Th i s g i v e s 3 0 sel ecti on s
3 p ai s a d th e n tw o from th e r e m ai n i n g 5 l ett er s
4
b
m
h
i
se
e
c
t
i
on
T
s
l
a
ad e i n 0 w ay s as we h ave to tak e 4 di ffe r e nt
(
)
Th i s g ives 1 5 sel ecti on s
l ette r s t o c h oo s e fro m th e i
p r t i
Th u s th e total n umb e r f s el ect i on s is 5 3 + 3 0+ 1 5 th at i s 53
I ndi ng th e di ffer e nt arr an ge m e nts f 4 l ett er s we h ave to p e rm ut e i n
f the for ego i n g group s
al l p o ss i b l e way s e ac h

h ere

ar e

10 le

s x

ur

ve

r,

ou

or

or

r,

r,

0,

or

s x 0,

i
v
es
r
i
s
e
t
o
5
g
(
1)

(
)
2

gi

ve s ri se t o

'

or

rrangem ent s

20 a

x
1

2 2

or

18

r ng e m ent s

ar a

( ives i se to
ive ri se
(
)
3)

4
3 0x

or 3 6 0 arr ang e m e nts

or

rrang em ents

)
Thu s th e total n um b e r O f arr an g e m e nt s i s
s

t o 1 5x 4

3 60 a

2 0+ 1 8 + 3 6 0+ 3 60;

th t i s
a

7 58

H I GH ER

1 32

L G EBRA

telegrap h h as 5 arm a d eac h a m is c ap ab l f 4 d i ti n c t

at is t h e t o t al n u m b er o f
o
i
t
i
on
i
n
c
lu
d
i
n
t
h
e
o
it
i
on
r
e
t
w
h
s
o
f
s
;
p
g
p
s i g n al s t h at c an b e made ?
I h ow m an y way s a 7 p er on s form a ri n g ? I n h ow m an y
18
way s an 7 Engli sh m en an d 7 A m er i c ans sit down at a rou nd tab l no
two Am eri can s b ei ng togeth er ?
I n h ow m an y way s is it p o s si b l e t o dr aw a s m o f m oney from
19
a b ag con t ai n i n g a s overe i gn a h al f s overe ign a c rown a o in a s h i ll i n g
enn
n d a far th i n g ?
a
a
p
y
h ow m any ele c
20 From 3 c o c o a n uts 4 appl es a d 2 oran g e
t i on s o f fru i t c a b e m ade tak i n g at l east one o f eac h k i nd ?
F i nd t h e n u m b er f d i fferen t way s o f d i v i d i ng mn th i ngs i nt o
21
n e q u al g ro u p s
Ho w m an y Sign al s ca b e m ade b y h o i stin g 4 ags f d i ffe r e n t
22
c ol our s one ab ove th e o th er wh en an y n um b er o f th em may b e h oist ed
at once ?
Ho w m an y with 5 ags ?
F i nd th e n um b er o f p er m utati on s whi c h c an b e form ed o ut o f
23
t h e l etters o f t h e word ser ies tak en three t oget h er ?
Th ere a e p p oi n ts i n a p l ane no th r e e o f whi c h a e i n th e sam e
24
trai ght l i ne with t h e e c ept i on O f q wh i c h a e all in th e sam e strai gh t
1 ) o f s t rai g h t l i nes (
2 ) o f t ri an gl es wh i c h re sult
l i ne ; nd th e n u mb er (
from jo i n i n g t h em
25 Th ere a e p p oi n ts i n spac e no fo ur o f whi c h ar e i n th e s am e
a
ll
a
m
l
ne
w
ith
th
e
e
c
e
t
i
on
o
f
w
h
i
c
h
a
i
n
th
e
e pl ane ; nd
a
e
s
p
p
g
h ow man y pl anes th ere ar e e ac h c on tai n i ng thr ee o f th e p oi n ts
Th ere ar e n di fferen t b ook s an d p cop i es o f eac h ; nd th e
26
n u m b er o f way s i n whi c h a sel ecti on c an b e m ade fro m th em
F i n d th e n u mb er f sel ec t i on s a d o f arrangem en ts th at c an b e
27
m ade b y t ak i n g 4 l ett ers fro m th e word e p essio n
Ho w m an y p erm utati on s o f 4 l ett ers c an b e made o ut Of th e
28
l etters Of th e word ex amin atio n 9
29
F i nd th e su m o f all nu mb ers great e r th an 1 0000 formed b y
u s m g th e d i gits 1 3 5 7 9 no d i i t b e i n
g
g rep e at ed i n a y n u m b er
30 F i nd th e s u m O f al l n u m b ers gr e ate r th an 1 0000 for m ed b y
us i n g th e d i gi ts 0 2 4 6 8 no d i gi t b e i n g repeated i n a y n umb er
I f o f p + q + th i n gs p b e al i k e an d
31
l
i
e
th
e
r
e
t
b
k
e
a
a
d
s
g
d iffe ren t s h ew t h at t h e t o t al n um b er o f c o m b i n ati on s is
17

e,

s,

th at th e n um b er o fp er mutati on s wh i c h c an b e form ed
fro m 2 n l e tters whi c h ar e eit h er a s or b s is gre at es t wh en th e n um b er

f a s is eq u al t o th e n u m b er o f b s
If th e u + 1 n u m b ers a b c d
33
b e all d i fferen t an d eac h o f
t h em a p ri m e n um b er p rove t h at th e n um b er o f d i fferent fac tors o f th e
32

Sh ew

p re

ss

i on

b cd

is m

1) 2

C H A P TER X I I

MA TH EMA TI CAL

I N D U C TI O N

MA N Y i m p or t an t m ath e m ati c al f or m ul ae a r e n o t e asil y

1 58
de m on st r a t e d b y a di re c t m o de o f p r oo f ; i n su c h c ase s we fr e
qu en tly n d it c onven i en t t o e m p l o y a m e th o d O f p roo f k no n a s
mat h e mat i c al in du ct i on , w hi c h we sh a ll n o w illu st ra t e
.

se it i s r equire d to prove th t the

n tur l n umb er i s equ l to
f th e r st
E x a mp le 1

S pp o

su m o

th e c ub es

h
We
e s il y
b y tr i l th t th e st t e ment i t ru i n s i m ple c se
wh en = 1 or 2 or 3 ; d from th i we might b l d to j t th t
th e form ul w tru e i n ll c s e A ss um e th t it i true wh en term
t ken th t i s upp o s e
c an

as

an

see

s.

th e

s ar e

(
n

s, su c

co n ec u re

to
A dd

as

term th at i s

to

(
n

to e ach s i d e ; th en

+1

( I
( (
u

+ 1)

2
11

4n

+1

4)

wh i c h

i s f t h m f m the result we ssum e d to b tru e f term s

k
l
f
i
t
i
t
h
e
ce
i
n
o
t
h
e
r
word
s
t
h
e
r
es
u
t
i
s
t
u
e
w
h
e
n
w
e
t
e
1
f
k
l
+
;
g
p
r
cert i n num b e r f term s w h tever th t num b e r m y b t tr e w h en w e
i cr se th t num b e r b y ; b t w e see th t it i s tru e wh en 3 t rm s
t k en ; th ere fore i t i s tru e w h en 4 te rm s
t k e n ; t th e re fore tru e wh e n
t k en ; d s o on Thu s th e result i s true un iver s lly
5 t rm s
a

e sa

ea

one

ar e

are

an

e, I

Is

or n

as

or

13

ar e

1 84

H I GH ER

E x amp le 2
x

d ete rm in e th e p roduct o f n

To

L G EBRA

inom i

ctors

al

fa

th e form

Of

By

ctu

al

i i c ti on we h ve

mult pl

( (
( )( )()
+ a)

x + b)

+b

+c

ab o

x3

(
(c
ab

+ ac +

b c + b d + c d)

ad +

a b d + ac d

ab

b e d)

ab c d

th ese r esults we ob s erv e th at the foll owi n g law s h ol d :

1
Th num b e r f te rm s o
the ri ght is one m ore th an the numb er f
b i nom i al factor s on th e l e ft
2
Th
inde f i n th e rst term i s th e sam e as t h num b er f
b i nom i al factor s ; a d i n e ach f th e oth e r t e rm s th e i nde i s on e l ess th an
that o f th e prece di g term
Th e c oeff c i e nt f th e r st term is un ity ; th e c o e f ci e nt f th e second
3
term is the s m o f t h l etter s
th e co ef ci ent f th e th i rd
b
te rm is the m Of th e p roducts f th ese l etter s t k e n tw o at a tim e ;
th e c oef ci ent f th e fourt h term i s t h m f th e ir p roduct s tak e n thr e e at
a t im e ; a d s o on ; t h e l ast term i s th e p rodu ct o f all th e l etter s
A ss ume th at th ese l aw s h ol d i n th e c ase o f
1 fac tor s th at i s supp o se
In

a,

c,

su

e su

( )( (
a

b)

h)

+p 1

n"

+ p 2x

"

+p 3

+ p ,,

wh ere
=
P3

ab c

+ ab d +

Pn _l

Multiply b oth i de s b y anoth er fact or

S

w + 191 +
"

thus

k;

( ) (+ b ) (+ h ) (k)
x

+a

(
19

in

ii

HM

No w
= su m

o f all

th e

etter

s a,

b,

su m o
n

etter

s a,

b,

ro

uc

a,

all

th e

k;

c,

the products tak en three

th e letters b
k;
b
d t o f all th
l ett er s
_ k= p
su m

pn

th e p roducts tak en two at tim e

t im

at a

c,

e n

a,

c,

all

C H A P TER X III
BIN O MI AL TH EO R EM
161

I T m ay b e

()
x

POS ITI V E I NT EGRAL I N D EX

h ewn

by

+ a

c tu al

m ulti p li c a ti o n

th at

d)

We m ay h oweve r w r it e do w n thi s r e sult b y i n sp ec ti o n ; f o r th e

com p l e t e p r o du c t con si st s o f th e su m o f a n u m b e r O f p a rti al p r o
d u c t s e a c h O f w hi c h is f o rm e d b y m ultip l y i ng t oge th e r f o u r
l e tt e r s o n e b e i n g t ak en f rom each o f th e f o u r fac t o rs I f we
e x am i ne th e way in w hi c h th e v a r i o u s par ti al p r o du c t s ar e
f o rm e d we se e th at
1 ) th e t e rm x is f o rm e d b y t ak i ng th e l e tt e r x o ut O f each
o f th e f a c t o r s
2 ) th e te rm s i n v o l v i ng x a r e f o rm e d b y t ak i n g th e l e tt e r x
o ut o f an y th r ee fac t o rs in eve ry way p o ssi b l e an d o n e o f th e
l e tt e rs a b c d o u t o f th e r e m ai n i ng fa c t o r
3) th e t e r ms in v o l v i n g x ar e f o r m e d b y t ak i ng th e l e tt e r x
a c t o rs
o u t O f an
i
w
a n d two o f th e
t
w
o
f
n
ever
a
o
ss
i
b
l
e
y
y
y p
l e tt e rs a b c d o ut o f th e r em ai n i n g fa c t o rs
4) th e t e rm s i n v o l v i ng x ar e f o rm e d b y t ak i n g th e l e tt e r x
o u t o f an
n e fa c t o r a n d th r ee o f th e l e tt e rs a b
o
o
ut
o
f
c
d
y
th e r e m a i n in g fact o rs
5) th e t e rm i n de p e n de n t o f x is th e p r o du c t o f al l t h e l e tte r s
,

'

a,

(
d
b
,

c,

E x amp l e 1

( ( (5) (9)
x

2)

+ 3)

4
x

+ 5x

47 x

6 9 x + 27 0

1 3 5)

18

+ 27 0

4 s)

B IN O MI AL T H EO R EM
E x a mp le 2

OS ITI V E INT EGRAL I N D EX

F i nd the coef c i e nt

f x3

1 37

i n the product

( 3 ) ( 5) ( 1 ) (2 ) (

term s i nvolvi n g a e form e d b y m ultiply i n g togeth er th e i n y

f th e factor s a d t w o f th e n um e r i c al q u nti ti es
th
t f th e t w o
m ai n i n g f ctor s ; h e n c e th e c o e f c i e nt is equ al t th e
m f th e p r duct s
1 2
8 t k e n tw o at a ti me
3 5
f t h e qu antiti e s
Thu s th e r equ i r e d c o e f c i e n t
Th e

re e o

39
.

e qu a ti o n
we O b t ai n

1)

If in

()
x

su

4 ax

re

1 02

o u

an

40

16

th e p rece di ng a r ti c l e we su pp o s e

6a

4a

Th e m e th o d h e r e e x e m p li e d o f de du c i ng a p a r ti c ul a r c a se
f ro m a m o r e genera l r e sult is o n e o f f r e qu en t o cc u r rence i n
Math e m a ti c s ; fo r it O ft e n h app e n s th a t it is m ore e a sy t o p rove
a ge n er a l
r
o
o
s iti o n th an it is t o
rove
a
a r ti c ul a r c a s e o f it
p
p p
p
.

We sh all in th e n e x t ar ti c l e e m p l oy th e sam e m e th o d t o p rove

w
hi
c
h
i
no
i
a f or m ul a k n o wn a s th e Bi n o mial Th e o r e m b
an
b
m
al
y
y
O f th e f or m x
a c an b e r a i s e d t o an y ass i g n e d p o s iti ve i n t egr a l
ower
p
,

1 63

To

in teg e
C on si de

d th e

exp a n sio n

wh en

is

o sit iv e

r th e e p r e i o n

th e n u m b e r

ss

f fa c t o r s b e i ng

e x p a n si o n o f thi s e x p r e ssi o n is th e con ti n u e d p ro du c t o f

th e n fa c t o rs x a x b x c
x
k an d eve ry t erm i n th e
e x pan si on is o f n di m en si o n s b e i n g a p r o du c t f o rm e d b y m ulti
l
i
ng
t
oge
th
e
r
n l e tt e r s o n e t a k e n f ro m e a c h o f th e s e n fa c t o r s
p y

Th e hi g h e st p o we r o f x is x an d is f o rm e d b y t ak i ng th e
l e tt e r x fr om each o f th e n fa c t o rs
a r e f o rm e d b
t
Th e t e r m s i n vo l v i ng x
a k i n g th e l e tt e r x
y
h
f ro m a n y n l o f th e fac t o rs an d o n e o f th e l e tt er s a b c
f rom th e r e m ai n i ng fac t o r ; thu s th e coe fc i en t o f x
i n th e
k ; den o t e it
n a l p ro du c t i s th e su m o f th e l e tt ers a b c
Th e

"

"

by

Th e t e m s i nvo l v i ng x
a k i ng th e l e tt e
x
t
a r e f or m e d b
y
f ro m a n y n 2 Of th e fa c t ors, an d two o f th e l e tt e s a, b , c , k
2
f ro m th e t wo re mai n i ng fa c t o rs ; thu s th e c o e ic ie n t O f x
in
th e n al p o du c t is th e su m o f th e p ro du c t s o f th e l e tt ers
a b , c,
k
t
ak e n t w o at a ti m e ; deno t e it b
y
,
"

'

"

H I GH ER

1 38

L G EBRA

gene rally th e t erm s i nvo l v i ng

a r e f o rm e d b
t
ak i n g
y
th e l e tt e r x f ro m an y n r o f th e fact o rs an d r o f th e l e tt e rs
k f r o m th e r re m ai n i ng fa c t o r s ; thu s th e c oe f c i en t o f
a b c

in th e n a l p r o du c t is th e su m o f th e p r o du c t s o f th e l e tt e r s
x
k t ak e n r a t a ti m e ; deno t e it b y S
a b c
A n d,

"

l ast t e rm i n th e p r o du c t

Th e

H ence
x

Sl x

"

'

k ; de n o t e

ab c

'

"

up p o se

01 a ; S2 b eco m e s

()
a

b,
C

"

ub stituti ng
x

"

"

"

k, e a c h e qu a l
a g ; S b eco m e s
3

(
I

ax

fo r

"

+ n ax

"

"

(
l

we

to

c,

"

z w

a x

Ob

a x

"

th e s e r i e s c on ta i n i n g n 1 t e rm s
Thi s is th e Bin o mial Th eo r em
is sai d t o b e t h e e x p an sio n o f x

"

an

C aa

t ai n
2

thi n g s
an

so

"

ti m e

at a

so o n

on

t er ms is

th en

m b er

nu

"

"

x
_
n
l

"

by S

I n S l th e n u m b e of ter m s is n ; i n S2 the
th e sam e as th e n u m b e o f co m b i n ati on s o f n
th a t is, 02 i n S3 th e n u m b er of te ms is 03 ;

No w

it

k)

x +

is

S l b ec o m e s
;

thu s
"

Ua ;
"

(
g
r

2)

(
,

th e e x pr e ssi on

th e r i g ht

on

l o b e p r ove d as f o ll ow s
By i n du c ti o n we c an n d th e p r o du c t O f th e n fa c t o rs
a s e x l ai ne d i n A rt
x + b
x + c
1
E
X
2
we
5
8
x + a
;
p
th e n de du ce th e e pan si o n o f x + a ) a s in A rt 1 6 3
c an
164

Th e Bi no m i al Th eo

m ay

a s

rem

an

"

ar e v e r
coe fc i e n t s i n th e e x pan si o n o f
y
conven i en tl y ex p r e sse d b y th e sy m b o l s
C
We s h all h oweve r s o m e ti m e s fu r th e r ab b r ev i at e th e m b y o m itti n g
W ith thi s no tati o n we h av e
an d w r iti n g
0
n
C

Th e

165
.

"

"

()

I f we

(
x

3 ,

"

x
x

03 a

"

w r it e
"

"

C,

th e pl a ce

in

"

Cz a

"

f a,

we

03

02
g

Ob

C3 a

"

"

(
r

"

t a in

"

Thu s th e t e m s i n th e e x pa n si o n o f
x
th
e
ar e
n u mer ic a lly th e sam e , b u t in
a
y
)
o
an d neg ati ve , a n d th e l as t t e m is
siti ve or
p
a s n is eve n or O dd
"

an

)
(
t l o iti ve
x

"

ar e

lt e rn a e y p s
n eg ati ve a cco r di n g

H I GH ER A L G EB RA

140
E x amp le 1

Th e

F i nd th

th te

requi r e d term

17

rm

o f

3 17
2
x
+
)

13

38 08 0a

= 1 501 3

1 67
Th e sim p l e st f or m
an sio n O f
i
T
s
s
hi
1
p
O f A rt
1 6 3 , b y w r iti ng 1 in
Of a
Thu s

(
1

( (
n

l)

15

13

[ A rt

1)

th e gene ra l t e rm b e i ng
n

1,

f th e b i n o m i al th e o r e m is th e e x
o b t ai ne d f ro m th e gene ra l f o rm ul a
th e p l ace Of x , an d x i n th e pl ace

+ ux +

)
13
9a )

13
4
9 561

I 6

f 3
a

= 1 5G x
,

,3

ee

required term

Th e

12

F ind th fourt nth term

13
04 06

E x amp le 2

"

"

+ x

2)

I
];
Th e e x p an si o n O f a b i no m i a l m ay al w ay s b e m ade t o de p en d
s
u
s t t er m is u n it
on
th
e
c
e
i
n
w
hi
c
h
th
e

r
thu
a
s
p
y;
1

E x a mp le 1

We h ve
a

(
x2

fx

2x )

ls

1 0=

h ere

i n th e e

n si on

xp a

20

d,

20

m ult pl

(
2

s e
r

a s

16
3 3 60

In

om e

e th e f o ll ow i ng

c as s

m e th o d

I s SI m

i i e every t rm i n th e p n i on f 1 E
th i e p n s i on to e k th e oef c i ent f th e term wh i ch c ont i n s
Hen c th e requi e d c o effi ient = 0
an

i n ce

1
(

F ind th e c o ef ci ent

l
er
p

10

we

h ve i n
a

BI

T H EO R EM

N O M IA L

OS ITI V E INT EG RA L

F i nd the c o e c i ent f i n t h e
o ccur s i n th e (
Sup p o se th t
1 ) te rm
p
E x a mp l e 2

1)

hu s t h

n s i on

xp a

141

()

"

13

t e rm

l l

wy
i
l

Bu t t h I s

t ll

Th e p

"

I ND Ex

2n

51)

term c nt n s a d th e re fore 2
r equ i re d c oe f ci e nt
ai

5p = r ,

or p

2n

i
y

3
(
g
1

+7

2n

U n l ess
5
th e exp an s i on

Is a

p o s I tI v e I

nteger th ere W i ll

no term c ontai n i n g

be

"

in

I n A r t 1 6 3 we de du ce d th e e x p a n si on o f x
168
f
ro
a
m
)
th e p ro du c t o f n fa c t or s x a ) x b )
x
k ) , a n d th e m e th o d
Of
i
s v a lu ab l e in con s e qu ence O f th e w i de
roo
f
th
ere
g
i
ven
ene
p
g
r alit
o f th e
sult s O b t a i ne d
e
Bu t th e f o ll ow i ng Sh o t er p oo f o f
y
th e Bi no m i al Th eo e m sh o ul d b e n o ti ce d

( (

I t w ill b e see n i n C h ap X V
O b t a i n th e ge n e a l t e m o f th e
.

to

"

th a t

e x p an si o n

i m il a r

m e th o d is

ed

us

Of

W
16 9

To p

o ve

ex p a n si on

the Bin

o m ia l

(
r

Th eo r em

i
s th e
f
o
u
c
t
f
c
t
o
e
h
d
O
a
s
a
n
,
p
)
e qu a l t o x + a, an d eve y t e m in th e e x p an si o n is O f n dim e n
m
d
b
o
d
u
c
t
f
or
e
m
ulti
l
i
ng
t
oge
th
e
l
e
tt
er
s i o n s, b e i n g a
n
s,
p
y
y
p
Thu s e a c h t er m i nvo l v i ng
o n e t ak e n f o m e a c h o f th e n f a c t o s
is O b tai n e d b y t a k i n g a o u t o f a n y r o f th e fa t or s, a n d x
a
x
e m ai n i ng n r fa c t or s Th e e f o e th e n u m b e O f
o u t O f th e
t erm s w hi c h i nvo l ve x a m u s t b e e qu a l t o th e n u m b e O f w ay s
i n w hi h r thi ngs c an b e se l ec t e d o u t O f n th a t is, th e coe fc i en t
n in
a
is C , an d b y g i v i n g t o r th e v a lu e s 0, l , 2 , 3 ,
Of x
H ence
c i en t s O f a ll th e t er m s
s u cce ssi on we o b t ai n th e c o e f

Th e

""

x + a

"

'

""

'

" "

"

'

()
a

i ce

s n

"

00

"

an

"

d C
"

a re
"

e a c h e q u al t o u n ity

"

H I GH ER A L G EB RA

142

EX A MPLES

X II I

Ex p and
1

th e foll owi ng b i nom i al

(
(

3a

2 5

13

Th e 4

15
.

17

18

Th e 1 2
Th e 4

an

term o f

Th e 7

t erm

20

tu

Th e 5

ih

21

14

J2)

24

26

F i nd th e

m i d dl e

term o f

29

Th e 2 8

F i nd th e c oef c i en t

Of x

18

Fi nd th e c oef c i en t

Of x

18

F in d th e

c o e i c ien t s o

F i nd th e two

(
(M
A/x

t erm o f

Th e l 0

22

m i dd l e

28

th

t e rm o f (
l
term o f (
5x + 8y ) 3

F i nd th e

25

27

th

16

39

term o f

Fi nd t h e valu e
23

Th e 5

tb

x
term o f (
2x
t erm o f (

term

(m
( yy
s

2x

12

i m pl ify

19

th

th

11

th

W r i te down

( w

s :

3x + 2

10

m i d dl e

in
in

32

an

ax

terms o f

bx )

17

in

(
A/x

H I GH ER A L G EB RA

1 44

L e t th e
Th e

(
+

1)

th

c uti ve t erm s
t e rm b y
r

d
t erm is

b e a n y t wo
on se
O b t a i ne d b
ulti
l
i
ng
th
e
m
y
p y

th a t I S

by

th

an

r +

th

A
rt
[

1 de c re a se s as r i nc r e a se s ; h ence th e
fa c t o r
th
h
r + 1
m
i
s no t a l w a s gre a t e r th a n
t
er
th
e
r
u
b
t
e
r
m
t on l y
)
y
b eco m e s e qu a l t o 1 o r l e ss th an 1
u n til

Th e

NO W

1,

o l on g

th a t

as
7

>

1,

I s,

o r

7
x

If

be

an

n t ege r

deno t e

It

th en

by p

If r

th e

m ulti p l y i ng fa c t o r b eco m e s 1 , an d th e p
1 ) t e r m is
th
a
n
d
s
a
r
th
e
e
e g r e a t e r th a n an
o
t
e
r
t
er
h
m
n
y
th

e qu al t o th e

If

be

n o

an

i n t ege r

deno t e it s

th en th e gre a t e st v alu e o f r co n si st en t w ith

h
l ) t er m is th e g r e a t e st
q

i n t egra1
'

r
t
P

1 ) is q ;

by q ;

h ence th e

Si nce we a r e o n ly concerne d w ith th e n u m er ica lly g r ea test

th e r e f o re
t er m , th e i nve s ti g ati o n w ill b e th e sam e f o r x
in a n y n u m er i c a l e x a m p l e it is u nnece ssa ry t o con s i der th e Si gn
A l s o it w ill b e f o u n d b e s t
O f th e s e c o n d t e rm O f th e b i no m i a l
t o wo rk e a c h e x am p l e i n de p en de n tly o f th e g e n er al f o rm ula

BI

Ex amp le 1
D

T H EO R EM

N OM IA L

enote the

If

1
x

th e g e atest te rm i n the e

n d

:
,

OS ITI V E INT EGRA L IN D EX

te rm s b y

m
an d r + 1 )

Tr + 1

T,

h ence
so

lo

9
n

T7

Tr+ 1 > Tr

as

th at i s

36

4 r > 3r ,

36 > 7r

or

e test v lue f r con i stent with th i s i s 5; hence th e gre test term

th e s i th d i ts v lue
Th e gr

18

4x

f 1 + 4x )

respective ly ; th en

an d

+l

n s i on

xp a

1 45

an

Ex amp le 2

0 _X

03

F i nd the gre t st term i n th e e

a e

= 39

thu s it wi ll b s uf c i ent to con s i der th e e

e

H er e

Tr

10

f 3

2x )

wh e n

2
X

n u me

rica l ly

Tr ;

T, + 1
lo

o l on g as

th at is

2 0> 5r

He n ce

num e ri c

Tr

n s i on

xp a

h ence

n s i on

pa

2x )

fo r al l
an d
ally e
al

value s

th ese
qu a d g

ar e

H H A
.

>l

b t if = 4 th e n
to 3 we h av e TH
the g e atest term s Thu s th 4 a d 5 te rm s a
e ater th n y oth e r term a d th ei r value

up

(
a

03

an

'

tu

re

= 36

84

4 8 9 8 88

10

H I G H ER AL G EB RA

1 46

17 3
1

t
p

th e

su

COR

su

()

th e i den tity
1 ; thu s

In
u

To

o f th e

th e

co e

C2x
'

C,x

"

n
c
i
e
n
t
s
i
i

th e

03 x

c o e i c ie n

exp an sio n

"

ts

1;

th a t is th e t o tal n u m b e r o f com b in ati on s o f

rt
A
[

thi n g s

i 2
s

"

To p r o v e th a t in th e exp an sio n of 1
s o
t
h
e o dd ter m s is equ a l to th e su m
i
th e c o e
c
i
e
n
t

f
of th e ev en t er m s
17 4

m of
c o e icien ts

th e

th e

su

In
t
p
u

th e i den tity
I ; thu s

02 x

"

03 x

05 +

(
Q
1

su

of

all

th e coe fc i en ts)

Th e Bi no m i a l Th eore m m ay a l so b e app li e d
e x p re ssi o n s w hi c h con tai n m o r e th an t wo t e rm s
17 5
.

to e

E x amp le

R g ard

F i nd th e e

i ng 2

()
x

17 6

E x a mp le
n d
an

2 3

If

the value Of

() (

6 x5

seri e

(+ 2
x

9x

2x

4x

2c 1

c0

((
1) 2

00

c,
01

2 +u
n

c0

9x

cl x

36 2
26 22

Cg

6x

c 296

2
(
x

1,

on r e ducti on

i n st r u c ti ve

is
2

()

4c3

2
3 03

on
7l

n s i on

xp a

3 x 2 2x

1)
3

()
1

s i ngl e term the e

a
o

d
Th e

an s i on

f o ll ow in g ex am pl e

Th e
.

as a

xp

"
,

n c ,,2

(
) (

2c 2

0
1

3 c3

non

+ 1

nd

H I G H ER A L G EB RA

148

t h t th e
eq ual t o t h e su m o f t h e
7

Sh ew

c o e i c ie n

th e

If A b e

e ve term i n t h e e
.

9
108 0

Th e 2

na

re pec ti vely ;

su

x,

(
i on o f (

11

F in d th e expan s
3x
th
Fi nd th e r t erm from th e

13

F i nd th e

2
+
)
p

th

B th e
2

"

su

2=
13

2n

ar e

th e

2 40, 7 2 0,

l + 2x
2

12

an

(
l t

f 1 + x)
is
m dd e er m s o

th e two

F in d th e exp an si o n o f

i dd l e term

th e odd term s

10

io o f
p rove t h at A
term s in th e expan si on o f (
x
y)

th

n d

c o e ic ien t s

x p an s

rd
,

o f th e

2 4

2 ax + 3 a 2) 3

en

in

2n + 1

term from t h e end in

th e e
ion ( the coefci en ts o f th e (
2 r + 1 ) an d
th ( t erms are e q u al ; nd r
1 5 F in d th e re l ati o n b e twee n r an d n i n order th at th e coef c i ent s
r + 2)
1
t erm s o f (
m ay b e eq u al
o f t h e 3 r an d (
2
Sh ew th at th e m i d dl e t erm in th e e p an si o n o f (
16
1 + x)
is
In
14
th
e r + 2)

a
n
s
p

f 1 + x)

43

th

th

th

(
2n

1)

I
f

If co ,

c1 , 02 ,
a

17

c1

denot e t h e coef c i en ts i n th e exp an si on

th t

p rove

18

19

co

+ 2 c2 + 3 03 +

a+
C
o

g C2

0n

+
n

+1

n +

l _

+ 1

:
+

01

02

cu

20

21

22

23

2 00

2
2 0

2 3c
-

4
2 c3

2
00 +

1
'

+1

+ 1

l2n

l ir
a

2n

)
o

+1

f 1

C HA PTER X IV
BIN O MI A L TH EO R EM

A NY I N D EX

v
v

I N t h e la st c h ap te r w e in e st ig a t e d t h e Bin o m ial
177
Th e o r e m wh e n t h e in d ex wa s an y p o siti e in t e g e r ; w e sh al l n o w
c o n sid e r w h e t h e r t h e f o r m u l ae t h e r e o b t a in e d h o l d in
t h e c a se
al u e s o f t h e in d e x
o f n e a t i e a n d f r a t io n al
g
.

v
eve

Sin e , b y A r t 1 6 7 ,
c o mmo n
ty p e , it will b e
b in o m ial s o f t h e fo r m 1
.

1
an

d by

ct

u al

(
1

an

d in
In

b
i
n o m ial m a
b
d
d
e
r
u
e
e
c
to
y
y
su f
c ie n t t o c o n n e o u r a tt en t io n

e v o lu t io n w e

ac u a l

By

/1

d iv isio n
x

ha

+ a

to

a
s

a,

a,

'

16

o ne

1 _x )

x +

3x

4x

o m ar e
C
p
[

Ex 1 , A r t
.

ea c h o f t h e se se rie s t h e n u m b e r o f t e r ms is u n lim it e d
t h e se c ase s we h a v e b y in d ep en d e n t p r o c e sse s o b tain e d
.

an

W
1
d
1
(
)
(
)
l
ti l
c e f
1

e x pan sio n

x
fo r e a c h o f t h e e x p r e ssio n s
ar
ar e o n
s h all
r e se n t l
r o v e t h at t h e
y
y p
p
y p
of
1
e n e r a l f o r m u la fo r t h e e x an sio n
p
g
r a t io n al
u an t it
y
q

an

ar

cu

as s

wh e re

the

is

an

Th is
17 8

w e rs

w as

d isc o v e r e d

Su ppo se w e h a
o f x , su c h as

an

fo r m u l a

mx

m;

(
(

m m
+

ve

1)

t wo

3 +

b y Ne w t o n

e x p r e ssio n s

ar ra n

( (
)( )
1) m

m m

2)

a)

q
o

d in

a sc e n

di

H I GH ER AL G EB RA

1 50

Th e p r o d u c t o f t h e se t wo e x pr e ssio n s will b e
c e n din g p o w e r s o f x 3 d e n o t e it b
y

t h en

se r i s

in

as

it is l e ar th a t A , B, C,
are f u n t io n s o f m an d n ,
in an y p ar ticu l ar
a n d t h e r e fo r e t h e a t u al v al u e s o f A , B, C,
c a s e wil l d e p e n d u p o n t h e v al u e s o f m a n d n in t h a t c ase
Bu t
in 1 ) an d 2 )
t h e way in wh i h t h e c o e f c ie n t s o f t h e p o we r s o f
is q u it e in d ep e n d en t o f m a n d n 3
o m b in e t o g i e A , B, C,
in o t h e r wo r d s, wh a tev er v alu es I n a n d 11 m ay h av e, A , B, C ,
h
r e f o r e we c an d e t e r m in e
f
t
e
r eser v e th e sam e in v ar ia b le fo r m
p
fo r an y v al u e o f m an d n , we c o n c l u d e
t h e f o r m o f A , B,
will h a e t h e sam e fo r m fo r a ll v a lu es o f m
th at A , B, C,
an d n

( (
.

Th e p rin ipl e h e r e e x pl ain e d is o ft e n r e fe r r e d t o as a n ex am pl e

t h e p e r m an e n e o f e q u iv al e n t fo r m s 3 in t h e p r e se n t as e we
of
h av e o n ly t o r e c o g n ise t h e fa c t t h a t in an y a lg eb r a ica l p r o du c t t h e
w
w
h
r
u
l
l
h
m
h
r th e
i
r
m
o
f
t
e
e
s
t
l
b
e
t
e
s
a
e
h
e
t
e
u an tit ie s in
o
f
q
v o l v e d a r e wh o l e n u mb e r s, o r frac tio n s 3 po sitiv e , o r n egativ e

We
the

i
ve
g

sh al l

m ak e

u se

Bin o m ial Th e o r e m
is du e t o Eu l e r

f t h is p rin c ipl e in t h e g en e r al pr o o f o f
fo r an y in d ex
Th e pr o o f wh ic h we

To p r o v e th e B in o mia l Th eo r em wh en the in dex is

17 9
v efr ac tio n
i
t
i
s
o
p
.

Wh a tev er b e th e
r a c t o n a l,

th en f

If

le t t h e

m
wil l

m
b
ol f m
y
)

s an

m , p o sitiv e

m m

va u e

) 96

fo r t h e

s an

fo r t h e

( (

m m
+

or

1) m

n eg a t v e,

e e

in teg r a l

or

s ri s

e e

s ri s

we m u l tiply th e se t wo se r ie s t o g e th e r t h e p r o d u t will b e
an o t h e r se r ie s in a s e n d in g p o w e r s o f ac, wh o se co e icien ts will b e
u n a lter ed in fo r m wh a tev er m a n d 11 m ay b e

To d e t e rm in e t h is in v a r iab le fo r m of th e p r o du ct we m ay g iv e
t o m an d n an y v al u e s t h at a r e m o st c o n v e n ie n t 3 fo r t h is p u r p o s e
I n t h is ase f
su pp o s e t h a t m an d n a r e p o sit iv e in t e g e r s
an d f
is t h e e x pan d e d fo rm o f
is t h e e x p an d e d f o r m o f 1
1
a ) 3 an d t h e r e f o r e

H I GH ER A L G EB RA

1 52

To p r o v e th e B in o m ia l Theo r em wh en th e in dex is
180
n eg a t iv e q u a n tity
.

an

is

It h

as

b een pro

v d th t
a

es o f m
ave
w
e
h
sit iv e
o
p
)
fo r

al l

alu

(f
m)

an

R epl ac in g m b y

()
n

(
m

(
f(
)
f

n + u

wh ere

1,
sin c e a l l

t e rm s

se r i s e x c

f th e

ep t

1
=

fo r

an

yp

r st v an ish 3

th e

()
n

o sitiv e

v al e

)
(
()
f
() (
1

o r

Bu t

t
)

s an

w h ic h
H en c e

ro

p
t he

ves

ds

"

+ x

+ a
c

fo r t h e

fn 3

e e

s ri s

m ial Th e o r e m fo r a n y
t h e o r e m is c o m pl e t ely e stab lish e d
t h e Bin

n e ga

tiv e

in d e x

Th e p r o o f c o n t ain e d in t h e t w o p re c e d in g a r tic l e s m ay
n ot a
a r w h o ll
i
r o b ab l
r e se n t so m e dif
t
f
a c t o r , a n d will
e
s
a
s
pp
y
p
y p
y
c u l t ies t o t h e st u d en t
Th e r e is o n ly o n e p o in t t o wh ic h we
sh all n o w r e f e r
181

I n t h e e x p r e ssio n fo r f m ) t h e n u m b e r o f t e rm s is n ite w h e n
m is a p o sit i e in t e g e r , an d u n l im it e d in all o th e r c a se s
See
A rt 1 8 2
t is th e r e fo r e n e c e ssar y t o e n q u ir e in w h a t se n se we
.

B IN O MI A L

T H EO R EM

IN D EX

A NY

1 53

( ( (
(

t t h a t f m ) x f n) f m
I t w ill
b e see n in C h ap t e r XX L t h a t wh e n x < 1 e a c h o f t h e s e r ie s f m )
i
n
m
n
s c o n v er g en t an d f m
n
i
h
s
t
t
r
e
r
i
t
h
m
t
e
u
a
e
i
a
l
c
f
f )
)
)
x
>
w
e u iv al e n t o f f m
B
u
h
t
n
e
90
1
al l t h e s e se r ie s a r e
f
q
)
div er g en t an d we c a n o n ly asse r t t h a t if w e m u l t ipl y t h e se r ie s
d e n o te d b y f
b y t h e se rie s d e n o t e d b y f n ) t h e r s t r te r m s
r o d u c t will a r ee wit h t h e
o f the

t
t
rs
e
r
m
s
o
f
r
p
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w h a te v e r n it e v a l u e r m a h a v e
rt
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e
e
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y
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to

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the

( (

t t

E x amp le 1

Ex p an d 1

(
1

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_
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fo u r term s

to

()

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to

r s

te m

(
(
.

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1 35

45

1 82
fo r m u l a
.

In

n di ng
n

the

n e ral
rm
e
t
e
g

( (
u

l)

2)

we m u st
r

+ 1)

K
w r itte n
wh e n n

in f u l l ; fo r t h e sy m b o l
is f r a tio n al o r n eg at i e

c
c ef

c an

n o

n o

w
.

the

u se

w
r

l o ng e r b e

e m plo y e d

e
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n e r a l t e r m c a n n e v e r v a n ish u n le ss
A l so t h e o
g
o n e o f t h e fa c t o r s o f it s n u m e r a t o r is z e r o 3 t h e se r ie s w il l t e re
th
fo r e s t o p at t h e r t e r m , wh e n n r + 1 is z e ro 3 t h a t is, w h e n
1 3 b u t sin c e r is a p o sit iv e in t e g e r t is e q u al ity c a n n e v e r
r = n
Th u s t h e
h o l d e x c e p t w h e n t h e in d e x n is p o sit iv e a n d in t e g r al
e x pan sio n b y t h e Bin o m ial Th e o re m e x t e n d s t o n 1 t e rm s w h e n
o sit iv e in t e e r , a n d t o
a n in n it e n u m b e r o f t e rm s in a ll
n is a
g
p
o t h e r c a se s

H I GH ER A L G EB RA

1 54

E x amp le 1

Fi d th e g
n

Th e

+ 1)

th

Th e mimb e r

e,

E x amp l e 2

Th e

(
r

e x p an

1)

a;

Fi d th e gen eral term in

th e

sio o f (
1

e x p an

th

1
sio of (

fact ors in th e n um e rat or i s r an d r 1 o f t he s e ar e n ega

1 o u t o f e ac h o f t he se n eg at i ve fac t ors we m ay
t ak in g

(
3

te m

of

t e m in t h e

iv ; t her for b y
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t

e n e al

m 3)

(
1

2n )

( (

( (
n

l ) 2n

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1)

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na
e

te m

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1)

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si

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1)

Fi d th e g e er al t rm in
n

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2r

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e x p an

sio

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H I GHER AL G EB RA

1 56
an

be

d, if
u s

n o

ed

t,

as

un

it s

de r wh a t c o n d itio n s t h e
t r u e e q u iv al e n t
th a t

()
1

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u a

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tio n

tak e

t
p

t ru e

the

r e ss o n

e su l t

+ nx +

a su

f c ien

little
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as

re a e r

an

nu

n u

pp

mb e r

mb e r

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1, t h e

r o x im a

w) in

al l

c e

as s

1, b y

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as sm al l as

t er m s

al u

t io n

tak in g

su

f ie n tly

su

the

c an

wh e n

a:

in c r e ase s wit h

al u

1
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t a k in g

b e m ade t o
is

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l
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p
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to the

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l
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th a t

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k n o w t h a t t h e su m o f t h e r s t r t e r m s o f t h e
l

a;

ve

th e

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sh e w

to

f 1

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m ay

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b t ain

f c ie n t

v le t

i
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th m e tic al

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ari

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th e n

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d iffer as
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no

It

will b e se e n in t h e c h ap t e r o n C o n e r g e n c y a n d D i e r
b
t
h
e Bin o m ia l Th e o r e m
e n e y o f Se r ie s t h a t t h e e x p an sio n
y
g
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is al way s arit h m e tic ally in
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the

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s e rie s

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sin

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the g

e n e r al t e r m

B IN O MI A L

T H EO R EM

A N Y IN D EX

1 57

m
a
r
a
b
i
t
a
n
r
h
a
c
e
d
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e
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e
t
n
an

t
t
t
n
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e
u
a
n
i
b
,
g
y
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tak in g r su f c ie n t ly la r g e 3 in wh ic h c a s e t h e r e is n o l im it t o t h e

n
a l u e o f t h e ab o
e se r ie s ; a d t h e r e fo r e t h e e x pan sio n o f 1 x )
a s an
in n it e se r ie s in a sc e n d in g p o w e r s o f a: h as n o m e a n in
g
a r it h m e t i a l l
i
n t e ll i ib l e wh e n a:is
e
t
e
t
r
a
r
h an 1
g
g
y
co n

tain s

'

e m ay r em a r k t h a t we c an al way s e x p an d
1 84
b y t h e Bin o m ial Th e o r e m 3 fo r we m ay w r it e t h e e x p r e ssio n
e it h e r o f t h e t wo fo llo win g fo r m s
.

in

ll

r st

d we o b t ain t h e e x pan sio n f ro m t h e

a c c o r d in
a s a: is
r e a t e r o r l e ss t h a n
g
g
y
an

o r

se c o n

t h e se

1 85
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x
ex a n s io n of
1
p
)

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(
r

1)

th

its

simp lest

fo r m

th e g en

er a l

1)

1)

r +

n +

2)

1)

n + r

I:

()
1

it
is po siti

rm
e
t
e
a
rs th a t e v e r
pp
y

ve

1)

+ r

ll

2)

1)

+ r

( (
1)

F r o m t h is

the

te rm

1)

in

11

ter m

in

the

e x pan sio n

A l t h o u gh t h e g e n e r al t e r m I n t h e e x pan sio n o f an y b in o m ial

m ay al w ay s b e fo u n d a s e x plain e d in A rt 1 8 2, it wil l b e fo u n d
m o r e e x p e d it io u s in p r ac t i e t o u se t h e ab o e fo r m o f t h e g e n e r a l
t e r m in all ase s wh e r e t h e in d e x is n e g at i e , r e t ain in g t h e
fo r m
n
n
l) n
2)
n
r + l
)
.

( (

I
:

on

ly in t h e

c a se o

ve

f p o sit i

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H I GH ER A L G EB RA

1 58
E x amp le

Fi n d th e gen eral term

In

th e

ex p an sI o n O f

3x

3.

3x

()

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+1

th

te

rm
I

r si o
r lt

I f th g i v

en e x p e s

fo rm ul a fo r th e gen e
186

(
(

h ad b een

(
1

erm , repl ac n

3x) ?

we

g 3x b y

fo llo win g ex p an sio n s

Th e

'

3x

sh o u

u l d h ave u s e d th e sam e

ld b e

em e m b e r e d

1
l

l
i

Th e g e n e r al in e st igat io n o f t h e g r e at e st t e rm in t h e
1 87
wh e n n is u n r e st r ic t e d in
e x p an sio n o f 1
al u e , will b e
fo u n d in A r t 1 8 9 3 b u t t h e stu d e n t will h a e n o d if c u lty in
an
a
l
i
n
t
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e
x am l e
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e
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t
m
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A rt 1 7 2

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so

an

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hv

lo n g

as

at

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term in th e

exp an s o n

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= 20

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a e

x x

n u merical ly ,

38

is,

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are

v lu

hv
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h
r

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but
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th
t hl
r
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t h e 38 an d 3 9 t e m s
an d t e e a e t e g re at e t t e m
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all

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H I GH ER A L GEB RA

160
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Fi d th e val u e o f
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th e

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B IN O MI A L

TH EO R EM

A N Y IN D EX

EXA MP L ES XI V
.

F in d t h e
1

ter m

1 + x)

in

e ac

(
a

Fin d

t h e g r e at e s t t e r m in

13

1 + x)

(7 )
( y)
( )

15

17
18

21

1 + x) 2

2x + 5

4x

12

en x =

t o v e p lac e s

19

J 53

24

# 1 28

e ac

12

f t h e f l lo wi n
g

Va

ux

e xpan s io n s

ls

x =

an

en x =

d y

9, y

2,

f dec im als t h e

sex

15

If x b e so s m al l t
n d t h e al u e o f

al u e o

21

15

u =

Sh o es

22

$2 4 00

it s

50

sq

25

u ar e

an

6 30

h i gh

er

26

J 3 1 28
5

p o we rs m ay b e

(
(

M
(

8 + 3x )

28

5x

3 1? ) 2

(
4

H H
.

n e lec t e d
g

ion s :
1

p an s

ex

23

29

20

en

F in d

27

en

en x

o wi

x =

en

11

J1

f t h e f ll o

16

10

14

161

I1

H I G H ER A L G EB RA

1 62

31

32

3 8+ 3 x

Pro ve

th e

IE

(
f

e x pan sio n

f 1

4 x)

34

in t h e

"

I)
(

is

1 + 5x ) 5+

ef c ien t

co

/17

33

Pr o v e oh at

n
2

(
n

+ 1)

1+

35

F in d t h e first th ree t erms in

th e

e x p an sio n o

36

F in d t h e rst t h re e t er ms in

th e

e xp an s o n

Of

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s ?
a

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o f th e

37
d o u b le
.

189
l

we

L et

r +

1)

th

1
.

d th e

ar e

te rm s

on

tin u e

ly
sh al l

on

be

c c e e d w ith
c id e th
on

o r

f 1

t e rm

is

th at

Is,

t o in

tiv e

o si

is

n u

f the

in t ege r

b t ain e d b y m u l t iply in g t h e r
t erm
1
by
1 x 3 an d t h e r e fo r e t h e

as

th

so

lo n g

as

x >

( 1)
n

the

ce e
r

r x

ons

m er ica l v al u e
r o u h o u t as
t
v
e
s
i
i
o
g
p

rn

is,

t h e e xpan s i o n

in

n u

th at

e t e st t e rm

by

en

co

"

m
er ica lly g r eatest ter m in th e

n
r a tio n a l v a lu e of 11
r
a
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r a

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th e

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t h at

th

+ x

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13

H I G H ER A L G EB RA

164

I
(
th at

f x b e g r e ate r
1)
t h e r e is n o g r e at e st

I
f
(
2)

th an
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b e l e ss t h an
1 , so l o n g a s

e at e r t h an

un

t h a t is,

(
m

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>

be

t
e
r m is
1
p
)
o t h e r t e rm
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y
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e qu al

in

as

II

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tiv e

o si

to the p

will b e

fa c t o r

x,

1)

ew

13

x >

o r

sh

ity , t h e m u l t iply in g

1)

it y we m ay

un

in t eg e r ,
th

t e rm

d e n o t e it b y p 3 t h e n t h e
an d t h e s e a r e
r e a t e r t h an
g

If
g

r al

m_ 1
l

ar

t 3 th en

the

m_

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b e p o sit iv e b u t

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ec

it is
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term
,

l e ss

fac t o r

h
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t
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y
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y
q
s

an

in t eg e r , le t 9 b e it s in t e

is t h e g r e at e st

egat iv e th e n

w ritin g t h e m u l t iply in g
s ee

th

n o

in

m is l e ss t h an

un

fo rm

the

ity 3

By

d iv isio n

or

b y t h e Bin o m ial Th e o r e m , we h a

1
1

ax

1
1

bx

1
1

cx

m
x,

we

wer s

d by

1 : h e n e e a c h t e r m is l e ss t h an
t h e r s t t e r m is t h e g r e a t e st

190
To n d th e n u mb er of h o m o g en eo u s p r o du c ts
sio n s t h a t c a n b e fo r m ed o u t of t h e 11 le t ter s a, b , c ,
po

an

(
f

dimen
a n d t h eir
r

B IN O MI A L

en ce ,

T H EO R EM

b y m u l t ip lic a t io n

d u c ts

a,

b,

t h e ir

Cw

se
o
pp

m s o f t h e h o m o g e n e o u s p ro
d im e n sio n s t h a t c a n b e fo r m e d o f

the

t wo , t h r ee,
an

c,

bx

su

a re

o n e,

8
o

ax

8 3a

wh e r e

1
'

165

1
1

A N Y IN D EX

w
e
rs
p
o

su

m b er o f t h e se p r o d u c t s, p u t a , b , c ,
e ac h
h
n
w
n
d
e
a
t
e u al t o l 3 e a c h t e r m in
o
b
e
c
m
e
s
1
o
8
8
,
,
3
,
q
2
i
v al u e s o f
s o o b t a in e d
v
e
t
h
r o f the
82, 83 ,
e
u
m
b
n
e
g
h o m o g e n e o u s p ro d u c t s o f o n e, two , th r ee,
d im e n sio n s

To

O b ta in

the

n u

A l so

be

<
1

en ce

w)

c o e ffic ie n t

"

bx

ax

mes

o r

ofx

ex

()
1

the

ex

an s o n

f 1

1)

19 1
To n d th e n u m b er of ter ms in th e
m u ltin o m ia l wh en th e in dex is a p o siti v e i n teg er
.

exp a n sio n

an

In t he

ex pan sio n O f

(
a

ar

is o f n d im e n sio n s 3 t h e r e fo r e t h e n u m b e r o f t e r m s 1 3
n
s
m
n
s
n
n
e
d
f
n
o
s
u
c
r
o
n
e
o
u
s
h
m
o
e
e
d
t
f
o
r
o
t h e sam e a s t h e n u m b
p
g
an d th ei r
a
t h a t c an b e fo r m e d o u t o f t h e r q u an tit ie s a , , a 2 ,
o
a
l
t
u
e
I
S
I
l
e
n
a
r
c
t
e
e
f
e
r
e
e
d
i
t
h
c
t
e
b
r
h
r
o
r
a
n
o we s 3
d
q
p
g
y
p

e v e ry t e rm

H I GH E R A L G EB RA

1 66

F r o m t h e r e su l t o f A r t 1 90 we m ay d e d u c e
192
r ela t in g t o t h e n u m b e r o f c o m b in at io n s o f n t h in g s
.

th eo re m

C o n sid e r

if we we r e t o writ e
d o wn all t h e h o mo ge n e o u s p r o d u c t s o f r d imen sio n s wh ic h c an b e
fo rm e d o f t h e se l e tt e r s an d t h eir p o we r s, e e r y su c h p r o d u t
wo u l d r e pr e se n t o n e o f t h e c o m b in atio n s, r at a t im e , o f t h e n
l e tt e r s, wh e n an y o n e o f t h e l e tte r s m igh t o u r o n c e , t wi e ,
t h r i e,
u
t
o r t im e s
p
l e tt e r s

a,

b,

d,

c,

th e n

cc

m b e r o f o m b in atio n s o f n t h in g s r at a t ime
a r e all o w e d is e u al t o t h e n u m b e r o f h o m o
q
n e o u s p r o d u c t s o f r d im e n sio n s wh i h c an b e f o r m e d o u t o f n
e
g
n + r 1
l
l e tt e r s, a n d t h e r e fo r e e q u al t o
or

Th e r e fo r e t h e
w h e n r e p e tit io n s

n u

Th a t is, t h e n u m b e r o f c o m b in a t io n s o f u t h in g s r a t a t im e
wh en r ep e t it io n s a r e allo we d is e q u al t o t h e n u m b e r o f c o m
b in at io n s o f n + r 1 t h in gs r a t a t im e wh e n r ep e titio n s a r e
e x c lu d e d

193

We

lan e o u s

e x a m pl e s

E x amp l e 1
Th e

sh a l l

s io

ie

ively

o
,

en

of

(
1

cha

t
r
e
p

wit h

"

4 x2) 1 + p 1 x

4x

in t h e

e xp an

sio of
n

+ p rx

19250

wi l l b o b t a i d b y m u l t i p l y i g
r s ul t s ; h
a d add i g th
re q u ir e d c o e f c i e t
41
4p
f

"

ne

Bu t

s up p s

p r _1

r eq

(y
_

u i red co ef c ien t

3 , A rt

by 1,

en c e

[ Ex
th e

fe w m isc e l

th e

Hen c e

d e t h is

Fi n d th e co efc i

exp r e s

Th e c ef c
4 , 4 r espe ct

c o n clu

H I GH ER A L G EB RA

168

F d t h e c o ef c
4

l en

n
of x

the

In

e x p an s I O n

2 +x +x

P r o v e t h at

5
.

in

Pro v e t h at

P r o v e t h at

1 + 23

2n + 2 )

2n

2n

( (

2n + 4 )

2n + 2)

n
2

P r o ve th at

(
u

ap p r o x

+ 1

1)

( (

l)

i m ate ly w h en

2)

is

e r y sm all ,

3 07
2 56

10
p o siti

hw h

11
o sit i
p

12

fx

S ew t
in te ge r

be

dd, if

be

is

o dd,

at

i n tegral

is

th e

r
a
p

F i d t h e c o ef c ie
n

h
In

14

(
1

13

if

t h e in t egr al p ar t

S e
t
in te ger

at

e e x pan s

ro v e

(
1

wt

th t

2x + 3x

t h e mi dle

mn

the

3n x

in t h e

e xp an sio n o

4x +

4x)

e xp an s o n

n
.

c ie n t

t erm O f

f 1

(
1

fx

"

is e q u al t o t h e c o e f

(
m(

is

f 1
/

3 71

3
x

3
x

m ay b e p u t in to t h e f rm
2

(
1

B IN O MI A L
Pr o v e

15
.

1,

16
the
.

17

Il l

If

if n b e

at

co

@l

cl

1)

co

cO

fx

in t h e

"

3 m, 3 m

te r m s

fthe

I ND Ex

ex

1,

3m + l

o r

2)

+ co

umb e r

2 e l + 3 ez

f te r m s ,

th e

t eg e r

c o e ic ie n

ov t h
e

ln_

t s in

th e

e xp an s

ion

at

0
3

+2

73

22

"

are

sio

169

in te ge r ,

en

K
il

n
a
p

1) th e

o
i
t
i
v
i
p

1s a

AN Y

n d

an e

c,,

fo r m

f th e

whe n

ef
c ie n

18

is

as n

In t h e e xp an s i n o f
c ie n t s
su m o f t h e c o ef

P r ov e

the

ac c o r d n

T H EO R EM

4o s +

el

ac c o r

d in g

19

as n I s o

dd

+ ez

o r e

de n o te t h e

If

2
3

0,

en

su

rs t

f th e

((
1)

n n a t u r al n u m b e r s ,

ov t h
e

I f g,,

(
) 9n
(
)
{e
1

2
n +4
i

u su l )

+ s

+ 1

zu

27

2 1 9 2n

+ 9 1 9 2 + 9 29 2

2n _ 1

(
o
v
h
2

i'

+ 229 2n

at

+ qn

2+

I)
93
1

9n

F i d t h e s u m O f t h e p ro d u c ts t wo at a tim o f t h e o f i
i
e pan s i o n o f (
1
wh e n n i a p o s i t iv e n t ge r
If (
22
7 +4
+ 3 w h e r e n a d p are p o sit iv e i te ge rs a
a
r o e r fr ac t i o
1
s h e w t h at
1
(
B
B
p p
)
( )p
t h e e p an s io
I f co
a re t h e c o e f ie t s i
23
1
w
er
w
a
h
e
i
s
i
t
v
t
h
e
t
h
t
n
a
o
s
i
e
i
e
(
g
p
21
the

'

c en

ts

db

c3
_ _

er , s

1
m

cg ,

c2
0 _ _

e,

at

2)

20

o r

C HA PTER X V

MU LTI N O M IA L

TH EO R EM

W E h a e al r e a dy se e n in A r t 1 7 5, h o w we m ay
194
b
a i n t h e e x a n si n o f a m ulti
l
t
h
e Bi n m i a l Th e r e m t
t
a
p
pp y
I
n
t
h
e p r e se n t c h a te r o u r
t
is
n m i a l e x r e ssi n
b
e
c
n ot
p
p
s m u c h t o b tain t h e c m pl e t e e x pan si n o f a m ulti n m i al a s
t o n d t h e c e f c i e n t o f a n y a ssig n e d t e r m
.

o
o

o
o

E x amp le

oo

th e

e f c

ient

(
a

e
e ve r e r

o
o j

2 3 5
a b 0 d

d)

in th e expan s i on o f

l4

n s i o n i s th e p rodu ct o f 1 4 fac t ors e ac h e qual

exp ans i o n i s o f 1 4 di m ens i ons b e ing a

Th e xp a
y t m in th e

b + c + d , an d
ct f m
by
p
t o f m t h e t m a 4 b 203d5,
I) o u t o f an y t wo o f t h e re
t
Bu t t h e
mb
of
th e
mb
o f
ay
o f ar
t wo 6, t ee 0, an d v e d ;
to

a+

rodu

ing o n e le t t e r o u t o f e ach o f t he s e fact ors Thu s

or
we t ak e a o u t o f an y fo u r o f th e fo u r t ee n fac t ors
m ainin g t en 0 o u t o f an y t h re e o f t h e r e m ainin g e i g h
way s in whi ch t h i s c an b e don e i s c le arly e q ual t o
nu er
ran ging 1 4 let ters when fou r o f t hem m ust b e a
hr
t h at i s eq u al t o
t ak

Find

nu

er

or ed

w s

er

[ A rt

HEEL?
f t i m e s in whi h t h t rm
s
Th i s i s t he r efor t h n umb
b
d
pp
in th n l p rodu t d o ns e q u nt ly th o e f i ent r e q u i red i s 2 52 2520
e

195
n sio n
a
p
.

er o

an

e c

2 3
c

ear

To n d th e co eicien t of an y a ssig n ed ter m in th e

wh er e p is a p o sitiv e in teg er
d
b
c
of a

ex

d
ct
o
f
r
o
u
f
a
t
o
r
s
h
u
l
t
o
c
a
e
c
a
e
p
p
q
a n d e v e ry t e r m i n t h e e x an si o n is f o r m e d b
a
d
p
y
t ak i n g o n e l e tte r o u t o f e ac h o f th e s e p fac t o r s ; a n d th e r e fo r e
s

y
a
n
c
m
h
n
u
m
b
r
w
a
s
i
n
w
hi
h
t
e
r
w
ill
r
a
t e
e
of
a
l
b
c
a
a
e
y
y
pp
in t h e n al p r o du c t is e q u al t o t h e n u mb e r o f way s o f a rran gi n g
m
m
b
w
e a 8 m ust b e 6
l
tt
r
s
h
e
n
o
f
th
e
ust
m
0
e
e
b
ust
e c;
1
7

Th e
c
b

e x p an

si on is

the

an

the

so

on

Th at

oef c ie t

wh e r e

is

b crd

is

H I GH ER

1 9 5, t h e g e n e

r l

172

L G EB RA

d, b y A r t

(
690

8
05

is

te rm

+ cl x

8, y, 3

are

He n c e

t h e ge n e

e
r
p ss i o n is

( (

an

ex

is p

si o n

1)

o siti v e i n t e g r s w h o s e

ra l t e r m i n

2)

the

Si n c e

a +

bx

+ cx

+ clx

b
+

c
x +

f the

t h e gi

en

ex

wr i tt e n i n

m ay b e

the

+
a

t o c o n si de r
is u n i ty

b e su f c i e n t
m ulti n m i a l

it w i l l

of

si o n

e x p an

w he re
197
rm

su

l)

l ll lf
i

f th e

1, 50d

w h e re

fo

the

ca e

in wh ic h

r st t e r m

the

Thus t h e g en e r a l

t e rm

(
( )( ) (
1

is

rt

1)

a
g
y
b c d

8
+
+
+
2
3
B
y
x

w h e re
E x amp le

Fin d th e c o e fc i ent o f x 3 in

(
1

Th e

th e

n s i on

xpa

2x

3x

g n e ral t rm i s
e

3)

+ 2Y+ 33

h ve t o b t in b y t r i l ll th p os i tiv int e gr l v l u e s f 8 7 6 wh i h
s ti sfy th q u t i on B+ 27 + 3 6 3 ; d t h n p i s found from th e q u t i on
m f th
orr e sp ondi g
Th r e q u i r e d o e f i nt wi ll b t h
1
13 + 7 + 6
l u s f th p r s i o n
We

e e

9 =

va

e ex

an

e s

c e

e su

e c

M U L TI N O M IA L TH EO R EM

173

it wi ll b b e s t t
mm en e b y g iv in g t 6 su e ss iv
o
d
i
g
6
Oin e gr l v l u e s b eg nning th th g r te s t dm i ss i l
s
b
I t h p r e s en t
t
found t b
th v l u e s
In n
a

Wi

ar e

:
4

ca e

( r e u i r d o e i en
1 ) th e

f c

D
C

S m e ti m e s
198
Th e r e m

cc

e e

ea

u s u g h s v lu s i

S b t i t t in t

it is

m o re

ex

e
d
p

iti o us t o

u se

t h e Bi n m i a l

Find th e c o eic ien t o f x 4 in th e e x p an s i on o f (

1 2 +
Th e r e q u i r e d c o e f c i en t i s fo un d b y p i c k in g o u t t h e c o e f c i en t o f
fro m
1 2x 3 )
b y th e B in o m i al
t h e rs t fe w t e r m s o f t h e exp an s i o n o f (
The orem ; t h at i s fro m
E x amp le

we

s t op

t a

3 2x

at

3x

h i s t e rm

6 2x

fo r

al l

3x

th e

2 2

1 0 2x

3x

1 5 2x

r qu ir d
e

c ien
c o ef

t= 6

66

3)

10 3

15

EX A MPL ES

XV

F in d t h e c oe f c i e n t o f
1

5
.

b
a
c + d)
in t h e e x pan s i o n o f (
8
2 5
c
o l)
a b al in t h e e x p an s i o n o f a + h
3
3
a b c in t h e e x p an s i o n o f
9
2 3z 4 in t h e e x an s i o n o f a x
z
b
c
x
+
( g )
p
g
9 3
3 in t h e e x an s i o n o f 1
2x )
x
+ 3x
p
4 in
l
t h e e x pan s i o n o f (
x
6
2x
1
in t h e e xp an s i o n o f (
x
2
8 in t h e e x an s i o n O f 1
2
x
3
x
x
+
(
p

3 4
2
a 6 c d

3x

o th r t e rm s invo lve p owers

Th e

2 ?

"

10

9 4

;
x

h i gh r
e

H IGH ER

1 74

F in d t h e c oe f c i en t o f
9

13
14

15

17

18

19

in

in

16

th e

th e

12

e xp an s

ion

in t h e

s io

Expan

d(
l
2

Expan

1+3
d(

Ex pan

d(
8 9

2x + 3 x

n o

%
1
-

2x + 3 x

4x

(
f (
f(

of 2

2 32 4

s i on

e xp an

L G EB R A

n s i on

n
a
p

e x pa

t h e ex

f 1

s i on

e x p an

(
f (
f(

i on

e x p an s

th e

in

s i on

e xpan

in t h e

11

in

in t h e

x5

10

12

23

4 x + 3x

3 2

2
3

1 + 4x 2 + 1 0x4 + 20x 6 ) a
3

1 5x +

2x

1 as far as
)

2
.

33

6 93

5
as far as x

8
a
r
as f
as x

If 1 + x + x +

an

np

r
o
t
h
t
e
a
v
p

(
)
(
)
l

If

20

(
.

f 1

do

21

a0 + a l

a1

+ a2 +

+ 2 a 2 + 3 a3 +

ao , a 1 , a2 , a 3
a
e
p

rov t h t

If t h e

e x p an

be

ao

s h ew t h at
a0+ a 3

2
a2

+ a6

a3

+ np

ar e

th e

+ a ix + a 2 1 +

p p +l)

i nts in ord e r o f t h e expan s i on

f 1 +x +x
3

c e fc e

1 )n

s i on

an

+ a, x

+ a2n x f,

H I GH ER

17 6
2 01

L G EB RA

W h en it is u n de r st oo d th a t

r ti c ul a r sy stem

of
p
l ga r ith m s is i n u se , t h e su f x de n t in g t h e b a s e is m itte d
Thus in a r i th m e ti c a l c a l c ul a ti n s in w hi c h 1 0 is t h e b a s e , w e
usu a ly w rit e l o g 2, l o g 3,
in st e ad o f lo g l o 2 , l o g m3,
.

u m b e r m i g ht b e t ak e n as t h e b as e o f l oga r ith m s an d
c o rr e s p o n di n g t o a n y su c h b a s e a s y st e m o f l o ga r ith m s o f a l l
Bu t b e f o r e d i s c ussi n g t h e l o ga r ith m i c
n u m b e r s c o ul d b e f o u n d
sy ste m s c om m on l y us e d we sh all p r ov e s o m e g e n e ra l p r op o siti o n s
w hi c h ar e t r u e f o r al l l og ar ith m s i n dep en den t l y o f an y pa r tic ula r
b as e
An y

2 02

The l o g ar ith m

For
th e b

a e

2 03

fo r

m ay b e

a ll

To

1 is 0

v lu e s
a

th e r e f o r e

lo g

a
a

n d th e lo a r ith m
i
g
f

s o th a t

b e t h e b as e

b y d e n iti

on

III N

lo g

du c t

ro

a
a

MN

so

o n

E x amp l e

i y
-

y
l o g M + lo g N

lo g P ;
a

2
3
l og 4 2 = l o g (
7)
l og 2 + l og 3 + l o g 7
x

2 05
.

L et

To

d th e lo g a r ith m

b e the

f ra c ti o n
x

so

th a t

f the

MNP l o g M + l o g N
fo r a n y n u mb e r o f fac t o r s

Si m il a r y , l o g
d

0, wh at e

ve r

an

o u t

Thus t h e p r d

lo g l

th e b a se itse lf is 1

L e t III N b e t h e p r du c t 3 l e t
su pp s e

wh en c e

th e r e f o r e

Th e l o g a r ith m

Fo r
2 04

a =

an

l o g l ,
a

f f
a

r a c tio n

su pp o s e

g
a

lo g N g

s y st e m

an

L o G A RI THMs

Th u s t h e

f ra c t i o n

1V

17 7

"

(
t

w he n ce

b y de n i t i

lo g

IV

l o g JI

lo g

Ex a mp l e

l og 7
log 30 l og 7
2 3
5)
l og (
l og 7
x

lo g 2 + l o g 3 + l o g 5

l
e
d
t
h
o g ar ith m

o r fr a c tio n a l
To

2 06
in tegr a l

30

l og

a n u

l og 7

mb er

r a is ed

to

o
p

wer ,

L et

be

r e q ui r e d

x =

an

l o ga

M s o th a t

211

th e n

su ppo s e

(Y

M ;
:

wh e n c e , b y de n iti o n ,

th at

px 3

is,

lo g ,

(
M
( i
M)
P

l
l
I
l
o
1
g
)

l og

Si m il a r l y ,

l o g

f o ll o w s f r o m t h e r e sults we h a v e p r ove d th a t
1 ) t h e l og a r ith m o f a p r o du c t is e q u al t o t h e su m o f t h e
l oga rith m s o f it s fac t o r s 3
2) t h e l o gar ith m o f a f ra c ti o n is e q u a l t o t h e l o g a r ith m o f
t h e n u m e ra t o r dim i n ish e d b y t h e l og a r ith m o f t h e de n o m i n at o r 3
th
3 ) t h e l og ar ith m o f t h e 19 p o w e r o f a n u mb e r is 11 t im e s t h e
l oga rith m o f t h e n u mb e r 3
2 07

(
(
(
.

It

4) t h e

l ogar ith m

f the

r oo t

th

fa

u m b e r is

eq

u al

to

11

l ogar ith m o f t h e n u m b e r
A ls o we se e th at b y t h e u se o f l oga r ith m s t h e ope rati o n s o f
mul ti p li c ati o n an d di v isi o n m ay b e r e pl a c e d b y th o s e o f a ddi t i o n
an d su b t ra c ti o n 3 an d t h e O e r a ti o n s o f i n vo luti o n an d e vo luti o n
p
b y th o s e o f m ulti pli ca ti o n an d di v isi o n
o

f the

H I GH ER

17 8
Ex a mp le 1

l og

Exp

re s

Zg

l og r i thm

th e

L G EB RA

in t

e rm s

l og

a,

l og b

an d

lo g h,

an d

0.
?
5

l og

Nm_
103
?

ET
(
)

l og l og ()
l
o
g
l
o
g
l
g
(
2
3

5 ?
0 b

l
o
g
2

5
0

5l o g

2 lo g b

Fin d x fro m th e e quat i o n a

Tak in g l o g ar i th m s o f b o t h s i d es we h av e

E x amp l e 2

lo g

l(
og

l og

2x

2 lo g c

l og b ;
3 l o g b ) = l og b

10g b

io g a

2 lo g

XV I

to

ba

1 25 t

ob

16

2 56

5
,

a e

5J 5,

se 2 J 2

to b a

06 2 5 t o b a

a e

a5 ,

1 ,

2,
'

1 7 28 to b a

an

d 25 t o b a

an d

an

'

an

ob s

a e

'

e a

01

d i t o b as e 9

a to b a

t o b as e 9

d 1 000 t

001 ,

J3

'

J3

F in d t h e val u e o f
1

103 8 1 2 8 : 10g6
2 16

o ll owin g v

Exp res s t h e f

l og o

'

an d

s
0001 t o b s
'

3 10g b

EX A MPL ES

F in d t h e l o g ar i th m s

se

en

10g2 7

gi

lo g343 4 g

l og ar i th m s in t erm s

Of

l og

a,

lo g

(
Ja

3 6

lo g

/
E
(
,

10

lo g

H IG H ER

1 80
A ga in ,

'

10

06

l o g 06

an

f ra c ti o n

2 09
D EFI N ITI ON
Th e i n t eg r a l pa r t o f a l g a r ith m is c a ll e d
c h ar ac t erist ic , a n d t h e dec i m al
a r t is c all e d t h e man t issa
p
.

the

L G EB RA

Th e c h a r ac t e r isti c O f t h e l g a r ith m
b as e 1 0 c an b e w r itt e n d w n b y i n s p e c ti

2 10
To deter min e th e
n u m b er g r ea ter t ha n u n ity
.

on

an

as

ch a r a c ter istic o

y
we

th e

u mb e r t o t h e
sh all n o w sh e w
n

lo g ar ith m

an y

Si n c e

10

1 0,

10

1 00,

10

1 000,

it f o ll o ws th at a n u m b e r w ith t wo digits i n its i n t e g ra l p a r t li e s

b e t w e e n 1 0 an d 1 0 3 a n u m b e r w ith th r e e d i g its i n its i n t eg r a l
an d 1 0
n d so o n
a r t li e s b e t w e e n
1
a
0
H
n
u
r
e
c
e
a
n
m
b
e
3
p
with n di g its i n its i n t e g r a l p a r t li e s b e t we en
an d 1 0
l

"

N be

L et

u m b e r w h o s e i n t eg r a l

th e n

1 ) + fr
(
N 10
n

ac t io n

8;

lo g

1)

Hen c e t h e c h a ra c t e r isti c is

th e
th e

a.

r t c on t ai n s

dig its ;

f rac ti o n

1 3 th a t is , th e ch ar a cter istic of
lo g ar ithm of a n u m b er g r ea ter th a n u n ity is less b y o n e than
n u mb er of dig its in its in tegr a l p ar t, a n d is p o s itiv e
n

211
To deter min e th e
dec im a l fr a c tio n
.

ha r a cter istic of th e lo g ar ithm of

Si n c e

10
-

10

_2

10
10

1,

01 ,

1 00
3

1
=

1 000

'

001 ,

L O G A R ITH M S

181

it f o l l o w s th a t a de c i m a l w ith o n e c i ph e r i mm e di ate ly a ft e r t h e
de c i m a l p o i n t su c h a s 03 24 b e i n g g r ea t e r th an 01 a n d l e s s
th a n 1 l i e s b e t w e e n
an d
a n u m b e r w ith t w o c i h e r s
p
a ft e r t h e de c i m a l
o
i
n
t
li
e s b e t w ee n
a
n d
3 an d s o o n
p
He n c e a de c i m a l f rac ti o n w ith n c i ph e r s imm e dia t e l v a ft e r t h e
de c i m a l p o i n t li e s b e t w e e n
an d
'

'

L et D b e

de c i m al b eg i n n i n g

w ith
a

D _ 10

(
n

lo g D

He n c e

i ph e r s

th e n

fract io n

f r ac ti o n

h ar ac t e r isti c is
n 1 ) 3 th a t is th e ch ar a c ter istic
of th e lo g a r ith m of a dec im a l fr ac t io n is
r
e
t
er
b
u
i
t
a
n
t
h
a
n
t
h
e
g
y
y
i
n u mb er
c
h
r
m
a
a
e
s
i
m
e
di
t
l
e
of p
y fter th e d ecim a l p o in t a n d is
the

n eg a t iv e

Th e l o ga r ith m s t o b a s e 1 0 o f al l i n t eg e r s f r o m 1 t o
212
2 00000 h av e b ee n f o u n d a n d t ab ul a t e d 3 in m o st Ta b l e s th ey a r e
T
h
i
v
his
is
r
t
e s st e m in
ac ti c a l
n t o s e v e n p l ac e s o f de c i m als
e
y
p
g
u se , an d it h as t wo g r e a t a dv an t a e s
g
.

F
r
o
m
(

r e sults al re ady p r ov e d it is e v i de n t th a t t h e
s o th a t o n l y
c h a r a c t e r isti c s c an b e w r itt e n d o w n b y i n s p e c ti o n
t h e m an t issae h a v e t o b e r e g ist e r e d in t h e Tab l e s
2)
Th e m an t issae ar e t h e s am e fo r t h e l og a r ith m s o f a l l
n u m b e r s w hi c h h a v e t h e s am e si n i c an t d i g its 3 s o th a t it is
g
su f c i e n t t o t ab ul at e t h e m an t issee o f t h e l o gar ith m s o f in teger s
This p r op o siti o n we p r o c e e d t o p r o v e
1)

the

L e t N b e an y n u mb e r, th e n si n c e m ulti pl y i n g o r
213
di i di n g b y a p w e r o f 1 0 m e re l y alt e r s t h e p siti n o f t h e
de c i m a p i n t w ith ut c h an gi n g t h e s e q u e n c e o f g u r e s , it f ll ws
th a t N x
an d N
wh e r e p a n d g a r e a n y i n t e g e r s , a r e
n u m b e r s w h s e s i n i c an t di its ar e t h e s am e a s th s e o f N
g
g
.

l o

No w

lo g N

A ga i n ,

lo g N

o o
.

10

l
o
10
g g

lo g N
lo g

1 ) an i n te g e r is a dde d t l o g N, an d in 2) an i n te g e r
su b t ac te d f r m l o g N 3 t a t is , t h e m a n tissa 0 r de c i m al p r t i
a r ith m r e m a i n s u n alt e r e d
o f the l
g

In

is

o on

H IGH ER

1 82

AL

G EB R A

this an d t h e th r ee p r e c e di n g a r ti c l e s t h e m an t issae h av e
I n o r de r t o s e c u r e t h e a dv a n t age s o f
b ee n su pp o s e d p o siti v e

Br i gg s s y st e m we a rr a n g e o u r w o rk s o as a lway s to keep th e
m a n tissa p o sitiv e s o th a t wh e n t h e m an tiss a o f a n y l ogar ith m
h as b e e n t ak e n f r o m t h e Tab l e s t h e c h a r ac t e r isti c is p r e x e d
wi t h its app r op r i at e sig n a c c o r di n g t o t h e r ul e s al r e ady gi v e n
In

v l ogar ithm t h e m i n us S ig is
o t b f o r e it t o i di c at e th at
wr itt en
t h e c h a r c t e r isti a l o e is eg a ti v e a d o t t h e w h o l e e p r ssi o n
Thus 4 3 01 03 t h e l og ar ith m f 0002 is e q u i v l e n t t o
4
3 0103
4 3 0103
w
e
r
ssi
o
n i
hi
h
d m ust b e disti n g uish e d f r o m
e
p
b o th t h e i t e g e r
d t h e de i m l a e e gati v e
I w o rk in g with
r ith m e ti al ar ti e wi l l s o m e ti m e s b e
e ga ti v e l o g a r ith m s a
o r de r t o m ak e t h e m a tissa p ositi v e F o r i st c e
e c e ss ry i
i
a r e sult su c h
s
w hi c h t h e w h o l e e p r e ssi on is
m
d
b
e ati v e
b
t
r
sf
o
r
su
b
t
r
ac ti n
f
r
o
m
m
e
t
h
e
1
y
g
g
y
h a ra c te risti c
d ddi n g 1 t o t h e m an tiss a
Th u s
214

I n t h e c as e o f a n e gati
o v er th e c h a r a c ter is tic , an d
a

'

an

an

an

an

s s w ill
Req

ci

e c

ls

a ac

n o ti c e d i n

6 9897 )

the

we n d t

c o

u i r d t h l o g r i thm

as

an

4 3 0103

Ex am pl e s

f 00024 3 2

as

e c

'

a ac

h t 3859 6 36 i s th m nt i ss
de m l p o int well th h r ter i s ti b e i g om i tt ed) ;
th
h r t e r i sti f th l og r i thm f th given numb r i s
l o g 000243 2 48 8 59 6 3 6
I n t h e Tab

be

ca e

E x amp le 1

3 69897

O th e r

'

an

he
(

log

2 43 2 t
f
an d , b y A r t 2 1 1 ,
4

'

E x amp l e 2

Find t h e val ue o f 2/000001 6 5 g iven

-

l og 1 6 5 2 2 1 7 4 8 3 9 l o g 6 97 4 24 58 43 49 6 8
d n o t th v l u r q u i r d ; t hen
l og = l g
l og (
0 00001 6 5)
:

L et x

th e

man tissa

c h a ra c t er is t ic

No w

l og

e g th s
rule

000001 6 5 b in
b y th e
p x
3

e ing re ed

am e as

5
2 84 3 4 9 6 8

at o

l og 1 6 5

an

d th e

H I G HER

1 84
This

r e sult

m ay

L et

th e n

ls o
x

by

LG EB RA

b e p r ov e d di r e c tl y
10gb

t ak i n g l o ga r ith m s t o

b a s e b , we

l og

th at

so

lo

as

b 3

f oll o w s :

h a ve

l o gb b

a
b

l o gb a

fo ll o w i n g e x am pl e s w ill illust rat e t h e utility o f

l oga r ith m s in fac i l itati n g a r ith m e ti c al c al c u l a ti o n 3 b u t f o r in
fo rm ati o n a s t o t h e u se o f L og a r ith m i c Tab l e s t h e r e ade r is
r e fe rr e d t o w o rk s o n Tr i g on om e t ry
2 18

Th e

E xamp le 1
Th e

Gi

v log

r qui d v lu
re

n d

en

3 lo g

log

81

l
o
g
1 00
5

l(
og 3

16

l
o
g
3
10

10g 9 0
2)

(
Z

lo g 3 2 + 1 )

97

l og 3
(

27

4 6 2807 66
2 7 7 8 07 6 6

stu de n t sh o ul d n o ti c e th at
o
w
e r s c an a l w ay s b e o b t a i n e d f r o m
p
Th e

lo g 5=
Ex amp le 2

lo g

1Q

l o g 10

lo g

Find th e numb er o f di g its in

l og 2

'

l og (
87 5 )
16

3 01 03 00,

l og 7

16

'

umb er o f di git s i s 4 8

2 9 4 2008 0

A
rt
[

lo g 2

16

87 5

g iv n
e

8 4 509 80

1 2 5)
l og (
7
16 (
l og 7 3 1 g 5)
16 (
l og
3 l og 2 )

16

h en ce t h e

l og a rith m
l o g 2 3 thus
the

f 5

an

its

L O G A R ITH M S

185

v lu e
a

i ve n

l og 2
e q u t i on

G
E x a mp le 3
o f x f m th e
.

ro

an d

42:

in g l og ar i th m s o f b o th s i de s

x +5

l es
ac

de

i m al s

th e

h ve
=
3
4
l
o
g
l
o
g
l
o
g
6
5
4
8;
+
(
( )
)
4 ) (
3
l og 2 + l og 3) (
l og 2 3
+ 5) 2 l o g
(
l
o
g
4
2
3 1 g2
3 l og 3
(
we

n d t o t wo p

6
Tak

l og 3

l 010 g 2 ;

1 0 10g 2 + 3 10 g 3
2 10g 2
4 10 g 3

13

4 44 1 6 6 3 9
2 51 054 52

17 7

EX A MPL ES

XV I b

F ind

2 1 7 3 5, 2 3 8

in s p e ct i on

by

3 50, 03 5, 2 , 8 7 ,
'

'

'

th e
875

hr

t i st ic s

r i te down

Th e m an t i s a o f
7 6 2 3 is 88 2 1 2 59 3 w
o f 7 6 23 7 6 2 3
0 07 6 2 3 , 7 6 2 3 00, 0 00007 6 2 3
,
,

l o g r i th m s

the

of

a ac er

l og

'

the

l o g r i th m s
a

Ho w m an y

wh os e l ogar i th m s
.

d i gi t s

ar e

h os

G i v e t h e p o s i t i on
l og ari th m s ar e

1 4 7 7 12 1 3,
o

f th e

2 7 7 8 1 51 3 ,

G i ve n

v lu
a

lo g 2

'

t h e re in

th e

r esp ec t i ve ly

4 3 01 03 ,

are

'

3 6 9 89 7 ,

54 8 7 13 8 4

6 9 1 08 1 5,
'

4 7 7 12 13,

e Of

l o g 64

lo g

i/i

r t Of t h e n u m b e rs

a
p

rst s i g n i c an t gure in

lo g 3

3 01 0300,

in tegral

l og 8 4
l og 1 4 4

l og 7
7

14

io g

12

'

F i n d t h e s ev en t h r oot o f

'

003 24 ,

l o g 4 4 09 2 3 88

15
.

G i ven

8 4509 8 0, n d t h e

l o g 1 28
'

10

lo g 4 3

13

io g t/ 01 05

lo g

n umb ers

ii

the

h av ing gi ven th at

7 6 44 3 6 3 6
n d t h e

l v n t h r oo t

e e

H IGH ER

186
16

F in d

th e p

i
v
e n t h at
g
.

r od u c t

G i ven

lo g 2

an

f 3 7 2 03 , 3 7 2 03 , 003 7 203 , 3 7 2 03 0,

'

l o g 3 7 2 03 : 1 6 7 057 8 0,

17

L G EB RA

d lo g 3 ,

an

h v ing
a

d l o g 1 9 1 56 3 1 6 2 8 2 3 ] 2 0
2

n d lo g
1

giv

18

19

en

G i ven

lo g 2

l ul

an

d l o g 3 , n d lo g

six

lo g 2, lo g 3 , lo g 7 3

Ca

Ca

20

to

a e

l ul
c

t to

i m al

l
p

ac e

l so l g
f
l
s
d
p

six

a e

ec

3
1 08

v lu

th e

e o

ac e

ec

i m al s

v al u

the

e o

2 2 x 7 0;

giv n l
e

l so

g 2 , l o g 3 , lo g 7 3

an d

l o g 1 1 = 1 04 13 9 2 7 ,
'

21

22
23

F in d

21

32

d i g i t s in 3
g

is

r e at e

r th

28

1 00

an

i ph e rs th e r e
00
0
rs t s i g ni c ant d i g i t in
e

x + y

li

2
=
=

2x + 1

30

y + 1

2
g 10

G i ve n lo g102

'

26
~

b e t we e n t h e d e c i m a

n lo g 2

28

10

vnl

25
3 :

are

95

31

oll owin g q u ti on s h v in g g iv

27
29

th e f

wt

d th e

24

an

ol v

D e te m in e h o w m an y

o
in
t
p
S

n umb e r

th e

12

2x 1

6
x

2=

y =
_

4
3

lo g 3 ,

5 3x _
5

2x

5
-

an

d lo g 7
2

x +

3y

3 01 03 , n d l o g252 00

'

3 01 03 , l o g 107

'

8 4 509 , n d l o g 7 J 2

an d

l o g ,/2 7

H IGH ER

1 88

hence

the

se r ie s

(
1)

is

L G EB RA

w
er
o
p

the

a
s

s e r ie s

f the

th a t is

+ x +

H
l

d this is t r u e h w e e r g r e a t
i n de n it e ly i n c r e as e d w e h a e
an

+ x + 7

g
m ay b e

s e rie s

Th e

is usu al ly

13

de n o t e d b y

h
e
n
c
e
3

th e re fo re

N E E
-

If

L_ l_
2

+ x +

1_

E E G
.

Wr it

e 096

fo r

th e n

x,

No w l e t

ob t i n

a,

ex

s o th a t

1
=

lo g a

c =

Wh

en

is

su b stituti n g

(
lo g

l og a )
e

i n n it e

10g a 3 b y

This is t h e Exp o n en tial Th eo r em

CO R

wh e n

t h e lim it

in t h e p r e c e di n g i n v e sti gati
i n de n it e ly i n c r e as e d,
x

we

J"

as

is

r c

1
+

S
ee A r t
[
Al s

fo

o n it
,

m ay b e

sh e wn th at

EX P O

th a t i s w h e n
,

N EN TI A L
is i n n ite

BY Pu t t in oir
.

L O G A R ITH M IC

A ND

li m it

the

thus

the

is i n n it e w h e n

li m it

the

v alu e

"Q
,

I n t h e p r e c e di n g
1
si n c e
O f 23 3 a ls

is i n n ite 3

He n c e t h e li m it o f
221

1 80

we 1111 v e
mx

No w m

s ERi Es

r ti c l e

r e st r i c ti o n is pl ac e d u p o n

n o

is l e ss th an u n ity

the

h a v e us e d g i v e r e sults a r ith m e ti c a lly i n t e llig i b l e

ex

an

si o n s

we

A
rt
[

th e re is an o th e r p o i n t in t h e f o r e g o i n g
W e h a v e a ssu m e d th a t w h e n
de s e r v e s n o ti ce
Bu t

r
oo
f
w
hi
ch
p
is i n n it e
n

r
f

o r a ll v a lu es o

Let

de n o t e t h e

us

is i n n it e

L1
3

fu 4

is

we

r _l

the

r _l

i s c l e ar th at

th at

It

v lu e

Th e n
Si n c e

a:

n r

h av e
3

l im i t

th at

i s, u

is

_l

h en c e

the

an

d ge n e r all y

th a t O f

,r

is

:
13

limi t

u s IS

H I GH ER

190
22 2

L GEB R A

s e ri e s

Th e

i2

w hi c h we h a v e de n o t e d b y e is v e ry i m p o r tan t a s it is t h e b a s e
t o w hi c h l oga r ith m s a r e r st c a l c ul at e d L og a r ith m s t o th i s
b a s e a r e k n o wn a s t h e Napie r ian s y st e m s o n am e d a ft e r Nap i e r
th e i r i n v e n t o r Th e y a r e a l s o c a ll e d n a tu r a l l ogar ith m s f r o m t h e
fa c t th a t th e y a r e t h e r st l oga rith m s w hi c h n atu r ally c o m e i n t o
c o n si de r a ti o n in a l e b r a i c a l i n v e sti a ti o n s
g
g
,

us e d in th e o r e ti c al w o r k it is t o b e
r em emb e re d th a t t h e b a s e e is a l w ay s u n de r st oo d j u s t a s i n
m
l
o
d
a r ith m e ti c a l w o rk t h e b a s e 1 0 is i n v a r i ab l
e
e
y
p y
W h e n l oga r ith m s

are

F r om

s e ri e s

t he

the

x i m at e v a lu e o f e c a n b e de t e rm i n e d
r
o
pp
o f a c c u r a c y 3 t o 1 0 p l a c e s o f de c i m a ls it is

t o an y r e q ui re d de g re e
f o u n d t o b e 2 7 1 82 8 1 8 28 4
Ex amp le 1

Find th e su m

1+

b y p t t in

'
o r e

I
4

s erie s f

1 in th e

+
n

su m o

E xa mp l e 2

Find

th e

(
1

s eri es i s

f th e

ax

o ef i ent
c

a
t

th e

ce

hen

E li: I
[

s ri s

W e h av e
an d

inni t e

f th e

f x in th e
"

n s i on o f

e xp a

H IGH ER

192

L G EB RA

(
o v r

22 4
Ex c e p t w h e n x is e r y s m all t h e s e i e s fo r l o g, 1 + x )
is o f litt e u se f r n u m e r i c a l c a l c u l a t i n s W e c an , h w e e ,
de d u c e f r m it th e r s e r i e s b y t h e aid o f whi c h Tab l e s f L ga r
it h m s m ay b e c n st r u c t e d
.

By

o
o

wr i t i n g

s i gn s

on

fo r

o th si de s

l og

n
e

l og

(
()

F r om

1)

n +

an

u
ti
o
q
a

(
n

1)

1)

zu

l o g,

1
g

h
n
ce
e
3

by

h an g i n g

iti o n

3 h e nce

a dd

by

l og

Ob t ai n

we

l o g,

a n

l og

f th e

l og

Fr o m

1)

fo r

ob t i

we

wr iti n g

l ge

By

2n

1
,

2)

3n

3n

5n

this f o rm ul a

b y p utti n g n = 3 we O b t a i n l g e 4
l ge 2 ,
th a t is l o g , 2 3 an d b y e ffe c ti n g t h e c al c ul a ti n we n d th at t h e
w
l
n
n
h
is
k
w
v alu e o f l o , 2
n
e
o
8
e
c
3
g
g,

A gai n b y p utti n g
n d l o g, 1 0

To

o v e r t N p i e ri
a

we m ulti p l y b y
10

;
6

9 we

10

an

ob t ai

w hi c h is

t h e m o du lu

83

w h en c e

o r

we

b ase 1 0

rt 2 1 6
A
[
]

l og

l o g, 1 0

l oga r ith m s i n t o l o ga r ith m s t o

o m m o sy st em a d its v lu e is
we sh ll de o t e this m o dulus b y )

f the

4 3 4 2 9 4 48

I n t h e Pr o ceedin g s of th e Ro y a l So cie ty of L o n d o n , V o l X X V I I
a e 8 8, Pr fe ss r J
A
a
m
s
h
a
i
n
t
h
a
lu
s
C
d
s
e
e
e
o f e, ,a ,
p g
g
l o g, 2 , l o g, 3 , l o g, 5 t m r e th an 260 p l a c e s o f dec i m als
.

22 5
.

O b t ai n f o
Thus

ov

I f we m ultip ly t h e ab
e se ries
r m ul ae a dapt e d t t h e c al c ul ati n

f r om

l
o
g
ge

(
n +

1)

th ro ug h o ut b y p we
O f co mm o n lo g arithms
,

M
n

2n

L
3n

EX

th a t i s

P O N EN TIA L

lo

Si m il a r ly

(
n +

g 10

lo g w n

F r om

1)

10 g l u9z

f rom
108 m

ND L O G A R ITHM IO SER IES

I _

()

1.

2n

7,

19 3

3n

i t h e r o f t h e ab ov e r e sults we se e th a t i f t h e l oga r i th m
o f o n e o f t w o c o n s e c uti v e n u m b e r s b e k n o w n t h e l o g a r i t h m o f
t h e o th e r m ay b e f o u n d an d thus a t ab l e o f l o g a r ith m s c a n b e
c o n st r u c t e d
e

sh o ul d b e r e m a rk e d th a t t h e ab ov e f o rm u l ae a r e o n l y n e e de d
t o c al c ul at e t h e l oga r ith m s o f p r im e n u m b e r s f o r t h e l o ga r ith m
o f a c o m o site n u m b e r m a
b
O
t
ai n e d b
a ddi n
t
o
th
er the
e
b
e
p
g
y
y
g
l oga r ith m s o f its c om p o n e n t fac t o r s
It

I n r de r t c al c ul a t e t h e l g a r ith m f a n y o n e o f t h e s m all e r
m
r
i
e n u m b e r s , w e do n t usu a
su
b
stitut
h
n
m
r
i
n
i
th
er
e
t
e
b
e
e
p
y
O f t h e f r m u l ae 1 ) o r
b u t we e n de a u r t n d s m e
a lu e
o f n b y w hi c h di isi n m ay b e e a sil y p e r f r m e d, an d s c h th a t
We
1 o r n 1 c n t a i n s t h e gi e n n u m b e r a s a f a c t r
e ith e r n
th e n n d lo g n + 1 ) r l o g n 1 ) an d de du c e t h e l ga r ith m O f
t h e g i e n n um b e r

(
v o

o
o

vo

u
o

l ul

E x amp l e

By p t t in
1

Ca

n :

1 0 in

l og 3

l og 2

at e

we

P ut tin g

l og 3

1
3

'

'

a e

0 02 1 7 1 4 7 2

0 001 4 4 7 6 5

0 0001 08 57

0 000008 6 8

0 0000007 2

0 00000006

'

'

an

0054 2 8 6 8 1

l og 2
log 2

=
4 3 4 2 9 448
n

l og 3 0457 57 48 8
l og 3 4 7 7 1 2 1 2 56
ob t i l o g 8 1 l o g 8 0 3 t h u s

we

8 0 in

3 10g 2

l o g 3 g iv e n
h v t h v l u e f l o g 1 0 l og 9 ; t h u s

an

0 4 3 4 2 9 44 8

ll

'

'

0 00033 9 29

9 08 4 8 5024
3 01 029 9 9 7

'

'

0000002 8 3

0 00000003 ;

0053 9 503 2 ,

sh all g i v e an o th e r s e r i e s fo r
lo g n + 1 )
l o g n w hi c h is o ft e n us e ful i n t h e c o n st r u c ti o n o f
L o ga r ith m i c Tab l e s
Fo r f u r th e r i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e s u b j e c t t h e

r eade r is r e fe rre d t o Mr G l a i sh e r s a r ti c le o n Lo g ar ith m s in t h e

In

the

n ex t

r ti c l e

we

En cy c lo p cedia B ri tan n ic a

13

H I GH ER A L G EBR A

1 94
226

h a v e p r ov e d th at

I n A r t 2 2 3 we
.

l og e l

cha

i
n
g g

a: in

to x

+ x

()

l oge 1

su b t r a c tio n

By

Pu t

10ge

(
+

n +

+ x

1
1

5
6

s o th a t
=

Io ge n

+ x

1)

= x

10D0 e
1

ha v e

we

2n

3 2n

c h apt e

f oll o w in g e x a m pl e s
If

a
l og (

ha t
Si n

ce

1)

b u t in p

ract i ce i s

n o

alway s

il l us

t ra t e th e su bje c t o f th e

E x amp le 1
t

b t al n

Th e

thus

5 we

2n

N O TE Th i s seri es co n verge s v ery rap i dl y

s o c o n ven i en t as th e ser i es in A r t 2 24
227

B are

a,

th e

roo ts o f

th e
a

e q uat io n

b
a

0
z

( ) ( )
1 + ax

1+

a
b x + cx ) = l o g a + l o g (
1+
l og (
2

43

ax

) + log

3
13

1 + 523 )

3 3
x

__lo g a + a x

3
a

3
a

hat th e c o ef ci en t o f x in th e ex pan s io n o f
o r a c c o rd i n g as n i s o r i s n o t a m ul t i p l e o f 3

Pr o

1 + x + x ) is
l og (
2

ve

have

we

m+
z

+ ,8 =

E x amp le

s h ew

"

log (

1 + x + x 2) = lo g

55
2

1
log (
x 3)
log (
1 x)

9
33

+i +

H IG HE R A L G EBR A

196
3

S h e w t h at

l og

(
u

3n

s h e w t h at

'3

Sh e w t h at

5
.

Fin d th e

of de c i m al s
7

Pr o v e

t h at

(
1

1 +x

1 =

(
1

10
an d 1 3 ;
.

y +

(y )

I3

(
r

2
t
h a if awe

an d

g
2

are

e ac h l e ss u n it y

Pr ov e t h a

t
5

d n d

13

n d t h e

3 51 3

14

an d

th e g e eral t e rm of t h s e rie s
Pr o e t h at
n

g e n e ral te rm of th e s e r i e s

Ex p an d

e
6

336

in

1 + ax + a +

ces

an

pl a

'

12

i ee n

o s xt

Fin d th e n um e rical v al u e s of t he c om m o n l ogarit h ms of

giv e n p = 4 3 4 2 9 44 8 l o g

S h ew

999

c o rre c t t

11

F i n d t h e v al u e of

th m of

1 001

0
0D

Nap ie rian l o ga r i

Pr o xe t h a t

l o ge b

3
.

s er e s of a
i

sc en

dm g p o

we rs o f

x.

7, 1 1

EX PO N EN T I A L A ND

in as c e n d in g p owe rs of

15

Ex pr e ss

16

Sh e w t h a t

211)

17

an

18

(
1
a

1 +

If

20

o
w
e
rs
of
p

lo g
r,

+B

[ l )G

+B

(
u

l +x +x

b e e x pan de d

3
+x

s he w t h at th e c o ef cien t of
an d

if n

+ 1)

b e of th e fo rm

23

Pr o

in

is

"

s e rie s of a s c e n di n g
if

b e o dd o r of

4m

Sh8 W

l o ge

t h at

I f lo g

To

l og 2 = 7 a

c al c ul a t e l

a,

l o g.

2 b + 3 c, l

og

24

+
3

271

25

3
e

53

v e th at

2 l o ge n

0
4

S h e w t h at

24

s hew th at
a

th e fo rm 4 m + 2

23

2
.72

22

wh e r e

S h e w th a t

21

1 97

of th e s e rie s

su

19

+ 10

+ B)

1 , n d th e

If

r o ots of

d B be t h e

10g 1
.

11

l o go ? )

It )

2 lo g,

If a

S ER I ES

L O G A R IT HMI C

1 1a

3 71

I) , l o g,

81

gb

= e
,

s h e w t h at

3 b + 5c, l o g.3 5: 1 6 a

g. 2 , l o g. 3 , lo g. 5 t o 8 p la

c e s o f de c im ls
a

4b + 7c ;

CHA PTER X V I I I
I N T E R E ST

A N N U IT I E S

A ND

th is ch apt e w s h all pl ai h w t h e sol u tio f

t s c o e c te d with I te r e s t d D is c ou t m y b e s im pli e d
b y t h e u se o f l g e b a ic a l f o m l e
th e te m s I t t D i
W s h all
t P
i
t V l
t h ei o r di a ry a rith m e tic al se s e b u t i st e a d o f t k i g a s t h
te o f i t e r es t t h i te r e s t 100 f
y e a r w e s h all d it
e ie t t o t a k e t h e i t e e s t
1 f
yea
m o e co
IN

2 29
qu e s io n
.

n n

ex

an

u a

u se

ra

nv

sco u n

o r o n e

To n d th e in ter est
230
n t im e a t sim le in ter est
i
v
e
g
p

an

o n

a u e

r esen

o n

er es

or one

am o u n

i
v en
g

su

m in

Le t P b e t h e prin cip a l in
y e a r n th e n u m b e r o f y ear s
,

te es t o f P f
i
t
h
t
3

Th e in
is Pn r

or one

o
u
n
s
r
t
h
e
d
p
I t h e in t e r es t

in

an

y ear

is Pr ,

an

te est o f 1 f
d M t h e am o u t

or one

th e r efo

fo r

y e ar s

s,

1)

A ls o

that i

s,

Fr o m

or

P,

(
M

r,

1)

an

i
i
P
w
e
see
t
h
t
o
f
t
h
e
qu
a
t
t
e
s
if
(
d
m
t
h
ee
b
e
i
e
t
h
e
f
o
ur
t
h
b
e
f
o
u
y
g
y

d 2)

an

I ;

231
To n d th e p r esen t
du e in a g iv en tim e, a llo win g
.

v a lu e an

s imp le

d disco u

in ter est

r,

I,

su

en
i
v
g

L e t P b e t h e giv e n su m V t h e p r e sen t v al u e D t he
th e in t e r e s t o f 1 fo r o n e y e a r n th e n u m b e r o f y e a rs
,

dis

c ou t
n

A L G E BR A

H IG H E R

200

tt
t

t t
t

h e e n d o f h e r s y e a r is PR 3 an d, s in c e
Th e a m o u n o f P a
h is is t h e p r in c ip a l fo r h e s e o n d y e ar , h e a m o u n a h e e n d o f
2
h e s e o n d y e ar is PR x R o r PR
he
Sim il a rl y he a m o u n a
3
h e h ir d y e ar is PR , an d s o o n ; he n e he am o u n in
en d o f
h a is,
n y e a r s is PR 3

t
t

t t

If r

2
+
;

an

is P13

th e

am

f o r o n e y e ar

we have

year s

is PR

oun t of

P in 4

tim e c o tai s
th e
i te rest f
a

or

y ea r

1 in

is

y e a r s a t c ompou n d

th e

Sim il a r l y

on

te es t
1

b us in e s s t r a n s a c tio n s w h e n t h e
o f a y e a r it is u s u al t o al l o w simp le
o f t he y e a r
Th u s t he am o u n t o f

e c k on e d

in

P 13

In

23 3
io n
io n

fr a c t
fr a c t

PR 3
"

de n o t e t h e i n t e r e s t
R

t tt
t

"

I
.

t
c t

"

N O TE

t tt

am o u n t o f P

in

"

I f t h e in t e r es t is pay ab l e m o r e t h a n o n c e a y e a r t h e r e is a
dis tin c t io n b e t w ee n t h e n o m in al a n n u a l r a te o f in t e r es t an d t h a t
a c t u ally r e c e iv e d wh ic h m ay b e c al l e d t h e tr u e an n u a l r a te t h u s
if t h e in t e r es t is p a y ab l e t w ic e a y e a r an d if r is t h e n o m in al
,

a n n u al r a t e o f

in

t e est th e am o u t o f

th e re fo r e

in

t h e w h ol e y e a t h e

an

or

1
T

+ r +

th at t h e

so

tr u

1 in

h alf

am o un t o f

year

1 is

a n n u al r a t e o f

is 1

in

te est
r

is

th e

234

If

th e

t e es t i pay ab l e 9 tim e s a y e a
d if
r t e t h e i t e es t
1 f e a c h i te r v al
l
m
for e th e am o t o f P
y e a rs
t
q

in
n o m in al a n n u a l

an

th e

re

yea r

on

in

un

th is c a se t h e i t e r e s t i

In
im es
t
9

r , an

or

s a id t o b e

or

e r v a s, i s

c o v e r t e d i t o p ri
n

is
is

c pal
i

I N T ER EST

the

t
p
u

2 01

,
,

rx

amo u n

the

nv

N N U ITI E S

t h e i te res t i c o e r tibl e i t o p r i c ip a l e v e r y m om e t
i
l
i
T

d
b
e
c
o
m
es

t
e
y
r
e
a
t
t
h
e
a
l
u
e
o
f
t
he
m
o
u
t
g
g
1
s o th at q
3 t h us
g

If
n

A ND

'

P 1

A
rt
2
20
,
[

s in c e

a:is

in

it e w h e
n

i
s in
q

ite
n

To n d th e p r esen t v a lu e a n d dis co u n t
2 35
du e in a g iv en t im e, a llo win g c o mp o u n d in ter es t
.

i
v
e
n
g

su

th e g i e m V t h e p ese t lu e D th e dis c o u t
R t
t of 1 f
yea r th e u m be o f y ea rs
t t o i t e r es t a t t h e p r e s e t
m w h ic h p t
Si c e V i t h e
tim e w ill i n y e s am o t t o P w e h a e
Le t P b e
h e am o u n

or

o n e

VB 3
"

V
an

ou

un

va

ar

su

su

P 1

T h e presen t value o f 6 7 2 due in a c ertain t im e i s 1 2 6 ; i f

comp oun d in terest at per cen t b e all owed n d th e t im e ; hav i g g i ven
l o g 2 3 01 03 l o g 3 4 7 7 1 2
E x a mp le

'

He r e
L et

b e th e

'

i
_
_
1 00
24

'

um b er o f years ; t he

dR

an

25

51

or

0g

1. g

24

1 26

96

l(
o g 1 00 l o g 9 6 ) = l o g 1 6 l og 3
4 l og 2
log 3
n 2 5 l og 2 l og 3
,

7 2 7 00

i e i s v ery n e arly 4 1 years

th e t m

v ry
e

16

'

67 2

th

24

e arly

H I GH ER

2 02

L G E BRA

EXA MPLES

X VIII

W hen

a;

r e q u ir e d th e fo l lo win g logar i t h m s m ay b e us ed
lo g 2

'

lo g 7

'

30103 00,

lo g 3

8 4 509 8 0,

lo g 1 l

'

47 7 1213,

1 04 1 3 9 2 7
'

F in d t h e am o un t of 1 00 in 50 y e ars at 5 pe r c en t c om p oun d
2 059 4 6 50
i n te r e s t ; g i v en l o g 1 1 4 6 7 4
A t s im pl e in t e r e s t th e in t e r e s t o n a c e r tain s u m of m o n e y is
2
9 0 an d t h e d i s c o u n t o n t h e s am e su m fo r th e s am e t im e an d a t t h e
s am e r at e is 8 0 n d t h e s u m
I n h o w m an y y e ars will a su m of m on e y do u bl e it s e l f at 5 p er
3
c en t c om p o un d in t e r e s t 2
F in d c o rr e c t t o a far t h in g t h e p r e s e n t v al u e o f 1 0000 du e
4
8 y ears hen c e at 5 p er c e n t c om p ou n d in t e r es t ; g i v e n
1

'

lo g 6 7 6 8 3 9 4

m an
In h o
o m p oun d in e r e s ?
5

y y ears w i ll

4 8 304 8 56

b e c om e

1000

2 500 at 1 0 p er

ce t
n

t t
S h ew t h at t Si m pl e i t e r e st the di s c o u t i h l f the h m o ic
6
m d
d t h i t eres t
it
m e a b et wee th e
S h e w t h at m o e y w i l l i c r e s e m o r e t h a
h u dr e dfold i
7
c e tury t 5 p c e t com po u d i te re st
m of m o e y t 6 p
c e t c om pou d i te re s t will
Wh t
8
am ou t t 1000 i 1 2 y e ars ? G i e
c

u e an

su

lo g 1 06

lo g 4 9 6 9 7

2 02 53059 ,

er

ar

on

su

er

4 6 9 63 2 9 2

b orr o w s 6 00 fr om a m o n e y l en de r an d the bill i s

9
r en e w e d e v e ry h a l f y ear at an i n c r e as e of 1 8 p e r c en t w h at t i m e w i l l
elap s e b e fo r e it r e ac h e s 6 000 ? Giv en lo g 1 1 8 = 2 07 1 88 2
1 0 W h at is th e am o u n t o f a fa r th in g in 2 00 y e ars at 6 p er c e n t
c om poun d in te r e s t 2 G iv en lo g 1 06 2 02 53059 lo g 1 1 50 2 7 0 2 06 1 1 800
A m an

A NNU I TI ES

e d su m pa id p e rio dic a lly u n de r

c e r t s tat e d c on dition s ; t h e paym en t m ay b e m a de eit h e r o n c e
U n l e s s it is o t h e r wis e
a y e ar o r a t m o r e f r e qu e n t in t e r v a l s
s t a t e d w e s h all s u pp o s e t h e p ay m en t s an n u al
A n an n u it y c ert ain is a n a n n u it y p a y ab l e fo r a x e d t e rm o f
y e a r s in de pe n den t o f an y c o n tin g e n c y ; a l ife an n u it y is an
a n n u it y wh ic h is p ay abl e durin g t h e l ife tim e o f a p e r so n o r o f
th e s u rv iv o r o f a n um b e r o f p e r son s
236
a in

an n u it y

is

2 04

H I GH ER

L G EBRA

th e p r e s e t al u e o f a u ities it i a lway s
c us t om a y t o r e ck o c om p o d i t e r es t ; th e e su lt s o btai e d
wh e
s im pl e i t e e s t i r e c k o e d b e i g c o t r a dic t o ry d
t ru s t w o t h y O t his p oi t d f fur t h e i f o m a tio
th e
ities t h
s u bje c t o f
e de m y c o s u l t J o es
th e V l
P
t
A
i
t
i
d
R
i
m
d
t
h
e
t
i
c
l
e
A
iti
f
y
y
i t h e E y c l p di B it
ic
2 39

In

din g

un

nc

2 40

i
v
e
n
g

th e

ae

the

th e p re s e t
th e p re s e t
n

on

s, a n

en

un

on

on

a u e

ar

nn u

es

a n n u ity It t h e a m o u n t o f 1
y e a r s V t h e r e qu ir e d p r e s e n t v al u e

A be
n um b er of

so

an

co n

tin u

or

Le t

an n

o r

To n d t he p r esen t v a lu e of a n a n n u ity to
u m b er of y ea rs, a ll o win g c o m o u n d in t er est
p

w V
a
y
m
e
t
s
;
p
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al u e o f

in
2

y ea rs

is A 113

yea rs

is A R

alu e o f

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al u e o f

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in

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"

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in

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an

ev er s o n a/r

es a n

n nu

an

an n u

n n

su

o f th e

n t
r
e
s
e
p

th e

al u e s o f

diffe r e n

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AR

A lt

m ay

CO R
o

If

"
.

we m ak e

AR

t o t e rm s

"

N O TE T h i s r e sul t
g i ven in A r t 2 3 8 b y R

al so

[A rt

ob t ai n e d

by

d ivi d in g

th e

l ue o f M

va

in

be

it e
n

we

o b t a in

fo r

t h e p r e se t
n

al u e

f a p erp etu ity

V

IE 1

is

241
s aid

In

I f m A is th e p r ese n t v a l u e o f

t o b e w o r th 7 27 y e ar s p u r ch ase
.

the

th e a uity

c a s e o f a p e rp e t u a l a n n u it y
m

a n n u it y A

an

1 00

1
r

mA

rate

er

ce t
n

h en c e

n n

N TER EST

A ND

N N U IT I ES

2 05

th a t i the u m b e o f y e a rs p ur c h a s e o f pe rp e tu a l a u it y i
o b t i e d b y div idi g 1 00 b y t h e r a t e p c e t
i s t a c e s o f p e r pe t u a l a
u itie s w e m y m e t io t he
A
i c o m e r is i g fr o m i e s t me t s i irr e de e m ab l e St o c k s su c h a s
m a y G o e r m e t Se c r itie s C o r p o r a tio
St o c k s
d R a il w a y
A g oo d t es t o f t h e c e dit o f
D e b e t u es
G o e r m e t i fu r
i h d b y t h e u m b e o f y e a rs p ur c h a se o f it St o c ks 3 t h u s t h e

a r e w o r t h 3 5 y e a r s p ur c h a se ; Egy p t ia
2 p c Co s o l s a t 9 6

4 p
St o c k a t 9 6 i w o r t h 2 4 y e a s p u r c h a s e 3 w h il e A us t r ia

5p
St o c k t 8 0 i o ly w o r t h 1 6 y e s p u ch se
r

s,

a n

%
v

th e

an

ar

d th e p r ese nt
en d of p y ea r s

mp o u n d in ter est

To

o m m en ce a t
co

24 2

in g

e
.

n v

n n

n n

er

v a lu e

an

d to

d efer r ed

an n u

c o n t in u e

a r s,
e
y

or n

ity to
a l lo w

L e t A b e t h e a n n u ity
r
e
s
e
n t v al u e
p

th e a m o u

of

in

yea r V th e

on e

rs t

Th e

m
n t
a
y
e
p

t he p r e s e t
t s a r e r e s pe c t i e l y

He n c e
m en

at

is m a de

alu e s of th e

th e
rst

of

en

1)
p
A
rt
[
+

se c o n d

ye a rs

th ir d

p y

(
p +
AR

1)

AR

(
PH )
AR
AR

"

AR

Th e p r e s e n
COR
a f t e r p y e a rs is g iv e n
.

to

"

a lu e o f a defer r ed p erp etu ity t o c o m m e n c e

b y t h e f o r m u la
v

AR
:

"

t t

u al
e
r
e
t
p p
tat e is e qu a l

A fr eeh o l d e st at e is an es a e wh i h y ie l ds
c all e d h e r en t ; an d h us h e v al u e o f h e e s
r en
r
e
s
e
e
o
h
e
r e u it y e qu a l
v al u e o f a
n
p p
p

2 43
an n u i y

t e rm s

Alt

AR

P+ 3 )
I

the
t
t
t t
t

I t f oll o w s fr o m A t 2 4 1 t h t if w k ow t h e m b e o f y e a rs
i fa r m w e o b t a i
h
d
ur
c
h
se
t
h
a
t
t
e
a
t
a
y
s
o
e
r
t
o
b
u
y
i
p
p
1
0
i
i
i
0
d
d
d
i
r
a
t
e
c
e
t
a
t
h
c
h
t
e
e
s
t
e
c
k
o
e
b
y
i
w
i
h
t
g
p

b y t he u m b e r o f y e a rs p ur c h a s e

to

er

s r

n u

2 06

H I GH ER

L G E BR A

T h e rev er s ion a ft er 6 year s o f a freeh o ld e st at e is b ough t fo r

w re t ought t h e p ur chaser t o re ce i ve reck o in g comp oun d
i n t eres t at 5 p er cen t ? G i ve l o g
l og
T he r e t i s e q u al t o th e a n ual v alue o f th e p erp etu i ty deferr e d fo r 6
ye ars whi ch m ay b e purchase d for 20000
L e t A b e t h e v al u e o f t h e a n n u i ty ; t h en s i c e R = 1 05 we h av e
Ex amp l e
h at
2 0000;
.

2 0000

05

l og A
l og A
A

x
'

l og

3 1 2 7 1 3 58 =

1 3 4 0 09 6 ,

an

t t

'

log

re

d th e

t
tt

is

1 3 40 l s 1 1 d
.

c t
t t

Su pp o s e h a a e n a n b y p a y in g do n a e r ain su m
h a s o b a in e d a l e a s e o f a n e s a e f o r p g y e a rs , an d h a wh e n
r en e
l
y
e
a
o
he
e
e
r s h a e e l a p s e d h e wis he s
a se fo r a
rm
g

n e fo r
a
i
l
y
e
he
h
a
h
e
m
us
a
e
h
e
a rs ;
su m
s
l
d
n
+
p y
p
r e n e in g n y e a r s o f h e l e as e
2 44

t t

w t

L e t A b e t h e a n n u a l v a l u e o f t h e e s t at e ; t he n s in c e t h e
t e n an t h a s p aid fo r p o f t he p + n y e a rs t h e n e m us t b e e qu al
t o th e p re s en t v alu e o f a de fe rr e d an n u ity A t o c om m e n c e a fte r
y
e
ar s a n d t o c o n t in u e fo r n y e a r s 3 t h at is
p
,

t h e n

AR
e

AR

"

R_

EXA MPLES

15
,

X VIII

A
rt
[

24 2

te re st i sup po s e d com p ou d u le ss t h c o trary i st te d

A p e rs o b o rr o w s 6 7 2 t o b e r e paid i 5 y ea rs by a
1
u li
t lm t of 12 0 d th e r t e of i t e r e s t r e c k o i g s i m p l e i t e r e s t
2
F i d t h am ou t of
ity of l 00 i 2 0 y e s
llowi g
c om p o u d i t ere s t t p c e t G i e
Th e in

s a

en

an

l o g 1 04 5

er

'

019 1 1 6 3 ,

nn

n n

an n u

ar

lo g 2 4 1 1 7

1 3 8 232 60

free h old e stat e is bo ugh t fo r 2 7 50 ; at wh at r en t s houl d it

b e l e t s o th at t h e o wn e r m ay r e c e i v e 4 p er c e n t o n t h e p ur c h as e m o n e y ?
A fr ee hol d e s ta t e w o rt h 1 2 0 a y e ar is s o ld fo r 4 000 nd t h e
4
r a t e of i n t e r e s t
3

C HA PTER X I X

IN EQU AL ITI ES

A NY q u an t ity a is said t o b e gr e at e r t h an an o t h e r
2 45
is p o sit i e 3 t h u s 2 is g r e at e r t h an
a
b
3
u an t it y b wh e n
,
q
A l so b is said t o b e l e ss
o r 5 is p o sit i e
b e c au se 2
th an a wh e n b a is n ega ti e 3 t h u s 5 is l e ss t h an 2, b e au s e
3 is n e ga t i e
o r
5
.

v
v

v
v

In
g

co r

e a t e r t h an

d an c e

with t h is d e n it io n ,
u a n tit
n e at i e
an
q
y
g
y

ero

m u st b e

ega r d e d

as

I n t h e p r e se n t c h ap t e r we sh al l su pp o s e u n l e ss t h e c o n t r a ry
is d ir e c tly s tat e d ) t h a t t h e l e tt e r s al way s d e n o t e r e al an d p o sit i e
u a n t it ie s
q

24 6

If

b,

th e n

it

is

v id e t t h t

a + 0 >

+ c

c >

in eq u a lity will still

in cr eased, d imin ish ed , m u ltip lied,
u an tit
q
y
is,

be ;

ac

th a t

an

h o ld after each
o r d iv ided b y th e

h as b een
same
o sit iv e
p
sick

24 7
by

dd in g

If
c

to

e ac h

de

si

b,

a>

wh ic h sh e ws t h at in a n in eq u a lity an y ter m m ay b e tr an sp o sed

its sign b e ch an g ed
fr o m o n e side t o th e o th er
.

If

b,

th en ev id e n tly

is,
th e sides of a n in eq u
in equ a lity m u st b e r ev er sed

th at

3
e t r a n s o sed
h
b
t
e
,
p
y

a lit

sig n

IN EQU A L ITI ES

If
is1

b,
b)

b is p o sitiv e , a n d b
n e o a t iv e , a n d t h e r e f o re
D

th e n
is

sig n s

th e

th e t er m s

a ll

in eq u a lity m u st b e

A ga in , if a

th en

b,

is

n e

tiv e

th at

b 3

h e n ce,
th e sig n

2 09

an

in eq u a lity b e

r ev er sed

b,

an

d t h e r e fo r e

be 3

ac

is,
th e s ides of a n in e q u a lity b e m u l tip lied b y t h e
n eg a tiv e
u a n t it , th e si n o
i
u
l
i
t
m
u
n
e
a
t
s
b e r ever sed
q
y
g
f
q
y

th a t

sa

me

24 8

If

a,

b, ,

+ a

+ a3 +

b2 ,

b3,

b m , it

is

cl

ear

th at
a

an

a a a

24 9
o r

+ am

If

b,

a>

an

d if p , q

7
a

;
b

;
a

tiv e

o si

h
r e fo r e
t
e
d
3
u an tit
y
q
an

b l bz b 3

ar e

bm

tiv e

o si

bm 3

in t e g e r s,

th e n

5
b

is,

th at

"

"

wh e r e

is

an

an

F u r th e r

1
,

Th e

2 50

t h e r e fo r e

E
,

re a e r

u ar

t h at is

t h an z e r o

"

"

e v e ry

Th u s

2ab

(
6
2

i
t
t
is
o sit iv e
q
y
p
b ) is p o sit iv e 3

e al

(
a

u an
2

>

2a b

O3

x y

j;

Sim ila r ly

th at
th a n

is, th e a r ith m etic m ea n

th eir g eo m etr ic m ea n

t wo p o sitiv e q u an tities is g r ea ter

Th e in e q u al ity b e
e

m es

an

e q u ality

wh en t h e q u an t itie s

a re

u al

2 51
Th e r e su l t s o f t h e p r e c e d in g ar t ic l e wil l b e f o u n d e r y
u se f u l , e s e c ial l
h
i
n
t
e c a s e o f in e u alit ie s in wh ic h t h e le t t e r s
p
y
q
a re in o l e d s m m e t r ic a ll
y
y
.

v v

1 1L

H I G H ER A LG EBRA

210
E x a mp l e 1

an

If

b,

a,

den o te p os it ive q u an t it i e s

wh

by

en c e

dd it i on

I t m ay b e

oti

a n

ce

at

e al v al

at

> 26 a ;

+ b > 2ab ;

be

hi r s
I) ?

ab .

ca

i s true f r

e u lt

1)
(

Ag i from

an y

be

bc

w it i

By

d o wn

s im il i

t h e t wo

ar

()

ho l d
f to b +
l o g r h ol d
It

ac

c,

n eq

3) i s
s v d th t (
h t i f thi f t b

be ob
an d t

er e

ob

ac o r

If

(
c

an
a

ddi

No w

g , we

ob t i

a n

rd i

If a :

wh i h i s

n d

+1

or

+x

o di

ac c r

n g a s a:

H
n

(
a

ve

if S is gi
S is l e ast wh e n

e n ce ,

b)

b)

an

is

d S

a =

(
a

B
:

e a t e st

or

4P = S

a:

i s p o s i t ive o r n egat ive ; t hat i s

t h e i e q u al i ty b eco m e s an q u al i ty

e at e

en c e

4 ab
we h a

1)

v
.

L e t a an d b b e t wo p o sitiv e q u an t it ie s, S
d P t h e ir p r o d u c t 3 t h en f r o m t h e id e n t ity
2 52

th e g

(
( )( )
( (

+1

i s p o s i t ive

as a:+

1,

a:

a:

v lu

re al

a e an y

that

2 ) b y i t r o du c i g th e
i ed fr om (
l
i
v
h
e
i
u
l
i
t
3
w
i
a
t
t
e
a
e
q
)
g
y ( l n

ta

ve

) + ab

e ne

hv

m ay

a;

i
g

b,

Ex a mp le 2
2
1 o r x + zv

ac co

u al it i e s

b + c + ca

ues of a

()

b + e > be b +

an

b + e > 2b e
c

rov t h

F or

b)

t h e ir

su

2
,

4P +

wh e n

b)

a =

2
.

b3

an

d if P is

b;

m of t wo p o sitiv e q u a n tities is g iven , th eir p r o du c t

is g r e a test wh en th ey a r e equ a l
an d
th e p r o du ct of two p o sitiv e
u a n tities is
i
n , t h eir su m is l eas t wh en th e
u al
v
e
a
r
e
e
q
g
y
q
is,

th e

su

H I GH ER A L G EB RA

21 2

2 54

is

a lu e of a b c
h
e
r
e
a
t
e
s
t
v
d
t

g
t ; m, n ,
b ein g p o sitive in teg er s

To

c o n s ta n

Sin

ce

m,

c o n s an

are

f m

He e

w ill

n c

a r e all e

Fi d

ex

um er i c ally
e

+ c +

en e x

le

su

en c e

vi

al u

e at e

an a

wh o s e

su

th e r e fo r e

is

co n

fa c t o r s

+ c +

st v

al

+ c +

ue o f

() (
a

ea e

) for
4

re

en

e 18

en

s ex

r ea e

an y

e al

v lu
a

r ea es

l a st

th is

is

is

e at e

or x=

st ; b
or

2a ;

us

r e ss

Bu t

a +

ac

will

an

e ssio n

fa c t o r s

s th
Th g iv
i o i gr t s t wh
p
E
th
m f th f t or o f t h i
ss
i
o
i
p
(
h (+ ) ( ) i s g t st wh Egq if
6
8
T h th g t t v l u
7
x n

b e g r e a t e s t wh e n t h e

th e g

Th u s t h e g r e a te s t

of

is, w h en

u
al t h a t
q

E x a mp le

+ n +p

o r

wh en

is g r eat e st

is t h e p ro d u c t

e x pr e ssio n

the

ts

wh e n

t t

s an

"

r ea e s
g

7
a .

Th e d e t e rm in a tio n o f m ax imu m a n d min imu m v a l u e s

m a y o ft e n b e m o re sim ply e ffe c t e d b y t h e so l u t io n o f a q u a d
r a t ic
e qu a tio n t h an b y t h e fo r eg o in g m e th o d s
n s t an c e s o f
t h is h a v e al r e a d y o c u r r e d in C h ap I X 3 w e a dd a f u r th er
il lu st r at io n
2 55
.

E x a mp le
is

m ax imu m

D en o t e

th e p

ro du

Divi d e an

dd

t eg er

in t o

t wo

t eg

al

r t wh s

pa

ro d

u ct

t h e n t e ger b y 2 n + 1 3 th e t wo p a t s b y
2
=
2
e
n
ct b y y ; t
n +1 x
en c e
x
y ;
)

h (

wh

an

d 2u + 1

; an d

I NEQUAL ITI ES
i

b u t th e q u an t ty
be g

eat er

an

v lu

m u st b e

an

+1

2 56

th e

1
+

+u

wh i h cas e

+ u 3 in

mu t b e p

c al

So m e t im e s we m a y

or n

a
2

r di

3 an d

Fin d

+x =y 3 t

si o

ex p r e s

H en c e

en

y) b

r ss i

exp e

re

on

is

on

5
.

is

If

ne
2

er

+b

e th o d

+b

th e

sq

()()

/a

rs

th e

1,

an

su

an

an

5: S

11

ew

t h at

u are t e rm i s

ro

z e

ro ; t h

at

an

4 a b xy

Ba b e

p o siti

r eal

q u an t t y

+y

2=

1,

h ew t h

h w th t (
y y
F i d wh i h i t h g
b
P ov th t b
P v th t G b
b
Sh w t h t b
S

10

X IX

ax

b
(
(
y)
b
b
)
)
(
)
(
(

my )

If

If

ar e n

/( H

+2

+ by < 1

ax

ew

ax

ab

l ess t

2=

wh en

m i n im u m

d in g val u e o f x i s

P r o v e t h at
P r o v e t h at
Sh ew t h at

ea e

v lu i s

m i n i m um

or sp

re c i r o c al

i s

y)

ot
t st

c an n

EXA MP LES
.

e e

v lu of

min i m u m

th e

th e

T h u s th

is in

t h e fo llo wm g m

u se

Jy

d th e

d t

e , an

ce

= n + 1,

an

h r for y
m
t g r l t gr
y
or ; th u s th tw p r t s

os i t iv

E x a mp le

Pu t

u n d e r th e

213

a 3

2 2
c

2 2
0 a

an

(
y
2

tr

3ab

r eat e r

a e

2
z

()
b

lo

?
e

at

or a

g
?

2b

108

9x y

2 2
2

3
.

4
.

()
b (b

ea
a

ab
c

b)

an

d it s

H I GH ER A L G EB RA

21 4

W h ic h is t h e g

12

13

14

19

d t h e m i n im u m
8

9x

h ew t h
Sh w t h
S

If

be

th at

Sh ew

(y
x

al u e o

o
i
s
p

val u

tiv e

ew

th at

21

Sh e w t h at

1)

22
7 an d
23

(
r
+

sin c

ha

at

+ 1 1 m ay b e

2,

an

al u e

val

an

ew

at

d b
is a

we r s

l)

o si ti v e
p

en x

i
o
v
a
n
s
t
i
e
p

l ie s b e twee n

u ne u a
q

p r op er fr a c tio n
a

a +

ar e

>

2 + 33

2 +x

we m ay

po

wh en m

t h an

5+ x

ue 0

() ()
(
)
(
)
f

of 7

ve

en d in g

d t h e m ax im u m

"

a sc

an

(
n

is l es s

1 2 x + 4 0,

1 + n x/

t h e m in mu m

ex pr e ssio n s in

f 502

in t ege r gr eater t

t h e m axim u m

der

ex c ep

We

or

v
.

i v e val u es o f x ?

To p r o v e tha t

in

v
.

if

an

Fi n d

2 57
m
m
a + b

w
a

F in d
2

+z)

"

20

(
(
)

+ x + 2 fo r p o s it

5ax + 9 a

2n

f 24 x

18

2
13a x

Fi

al u e o

th an

17

or x

t h e gr e ate s t
3
32 + l 7 x

15

16

th at

ew

F in d

r
t
e
r
a
g

3
r ea e r x

ex pan d e ac h
A
rt
[

b
3
o

l,

an

t h e se

H I GH ER A L G EB RA

21 6

He ce

l o n g a s a n y t wo o f t h e q u an t it ie s a , b ,
a re u n e u al
q

It c an b e dim in ish e d wit h o u t

c
b
t h e e x p r e ssio n a
a n d t h e r e fo r e t h e
al t e r in
h
al u e o f a
c
h
t
e
b
al u e
3
g
m
m
m
h wil l b e l e ast wh e n al l t h e q u an t ities
of a + b + c +
a se e a h o f t h e
a, b ,
a r e e u al
I
n t h is
u an t it ie s is e u al
q
q
q
n

so

"

'

"

'"

to

an

d th e

al u

en ce

fa

wh e n

"

"

"

b,

a,

ar e u n

"

th en

e q u al

be

m es

If
t h at

m lie s b e t ween 0 an d l we m ay in a sim il ar m an n e r pr o v e

t h e sign o f in e q u ality in t h e ab o v e r e su l t m u s t b e r e v e r se d
.

t t e d v e r b ally

Th e p r o po sit io n m ay b e

Th e

a r ith m eti

is g r ea ter th an th e
ex c ep t wh en m lies
* 2 59

o sitiv e

If

u an

a an

s a

as

f o llo ws

m ean of th e m p o wer s of n p o sitiv e q u an tities

th
m p o wer of th eir ar ith m etic mean in a l l c ases
b etween 0 a n d 1
th

db

ar e

tity ,

o sitiv e

in teg er s,

an

a>

b,

an

be

Fo r
2

th e

e e

s ri s

o n sis

e e

s ri s

fa

1
l

b
th e

tin g
x

o n sis

tin g

fb

t erm s 3
x

I
E

t e rm s

an

ft e r th e se c o n d t e r m e ach t e r m o f
c o r r e s o n dl n
e
rm o f
t
2) 3 m o r eo v e r t h e
p
g
is g r e a t e r t h an t h e n u m b e r o f t e r m s in
is e stab lish e d
A

l ) is g r e at e r t h an t h e
l)
n u m b e r o f t e r m s in
ro
o sit io n
e
n e the
h
3
p p

IN EQU A L ITI ES
*

26 0

To p r o v e th a t

if x

an

Fo

d y

ar e

rO

er

r a c t io n s a n

cc

o r din

as

lo g

an

lo g

$i

A
rt
[

2 26 3
]

i
i
; :

lo g

d t h u s t h e p r o po sit io n

* 26 1

is

+ x

ro

ved

To p r o v e th a t

x
a+ b

d edu

lo g

<

o r

an

i i:
:

Bu t

an

d p o sitiv e,

> o r

217

ce

th a t

D en o te

by P3

2x

H c
en

lo g P

is

73

{B

t iv e

i
o
s
p

(
1

th e n

an

d t h e r e fo re P > 1 3
x

<

1,

an

d to

H I GHE R A L G EB RA

218

In

th is r e su l t

t
p

x =

:
z

wh er e

u >z

th e n

>

13

1
_

13

o r

() ()
u

+z

+ z = a,

XIX b
.

3
b e rs is
.

h w th t 2 7 (+ b + )
Sh w t h t (
8
+ 1)
Sh w t h t t h
m f th m p
m
1
t th
i
f
m
1
+
g
()
r ea e r

If a

an

ar e

in

ov h

7
8

If

wt

is

os

b,

n >

If

a,

th

+n
o

we r s

f th e

if

ar e

at

e su

d ,8

an n

h w th

He n c e

EX A MPL ES

>u

9"

2u

a +

No w p u t

rst i t v
e

i ti v e

n
u
a
q

1 th e

i ties

al u e

an

B, sh e w t hat

l i e s b et we e n 2

1+

d esc en din g o der

f m agn it u de ,

lo g

i ve

po s ti

1 +a

m
'

in tege r
1

76

an

+1

lo g 1

d
l

at

en n u

1,

"

if m

wt

at

wt

at

an d

XX

C HA PTER

26 2

IMITIN G V AL U ES
IF

b e m ad e

we

by

t ak in g

wh e n

a
s
is

A gam , t h e
as

th u s
p

s m al l

wh e n

esse d

by

as

t h is

t h e lim i t

f rac ti o n
C

is

e ro

su

to

is
a

Is z
x

I n c r e ase s

h as

c an

n o

is

ero

ero

n ite

in

as n

ab

ce
r

asin

e a r ly
r

fr a c tio n

th e

as

e v iat e d

c
S

an

th at

we pl e ase
by

i
n
y g,

sa

d e c r e ase s

as x

m ak e

z ero

tity

f c ie n tly

u su a ll

5
6

wh e n

u an

we pl e ase we

i
n
y g,

sa

pp

r o x 1 m at e

e n o u gh

O
In n i te

lar g e

t n it e

we pl e a se b y
a

m ak e

c an

V AN I S H IN G F RA C TI O N S

A ND

c o n s an

a s sm all a s

i s,

la rg e

as

96

l im it 3

t h e l im it

an

th is
f

is

d b y m ak m g

as

is

we pl e ase ;
u su all

ex

i fi it e
n

h e n w e say t h a t a q u an t ity in c r eases with o u t limit

26 3
t
o b eco m e
o r is in in it e, we m e an t h at w e c a n su pp o se t h e q u an t it
f
y
w
u an t it
e c a n n am e
r e at e r t h an an
g
y q
y
.

Sim ila r ly wh e n we say t h a t a q u an tity decr ea ses witho u t

lim it, we m e an t h at we c an s u pp o se t h e q u an tity t o b e o m e
s m al l e r t h a n an y q u an t ity we c an n am e

Th e sy m b o l 00 is u se d t o d en o t e t h e v alu e o f an y q u an t ity
wh ic h is in d e n it e ly in c r e a se d , an d t h e sy m b o l 0 is u se d t o
d e n o t e t h e v al u e o f an y q u an t ity wh ic h is in d e n it ely d im i
n ish e d
.

IMITIN G V A L U ES

Th e t wo s t a t e m e n t s
26 4
s m b o l ic a l ly a s f o l lo w s
y

a;

1 8 00

is

th en

0,

Is

f A r t 2 6 2 m ay

th e n

221

n o

03

IS

00

:
1:

B u t in m ak in g u se o f su c h c o n c ise m o d e s o f
m u st b e re m e m b e r e d t h a t t h ey a r e o n ly c o n e n ie n t
e r b al s ta t e m e n t s
o f f u ll e r

w ritt e n

w be

r e ssio n

ex

it

p
ab b r e ia t io n s

Th e s t u d e n t will h a v e h a d n o d if c u l ty in u n d e r st a n din g
t h e u s e o f t h e w o r d limit, wh e r e v e r we h a v e a l re a dy e m p l o y e d it 3
b u t a s a c l e a r c o n c e p t io n o f t h e id e a s o n v e y e d b y t e wo r d s
lim it a n d lim itin g v a l u e is n e c e ssa r y in t h e h ig h e r b r an c h e s o f
Ma t h e m at ic s we p ro c e e d t o e x plain m o r e p r e isely t h e ir u se an d
m e an in g
265
.

a n d if w h e n x a
D E F I NI TI O N
f y =f
ro ac h es a
pp
c a n b e m a d e t o d iffe r b
a l u e a , t h e f u n c t io n f
a s l itt l e a s
y
we p l e a se f ro m a x e d q u a n t ity b , t h e n b is c all e d t h e l imit o f
w
h
n x
a
e
y

266

Fo r in st an c e , if S
1
l
+

e re

8 is

t he

th e n

'

d en o te

su

1
2

f u n c t io n

an

as
n

we

a se b
i
n c r e a s in
l
e
p
y
g
is in n it e

th at

te r m s

f the

e r ie s

rt
A
[

1
1

c an

b e made

2
is, t h e l im it
"

fS

s m all

as

is

w h en

26 7
e sh all o ft e n h a e
c o n sis t in g o f a s e r ie s o f t e r m s
so m e c o mm o n l e tt e r , s u c h a s
.

wh e r e t h e

in d e p e n d e n t
u n l im ite d

c f ie
oe
o

x,

a ,x

ts

an

o ,

d th e

a x

d e al w it h e x p r e ssio n s
a r r a n e d a cc o r d in
o we r s o f
t
o
g
g
p

c a sio n

a x

1 ,

n u

to

2 ,

mb e r

3 ,

are

te rm s

n it e

m ay b e

u an

t it ie s

q
l im it e d

o r

I t w ill

t h e re f o r e
the
c o n n e c t e d w it h
c e r ta in c o n d it io n s
.

b e c o n e n ie n t t o d isc u ss
lim it in g
al u e s o f s u c h

so
ex

m e p r o p o sit io n s
p

r e ssio n s

u n

der

H I GHE R A L G EB RA

22 2
26 8

Th e lim it

wh en

th e

ser ies

a x

a x
,

a x

Su pp o s e t h a t t h e

e e

s ri s

is in de n itely di m i n ishe d is

o n sis s o

f an in n ite

L e t b b e t h e g re at e st o f t h e c o e f c ie n t s
S 3 th e n
l e t u s d e n o t e t h e g i e n se r ie s b y a o

n u

a,

mb er

2 ,

f t er m s

s ,

an

3
an

d if

l , we h a

ve

S<

bx
l

Th u s w h e n x is in d e n it ely d im in ish e d , S
l
a se 3 h e n c e t h e l im it o f t h e g iv e n
e
s m al l a s w e
p

If

s r ie s

th e

t h an in t h e c ase
sitio n is t r u e
o
p

c o n sis s

we h a v e

n ite

n u

d ered

o n si

mb er
h en c e

c an

e e is

s ri s

m ade
a

as

t e r m s S is l e ss
r
i
t
h
o
r
o
t
i
e
ro
f
p

26 9

I n th e

s er ies
a

+ a l x + a2 x

+ a3 x

b y takin g x sm a ll en o u g h we m ay m a ke a n y ter m as larg e a s we

m
i
t
h
t
h
e su m of a ll th a t fo l l o w it ; a n d by ta kin
l
a
e
a
r
d
w
e
s
o
e
p
p
g
x
la r g e en o u g h we m ay m ake a n y ter m as lar g e a s we p lea se
co m a r ed with th e su m of a l l th a t p r e ede i t
p

Th e

ra

tio

t e rm

f the

a x
u

"

x + a
u

+2

the

to

su

al l

t h at f o l l o w

it is
a x
a

d I

Wh e
we

+ 1

is

we

l
a se
e
p

a s sm al l as
as

"

+2

iZ

- -

in d e n it ely sm al l t h e
l
a se 3 t h a t is, t h e f r a
e
p

d en o m in a t o r

c ti

on

c an

c an

b e ma d e

b e m ade
a s l ar e
g

A gain , t h e
r e c e d e it is
p

ra

t io

f the

t erm

a x

:
3

"

wh e r e y

+l

_,y

to

the

a _ y
n
2

su

a ll

th a t

H I GHER A L GEB RA

224

V A NI S H IN G F RA C TI O N S
27 1

is

Su pp o se it

re

r e d t o n d t h e l i mit
i
q
2

If

2a

ax
x

the

wh e n

we pu t x
r o a h es t h e
a
pp

al u e a

Su b s t it u t in g

It

w ill

pp

r o ach

al u e z e r o

as x

h fo r

a
x

t he n

h,

+ ax

x,

2a

3 ah

3a

wh en

d
3

an

2ah

It is in d e n it e ly

2a

t h e l im it

sm al l

t h is e x p r e ssio n

Th e r e is h o we v e r
x

+ ax
x

an

d if we

3
5

as

n ow

b e fo r e

an o

2a

th e r

way

f r e ga r d in g t h e q u e st io n 3 fo r

( )(
(

2 a)

x +

x +

x + a

t
p
u

th e

x = a

al u

2a

f th e

e x pr

e ssio n

is

If

ve e

in t h e g i

m pl i

si

2a

ax
,

fo u n d t h a t

it will b e

t io n

e ssio n

it

we p u t

a ssu

m es t h e

b efo r e

f o rm

t he

f wh i h is in d e t e r m in a t e ; al so we s e e t h a t it h a s t his
fo r m in c o n se q u en c e o f t h e fa c t o r x a ap pea ri n g in b o t h
n u m e r at o r an d d e n o m in a t o r
No w w e c a n n o t d i id e b y a z er o
t
o
r
b
u
a
l
h
a
c
t
s
o
n
l
a
t
e
a
c
t
e
e
f
t
a
s
i
n
a
l
l
u
a
t
o
or
x
s
t
b
s
u
o
o
,
f
g
y q
x
a m ay
b e r e m o e d , a n d we t h e n n d t h a t t h e n e a r e r x
a
r o ac h es t o
h
l
t
h
a
u
h
a
l
e
u
h
e
e
d
e
t
e
o
f
e
t
n
r
r
s
e
t
e
a
e
a
o
,
pp
3
f r a tio n appr o x im at e t o 1 , o r in a c o r d an e with t h e d e n itio n o f
al u

A rt 2 6 6,
.

Wh n

(
t,

2a

th e

Of

3
IS

V A NI S H IN G F RA C TI O N S
If f

27 2
b ec o m es
.

f ra c t io n
Frac t io n

an

e qu a l
f

) t ke
(
(
)
a

<
15

fo r

fo r m 9

t he

vi

If

r ss i o
3 fr
to
1
Wh

en

u ir e d l im i t

5x + 7 x
x

re

om

5x

du ces

fr ac t i o n

Th e

i i

3 t

in g

b y p u tt

E x amp l e 3

re

an

d u c es

rm i t form o f b t b y
d om i tor t h fr ti
w
h
i
h
i
s
f or th
th
i

e te

na e

en

to

n a

ac

on

er e

3 1 :_ a

c + d
/(

jj

r io

= a we n d t

d en o

en

na

e s

u rd co n

b ec m es

en

Th e fr act l o n

an

s 3wh m
m i t o b y th

b eco m e

To n d its l im t , p u t
u
t h e f act n

Th s

in d

t o th e

hi s

u i

3x

en ce

an ish in g

To n d it s l m t , m l t p ly n u m er at r
t
e fr act o n t
h
a
3
x
a
t
e
t
o
x
a
;
g

n u m e at o r

E x amp l e 2

ju

all e

i i of

ex p e

fac

290 4

"

re q

3 , n d th e l m t

x:

3 , th e

g th e

f x , e a c h o f wh ic h
al u e a o f x
the
,

mo

is

an

re

t wo

are

E x a mp le 1

Wh en

fu n c t io n s
so m e p a r t ic u l a r

d g6

ero

to

22 5

1
1

i i is

th e l m t

at

" c

9 when

b eco m es

= 1 + h an

1+

b y th e
1

x:

e xp an

J 23
.

Bi

no

m i al

Th o

e rem .

h2 +

l
'

1
+

No w h : 0 w

en x

=1 ;

en c e

th e

h_

eq

u i re d l i m i t i s

e q u at io n

H H A

27 3
So m e t im e s t h e r o o t s o f an
d e t e r m in at e fo r m in o n se q u e n c e o f
b e t we e n t h e c o e f c ie n t s o f t h e e qu a t io n
.

so

me

r ela

a ssu

t io n

me

in
s u b s i t in g
an

15

H I GH ER A L G EB RA

22 6
e x a m pl

Fo r

if

ax

()
a

d,

= cx

d b,

e x =

x
a

Bu t if

t h en

a,

o r 00

th at

in d e n it el y g r e a t if t h e

e e qu atio n is
in d e n it el y sm all
sim p l

e co mes

is, t h e

ro o

is

c o e f c ie n

27 4

so l u

Th e

tio n

I f

ab

ua

a
e

'

su

be

tio n

0,

pp

c me
o

ab

th en

o se

'

x an

ca

d y

su

by

s ax

by

e qu atio n s

f th e

bc

IS

ab

'

c a

'

'

b o t h in n it e

ar e

b stit u tin g

fo r

'

In

t h is

the

c a se

e co n d

If g

is

n o

77 b

e qu al

to

c,

e q u atio n s

t h e t wo

by

te t e rm s

an

ax

an

ax

in

+ by +

o n sis ten

If m
c

ar e n o

ch

is

d iffe r

e qu al

sin c

a ssu

an n o

to

w id en t ic al

He e
ea

c,

sa

t h eir

ly in

tis e d

we h a

ve

by

an

9
a

fo r m

0 an d

an

ea

d th e

an

fx

d t h e t wo

0 the

c a
so l u

v v

n it e v alu e s

w
n t
a se
h
a
r
e
e
e
h
s
i
e
n
t
,
p
in o l in g two u n k n o w n s, a n d su c h
b y an u n limit e d n u m b e r o f al u e s

fa c t

ab so l u

d b e in g

an

dy

e qu atio n s

bc

me th e

be

on

tio n is

v e e ally
r

an

v al u

an

in deter min a te

on

e qu atio n

rt
A
[

es

ly

dy
In

e q u atio n
b e sat is e d

on e

m ay

e a d e r wh o is ac q u ain t e d with A n aly tic al G e o m e t ry will

h a v e n o d if c u l ty in in t e r p r e t in g t h e se r e su l t s in c o n n e c t io n wit h
t h e g e o m e t ry o f t h e st r aigh t lin e
Th e

H I GHER AL G EB RA

2 28

EX A MP L ES

XX

Fin d t h e l i m i ts o f t h e follo wi

(
( )(
h

1)

2x

7x

(
(

en

x = oc

3
4x

22 3

F in d

Z
:ii
e _ e
x

lo g

11

"

5)

12

13

2a

1+
1

x2
4

(
(
a

14

2x )

w
1
x

2 2

(
(

+ a

co

en

x =

en

x =

en

a
.

2a

18

5x

3x + 1 )

i
x)

x _ a

17

3) 2

m
a
m
x _
e
e

15

16

7x

+9

10

x
lo

en x =

Jx
2
x

2x

x =

wh en

+ )

( ( )(
(
7
(
(
x

x =

en

3x

2x

t h e lim it s

(
1

(
(
2
h

2)

1 + x)

5
17

e x p r e ssio n s ,

5x )

)
9)

6x + 4

3 + 2x

_n
,

lo g

wh e

wh

en

en

n = oo

n = oo

v h en

x =

en x = a

CHA PTER X X I

RG ENC Y A ND

27 6

by

so

D I V ERG EN C Y

S ER I ES

OF

is c al l e d a ser ie s ; if t h e s e r ie s t e r m in a t e
it is c al le d a n it e se rie s ; if t h e n u m b e r
it is alle d a n in n it e serie s

me

m e a ss
te rm s is
so

at

we

sh al l

d en o te

u su all

+ u

a s

e r ie s

by

+
It

Su pp o se t h a t w e h a v e a se r ie s c o n sist in g o f n te r m s
Th e su m o f t h e se rie s will b e a f u n c t io n o f n 3 if n in c re a se s
in d e n it e ly , t h e su m e ith e r t e n d s t o b e o m e e q u al t o a e r t a in
n it e limit, o r el se it b e c o m e s in n it e ly g r e at
27 7

A n in n it e se r ie s is sa id t o b e co n v erg e n t w h e n t h e su m
r st n t e r m s c an n o t n u m e r i all y e x ee d so m e n it e
o f the
b
w
e
v
e
r
r eat n m a
e
u an t it
h
o
y
q
y
g

in n it e s e r ie s is said t o b e div e rg e n t w h e n t h e su m o f
t h e r s t n t e rm s c an b e m a d e n u m e r i ally g r e a te r t h an a n y n it e
r eat
u an t it
t
ak in
su f ie n t l
b
it
q
y y
g
y g
A

If w e

n d t h e su m o f t h e r s t i t t e r m s o f a gi e n
s e rie s , we m a
a s e r t ain w h e t h e r it is
n e r e n t o r d i e rg e n t
o
y
g
b y e x am in in g wh e t h e r t h e s e r ie s r e m ain s n it e , o r b e c o m e s ih
n it e , w h e n n is m a d e in d e n it e ly g r e a t
27 8

c an

c v

Fo r

e x am p l e

the

su

f the

r st

it

is

t e rm s
1
l

x
x

o
"

f the

se r i s

H I GHER A L GEB RA

230

If
n it e

is

n u

l
e ss
y

d th e

th an

e e

s ri s

an

b e m ad e gr ea ter
d i e rg e n t

d by

t h an

an

1, t h e

th an

t ak in g

c v
on

1, t h e
su

n it e

su

is t h e r e f o r e

m e r ic ally gr e at e r

all

an

is

m eri

l im it

If

n u

su

f cien tly

tity ;

u an

If

e e

s ri s

If

1 , t h e su m
is d i e r g e n t
x =

f the

r st

t e rm s is

th e

1, t h e

e e

s ri s

e co m e s

f an e e n n u m b e r o f t e r m s i
o f an
o dd n u m b e r o f t e r m s is 1
b e twee n t h e
T
al u e s 0 a n d 1
wh i h m ay b e alle d o scilla tin g o r p er io

Th e

su

27 9
Th e r e a r e m an y a se s in w
o f n d in g t h e s u m o f t h e r st n t e r m s
t h e r e fo r e t o in e stigat e r u l e s b y wh i
e rg en c y o r d i e rgen y o f a giv e n se
.

v
v

su

mm at io n

A n inn ite ser ies in wh i h th e t er ms ar e a lter n a tely

2 80
o n v er g en t
eac h ter m is n u mer ic a ll
t
i
v e a n d n eg a tiv e is
o
s
i
y
p
less tha n the p r ecedin g ter m
.

L et t h e

e e

s ri s

d en o t e d
u

+ u

by
u

wh e r e
Th e giv e n
fo r m s :

m ay b e writt e n in

se r i s

e ac h

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) (
F
t
t
(
)
t ve
tt
f
t
t
(
)
te
t
e e
e e
c
u

f the

fo ll o win g

m 1 we see h a t h e su m o f an y
a
si i
u an i
an d
ro m
2
o
h
a
h
t
e
;
p
q
y
o f
r m s is l e ss
h an u l 3 h n c t h e s r i s is
ro

mb er
su m o f

nu

on

an

v e ge t
r

t er m s is
nu

m b er

H I GHER A L G EB RA

23 2

r o m a n d after s o me
A n inn ite ser ies is o n v er g en t
f
x d ter m th e r a tio of ea ch ter m to th e p r ecedin g ter m is n u mer ica lly
less th an so m e q u a n tity which is itself n u m er ica lly less th an u n ity

2 84

e e

b eg in n in g

s ri s

Let th e

d let

an

wh er e

<1

<

r,

fro m

x e d t e r m

the

< r,

d en o t e d

by

< r,
3

Th e n
u

1+

u
u

3 +

)3
t

<

I s,

He e th
n c

sm c e r

i
g

ve

<

e e

s ri s

is

co n

I n t h e e n u n c ia t io n
285
s h o u l d n o t ic e t h e sig n i an
.

c c

e d te m
r

f t h e p r e c e d in g
e o f t h e w o r ds
o

ar

tic l e

fr o m

t h e Lst u de n t

an

fte r

C o n sid e r

v e ge t

the

s r ie s

u
ere
u

"

n a;

d b y t ak in g n su f c ie n tly l a r g e w e c an m ak e t h is r a t io ap
r o x im a t e t o x a s n e ar l
w
l
a se , a n d t h e r a t io o f e ac h t e r m
a
s
e
e
p
y
p
t o t h e p r e e d in g t e r m will u l t im a t e l y b e x
e n c e if x < 1 t h e
s e r ie s is
o n v e rg en t
an

Bu t t h e

th a t

is,

un

til

ra

will

tio

ma

Fo r

e x am

b e gin t o

a c as

as

d e c r e ase

e ss t h a n

1,

e o f a c o n v e rg en t se rie s
c e r t a in p o in t an d t h e n

If x

t be l

un

til

<

13

l
e
p ,

n o

H e w h ve
i
c
e
e
t
y
p
er

99
2

th e n

1 00
th
u n t il a ft e r t h e 1 00

1 00,

te rm

an

in wh ic h t h e
b egin t o d e

d the

te r m s

ce e

t e rm s

do

as

no

A N D D I V ERG EN C Y

c o N V ERG ENC Y

S ER I ES

or

23 3

A n in n ite ser ies in whic h a ll th e t er ms a r e of th e sa me

28 6
r o m a n d a t er so m e x ed t er m th e r a tio o
s ig n is div er g en t
f
f
f ea ch
t er m to the p r ecedin g ter m is g r ea t er th an u n i ty , o r e q u a l t o u n it
y
.

L e t t h e x e d t e rm b e d e n o te d b y u ,
f t h e r a t io is e qu al t o
u n it , e a h o f t h e su c ee d in
r m s is e u al t o u
t
e
a
h
n
d
t
s
u
m
e
,
g
y
q
,
o f n t e r m s is e u a l t o n u l 3 h e n c e t h e s e r ie s is d i e r e n t
q
g

If

is g r e a t e r t h an u n ity , e a c h o f t h e t e r m s a ft e r t h e
t e rm is g r eat e r t h an u , , an d t h e su m o f n t e r m s is g r e a t e r
i
h
n
h
s
r
i
s
s di e r en t
e
e
e
e
n u
t
e
3
g
l

ed
x

th e

ra

t io

th a n

I n t h e p r ac t ic a l a pp lic at io n o f t h e se t e st s, t o a o id
28 7
h a in g t o a sc e r t ain t h e p a r tic u l a r t e r m a ft e r w h ic h e a c h t e r m is
e
r e a t e r o r l e ss t h an t h e p r e c e d in g t e r m , it is c o n
n ie n t t o n d
g
.

t h e lim it

be

d en o te d

l , the

tity

He e

co n

u a l ly

tin

A rt

all
.

wh ic h is

t e st

th e

n c

y pp
28 6

pp

r o a c h in

o l
t
g

sh all

u se

as

g to

a se

we

t h an

If

as

its lim it wh en

c an n o

an

n am

an

d y e t g r e a te r

h o we

it
e r,

>

is

n it e

y
t h an A

1 but

co n

se r i s

it s lim it , t h e

16

L im

wh e n

u
n

E x a mp le 1
en

is

d iv e rge t
n

by

t h e lI m I t

ch i
c

fa il s

f A rt 284

Hem

en

In n ite

r e v ia

tio n

et

er

th e

e n

th

te m

nx

L im

ll

_1

1)

(
n

18

+ 1)
n

f the

wo rds

s ri s wh os
e

it I S

ab

Fi d wh

or div rg

an

as
n

v rg

ro a

I n t h is
itse l f l e ss

it

t in u

l im it

i n cr eas ed

t h is

by

1 bu t

u an

in d e n it e ly in c r e a se d 3 le t

is

e rie s is c o n v e rge n t [ A r t
1 t h e se r ie s is d iv e r g e n t
A
rt
[
= l
t h e se r ie s m ay b e e it h e r c o n v e r g e n t o r d iv e r g e n t
fu rt h e r t e st will b e r e qu ir e d 3 fo r it m ay h ap pe n t h a t

w h en

"

If A
If A
If A
an

2
.

13

co n

H I GHER

23 4

if
if

en c e

If

1, t

E x amp le 2

en

L im

Is th e

< l th e

>1

1,

He

en

or div rg

en

se

an

ri

+3

L im

if
i

1 th e

E x amp l e 3

s ri

I n th e

fu rt her t e s t is r e q u i re d

+4

u m

x.

s r i s i o v rg
s i i div r g t

1 th e

b ec o m e s 1

ser es

es

s c n

if x > 1 t h e

If

t?

H en ce

1 +2

v rg

ser e
r

co n

GEB RA

i s is c o verg n t ;
th e se i e s i s d iv r gen t

AL

er e s

en

en

an

o vi o u sly div rg

d is b

en

es

n
nu

L im

t;

L im

( 1) d
n

d)

lb

hus if

i e s i s c o n ve r g e

< 1 t h e se r

t,

an

d th e

su m

i s n ite

[ See A rt

6 0,

C or ]
.

If ther e ar e two in n ite ser ies in ea ch of wh ic h a ll th e

t h e r a tio of th e o r r esp o n din g ter ms in
ter m s a r e p o sit iv e, a n d
t h e two ser ies is a lwa y s n ite, the two ser ies a r e b o th o n v er g en t ,
o r b o th div er g en t
2 88

L e t t h e t w o in n it e

an

e e

s ri s

alu

f ra c t io n

f th e
u

l+u

is th e r e fo r e
u

He e
n c

e is

se r i s
ro

if

a
u

one

d l

f the

f rac tio n s
A

"

v"

u an

tity
u

L
L

sa

y 3

(
v

+ v3 +

e i s n it e in v al u e so is t h e o th e r ; if
v al u e
so is t h e o t h e r 3 wh ic h
r o v es
p

se r i s

in n it e in

1t i o n
o
s
p

an

n ite
+

+ u

l ie s b e twe e n t h e g r e a t e st

by

Th e

an

d en o te d

be

one

the

H I GHER A L GEB RA

236
E x a mp le

rov t h

th e

at

se i e s

+1

is div erg en t

a e

Th u s i f

uxili ary

Com p r
a

t h e gi

an

u ,,

v s r s W th
e ie

en

de

vn

ec

1
+

ot

s r i s r s p t i v ly
e

we

th e

hv

of

t erm s

th

th e g

ive s er i e s

an

d th e

a e

an

+1

+ 1

vn

L im

en c e

v rg

di
se

un

vn

en

B u t th e

r i s i div rg t
T h i s om pl t
s

en

lim it

sh o u

f
1

au x 111 a r

se r l

a x

th e

a u x i l i ar

E xa mp le 1

d ivergen t
As

s ri s
di v r g
e

en

ii vn

th e

Bu t t
t

er e

en

en

A rt

287

is

will b e t h e

e c e ssa r y t h a t

c a se

we

if

n d

the
our

2 7 0,

an

m ay b e

t ak e n

as

the

th

t erm

s ri

th e

at

es

o se

th

r is

te m

'

13

3n 3 + 2 n + 5

e n ce ,

e e

f t h e giv en se r ie s an d r e tain o n ly t h e
D en o te t h e r e su l t b y v ; t h en t h e l im it o f

ap p

ro im t s t
a e

2
s
a
h

t h r for

t,

en

7
2

o h o v rg t or b o th
for l so th g v
th

b t

are

f A r t 2 8 8 it

h w th

i cr as e s

is

it e ; t h is

term

th

e es

se

t h e fo ll o wm g wa y

s ri

ri s
d iv r g

t wo

f Ex am p l e 1

li
c a t io n
pp

es l n

it e b y A r t

e i es

so l u t o n o

ld b e

Ta k e u , t h e n
h ig h e st p o w e r s o f

i
Z

th e

In t h e

e e

e es

29 1

h r for th
u il i ry s r

dt

an

1
z

s ri
e

hi

es

s se

ri

we

h os

w
es

hv

a e

th

v lu

th e

1
01

'

L im

te m

i s divergen t

23

,,

N3

is

[ A rt

Wt

IS

n i te

u an t ty ;
i

1
m
ay b e t a
T

k en

12

hrfr
e e o

as

th e g

ux il i ary

th e a

iv

en

s ri s i s
e

CO N V ERG EN C Y A N D D I V ERG EN C Y
E x a mp l e 2

Fi d wh
n

et

He

or d iv

e rg e n

"

= n

3n

ke

vn

9n

nu

Lim

vn
e

t, t

h r for
e e

th en

+1

9n

iven

e p r e se n t

32

th e g

se

ri s i s
e

th e

H 1

v rg

co n

th

an

en

()
t
e
()

exp an sio n

+ x

b y th e Bin o m ia l

th

r +

rms

f the

ex

r +

Wh e

Let u
a n sio n 3
p

275

1
_
3

To sh ew th a t the
292
Theo r em is o n v er g en t when
.

+
3

1
n

s ri s

a x

i s co v rge

u il i ary

a e

Bu t t h e

hv

we

I f we t a

(
(

23 7

h r th s ri s i wh i h
3

i s c o ve rg e

SER I ES

o r

r
r

t h is r at io is n e gativ e 3 th a t is fr o m t h is
r m s a r e al t e rn at e l
i
n t the
t
e
o
sit iv e an d n eg a t iv e w h e n x
o
p
y p
is p o sit iv e an d al w ay s o f t h e sam e Sig n w h e n x is n e ga t iv e
r > n +

1,

No w wh e n

e
sam e

sin c

the

in n it e , L im

is

+1

l t h e se r ie s is o n v e r g e n t if al l t h e t e rm s a r e o f t h e
Si n 3 an d t h e r e f o r e a fo r tio r i it is c o n
r e n t wh e n s o m e o f
e
g
g
t e r m s a r e p o sit i e an d so m e n e ga t i e
rt
A
[
x

29 3
To she w th a t th e exp an sio n
x is c o n v er en t
o
r
r
ev
x
e
v
a
e
o
l
u
g
f
y
f

a scen d in

in

ax

g p o wer s

He e

t he

t h e r e fo r e

m e r ic all y 3

n u

it
n

al u e o

l o D0r
72

f x 3 h en c e t h e

an

t h e r e fo r e

se r ie s

is

co n

Li m

it n
er

en

1 wh a t e v e r b e

H I GHER A L GEB RA

23 8

To sh ew th a t th e exp an sio n of l o g 1 + x ) in a seen

29 4
er s of x is c o n v er g en t wh en x is n u m er i a l ly less th a n 1
w
o
p
.

He e t h
e qu al

is

If
n

If

th e

A
rt
[

f
u

x,

_l
n

wh i c h

e s ri

s r

s is

on

es

x is

in

l e ss t h an 1
an

'

t h e li m i t

is

co n

e es

the

l,

v al u

c e t h e e c v e ge t wh e
1
1
l
e ie b e c m 1 l +
4
2
3

e
n
h
3

1,

x =

v e ge t
r

to

m e ri c al

e nu

d iv e rge n t [A rt
in n it e an d n e ga t iv e
.

be

s ri

m es

1
an

is

2
4
3
Th is sh ews t h at t h e l o gar it h m o f z e r o is
as is o t h e r wis e e id e n t f r o m t h e e u a t io n
q

295
Th e r e su l t s o f t h e t wo f o ll o win g e x am pl e s ar e im po r t an t ,
a te r
h
a n d will b e r e u ir e d in t h e
o u r se o f t h e
r e se n t
p
p
q
.

E x amp l e 1

Pu t

Fi n d th e l im i t o f

; t

ell

lo g

wh

(
B

i s i n ite
n

en x

en

lo g x

e21

l +v+

y
2

l_
1

al o

is

en x

E x amp le
L et x =

1
2!

al o

l et y

2
,

so

2 , so

h t y>13
th t l g y

ere

is

_n

i it e
n

du ct

lo g 2 ; t
l lo g

'

is

fore

29 6
ro

n x

whe

i n i te y is i n n i te ; h e ce th e val u e o f th e fr ac t i on i s z ero
= 0 wh e
Sh w t h at wh en n i s i n n i te th e l i mi t o f n

No w

en

lo g y

in n ite

L im n x

It

e
.

lo g y
an

l g

lo g
z

z
:

0;

al

so

l o g y is

n i te ;

is s o m e t im e s n e e ssary t o d et e r m in e wh e th e r t h e
o f an in n it e n u m b e r o f fac t o r s is n it e o r n o t
.

Su ppo se t h e p r o d u

ct t c
o

o n sis

u u
g

t o f n fa c t o r s an d t o
u

be

d en o t e d b y

t h en if as n in c r e ase s in d e n it ely u < 1 t h e pro d u c t will u l ti

m a t e ly b e z e ro an d if u
1 t h e p r o d u c t wil l b e in n it e 3 h e n c e in
o rd e r th at t h e
ro du c t m a
b
m
u s t t e n d t o t h e l im it 1
e n it e u
p
y
,

"

"

H I GHE R A L G EB RA

24 0
e x am

Fo r
n d

we

l
e , if w e
p

ex

()

an

su

b y t h e Bin o m ia l Th e o r e m ,

"

(
l

B u t if w e
l
ain e d in A rt
p
l

wh en

o
.

b t ain
6 0, it

2x

By m ak in g
g

de d

t h at

t e rm s

ar s th at
e
pp

+ nx

n x
,

3x

t h is

"

n x

we

se e

se r ie s

as

ex

7 2x

(e i

t h at

f th e

"

"

1
in n it e

c an

o n

ly b

a n ish

es

r es

is in n it e , th is q u an t ity b e o m e s in n it e wh e n
> l , an d d im in ish e s in d e n it e l y w h e n x < l , A r t
[
it is o n l y w h e n x < 1 t h at we c an asse r t t h a t
n

()
d
e

f( )
v e f
-

l,

t o in f 3
.

w e sh o u l b e l e d t o
1
x
t h e e p an sio n o
t r u e fo r all al u s o x
2x
3x
i n it e s e rie s 1
if t h e s e r ie s is c o n v e r g en t
is d iv e r g e n t
d

so

re

an

l _x

in n it e ,

2x
e

t r u e e qu iv al e n t

the

If
x

as

wh en

or

3x

ce

ar

the

eo u s

c cl

if we we r e t o u se
b y t h e Bin o m ial Th e o r em a s if it w e r e
I n o th e r wo r d s, w e c an in t r o d u c e t h e
2
in t o o u r r e a so n in g wit h o u t e r r o r
b u t w e an n o t do so w h e n t h e s e rie s
,
rr o n

on

u sio n s

v c

Th e dif u l tie s o f d i e rg e n t s e rie s h a e o m p e l le d a d ist in t io n

Fo r
t o b e m a d e b e t w ee n a s e r ie s an d it s a lg eb r a ic a l eq u iv a len t
b
w
as
e x am l e , if w e d i id e l
l
e c an
al wa s o b t ain
p
y
y
m an y t e r m s as w e pl e a se o f t h e s e rie s

wh at e
c all

ed

al e n

er

it s

m ay b e ,

an

so

a lg eb r a ic a l eq u i v a len

ce d e
o

n o

in

ce

t ; y et ,

r a in

as

e al ly ex ist e x c ep t

(
v e ee

e e

s ns

m ay b e

we h a
s
n , t e e ui
q
wh e n t h e se r ies is c o n

v er
as

n t
e
g

O NV ERGE NC Y A N D D I V ERG EN C Y

It

t h e r e fo r e

is

t h e g en er a tin g

mo re

u n c tio n

pp

3x

i
p

to

r a e

SER

ea

XX I

F i d wh e th er t h e fo llo wi

'

x
x an

+a

'

d in a

titie s

n
u
a
q

+ 3a

w ill

d iv e rge n t :

m o re

e r ge n

or

y
( (

n
u
a
q

2
v

t it

+ 3)

4
x

3
x

ie s

+ 3

'

42

7
8
9

2
.

10

3
x

x+

11

H H A
.

io

lg e

15
+

17

f u lly

s i tiv

b
ein g po
y

x an d

o r

+ 2a

b e i n g p o s it i

ser es ar e c o n

1
+

EX A MP L ES

Th e u se o f t h e t e r m g en e r a tin g fu n c tio n
e
r ie s
e x l ain e d in t h e c h ap t e r o n R e u r r in
S
p
g

24 1

s r ie s

b e in g t h a t f u n c t io n wh ic h wh e n d e e l o p e d b y
b r aic a l r u l e s will gi e t h e se r ie s in q u e s t io n

I ES

f the

2x

ro

o r

+
n

2
2

+1

16

H I GHE R A L G EB RA

24 2
12

14

2x +

1 5

:i

17

18

wt

co n

e rg e n

h w th

20
.

is

co n

21

t fo r

e rg e n

v lu
a

e r ge n

2"
+

n it e wh en

22

in

n i te

wt

fp

n ite

ex c ep

t wh en

en

+2

s e ries

ac c o r

di

as

L im {/n u is

1,

or

d uct

is in n it e

E E E

es o

3p

2n

2n

is

t h e pr o

s e rie s

t h e in

d iv

or

wt

all

+1

1 +

is

+1

+3

th e

+2

i ve frac t i o n

ar e

N/n

2)

term s

+1

1
x

wh o se g e n er al

p o s ti

s e r ie

+ l

19

7i

)
(
b ei n g

s e rie s

1)

Te s t t h e

Te s t t h e

(
) J

16

2
3

2n
'

2n

2
l

2n
'

2n

x =

1,

no

tive

n is n e a
g

(
h

in t h e e x pan s i n o f 1 + x ) n is
u
i
t
an d n u m e r ic al l
r
a
t
e
r
e
t
a
n
n
y g
y

t er m

H I GHE R AL G EB R A

24 4

(
E
u

th a t

i s,

v, + v

+ v3

e e

v s ri s

if t h e

e n c e,

v e ge t
r

d iv e rg e t

is

e e is

di

a l so

u s ri s

the

e h a e see n in A rt 2 8 7 th at a se r ie s is c o n e r gen t
300
th
term
o r d i e r g e n t a c o r d in g a s t h e l im it o f t h e r a t io o f t h e n
In t he
t o t h e p r ec edin g t e r m is l e ss t h an 1 , o r g r e a t e r t h an 1
h ap t e r w e sh al l n d it m o r e o n e n ie n t t o u se
r e m ain d e r o f t h e
th is t e st in t h e e q u i al en t fo r m
*

th e

ra

tio

l e ss

o r

1 3

t h an

Sim il ar ly
e n u n ia t e d :

p
v

e e

u s ri s
-

v id e d th t

ro

erg en t

t e rm

th at

is,

a co r

l l

- -

v er gen

Th e

us

Wh e

c as

ve

t h e gi

term

s ri s

e e is

>

co n

y e
e rge n t if

s r ie s

is

1,

is

o r

co n

on

w ill b e di

c o n v er g en t o r

<

di

a u x iliar
y

v e ge t
r

m l
.

+1

is, if

c v e ge

th a t

e e

is

a s ri s

with t h e

2n

r
r
>P +
2n
-

01

be

e e

s ri s

"

v s r ie s

m ay

v id d t h t

ter m is

s r ies

au x il ia r

th e

is, if

t ic l e

th at

ar

"

>

r al
n
e
e
g

ve

is

I!

vi

+1

t h e gi

ro

t h an

L im

e c e din g

ii

<

or

+ 1

d th e

an

Lim

s who se

o m pa r

w h o se g e n e r a l

f
1,

t h e l im it

as

1,

>

wh en t h e

ser ie

a c co r din g a s

L et

e e is d iv e rgen t

or

v s ri s

3 01

c di

L im

f the

ac

g
eedin g t e r m is
reat er
g

as

L im

Lim
*

cc

din g

on

>
u

su

c v e ge

L im

wh e n t h e

to the

th e o r e m

will b e

d iv e rge n t

or

the

Th e

is c o n
th
o f the n

c v

v e ge t

e e

s ri s

L im

>p

an

d in

th is

C O N V ERG EN C Y A N D D I V ERG EN C Y

S ER

or

I ES

245

c v

Bu t t h e au x iliar y se r ie s is o n e rg e n t if p is g r e at e r t h an 1
b y a n it e q u an t ity h o we e r sm al l ; h e n c e t h e r st p a r t o f t h e
ro
o sit io n is e st ab lish e d
p p

Wh e

in g

E x amp le

c v
H r
ri
th
is

erg en

on

e e

e se

Fi d wh eth er th e ser i e s
n

divergen t

or
u

Lim

7n +1

ive

is d

es

b e fo r e

as

23

g
t

r gen

If x = 1 , L im

th e

en c e i f x < 1

(
2
(

u
n

2n

2n

+i

1 ) 2n

302

v erg en

sa

u s co

se

is
n

Whe

as

2 ) 2n

(
(
6n

2n

n +1

co n

es

ergen

wh o se gen er a l ter m is
Lim

lo g

ii

mpa r e t h e giv e n

u
u

1,

is
1

or

en
g

+l

e e

s ri s

wit h t h e

se r i s

wh o se g e n e r a l

ve

t h e gi

se r ie s

is, if

c v

is

lo g

on

y
e r g e n t if

is

+1

u
n

n
u

s ri s

c ve
on

en

an

d in

rt
A
[
n

th at

e e

a u x il iar

the

>

or i

o n v er

ri i s

ser ies

o r di n

if x >

te rm

= 1 th e

The

t, a c

Le t

c as

n x

wh e

an

en ce

en

1
'

2 + 1)
(

( (

,,

3)

t,

Li

ca e

n + 1

o v rg

In th is

seri e s i s c

2n

an

l t h e au x iliar y s e r ie s is d i e rg e n t, an d b y p ro ee d
we m ay p r o e t h e s e o n d p art o f t h e p r o p o sit io n

l o g0,

> )
1

lo g

+ 1

t
s

u
u

+i

P
n

P
2n

t h is

H I G H ER

2 46

th at

if

is,

th e r st

r t o f th e

we

e stab li sh e d
m anne r 3 l n thi s c ase th e
.

xa

e.

is

is

r e p o sit io n

>

i
a si m il a r
r
ocee
d
p
u ili ry se ri e s is di ve rgen t
F i nd wheth r the erie
E mp l

W h en p

log

L im

He n ce

L G EBRA

c onv rge nt or d iverge t

n

an

H er e

n
,

+ 1)

n +1

il
-

1)

n +1

I:

"

1 +l

L im

Hen ce if x <
If

1
,

[ A rt

t
h
e seri e s is convergent

th en

if

2 20

t
h
e seri e s is di vergent
;

e
n

n
[

lo g

nn

lo g e

h en ce wh e n

32 2

%
u

77

l og

2n 2

271

the ser i es is di verg e nt

3 03

I f L em

Uz

1,

71

an

l o

a s

l th e

L em

t e st s gi ve n i n A rt s 3 00 3 01 ar e no t appli cab l e
To di scove r a fu rth e r t e s t we s h all m ak e u se o f th e a ux ili a ry
1
s e r i e s w h o s e ge n e r a l t er m is
I n o r de r t o e st ab li sh
l
og
n
(
)
th e c o n ve r ge n cy o r di ve rge n cy o f thi s se r i e s we n ee d th e th eo r e m
v e d in th e n e x t a r ti c l e
r
o
p
.

HI G H ER A L G EBR A

248

if

1,

>

ser ies

Th e

3 05
an

wh o se g en er a l

d div er g en t

By th e p rece di ng a
di verg en t f o th e sam e
t erm is
1

fp

v er

3 06

as

Le t
t e rm

u s

as

l og a)

(
w ill

lo g a)
b e con ve

or

A
rt
[

is

c o n v er g en

l og

L im

as

wh o se g en er a l ter m is

ser ies

>

1,

or

o r

di
1

co m pare th e g i ve n se r i e s w ith th e ser i e s w h o s e genera l

1

is
n

()
lo g n

No w w h en

1)

H en c e

very l a rge

th e con diti o n
u

1) b

"

7ll
n

is,

is,

d in

ec om e s
1

i l

"

1
n

u
"

an

wt 1

is co n v ergen t ,
A rt 2 9 9 , if

+ 1

is

l
og
{

t ha t

l
og
()
1

sa

W h e n p > 1 th e a u x ili ary ser i e s

c as e th e g i ven s e r i e s is conve rgen t b y

th a t

co n ve rgen t o r
th e s e r i e s w h o se g ener al
be

co mm on t o every t er m 3 th ere

is

c o n v er g en t

a c c o r din g

gen

<

is

rgen t o r di ve rgen t f o r th e m e
1
th e se r i e s w h o se gener l t e rm s
H e ce th e

Th e

or

o r

re qui re d r e sult f o ll ow s
*

lo g

f ore th e g i ven s er i e s
v alu e s

ter m is

v alu e s o f

co n sta n t fa c t o r

Th e

r ti c l e th e ser i e s w ill

l og

"

1,

>

l
n

+
n

p
l o g0

'

lo g

e a r ly ;

thi s

CO

N V ERG EN C Y

D I V ER

A ND

o r

o r

>

G EN C Y

24 9

R I ES

SE

o r

lo g n
lo g n

>

th e rst p ar t o f th e p r o p o siti o n is e stab li sh e d

s econ d p a r t m ay b e p r o v e d in th e m a n n e r i n di c a t e d i n A t
H ence

E x amp le

Th e
3 01
.

the seri es

Is

22

c onv rgent or d ivergent ?

e

2n +

an

He re

Z V
(

a n +1
I

L m

1,

an

dw

4n

11

e pro eed to the n e t test

c

n +l

From
L im

we p

ass

1,

F rom

s in ce L im

= 0 [A rt

L im

108 n

an

u"

l +

u"

4n

to th e ne t test
x

lo g

10
n

lo g

h ence th e g iven er i e
s

is

0,

d ive rge nt

We h a ve s h e wn in A r t 1 8 3 th at th e u se o f di ve ge n t
307
s e i e s in m a th e m ati c a l
e aso n i n g m ay l e ad t o erroneo u s e sult s
Bu t even w h en th e i nn it e s er i e s a re con vergen t it is n ece ssa ry t o
e x erc i se c a uti o n in u si ng th e m
*

Fo r

i n s tan ce th e se r i e s
,

w+

5
7
N

3
N/
4

conver g en t w h e n x 1 [ A rt
B u t if we m ulti p l y th e
s er i e s b
se lf th e coe fc i en t o f w i n th e
it
r
o
u
c
t
i
d
s
y
p

is

e"

H I GH ER

2 50
D en o t e

thi s b y

,"

L GEBR A

th e n sin ce

z/ t/

J
1

an

If

x =

>

2n

a )
n

th e r e f o r e

d is

in n it e

w h en

i nn it e

is

1 , t h e p r o du c t b ec o m e s

ooo

i c e th e t e rm s

an

n o

r ith m e ti cal

S n

2 ",

m e am n g

,"

n i t e th e

ar e I n

se rI e s

h as

l e ads u s t o e n qui r e u n de r w h at c o n diti o n s th e p r o du c t

o f t w o i n n it e co n ve r ge n t se r i e s is a l s o c o n ve r ge n t
*
L e t u s de n o t e th e t w o i n n it e se r i e s
308
Thi s

a x

r
a a
;

b0
by A

an

If

we

th e f o r m

B r e sp ec ti ve l y

(
a l)
,

b3 x

b
c ,)

a
c

zu

62

re
x

"

2"

Su p p o se thi s se i e s t o b e
deno t e it b y 0 3 th e n we h a ve
0 m ay b e eg a de d as th e t
o
u
c
t
A
B
d
p

m
s

th e se se ri e s t oge th e r we ob t ai n

m ulti p l y
a l)

b
l
,

b
c ,)

inn ity an d l e t u s
e x am i ne u n de w h at con diti ons
a r ith m e ti c a l e qui v a l en t o f th e

co n

to
ru e

6
2 o

re sult

tin

u ed

to

F i rst su pp o se th at

th e t e r m s in A an d B ar e p o siti ve
L e t A B de n o t e th e se r i e s f or m e d b y t ak in g th e rst
2n
1 t er m s o f A B 0 r e sp ec ti v e l y
I f we m ulti p l y t o ge th e r th e t wo ser i e s A
th e c o e f c i en t
B
o f e ac h p owe r o f ac in th e i r p ro du c t is e qu a l t o th e c o e f c i e n t o f
th e lik e p owe r o f a: in C a s far as th e t e rm at 3 b u t in A E
th ere ar e t e r m s con t a i n i n g p ower s o f no hi g h e r th an
w hil st
is th e hi g h e st p owe r o f x in 0 3 h ence
x
al l

B ,

2" ,

'

? "

,"

2"

2"

2n

we f or m th e p ro du c t A a th e l as t t e rm is a l)
but
7
i nc lu de s all th e t e rm s i n th e p ro du c t an d so m e o th e r t e r m s
(
b e si de s 3 h en c e
If

73

>

A B
n

It

2 52

H I GH ER
*

L G EBRA

EXA MPLES

XX I

F i nd wh e th er th e foll owi n g seri es

1

10
2

c onvergen t or di vergen t :

are

76 4

'

1+

3
x

4 4
5 56

19

Ii

I5

3
L
.

'

2
a

be

i ng

(
l

p rop e

r fracti on

(
2

a+ r
.

1+

Bx

y
3
a

10

22

12

lo g

lo g

"

An

" 1

Bn

(
lo g

" 2

wh ere

'

i n teger
A

h ew t h at t h e s e r i es u
is p o si t i ve an d d ivergen t if A

u3

Is

1 is

It is

p os

i ti v

c onvergen t

egati ve or z ero

if

XX II

C H A P TER

U N D ETERM I N ED C O EFF I CI EN TS

th e Elem en ta r y A lg ebr a it was p rove d

th a t if an y r a ti o n al i n t egr a l fu n c ti o n o f x v a n i sh e s w h en m a
it is di v isi b l e b y a: a [ Se e al so A r t 51 4 Co r ]
/
Le t 6
+p
p se
b e a r ati o n a l i n t eg r al , fgn ction o f a: o f n di m e n si on s w hi c h
\
v an i sh e s w h e n x is e qu al t o e ac h l o f th e u ne qu a l qu a n titi e s
3 09

I n A rt

23 0

"

'

D en o t e
by

,,

l ,

th e fu nc ti o n
we h a ve

by

t
3

h en

i ce f

is di v i si b l e

s n

(( )(

f )
th e qu o ti en t b e i ng o f n

Si m il a r l y ,

sin c e

po

p ox

Pr o cee di n g

i i on s

v s

"

9
0
6
2
0

1 d i m e n si o n s

is di v i si b l e b y w

) P
di m en si on s 3

th e qu o ti en t b e in g

a2

fn

a
c

po

Po

a
v

w e ha v e

d
3

we sh a ll n all y o b t a i n

wa y ,

( ( )( (
w)

an

, ,

_2

( )(

i n thi s

Iv

ft e r

di

(
x

3 1 0 If a r a tio n a l in teg r a l f un c tio n of n d im en sio n s v a n ish es

o
r
m
o
e
t
h
a
n
l
u
n
v
a
s
o
h
a
e
i
e
t
e
v
a
b
l
e
t
h
e
c
o
f
f
,
icien t of each p o we
of th e v a ia b le m u s t b e z e o
.

L e t th e fu nc ti o

b e de n o t e d b y f

wh e re

H I GH ER

2 54

v an i sh e s w h en so
a
a ; th en

u ppo se th at f
u ne qu a l v a lu e s a a

an

,,

L G EBRA

, ,

( ( ( (
3

f )
)
L e t c b e a n o th e r v alu e
a ve
s i n ce f c
0
we
h
)

0
6

a:

w hi c h

( )( )(

e qu al t o e ac h

is

a.

0
6

m ak e s

a
.

v an

i sh 3 th e n

)
an d th e r e f o r e
s in ce
b
si s
n on e o f
h
o
th
e
th
e
0
p
p
y
y
fa c t o rs is e qu al t o z e r o Hen c e f
r e du ce s t o
c

pO

th e

03

th e r

p1

n
,

5
1;

+p x
2

h y p o th e si s thi s e x p r e ssi o n v an i sh e s fo r
an d th e r e f o r e
0
p

By
o

f a,
'

a s

m an n e r we m ay
m
st b e e qu a l t o
u
p

i m il a r

3 ,

Thi s

re sult

l o

m ay

th an

v alu e s

In

more

a s

h ew th a t e ac h o f th e c o e fc i e n t s
ero

en u n c i at e d

be

as

f o ll o ws :

u
i
n
t
e
r
a
l
f
n
c
t
i
o
n
o
11
d
i
en
s
i
v
a
n
i
h
r
m
o
n
s
s
es
o
f
If
g
f
m o r e th an n v alu es of t h e v a r ia b le, it m u st v an ish fo r ev er y v a lu e
of the v a r iab le

r a tio n a l

CO R
o

x,

If

th e

eq u a tio n

He n ce
r o o ts

th e f un ctio n f
f

( (
a

b)

the t h r value s a
ee

f t wo
b, c 3

s o

11

dimen sio n s h as mo r e th an

()() (
)
) ( )
) (

v
.

h i s equ ti on i

v alu e s

v
.

b _
1
b

dim e n s i on s an d i t is evi dently

h ence it is an i dentity
,

'

ti s ed

sa

by

th at th e t wo fu nc ti o n s
"

ge

pa

qo
ar e

e qu al f o r
qO)

mor e

"

la

p ,x

"

q,

th an

eac h

If two r a tio n a l in tegr a l fu n c tio n s

11 dim en sio n s
311
eq u a l fo r m o r e th an n v a lu es of th e v a r ia b le, th ey d r e e u a l
q
e ver y v a lu e o f th e v a r ia ble
Su pp o se

P rove th at

equ a tio n

it is an iden tity

E x amp le

l o if a n

a s

v an i sh e s f o r m o r e th an
h as m o r e th an n r oo t s

va

9 1)

"

"

'

p",
q

lu e s o f 90 3 th e n th e e x p r e ssi o n

(
p

9 2)

m
a

(
p

ar e

fo r

H IG H ER

2 56
He n ce

the s

=A

To n d A , p u t

L G EBRA

th e seri es th e n r e duces t o it s r st te rm

13

or

2 = A + 2,

an

He n ce

N O TE It will b e seen from t hi s exam pl e th at wh e n th e n term i s a

rati onal integr al fun cti o n o f n i t i s s uf c i ent to ass um e fo r th e su m a
h
fun cti on o f n wh i c h i s o f o n e di m e n s i on h i gh er th an th e n
term o f the
se ri e s
th

E x amp le 2

F i d th conditi on s th t
n

ssum e
Equ ti g th e c oe f c i e nt s

3
x

ax

+p x

d i vi s ib le b y

q x + r m ay b e

th e l ik e po we r s

k + a =p ,

F rom th e l st equ ti on
a

r
b

th t i s
a

wh i c h

r=

ar e

ak

+ a _ p , an d

(
p

th e c ondi ti on s re qui e d
r

an

ar

j
ar

h od

f U nde
n

ai

+b_q

=b

(
q

XXII

m et

b) ;

EXA MPLES

F i nd b y the

kb

we h ave

f x,

h en ce b y s ub stit tion w e ob t

k:

+ b = q,

te rm i ned Coe fci en ts th e su m o f

term s
.

M
.

5 +

term s

t erms
n t e rm s
9
3
F
i
nd
th
e
c
ond
iti
on
th
t
a
x
6
3p x + 2 q m ay b e d i vi s i b l e b y a
fac t or o f th e for m x + 2 ax a
2
3
F i n d th e conditi on s th at ax b x cx d m ay b e a perfe c t c ub e
7
2 4
2
a
Fi nd th e c ond i t i on s t h t a x + b x + cx + dx f m ay b e a
8
pe rfec t s q u are
Pi v e t h at a + 2 b xy + cy + 2 d + 2 ey f is a p e rfec t sq uar e
9
p
P

'

2=
ao , a

1f 6
o

=
= a
c
J, e

FF IC I EN TS

U ND ETERMI NED

If

10

11

If

12

d i v i si b l e

5qx + 4 r is

d i v i si b l e

+ b x + cx + d is
2

3
aa

CO E

by

2
,

a
rove
t
h
t
p

h ew th t

bc

ad =

5= r 4
q

th e i den ti tie s

Prove

b
)
)
(
(
)(
(
(
)
b
b
b
( )( ) ( )( )
d
b
)( )
(
)( )(
)
(
b
d
b
)( )
( )( )
b
b
)
(
)
)
)
(
(
(
b

2
0

ri

Iv

13

by

2 57

F i nd th e cond i ti on th at

ax

th e p rod u c t

m ay b e

by + 2g x 2fy + o
or s o f e fo m
2

+ 2hxy

two fac t

th

P + qy + n
x

If
14
u
t
a
s am e
q

i on s
t ru f ll v l ue f
c h nged wi t h y r es p ec t i vely h e w t h t
e

are

x,

l +
2

2 mn =

hew th at

the

15
.

u
n
titi
e
s
a
q

a, a

o r

su

is

r +

1)

y,

2
.

2 ln =

th e

0,

ar e

+ 2 lm = 0

rod
u
c
t
s
p

+2

1)

1)

%
( (
1i

t og e th e r

th e

a ,x
If th e in n it e ser ies a o
a x
z
t o z er o fo r ev er y n ite v a lu e of x fo r wh ich th e ser ies is
t h en ea c h co eicien t m u st b e eq u a l t o z er o iden tic a lly

3 13

th e
i nt e r

d if

( (
( )(
,

x,

m +
2

s o

an

wh e n 5

is eq u a l
c o n v e r en t,
g

L e t th e ser i e

fo r th e e x
2
a x
re
a ga
r:
th
en
ssi on a
a
an d th ere f ore ,
S
x
S
3
,
p
3
o
1
x S,
b y h y p o th e si s, a o
0 f o r a ll n it e v a lu e s o f :
13
Bu t Si nce S
is c onvergen t , S , c a nno t e x cee d s o m e n it e li m it 3 th ere f ore b y
t ak i ng a:sm all eno u g h s 1 m ay b e m ade a s s m a ll a s we p l e ase
I n thi s c a s e th e li m it o f S is a o ; b u t S is a lway s z e r o , th e r e f o r e
a m u s t b e e qu al t o z ero i den ti c a ll
y
o
s

deno t e d b y S,

an

let

S,

t nd

s a

R e m o v i ng
x 3 th a t is, a
1
Si m il a r l y ,

oe fc i e n t s
I]

a,,

th e t er m
a x
g

we
a

2,

a x

(
t
we
o

m ay

h a ve

S,

v an i sh e s

r
ove
i
n
p
13

O fo r al l n it e v a lu e s o f
f o all n it e v alu e s o f :11

u cce ssi o n th at e a c h o f th e
e qu l t o z ero I de n t i call y
a

17

2 58

H I GH ER

L G EBRA

If two in n ite ser ies ar e eq u a l to o n e a n o th er fo r ev e y

n ite v alu e of th e v a iab le fo r wh ich b o th se ies ar e co n v e g en t, th e
c o elcien ts of like p o we s of th e v a iable in th e two se ies a r e equ a l
314

th at th e t wo se r i e s

Su pp o se

a ,x

th e n th e e x p r e ssi on
(
t
o

AO

A ,)

v an i sh e s f o r al l v alu e s
b y th e l a st a r ti c l e
a

zo

Ao

E x amp l e 1

th e t

as

ing

erm nvol v

re ao

a2

Ag

A 3)

i gne d li m it s 3 th e r e f ore

a ss

O,

A g,

ser es

=
z

=
s

A3

O,

A 3,

in

scend ng p ow ers

fa

fx

as

far

ar e c

a0 + a x
1

a1

A 2)

,,

Exp and

L et

wh

0,

A zx

A
th a t I s
a = A
a
w hi c h p rove s th e p r o p o siti o n
,

a,

a ec

w ithi n th e

90 +

A zx

de n o t e d b y

ar e

a x

A ,x

AO

an

+ a2 x

on stant s wh o s e val ues

x

to b e determ i ned ; th en

ar e

th i s equati on we m ay equate th e c oe f c i ents f l ik e p owers o f on

eac h s i de O th e r ight h and si d e th e o i i t f i s n + n _
i s the h ighest power Of on the left fo all v lues f
a d th e r e fore si n c e
In

we

>2

c en

ve

an

art

d a l

th i s will s uf ce to d the success ive co e f ci e nts after th e rs t thr ee h ave

b e e n b tai n e d
T d et e rm i e th es e we h ave th e e qu ti on s
n

a 0=

when ce
Al

t hu s

2,

ao

so

a
+
3
2

a4

an

+ a3

a 5+ a 4

2+x

1 +

= 2, a
l
a1

0,

a0 =

= 0,

a2 =
a3 =

o,
0,

a2 + a
l
-

2,

ao

a2 =

=l 3

5
.

when ce a3
7;
when ce a4 = 1 2 3
wh enc e a5
19 ;
:

2
~

l + x _ x,

2 x + 5x

7x

1 2x4

1 9 x5

26 0

H I GH ER

L G EBRA

EX A MPLES

XX II b
nd t h e fol l owi n g e p re i on i n c end i n g p ow e r
.

Ex p a
as .173 .

3
.

2) x

ay

3
_
1
x)

a,

d b

be

+1

e q uati o x + 1 00
re ult c rre c t 3
n

l + ax

ax

'

far

l +x
2 + x + x2

th e

h ew th t one v l u e
a

r
e

n s i on

a
p

i n th e

"

+ bx

(
1

e xp an s i on

'

9
4

y
a

3
1 2c

is

f x is

ro xi m at e s olut i on o f t h e
p l ac es o f de c i m als is t h e

app

an

h ow

TO

y
w
a

a7

009 9 9 9 9 9

f y is

w
e s

s
s h ew th at one v al u e

0,

as

y+

h ew that
3

6x

th at t h e c oef c i e n t

= x

If cx + ax

th at th e n term i n

so

c so

Hen ce

8x

th

se
.

as

b,

If y + 2y

"

a an

F i nd

Fin d

m ay b e 3 n

ss

1 + 2x

m any

1 + ax ) (
1 + x) (
th e e p an i on o f (
1 +a ) (
th e
1 +a )
10
n um b e r o f fac t ors b e i n g i n n it e a d a 1 h ew t h at t h e c oe f c i en t o f
.

In

2
x

( ( (
1

11

W h en

1,

(
l

12

I f n is

)
(
(
)
l

ri

"

+1

p os
n

nd t h e
ax

(
1

oef

( )

is

3
x

ci e n t

m
i
a

fx"

i n th e e

nsi on

a
p

Of

z
a x

(
l

a x

i ti ve i n teger h ew th t
,

to i

f
.

1)

(
n

L
th e seri es i n eac h case b ei ng ex tended t o

2 )n

n +

1;

(
3)

1)

<
(+P
th e eri e i n th e l t two c
4)

as

t erm s 3 a

as s

b ei ng

extend e d t o

+1

t e rm s

m
;

C H A P TER XX I I I

PA RTIA L FRA C TI O N S

e l e m e n t ary A l ge b ra a gro u p o f f ra c ti o n s c on n ec t e d
b y th e si gn s o f a dditi o n a n d s u b t ra c ti o n is r e du ce d t o a m o re
d
n t o o n e si ng l e f ra c ti on w h o s e
e
i
ng
co
ll
ec
t
e
i
si m p l e f o r m b
b
y
deno m i n a t o r is th e l owe st c o m m on de n o m i n at o r o f th e g i ven
f ra c ti o n s Bu t th e co n ver se p r oce ss o f s e pa rati n g a f rac ti on i n t o
a g ro u
si m l e r o r
o
f
ar tia l f r a c ti on s is o ft e n r e qui r e d
r
F
o
p
p
p
3 15

In

e x am p l e

If

we

rs o f

i h

W s

to

ex pan d

3
1

I II a

4x

er i e s

as

c en d

m i g ht u se th e m e th o d o f A rt 3 1 4 , Ex 1 , an d
as m a n
m
t
er
l
e
e
s as we
B
u t if we w i s h t o n d th e
a
s
y
p
ge n era l t e rm o f th e ser i e s thi s m e th o d is i n app li c ab l e , a n d it is
a l en t
si m l e r t o e x r e ss th e g i ve n
f
r
c
ti
o
i
n
th
e
e
qui
v
f
o
r
m
a
n
p
p
1
2

an d
Ea c h o f th e e x p r e ssi on s 1 x )
l 3x )
1
x
1
356
c an n o w b e e x p a n de d b y th e B i no m i a l Th eore m , a n d th e g e n er a l
t e rm o b t ain e d

in g p owe
so o b t a i n

x,

we

th e p r e sen t c h ap t e r we sh all g i ve so m e e x am p l e s
illu st rati n g th e deco m p o siti on o f a ra ti on a l f ra c ti o n i n t o par ti al
f ra c ti on s Fo r a full e r di sc u ssi on o f th e s u b j ec t th e r e a de r is

re fe rre d t o Se r r e t s Co u rs d A lgeb r e Su p r ieu r e o r t o t re ati se s o n

th e I n t eg ral Ca l c ulu s I n th e se wo rk s it is p rove d th at a y
rati on a l frac ti on m ay b e r e so l ve d i n t o a s er i e s o f pa r ti a l f rac ti on s ;
a r fa c t o r x
a n d th a t t o an
li
ne
i
n
th
e
e
n o m i n a t o r th e r e c o r
d
a
y
A
ar
an
n
t
o
l
i
e
r e spo n ds a par t i al f rac t i on o f th e fo rm
3
y
3 16

In

fa c t o r
two

a
p

rti al

tim e s th e r e
,

occ u rrin g twice i n th e

de n o m i n a t o r th e r e co rr e sp on d
B,
B2

h
ee
t
s
f ra c ti o n s,
an d
If
occ
u
r
r
x
b
2
x
b
x
b)
83
To
is a n a dditi o n al f ra c ti on
a n d so o n
cc
5V

H I GH ER

26 2
an

qu adra ti c fa c t or

Px

f rac ti on o f th e f o rm
t w i ce th e r e is
,

a s

m
,

L GEBRA

s on ds
th
ere
c
orre
p
q
Q
a
x
if
th
e
f
c
t
o
r
a
:
3
p

+px +
+

P 1 56

(
a;

Q,
q)

x
p

an

so

P, Q, P1 , Q,

A , , B , , B 2 , B3 ,

r ti a l

occ u rs

eco n d p a r ti a l f ra c ti on

th e qu a n titi e s
i n de p en den t o f x
We sh all m ak e u se
f o ll ow

+ 19 96

Here

on

are

al l

th e s e r e sults i n th e e x am p l e s th a t

E x amp le 1

te 2 x

S p ar a

ince th e denom in tor 2

11

5x

i
nto p rti
6
+x

2x + x

an

d ete rm i n e d
Cl e ar in g

2x

qu ntiti es i ndep endent

a

ar e

+2

w e ssum e

2) 2x

11

5x

w h er e

( (

6z

ction s

fra

al

wh o se values

h ve to
a

be

cti on

f fra

s,

ince th i equ ti on
f ; th u s
p ow r
S

e s o

i d e nt i c

is

3) + B

al ly

tr

ue we

equ te coef c i ents

m ay

ie

fl k

QA + B = 5,

w h e n ce

2x + x

+2

2x

al

'

ti on s

fr ac

11 ;

i
nto p rti
:b

mx

ssum e

( L

esolve

B:

11

E x amp le 2

3 A + 2B =

A = 3,
5x

1 1 = A 2x

5x

We m i ght now equ te c oe f ci ents d d th e v lu es f A d B b t it

i s s im p l er to p rocee d i n th e foll wing m nn er
dB
i nd ependent f we m y g ive to a y v lu we pl
Si n ce A
an

In

an

1) pu t

ar e

az

o,

or x

=a;

+ b _ 0,

or x _

b,

mx + n

w
(

ma + n

+h

mb
a

an

x,

then

p utt ng

+b
a+n

n ib
x

+ 1)

ease .

26 4

H I GH ER

E x a mp l e

9x

es olve
9

3
x

an

f x)

1,

th en

u stituti ng f

S b

un cti on

or

an

) (
( )f(
x

+1

x =

th

d eterm i ne th e
x

en

(
x

16

ti al fracti on s c orresp ond ing t

3
x

a:

?
2

pu t

+ 1 2z + 2 4
4

4
Z

24

12

+6

2
x

rem ain s to

1 6x + 1 6 ;

+ 16

12

24

4 8x

p ar

9x

w ho se v lue

3
x

f
To

tran sp o s ing

24 x2 + 4 8 s
x

+1

(
)
(

L et

2 4x + 4 8x

nto p art l al fract on s

+ 1)

96

ssum e
(
wh ere A i s s om e con st nt
b d e t erm i n e d
A

24x 2 + 4 8x

( (

L G EBRA

I n all th e p ece din g e x am p l e s th e n u m era t or h as b een

o f l owe
di m e n si on s th an th e de n o m i n a t o ; if thi s is no t th e a se ,
we di v i de th e n u m era t or b y th e den om i n at o u n til a re m ai n de is
o b ta in e d w hi c h is o f l owe di m en si on s th an th e de n o m i n at o
318

E x amp le
By div

i s i on

6 x + 5x

esolve

3 x,

2x

7
1

nto p ar tI al fracti on s

6 x + 5x
3x
aD

2x

3x

6x3

2x

+ 5x

3 x2

We

2x + 3 +

8x

2x

3x

3x + 1

2x

2mi E
H

8x

h all n o w e pl ai n h o w re so luti o n i n t o pa r ti a l
f ra c ti on s m ay b e u se d t o fa c ilitat e th e e x pan si o n o f a r ati on al
f rac ti on in asce n di n g p ower s o f x
319

PA RTI A L F RA C TI O NS
F nd th e g en er l term
scend in g p ow ers f
4 A t 3 1 6 w e h ve

E x a mp le 1

s eri es

fa

By Ex

2x )

th e g en e ral te rm

2x )

( 2) (

E x p and

1
(

n s i on

:
6

po

w ers

x an

d n d

1 + x ) 1 + x 2)

l +x
3

7=A

C,

+x

{1

4
x

"

i n th e s cond seri es i s 4
?
f
i s 3 + 4 I)
in th e sec ond serie i s 3 (1 )

i
s
d
t
h
e
co
e
c
i
e
n
t
d
(
d th e r equi r e d c o e f c i e nt i s 3
,

wh ence
wh ence B

th e c oe f c i ent o f :
f

f
r
ev
n
t
h
e
c
oe
c
i
e
n
t
1
i
s
e
I
f
)
(
therefore in th e e pan si on th e coef ci e nt
To n d

3x )

3x )

l +x

3x

1+x

1
(

3 ;

th e n A

Bx + C

O: A + B ,

"

"

"

r +1

1)

EXA MPLES

Re so l ve

i n sce ndi n g
A

7 +x

( (

an

is

1 +x

s o

7 +x

If

()

( ()
x

2)

xpa

+ x)

qu ting th e b s olute term s

equ ting the coe f c i ent f
a

2x )

7 +x

L e t 1 + x : 0,
e

th e e

th e g e ne ral term
A ss um e

XXIII

i n t o partial frac tion s

7x

2 55)

2"

nd e d i n

xp a

E x a mp le 2

w hen e

,1

He n ce

+x

3x

26 5

46

l 3x

3 v + 2x
.

26 6

H I GH ER
4

2
72

1 033 + 1 3

( (
.

'

1)

20856

+x

_1
)

26x

'

3
2x

(
x

L G EBRA

3x

3x + 10

Ire

2
21 2

3)

1 1x + 5

10

3 x3

8x

10

11

3
5x

6x

+ 5x

( (

1)

F i nd th e ge n eral t erm o f th e fo ll owi ng e xpressi on s w h en ex pan ded

i n ascen d i ng p owers o f x
.

12

1
.

15
'

17

1 1 x + 2 8$

2x

( )(
1

19

()(
()(

23

1 +x

21

2x

16

2x )

4x )

18

2x + 1
_ 1 x2 + 1
)

ax

cx

( (

2 + 3x )

(
2

W h en

(
1

ax

th e serie

( )(
1

Su m

1 , n d

25

+x

'

2
z 2

a"

2x

3x + x

1)

24

2x

i 2x

(
l

4 + 7x

22

'

1+x

F i n d th e su m o f n t erm s

(
(
)

20

( ) (b ) (

( )(

7x

4 + 3 x + 2x

14

13

ax

th e

su

m
x

x3

th e i nn ite seri es

( )(

z
a

( )(

5
x

x7

to n term s th e serie s wh ose p t erm is

x

( )(
1

l
x

th

1
1
x

(
1

+2
p
x

at th e su m o f th e h om o eneo u s
th
r
o
u
c
t
o
f
d
s
n dim e
g
p
o
Si on s w h i c h c an b e form ed o f th e l etter s a b c an d t h e i r
ower
s is
p

26

Prove

H I G H ER

2 68

L G EBRA

t e rm s ar e k n ow n
A s th e m e t h o d o f p r oce du re is th e sa m e
h oweve r m an y t e r ms th e s cal e o f r e l ati o n m ay c on si st o f th e
f o ll o w i ng illu st ra ti o n w ill b e sufc i en t
.

If

th e s c al e

is

f r e l a ti on
a

x
p

rx

o f th e s er i e s

a x

a so

we h a ve
a x

'

01

2
.

a
n

a:

+ rx

3
.

a
n

a
p _1

thu s a n y c o ei c ien t c an b e f o u n d w h en th e coef c i e n t s o f th e

th ree p r ece di n g t e rm s ar e k n own
.

if a su f c i en t n u m b er o f th e t e rm s
g i ven th e s c a l e o f re l ati on m a y b e f o u n d
F ind th e scal e f rel ti on f th e recurri ng seri es
mp l

323
ies b e
.

er

Ex a

C onve r se l y ,

e.

the sc ale o f r elation b e 1 p q ; then to ob tai n p

2 g = 0 a d 3 5 1 3p
5g 0;
1 3 5p
th e equ ti on s
wh en ce p = 5 a d q
6 thu s th e sc al e f re l ti on i s
L et

d q

we

h ve
a

an

6x

5x

r e l ti on con i st

f 3 t e m s it i nvo l ve s
2 co n st a n t s, p an d q 3 a n d we m u s t h a ve 2 e qu a ti o n s t o de
t e m i ne p an d q To o b ta i n th e st o f th e se we m u st k now
o f th e s er i e s, a n d t o O b t a i n th e sec o n d we
at l e a st 3 t er m s
Thu s t o o b t a i n a s c al e o f
m u st h a ve o n e m o e t er m g i ve n
e l ati o n i nvo l v i n g t w o co n st an t s we m u st h a ve at l e ast 4 t e m s
3 24

If

th e s c al e

g i ven

th e s c al e o f re l ati on b e 1 p x qx r x t o n d th e
To o b t a i n th e r s t o f
3 con st a n t s we m u s t h a ve 3 e qu a ti on s
th e se we m u st k now at l e a st 4 t er m s o f th e ser i e s an d t o o b tai n
th e o th e r t wo we m u st h a ve t w o m ore t erm s g i ve n ; h ence t o d
a s c a l e o f r e l a ti o n i nvo l vi ng 3 con st an t s at l e a s t 6 t e r m s o f th e
s e r i e s m u s t b e g i ve n
G en e rall y t o n d a sc al e o f r e l ati on i n vo l v i ng m c o n st an t s
we m u st k n o w at l e ast 2 m con sec uti ve t e rm s
C o n ve r se l y if 2m co n sec uti v e t e rm s a r e g i ve n we m ay ass u m e
f o r t h e scal e o f r e l ati o n
g

If

pl

n
.

p,

p3

pm

a
c

REC U R RI N

r ms f a

c r

Th e m e th o d O f n di n g th e su m is th e
s c al e o f r e l a ti o n ; f o r s i m p li c it y we s h all
on l y t w o co n st an t s
To

3 25
.

d th e

su

te

269

SER I ES
o

re u

i g

r n

se

ri s
e

e w h at eve r b e th e
su
s e it t o con t a i n
o
pp

sa m

L e t th e seri e s b

e
2

+ a x

l)

an
so

l e t th e s u m b e S 3 le t th e sc al e o f re l a ti on b e
th a t f o r every v alu e o f n gre at e r th an 1 we h a ve

No w S

a ,x

a x

pa x

a a

an

a
g

ll

0
'

a x

a _x
q n 3

(
_

ag

a
:

Thu s th e
o m i n a t o r is
3 26

dec

re a e

s s

al

(
P

a
q

is

x
)

+ 1

"

+l

(
t
m
g
l

ll

+1

f ra c ti on w h o s e

ero i n con se qu ence

is

a
g

'

r ec u r r i ng e r i e s
th e sc al e o f r e l ti on
su

qx

I f th e s econ d
i n den it e ly a s

a1

x
a
_
p u ,

a
x
a
a + a
S
P
p )
p
g )
fo r th e coe fc i en t o f every o th e r p owe r o f x
o f th e r e l a ti on

de

f ra c ti o n i n th e r e sult o f th e l ast a rti c l e

n i nc r e a se s i n den it e l
th
e
su m o f an
y
,

we deve l o p thi s f ra c ti o n in a s c en di ng p ower s o f x a s

e x pl ai ne d i n A r t 3 1 4 we sh all o b t ai n a s m a n y t e r m s o f th e
o ri g i n a l s er i e s as we p l e ase 3 fo r thi s re as on th e e x p re ssi on
If

(
a

is

c all e d th e
3 27

n er a tin
e
g
g

(
a

p ao

x
) =

px

fu n c tio n

F r o m th e r e sult

a
p o

qx
o

f A rt

x
)
2

f th e
3 2 5,

+ a x + a2 x

er i e s

we o b t a i n

p a:

270

H I GH ER

f ro m w hi c h we

L G EBRA

th a t a lth o u g h th e gene ra ti n g fu nc ti on

se e

(M )
a

96

x
p

m ay b e u se d t o o b t a i n a s m an y t e r m s o f
it c an b e r e ga r de d a s th e t r u e e quiv al en t
a

+ a x + a x

th e ser i e s a s we pl ea se
o f th e i n n it e s er i e s

on l y if th e re m ai n der
x

"

x
p

+ 1

v a n i sh e s w h e n n is i n den it e l y i n c r e ase d ; i n o th er wo r ds o n l y
w h en th e ser i e s is convergen t
.

W h en th e g en er a tin g fu n ctio n c an b e e x p r e sse d as a

ar ti a l f r a c ti on s th e
a l t er m o f a rec u r r i ng s er i e s
ro
u
ene
r
of
g
p
p
g
m ay b e e a sil y f o u n d
Thu s s u pp o s e th e gene r a ti ng fu n c ti on
a r ti a l f r a c ti on s
c an b e d eco m o s e d i n t o th e
p
p
3 28

A
l
Th e n

th e ge n e ra l t er m
A
a
{

ax

bx

is

cx

'

r +

I n thi s c as e th e su m
t h e m e th o d o f A r t 3 2 5

t erm s

1)

m ay b e

"
.

f o u n d w ith o ut u si ng

F i nd th e g n er ting functi on the general term

to term s f th e r ecurring seri es
E x amp le

L et

7x

th e sc ale o f relati on b e 1

wh en ce p

1 + 7p

1, q: 6 ;

an

d enote th e su m

4 3 x3

th en

px

qx ;

=
q 0,

th e sc ale o f relati on i s
1

L et S

6x

2
.

the series ; then

(
2
13

x8
2

(
1

6x

6x 8

6 x 2) S = 1

wh i ch

i s th e g ener ting fun cti on

a

1
.

3
113

8x ,

8x

6x

4 3x

+ 7x +

4 2x

an

d th e

su m

27 2

H I GH ER

L G EBRA

EXA MPLES

XXIV

f
a
t
h
e
ener
t
i
n
u
nc
ti
on
g
g
F i nd
e ri es :

an d

th e general term

+ 5x

th e foll owin g

7x

5
.

i nd th e

t e rm

th

an

th e su m t o n t erm s o f th e fol l owi n g s er i e s

7

10

11

h ew t h t t h e

er i e s
+

21

+n
ar e

re c u rr i n g s er i es

c urr i n g eri e
.

an

Th e

c es

s al

1 + p x + qx

l term

g enera

th e

re

+1

term s

is

1 +

an

th e ser i es

53 +

th e re c u rri n g s er i es
b0

are

14

d n d

t o i n n i ty
F i nd t h e s m o f 2

th e s

13

th e i r s c al es o f relati on
Sh ew h ow t o ded u c e t h e s m o f t h e r s t n t erm s

12

fro m

rx

bl

b z x2

b 3 x3

resp e c tivel y ; s h e w th at th e s eri e s wh o s e

i s a re cu rri ng seri e s wh o s e s cal e is

x

+ sx

eries b e form e d h avi ng fo r it s n t erm th e su m o f n t e rm s

o f a gi ven re c u rr i n g s er i e s
s h ew t h at it will al s o for m a re c u rr i n g
s eri e s w h o s e s c al e o f r el ati on w i ll c on s i s t o f one m ore t e r m t h an t h a t
o f t h e g i v en s eri e s
15
.

If a

th

CH A P TER X XV

C O N TI N

331

e x p r e ssi on

U ED F RA C TI O N S

th e f orm

a +

c all e d

is

C;

c
e

e d fract io n ; h e r e th e l e tt e rs a b 0
qu a n titi e s w h a t eve r b u t fo r th e pr e se n t we

c n t in u

th e Si m pl e r fo rm

1
a

i n t ege r s

Thi s

w ill

w h ere

he

in

th e

an

h all on l y con si de r
o
s
i
1v
t
e
p

a re

2 ,

mo r e

c o m pa c t f o rm

(
t
1

a, , a

u su ally w r itt e n

m ay deno t e

a,

W h e n th e n u m b e o f q u o tien ts a , , a 2 ,
is n it e th e
3 32
co n tin u e d f rac ti o n is sa i d t o b e ter m in a tin g ; if t h e n u m b e r o f
qu o ti e n t s is u n li m it e d th e f a c ti o n is c all e d an in n ite c o n tin u ed
.

'

t
n
c
i
o
f
ra

I t is p o ssi b l e t o r e du ce eve ry t e rm i n ati ng con ti n u e d f ra c ti o n

t o an o rdin a ry f rac ti on b y simplify i n g th e f rac ti o n s in su cce ssi o n
b eg i n n i n g f r o m th e l o we st
.

333

To

nl

c o n v er t

i
v en
g

fr a c tio n

in to

th e g i ve n f rac ti o n ; di v i de
n
qu o ti e n t an d p th e r e m ai n de r 3 thu s

Le t

be

m
n

= a +
,

co n tin u ed fr ac tio n

m by

1
-

let

be

th e

27 4

H I GH ER

di v i d e

b y p , le t

be

L G EBRA

th e qu o ti en t
n

an

th e re m a i n der 3 thu s

d q

17
e

di v i d e p b y q , l e t
Thu s
on

be

th e qu o ti e n t

an

th e re m ai n der ;

an

so

1
a

ao

I f m is

l e ss th n
a

(
t
1

a0

th e rs t qu o ti en t
m
l

is

ero

an

we

t
p
u

m
an

d p rocee d

as

e f o re

w ill b e o b serve d th a t th e ab ove p r oce ss is th e sam e a s th a t

o f n di ng th e g r e a t e s t co m m on m e a s u re o f m a n d n 3 h e n ce if m
an d n a r e c o m m en su r a b le w e s h a ll a t l e n g th a r r i ve a t a s ta ge
w h ere th e di v i si o n is e x a c t an d th e p roce ss t er m i nat e s Thu s
eve ry f ra c ti o n w h o se n u m er a t o r an d deno m i n a t o r a r e p o siti v e
i n t ege rs c an b e c on v e r t e d i n t o a t e r m i n ati n g c on ti n u e d f rac ti on
It

E x amp le

Red

2 51

uce T
t
o a c onti nue d fracti on
8 2

i nding th e gre test c omm on

p ro c e ss we h ve
F

s ur e

m ea

f 2 51

an

d 8 02 b y

the u sual

2 51

8 02

49

1
an d

th e success ive quoti ents a

re

2 51
8 02

3 , 5, 8 , 6 ;
1
3+

1
5+

h e n ce
1
8+

'

Th e f r a c ti on s o b t a i ne d b y s t op p in g a t th e rs t , secon d,
3 34
thi d,
qu o ti en t s o f a con ti n u e d f ra c ti on a r e c all e d th e r st,
c o n v er g en t s, b ec a u se
s econ d, thi d,
a s w ill b e s h ew n
in
,
A r t 3 3 9 , e ac h s u cce ssi ve c o nve gen t is a ne a e app o x i m a ti o n
t o th e t u e v alu e o f th e co n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n th an an y o f th e
e ce din g co n ve ge n t s
p
.

r r

HI G H ER

27 6

Th e

1)

qu o t i e n t
v e r ge n t
th e

c on v e rgen t

th

a
a

+ 19

L G EBRA

di ffe r s

th e pl a ce

ln
n

a
a
n

'

l l
-

d 1
-

+ 19 11

by

q"

I f th e r e f o r e
p

?!

we

,
n

it

(
a

+1

on l y i n h a v in g

h en ce th e

th

1)

th

co n

u pp o siti on

1:

f r o m th e

ut

+1

= a
n

1 qn + 1

+1

rt

1a

we see th at th e n u m e rat o r an d de n o m i n at o r o f th e n 1 ) c o n
v e r ge n t f o ll o w th e l aw w hi c h wa s su pp o s e d t o h o l d in th e c a s e o f
th
Bu t th e l a w doe s h o l d in th e c a se o f th e thi rd c o n
th e n
ve rge n t h e n ce it h o l ds fo r th e f o u r th an d so o n 3 th e r e fo r e it
h o l ds u n i v e r sall y
th

3 37

It

w ill b e c on v e n i e n t t o c all

th e co mp lete qu o ti e n t
We

thi s stage

at

b e in g

a,

71

it

th e c o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n
o n ly

an

an

it

+pn

13

b e de n o t e d b y

t ak i n g th e c om pl e t e qu o ti e n t
9
qu o ti e n t a 3 thu s
in

p a tia l
l
an

h all u su ally de n o t e th e c o m pl e t e qu o ti e n t
W e h av e see n th at
g

19"

th e

l et

a,

th

+1

an

s a

a t an

th e n

qu o ti e n t ;

+2

t ge

by h

diffe rs

i n st e ad o f th e

fro m

ar

ti al

3 38

If 2

b e th e

th

qn

p q
n

Let

k9

73

c o n v erg en t
n

th e c on ti n u e d f rac ti on

P
n

i qn

to a

co n tin u ed fr ac tio n
l)

b e de n o t e d b y

th en

CO N TI N

th en
f q
)

(
a 13 ] )

U ED F RA C TI O N S

1)

+p

(
(
9

71

it

p . q.

Bu t

27 7

(
an

11

it

r.

p e gi

h e n ce

p :g

W h e n th e c o n ti n u e d f rac ti o n
still h o l d if we su pp o se th a t a ,
is z e r o

u n ity thi s r e sult w il l

th e rst c o n ve rge n t

is less th an
0, an d th at

N OTE W h en we are c al cul ati ng t h e num e ri c al valu e o f th e s ucc e ss ive

convergents the ab ove theor em furn i shes an e asy t est O f the accuracy o f the
work
.

Eac h c o n v e rge n t is in it s l o we st
C OR 1
h
ad a c o mm o n di v i s o r it w o ul d di v i de p
q
w hi c h is i m p o ssib l e
.

t e rm s 3 f o r if p an d
r
u
it
o
n
q
y 3
,

CO R 2
.

fra c ti o n

Th e di ffe r e n ce b e t wee n t w o su cce ssi v e

w h o s e n u m e rat o r is u n it y 3 fo r
.

"

11

p q
n

9 git
n

XXV

it

c ul te the ucce i ve c onvergent to

a

2+

1+

2+

3+

2+

3+

11 +

1+

4+

1+

2+

'

1+

2+

2+
1

1+

6+

ss

1
.

9 g

EXA MPLES
Cal

c o n verge n t s is

1
9

'

th e foll owing q uan t i ti es as con ti n ued frac ti on s an d n d th e

fo u r th c onverge n t t o eac h
Ex p ress

4
8

253
'

179
-

37

'

5
'

832
1 59

'

1 1 39

1 1 89
'

10

3927
'

3 029

'

7 29

11

2 3 18

H I G H ER

27 8

L GEBRA

A m et re is 3 9 3 7 07 9 i nch es , sh ew b y t e th eory
ti on s th at 3 2 m et es is n ea ly eq ual t o 3 5 y ards

12

frac

c on ti nu ed

F in d a seri es o f fr acti on s c onverg i n g t o

o f th e tru e t rop i cal y ear over 3 6 5 d ay s

13

d ay s

'

t h e e cess i n

2 4 22 6 ,

14

A k

i l om etre i

very

23

18

e arly e q ual t o

i le

h ew th at
appr o m m at l o n s t o th e

62138 m

'

64

th e fracti on s 8 29 3 1 03 ar e su cc esswe
7
rati o o f a k ilometre t o a mil e
1 5 Two s c al es o f e q u al l en gth a e d i v i ded i n t o 1 6 2 an d 2 09 e q u al
b
s
e
r
t
re
ero
o
i
n
t
c
o
i
n
c
i
den
t
h
ew
th
t
th
e
s
a
sp ec ti vel y ; if t h e i r
a
s
p
p
3 1 di vi si o n o f one n e ar ly c o i n c i des wit h t h e 4 0 d i v i s i on o f th e o th er
.

th

"t

16

If

'

+n +n + 1

th at th e q u ot i ents ar e
c e ssiv e co n v erge n t s
Sh ew th at
17

c o v erted i n to

is
n

an

+1

c on ti u ed fr cti on h ew

ltern ately

an

th e

d n d

su c

gn

+1

gn

9n

pn

+ 2

qu

2
If
is

th e n c onvergen t to
9
c orresp ond i ngq u otient sh ew th at
18

th

+ l

c on ti n u e d fr c t i on
a

an

an

th e

Pn + 2 9 n
339
an

Let

Ea ch

th e p
a:

Pn

an +
1

is

c o n v er g en t

r ecedi

deno t e

co n v e

n ear e

rge

to th e

tin u ed fr ac tio n th a n

co n

ts

th e con ti n u e d f ra c ti on

an

1
d 3i ,
q
3

13

4 1
-

ll

+2

th ree co n sec uti ve co n ve r ge n ts ; th en x di ffe rs f ro m

on ly in
9
o
t ak i ng th e c o mp lete n 2 ) qu o t i en t l n th e p l ace o f a deno t e
thi s b y It ; thu s

33

q"
an

+ l

+l

"

th

(a
(
p

9 " k9

+l

p q
n

a
(

'

l l
'

'

t l

kc[ n + 1
-

H I GH ER

2 80

th e r e fo r e
u
o
q

an

co n v er gen t wh ich

immedia tely p r ecedes

to th e co n tin u ed fr a ctio n

a n ear app r o x im a tio n

tien t is

L GEBRA

lar g e

a
.

i t f o ll ow s th at i n o r de r
th e e rr o r i s l e ss th a n
9
t o n d a c o n v e r ge n t w hi c h w ill di ffe r f ro m th e co n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n
1
we h a ve o n ly t o c al c ul at e th e
b y l e ss t h an a g i ve n qu an t i t y
A g a i n , sm c e

1.

w h er e g i gr e

u cce ssi ve c o n ve r ge n t s u p t o a

t e r th an

o f c o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n s en ab l e u s t o n d
t w o sm all i n t ege r s w h o se r ati o c l o se ly app r o x im a t e s t o th at o f
t w o i n c o m m e n su rab l e qu an titi e s o r t o th a t o f t w o qu an titi e s
w h o se e x ac t rati o c an o n ly b e e x p r e sse d b y l a r ge i n t ege r s
E x amp le
Fi nd a ser i e s o f fracti on s ap pro i m ati ng to 3 1 4 1 59
In th e p roce s s o f nd i n g th e gr e at est c omm on m e as u re o f 1 4 159 an d
1 00000 th e succe ssi ve qu oti ent s ar e 7 1 5 1 2 5 1 7 4
Th u s
3 42

Th e p r o p e r ti e s

Th e

7 + 1 5+ 1 + 2 5+ 1 + 7 + 4

uccessi ve convergents a e
r

3
1

th i s

3 33

22

3 55

113

st onverg nt wh i ch precede th e l rge quoti nt 25 i s v ry n e r

1
o im ation the error b ein g le th an 2
a d th ere fore l e s th an
5
la

appr x

or

25 x

ss

0 00004

A n y c o n v er g en t is n ear er to th e c o n tin u ed fr a c tio n th an

343
o th er fr a c tio n
wh o se den o min a to r is less th an th a t of th e
an y
.

c o n ver g en

Le t

c o n v e rge n t s

If
n ea

th e con ti n u e d f rac ti on

be
T

E
,

be

;
n

qn _l

f rac ti o n w h o se denom i n at o r

I
ssi b l e
o
l
e
t
p

r e r t o ac th an

it f o ll ow s th a t

rt
A
[

e ar e r t o
3 3 9]

an

so

i ce

is

"

q
a
c

l e ss th an
th en :m u st
7

li e s b e t wee n

Z m u st

9
1

th an
s n

t wo co n sec uti v e

an

li e b e t ween a
!

g;
r

an

bc

CO

F RA CTI O N S

N TI N U ED

28 1

H ence
7

q:
t

th a t

"

is

s
r

th a t
Th e

is ,

r
c
i
a
t
f

on

a
t
r
e
e
r
g

m u st b e

or

f ra c ti on ; w hi c h

i m p o ssi b l e

is

tiv e

c o n secu

co n v er g en ts

to

co n

tin u ed

as

th e com pl e t e qu o ti en t cor r e sp on di n g t o th e

co n

32

th en

e ar e r t o th e c o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n th a n

B b e two

If

i n t ege r l e ss th an

an

re fo r e
344

qP

is g

r ea ter

less th a n

or

a c co

r di

is

less th a n

Let

h be

vergen t i m m e di a t e l y
9 9

22

q,

su c c ee d1n

a;

p g)

krq

(
9
29

th en
I

9)

kp

kq

P
,

'

r q)

+
a
9Y
d
is p o siti v e si n ce p

qd

fa c t o r

Th e
2
2

h e n ce
th a t

is,

o r

cco rdi n g

2
,

pg

cc o r di ng

P
as

'

pg

as

pg

g,

i
s p o s iti ve
p g

o r

d h> l 3

nega ti ve 3

o r

ab

o ve i n ve sti g ati o n th a t th e e x

h
a ve th e s a m e
a:
c
c
p
q
q
g

EX A MPLES

1
a

p, q

an

p q, pp

'

f o ll ow s f ro m th e

It

r e i on
ss

i gn

hp q
'

99

CO R
p

XX V

F i n d li m its t o th e erro r i n tak i n g

me tr e , g i ven

th at a m etre is e qual t o

%
.

22

rd

ya

1 0 9 3 6 y ard s

s as

eq u i val en t t o

H I GH ER

28 2

F i nd

a n ap p

a
a

2)

In

9 19 2

9 29 3

9 394

1+

a il

al l

9n

2+

a il

1
an

an

1+

an
'

th e c on ti n ued frac tion

I f 2 is

3
1'

a3

1
2+

an

2 +

1
s

h ew
9

In

212.

2n +

q2n

+ b+

th e con t i n ued frac ti on

1

h ew th at

+ b +

+ l) +

'

_ ab + 2
+2

) p +p

1
a

O)

6+

p
b

h e w th t

t h e n c onvergen t t o th e c on ti n u ed frac ti on
1

an

th

66

co n vergen ts

th

1)

cti on

i 9 at

th e q u oti en t c o rresp ond i n g t o

is

fr a

l)

(
(
) P

d i ffe rs fro m

c o n t l n u ed

as

(
I

qn

1 1 8 30

d i fferen c e b e tween th e rst

1)

h ew th at if a

it

0001

+ 6 a + 1 4 a + l 5a + 7

(P

'

c on ti n u ed frac ti on th t

(q

+ 6 a + 1 3 a + 10

5 Sh ew t at th e
is n u m eri ally eq ual t o

l 1

nd th e thi rd convergen t
.

t r ue val u e b y l ess th an

the

uan ti ty l ess th an

Ex p ress

h ew b y th e theory

1 4 1421 b y

L G EBRA

r o im ati on to

1 +

wh i c h d i ffers fro m

2n

C H A P TER

ND ETER M I N A TE
I n C h ap X

Q U A TI O N S

XXV I

O F THE

F I R ST

D EGR EE

we h a ve sh ewn h ow t o ob t ai n th e p o siti ve
i n t egra l so luti on s o f i n de t e rm i n at e e qu a ti on s w ith n u m e r i c al c o
e fc i e n t s ; we sh a ll now app l y th e p ro p e rti es o f co n ti n u e d f r a c ti o n s
t o Ob t ai n th e gene ral so luti o n o f an y i n de t e rm in at e e qu ati o n o f
th e r st degree
345

e
qu
a ti o n
o
f
th
e

r
t
d
eg
r
ee
i
nvo
l
v
i
ng
t
wo
s
un
y
* c W h ere
k n own s ac a n d y c an b e r e du ce d t o th e f or m a x i b y
a b c ar e
o
hi
s iti ve i n t ege r s
T
s e qu a ti on a dm it s o f a n u n li m it e d
p
n u m b e r o f so luti on s 3 b u t if th e con diti on s o f th e p ro b l e m re qui re
c
c an d y t o b e
o
siti ve i n t eger s th e n u m b e r o f s o luti o n s m a
b
e
p
y
li m it e d
I t is c l e a r th a t th e e qu ati o n ax
by
o
iti
ve
c h as n o
s
p
i n t eg ra l so luti o n 3 an d th a t th e e qu ati on ax by
c is e qui v al en t
t o by ace c 3 h ence it w ill b e su ffi c i en t t o co n si de r th e e qu ati on s
ax i b
y
3 46

an

d b

h a ve

fa c t o r

w hi c h

doe s n o t di v i de c, n e ith er o f
th e e qu a ti o n s acc t b y c c an b e sa ti se d b y i n t eg a l v alu e s o f ac
=
l=b
an d
a
i
f
o
x
s
d
i
v
i
s
i
l
e
w
h
e
e
a
s
i
s
n
o
t
b
b
m
0
3
,
y
y
y
If a

h a ve a c o mm on fa c t o r it c an b e r em o v e d b y di v i si o n ;
so th a t we s h all s u
s e a b c t o h av e n o
o
c o m m o n fa c t o r an d
pp
th a t a an d b ar e pr i m e t o e a c h o th e r
I f a, b ,

34 7
equ a tio n
.

Let

To

be

d th e g en e

co n v e r t e d i n t o

al

s o lu

tio n

ax

by

th e c o n v e rgen t j u s t p r ece di n g

in p o sitive in teg e

;5
3

th e

c on ti n u e d f ra c ti o n

th en

r f

ag

bp

an

d le t

rt
A
[

deno t e

I N D ETER M I N A TE
I

I f ag

bp

EQ

U A TI O N S

l th e g i ve n e qu ati on

ax

No w

i nce

di v i si b l e b y b 3

an

is,

bt

x =

cp

m u st b e

C9

0P

3/

th a t

285

w r it t e n

m ay b e

b t,

br ) ;

GR EE

DE

c o m m o n fa c t o r w c g
w h e r e t is a n i n t e g er

no

cg

b y

a:

(
(

= c

cg

h ave

d b

h e n ce

by

F I RST

O F TH E

+ cg ,

a t + cp

f ro m w hi c h p o siti ve i n t eg ral so luti o n s m ay b e o b t a i ne d b y g i v i ng

t o t an y p o siti ve in t eg ra l v alu e o r an y n ega ti ve i n t eg ra l v alu e
cg
n u m e r i c all
m
a ll e r th an th e l e s s o f th e t w o qu an titi e s
s
y
b
a
a l so t m a
b
e z e r o ; thu s th e n u m b e r O f s o luti o n s is u n li m it e d
y
,

II

I f ag

bp

l,

dx

x
h e n ce

we h a ve
by

C9

bt

(
aq

Op

c g,

= at

t,

br ) 3

i n t ege r 3

an

cp

f ro m w hi c h p o siti ve i n t eg ra l so luti o n s m ay b e o b t ai ne d b y gi v i ng
t o t an y p o siti ve i n teg ral v alu e w hi c h e x cee ds th e g r e at e r o f th e
Cg
6p
m
i
m
t w o qu an titi e s
thu
th
e
n
u
b
e
r
o
f
s
o
luti
on
s
s
u
n
li
it
e
d
s
3
.

e ith e r

or

u n ity th e f ra c ti o n c an n o t b e c o n
a
b
ve r t e d i n t o a co n ti n u e d f ra c ti on w ith u n it n u m e rat o r s an d th e
i nve sti gati o n fail s I n th e se c ase s h o we v er th e so luti o n s m ay b e
w r itt e n do w n b y i n sp ec ti o n ; thu s if b = 1 th e e qu a ti on b eco m e s
b
d
ar
r
c 3 w h e n ce
x
an d th e s o luti o n s m a
b
e
f
o
u
n
a
c
y
y
y
y
c
a sc r i b i ng t o a:an
o
siti ve i n t egr a l v alu e g r e at e r th an
y p
III

If

b is

sh u

e th t the seri es f v lue f

es i s i h i ch th e c o mm on di ff renc

It
o l d b e ob serv d
wo arith rm t ical progr s on n w
re pec vely

O TE .

ti

d y form
ar e D an d a

o r a:an

es

H I GH ER

28 6
E x amp le

i th e g e n er

F nd

G EBR A

AL

ol uti on i n p o s i tive integ ers o f 2 9 a:

al s

4 2y = 5

i
nto conti nue d fr cti on th e c onvergent ju st b e for e
3
we h ve th er e for e

converti

In
is

3
g

29

29

c om b i n in g th i

13

65

42

42

1;

92

4 5:

5;

i h th e give n equ ti on w e b t i n

wt

4
5
+
y
)3

29
+ 65

cv
H

y + 45
29

42

h ence th e g en er l s olution i s

i nteg e r 3

t , an

3 48

G iv en

by

ax

L et

to

h, h b e

a s

o luti on

f ax

by

= c

by

z ah

Le t

be

I f ag

co n ve r t e d i n t o

bp

u at o n
g

l we
,

cg

bg

bh

bh 3

k
t,

+ at

i n tege r ;

an

lu tio n in p o sitiv e in teg er s

by
c
2:

con ti n u e d f rac ti o n

th e n

= c

bp

ag

<
ag

=
1:

an

bp ) 3

b
x

so

ha v e

(
c

ax +

ah

d th e g en er a l

d
r
ece
i
g
p

th en

b t, y

ax

c o n v e rge n t j u st
I

th e ge n e ral s o luti o n
To

th e

3 49
equ a tio n

is

tio n

so lu

ax

w hi c h

45

in p o sitiv e in t eg er s
d th e g en er a l so lu tio n

one
n

6 5, y = 2 9 t

42t

tg

+ cp
a

b t, y

t,

= at

an

n t ege r 3

p 3

d let

f
3

be

th e

H I GH ER

28 8
I

Le t

bp

ag

AL

G EBRA

13

th e n th e gene ral s o luti o n

cg

b t, y

at

cp

rt
A
[

i n t eg ra l so luti on s w ill b e ob tai ne d

09
n ot
at e r
an
o
i
n
t
eg
r
v
alu e s
g
r
e
th
siti ve
al
p
Po siti ve

gi v in g to

by
an

n o

l e ss

of)

th an

(
i)

Su pp o

e th t
a

an

(
6

are n o

Let
w h ere m,

ar e

p o siti ve

m +j3

i n t ege rs

= n +

an

f ra c t i o n

um b er

cc o rdi n g

(
ii )

as

E
L Q +f
a
b

cco r di ng

o luti o n s
o
r
f

Su pp o se

an

as

r
o
e
r
f
r
c
ti
on
th
e
s
;
p p
a

th e gre at e st v alu e

ab

d m ay b e

is

great e r

g,

th i s i s a n i n t ege r

Now
0

ln

j; g

an

i n t ege r s

th e l e ast v alu e t c an h a ve is m + l
th e r e f o r e th e n u m b e r o f so luti on s is

ab

is

o r

ab

th e i n t ege r n e ar e st t o
a
7
th e g r e at e r

18

f ra c t i o n

l e ss th a n

is

wr i tt e n

is

Thu s

g r e at e r

o r

or

th e
l e ss

th at Eis an i n t ege r
b

thi s c ase g 0 an d one v alu e o f a: is z e r o If we i nc lu de

1
i
n
m
b
n
s
s
thi s th e u e r o f so luti o
+ j , w hi c h m u st b e a n in
ab
t ege r H ence th e n u m b e r o f so luti on s is th e gre at e st i n t ege r i n
In

ab

or

(
iii )

ab

cco rdi ng as we i n c lu de o r e x c lu de th e z e r o s o lut i on

Su pp o se

th a t

is

an

in t ege r

this c ase f 0 an d one v alu e o f y is z e r o I f we i n c lu de

thi s th e l e ast v alu e o f t is m an d th e g r e at e st is n ; h e n ce
C
s the
T
hu
1
th e n u m b e r o f so luti on s is n m + 1 o r
+
9
In

Z
ia

I N D ETER M I N A TE

EQ

U A TI O N S

F I R ST

O F THE

GR EE

DE

u mb e r o f s o lut i on s i s th e gre at e st i n t ege r i n

+
ab
cor di ng a s we i nc lu de o r e x c lu de th e ero s o luti on

(
i v)

Su pp o se

g ;

th a t

an

are

c
o r

ab

ao

o th i n t eger s

28 9

thi s c a se f 0 an d g = 0 an d b o th a: a n d y h a ve a z e ro
v alu e I f we i nc lu de th e s e th e l e ast v a lu e t c a h a ve is m a d
th e g r e at e st is n 3 h e n ce th e n u m b e r o f s o luti on s is n m l o r
In

II

ab

ab

I f we

e x c lu de th e z ero v alu e s th e

I f ag

l th e gener a l s o luti o n

bp

bt

i m il a r re sults w ill

3 52

ti o n

be

c g,

cp

ax

o luti on s

is

a t,

o b t ai n e d

To n d th e s o luti on s i n p o siti ve i n t eger s

cl, we m a
a s f o ll o ws
rocee
by
cz
d
y p

is

x =

an

u mb e r

Of

th e e qu a

t ra n sp o siti o n a x b y d 02 3 f ro m w hi c h b y g i v i ng t o z
b t a i n e qu a ti on s O f
we
o
ss
n th e v a lu e s 0 l
2 3
in s
u cc e i o

th e f orm as: b y c w hi c h m ay b e s o l ve d as al r e ady e x pl a i n e d

By

3 53

h a ve t wo si m ult a n eo u s e qu ati on s

I f we

ax +

by

+ cz =

'

d,

by

a cc

'

c z

'

e li m i n at in g o n e o f th e u n k n o w n s z say we Ob t a i n an e q u ati on
th e f o r m A x By 0 Su pp o se th a t x ] ; y g is a s o luti on
th en th e gene ral s o luti o n c an b e wr itt e n

by
of

w h ere

'

lBS)

A sa

i n t eger
Su b stituti ng th e se v a lu e s o f a: a n d y i n e ith e r o f th e g i ven
e qu ati o n s we o b t a i n an e qu ati o n o f th e f o rm Fs + G z = H O f
w hi c h th e genera l s o luti on is
s

is

an

s =

Su b stituti n g fo r

s,

G t,

e =

th e v alu e s
i n t e g ra l v alu e s

an

FI

a,

Ft

sa

we ob t a i n
y

'

are

Ah

o b t ai ne d

A Gt 3

b y g i v i ng

to

uit ab l

H I GH ER

290
3 54

I f on e

o luti on i n
by

ax +

c an

+ cz

AL

d,

h b

th e

By

u b t r a c ti on
a

o b t ai ne d

m ay b e

(
1
7

d,

bg

d,

r ti c ul r so luti on 3 th e
ch

(
(f )

'

c z

'

e qu a ti on s

f oll ow s

as

'

a
'

bg

f th e

'

L e t f; g

s iti ve i n t eger s
o
p

f o u n d th e ge n e ra l s o luti on

G EBRA

r
e

'

(
y

g)

h)

03

w h en c e
x

bc

w h ere
bc

'

t is
'

c, c a

'

i n t ege r

an

'
c a, a b

ca

'

ab

c a

In

F i nd th e g eneral s o luti o n
7 7 5x

Ic

o f th e de n o m i n at o r s
ra l soluti on is

XX VI

d h is th e H C F

Thu s th e gene
a b

(
bc

t
_

an

EXA MPLES

c row

7 1 1y = l

an

h ow m any way s c an

b)

th e l e ast p osi tive i n tegral s oluti on

51 9y

4 55x

id i

1 1 9 3 6 d b e pa
.

4 3 6x

o r in s

an

h alf

ns

Fi nd th e n u mb e r o f s o luti on s

5
.

1 1 x + 1 5y

F i nd two frac t i on s h av i ng
s u c h th at t h e i r su m is 1
3, g
6

1 03 1

i n tege rs

in p ositi ve

an

d9

for t h eir denomi n at ors

an

7
an

d 8

8
o

F i nd two pr oper frac ti on s i n t h e i r l owest t erm s h av i ng

1
for th ei r denom i n ators an d su c h th at th ei r d ifferen c e is

12

24

f y po

cert ai n

u nds x

con si st s o f 2: po u n d s
shilli n gs ; nd th e su m
su

So l ve in p o siti ve

hilli ngs

an

it is h alf

i n tegers :
10

12 v
.

1 1x

1 1y + 4 z = 2 2

4 x + 5y +

XX V II

C HA P TER

REC U RR I N G

CO

N TI N U ED F R A C TI O N S

We h a ve s ee n in C h ap X X V th a t a t er m in a tin g con
ra c ti o n w ith r ati o n a l qu o ti en t s c an b e r e du ce d t o a n
r
r f ra c ti on w ith i n t egra l n u m era t o r an d de n om i n at o r a n d
th ere f ore c a nno t b e e qu a l t o a s u r d 3 b u t we Sh all p rove th a t a
qu a drati c s u r d c an b e e x p re sse d a s an in n ite c on ti n u e d f ra c ti on
w h o se qu o ti e n t s r ec u r
We sh all rs t con si de r a n u m e r i c a l
e x am pl e

3 55
t in u e d f
o di n a y

cti on s

fr a

Exp r
ap p r o x im a

E x a mp le

c onti nu e d fr cti on
i t s v lu e

ess

t in

J 19
g to

as

an

d n d

a s

er e
i

s o

N 19 + 3

ter th i s th e quoti ent s 2

af

1 , 3 , 1 , 2, 8

r ecur ;
1

h en ce
1

1 + 3 + 1 + 21 8 +

will b notice d th t t h quoti ents recur s oon w e com e t

quoti ent which i s doub l e f th e r st I A t 3 6 1 w e s h ll p r ve t h t th i s
l w y s th e c se
It

as

as

R EC U RR I N G

F RA C TI O N S
293
I e c h f th e l i n es b ove w e p e r f r m th e s m e se r i es f
ti
[E pl
op e r ti on s F e m p l e c on s i d r th e ec ond l i n e we r s t d th e
H
N 4
2
m
t
h
i
s
t
h
e
r
i
nd e r i s
i
d
2 th t
r
t
e
s
t
i
n
t
e
e
r
i
n
;
g
g
g
Z
H 2
We
t
h
e
n multi ply num e r tor d d nom i n tor b y th e u d
i
Z
5
c onjug te to J 1 9 2 s o th t fter i nvertin g th e result /1 9 it 2 we b e gi n
N
n ew l i n e with r ti on l d enom i n tor ]
e pl i n e d i n A t 3 3 6
Th r st seve n c onv e rgent for med
an a

on

ea

xa

or

I N U ED

C O NT

an

Th e

as

4s

13

e rror i t k i ng th e l st
a

11

61

14

39

'

326

th e se is l es s th an

an

t r
l es th n
ss th n
d
f
1 02 4 00
seventh converg ent gives th e v lu e to t l e st four p l ce

le

01

an

3 56

o r io

fa

L e t x deno t e th e co ti n u e d f r c ti on
a

l
a +

(
1

J
'

d y

+ 0+

1
+
n +

h, m ,

b,

a,

s o

an

u pp o se th a t

w h ere

00001

ci

+ v +

v are

i s therefore
Thu s th e

f de mal

Ev er y p er io dic c o n tin u e d fr ac tio n is eq u a l t o

u adr a tic e u a t io n of wh ich th e c o e ic ien ts a r e
q
q

o ts o

are

1 421

170

s r

s
}

an

an

an

ro

of th e
r a tio n a l

one

th e p e r i o di c

rt

s iti ve i n t e er s
o
p
g

Le t

Let

qu o ti en t s
we h a ve

[3

re spec ti ve l y ; th en si nce

h, h

:
c

p y

9 y

be

th e co nverge n t s t o

be

w h ence

i
y s

(
x
I

corre sp on di ng t o th e

a:

th e c o m p l e t e qu o ti en t

th e c onve rgen t s t o

c o rr e p on di n g t o th e

'

qu o ti en t s u

re sp ec ti ve l y

th en

Su b stituti ng fo r y i n t e m s o f
qu ad a ti c o f w hi c h th e coe fc i en t s

r
.

i m plify i n g we o b t a i n
r ati on al

an

a re

H I GH ER

29 4

Th e e qu a ti on s y
a
a
n
d
a
s
oo
t
s
re
l
h
s
i
t
y,
2

AL

/ b

u b stitut e d i n

e s

th e v a lu e o f x

E x amp le
a:b e

L et

w h ence 2

Ex pr

2x

92

q
A

es

E
J

r e al

is

as

3+

a
:

c ontinue
cti on i s equ l to th e po s itive root
N/1 5 1
i s th er efor e equ l to 2
Th e

i n t ege r s

are

su r d

the continue d fracti on ; th e n

0
7
d fra

B, G

2+

3+

w h ere A

w hi c h

0,

i nce th e v alu e o f y

the value

o f th e f o rm

is

B b e i n g p o siti ve

a:=

i
ve
s th e v a lu e o f
g
s i gn s 3 if th e
o
s iti ve v lu e o f
p
o n r ati on a li si ng th e deno m i n a t o r

)y
o f o pp o sit e
0
/
r z
2
r

'

G EBRA

()

th i s equati on

an

EXA MPLES

XXVII

t h e foll owi n g su rd s
i th c onvergen t t o e ac h :
Ex p r

c onti n u ed fr c tion

as

ss

s,

an

th e

d n d

s x

J3

JI1

13

J3

19

14

J2

11

/i 4

J8

4 ~/l o

12

15

J33

J6

16

t h e error wh en 9
2

F i nd l im i ts o f th e error wh en

is

tak en

is

tak en for J 2 3

9 16

F in d th e rs t c o n v ergen t t o

a s

F i nd l i m it s

cim l

20

J5

10

J 21

18

f de

17

fo r

J 17

that is c orrect t o ve p laces

F i nd th e rst convergen t t o J 1 5 th at

o f de c im al s
Ex p res s as a c on t i n u ed fr ac ti on th e
foll owi n g e q u at i on s :

is

c orr e c t t o ve p l c e
a

21

22

24

25
.

26

Ex p ress

e ac h roo t

F i nd th e valu e
F i nd th e val u e

f3 +

of

o
s
iti
ve
roo
t
p
23

4x

5x

0 as

1+ 3 + 1+ 3+

of

7x

eac h
-

8x

c onti n ued frac ti on

th e

H I GH ER

29 6
\V e

r st
*

titi e s a
th a t th e

,,

t eg ers

let

A
N
J

rl

N
J

r,

econ d thi r d fo u r th
,

l as

co m pl e t e qu o ti en t s

Fr o m th e p r ece di n g a r ti c l e it app e a rs th at th e qu a n
r ,, b , , b , b
ar e
o
rove
siti ve i n t ege r s ; we s h a ll n o w
p
2
p
3
qu an titi e s a2 , a s, a4 ,
al s o
o
iti
ve
r , r ,
s
i
n
p
2
3

II

th ree c o n sec uti ve co n verge n t s t o J M an d

be

th e co n vergen t co rr e sp o n di n g t o th e

c om p l e t e qu o ti en t
N
J

thi s stage

at

Cl e a r i ng

r t s we h a ve

r"

2
J

}
3

is

r ti l qu o ti en t
a

"

h en ce

N
a
+
J

N
+
J

a,

I,

Th e

Let
13

3 58

G EBRA

h a ll c a ll th e ser i e s o f qu o ti en ts
N
J

t he

AL

"

13

f ra c ti on s

an

r ati o l

e qu ati ng

na

an

i r rati on al

w h ence

rq

r q)

rr

(2

W
.
99

an d 9
l
9
7
Bu t m
0
.
.
t
1
2
r
1
s
1
1
f
4
A
rt
3
4
h
ence
sam e S i gn
a an d
3
[
]

r q)

'

th e

7
1
997 ,

N
9

Nz

h a ve

o
sit i ve i n t eger s
p
a
1
V
+
J
Si n ce t w o con vergen t s p r ece de th e c o m p l e t e qu o ti e n t
.

r n ar e

thi s i n ve sti ga ti o n h o l ds f o r
*

3 59

all

To p r o v e th a t th e

v alu e s

c o mp lete

g r e at e r th an

fn

an

r2

d p ar tia l qu o tien ts

r ecu r

we h a ve p r ove d th a t r r ;
N af A l so r an d
s
r _
ar e
o
iti
ve
i
n
t
eger
s 3 h ence a m u st b e l e ss th a n
N
thu
s
p
j
c a nno t b e g r e a t e r th a n a an d th e r e fo r e it c an no t h a ve an y
a
v alu e s e x ce p t 1 2 3
3 th a t is th e n u mb er of di er en t v a lu es of
a c a n n o t ex ceed a
A g a in a 1 = r b
th a t is r b
a n d th ere f o r e
r b
c a nn o t b e g r e a t e r th an 2 a ; al s o b is a p o siti ve i n t eger ;
h ence r
c a nn o t b e g r e at e r th an 2 a
Thu s r c a nno t h a ve an y
i
s
a
u
v alu e s e x ce p t 1 2
a
r
n
t
v
l
e
s
th
t
e
t
h
e
u
m
r
o
d
n
b
e
3
f i
(
2f r can n o t ex ceed 2a
I n A rt 3 57
.

,,

"

"

"

R EC U RR I N G

CO

N TI N U ED F R A C TI O N S

297

N
+
J

Thu s

th e co m pl e t e qu o ti en t
T

2a
diffe r e n t v alu e s ; that is so m e

a,

c nno t h ve
a

mo

r e th n
a

th er e o r e a ll su

A l so
u o
q

ea

is

t ien ts

m u st

ch cy c l ca
e

360

b sequ en t

a lso

n n ot

r ec u

th a t

o ve

is

d th e
tha n

l
an

'

a ll

al

a
o

i ce

+ au

an

rn

o
s iti ve i n t ege r
p

r
o
o
iti
o
p p
s

an

a I:

h ence

r fp
o

a r tia l

th e p a t ial
u o

t ien ts

in

7
1

!t

>

1
s th e
rove
p

t ien t,

Bu t

mb e

o r

u
o
q

N
+
J

n u

+ a
N
J

w hi c h

re u

an

b e g r ea te r

We h a ve
S n

m u st

th e g r e a t e st i n t ege r i n

To p

o n e s,

co mp lete

one

a 1i

Tn

36 1
To sh ew th a t th e p er io d b eg in s with th e seco n d p ar t ia l
u o tien t a n d t e m in a tes with a
u o tien t do u b le of th e r s t
a
t
i
a
l
q
q
p
*

Si nce ,

l
a ce l e t
p
th e s

(
,

as
us

we h ave seen in
su
s e th a t th e
o
pp
th e n
a

at

TO

A rt

(
n

3 59 , a ec u rrence m u st t a k e
th
l ) co m pl e t e qu o ti en t re u r s at
.

r
I

we Sh a ll p rove th at
a0

A ga i n ,
a
n

+ a
n

b
-

r
n

l ,

b
u

H I GH ER

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Bu t , b y A r t
a , _1

al

3 6 0,

al

" _l

H ence

<

m u st b e
b

a s

an

a,

h ence

ero

th a t

1 )

a,

'

is

l e ss

is

l o

an

G EBRA

_
a
a _
a
n
1

1)

<

a _
"

th e r e fo r e
an d th ere f ore

th a n u n ity
Thu s

AL

, _l

if th e n + 1 ) co m p l e t e qu o ti en t rec u rs th e n c o m
h
l
a l s o r ec u r ; th ere f ore th e
qu
o
ti
en
t
u
t
e
t
e
m
s
n
m
1
co
l
e
t
e
p
p
)
qu o ti en t m u st al s o r ec u r 3 an d so o n
Thi s p roo f h o l ds a s l ong a s n is n o t l e ss th a n 2 [A r t
h e n ce th e co m pl e t e qu o ti en t s rec u r b eg i nn i ng w ith th e secon d
N
a
+
J
qu o ti en t
I t f o ll ow s th ere fo r e th a t th e r ec u rr e n ce
b eg i n s w ith th e s econ d p a rti a l q u o ti en t b 3 we s h a ll n o w sh ew
th a t it t erm in at e s w ith a pa r ti al qu o ti e n t 2a
th

th

(
,

N
+
/
~
7
s

be

th e c om p l e t e qu o ti en t w hi c h j u st p rece de s th e

1t

N+

e c o n d c o m pl e te qu o ti en t

an

N
+
a
J

are

bu t N

a,

A ga i n

= r
,

al

a,

l so a
ro
o
s iti o n
p p

h ence

=
u

th at

r" ,

+ al = r

b 3
,

362

cu r

l3

h en c e

is

h en c e

a ,,

th at

0,

is

2a , ;

:
u

w hi c h e st ab li sh e s th e

To sh ew th a t in
dis ta n t fr o m th e b eg in n in g
i
en t b ein g exc lu ded
u
o
t
q
*

m
N

co n sec uti ve co m pl e t e qu o ti e n ts 3 th e r e f o r e

t wo

an = a

w h en i t rec u rs 3 th en

rl

h
e p ar tia l q u o tien ts eq u i
d
t
y
a n d en d a r e eq u a l, th e la st p a tia l

an

o
e
r
i
p

L e t th e l t co m pl e t e qu o ti en t
as

r"

1,

an = a

We sh a ll p rove th a t
Cb
'

7 0

b e deno t e d b y
, ,

"

2a

N
a
+
J
7

it

th en

H I GH ER

3 00
an

th ere f ore e qu al t o

d is

=
N
J

C l e a ri ng o f
a r t s, we o b t ai n
p

gai n

qu o t i en t

2
12

<

c an

q 2n

e qu a l t o

bl

c o nverge n t

in

th e
a

an

fn 3

al

r ti on l
a

d
q

by
n

p2 :

q2

tak i ng f o r th e

V9

pn

li

f ro m
9

9.

(
1) 3

n.

is

N9

i r ra ti on al

r
ove
th
t
if
p
r ec u rr i g p e ri o d

+ p cn

we m ay

11

an

an

Thu s

"

c e ssiv e l

en

07

u si n g th e s e e qu ati o n s we

d by

It

lp

b,

m a nne r

li k e

13

e qu a ti ng

19 2 "

In

Nq

9 2

o b tai n e d fr om

be

an

h en c e

a!

p n _l

9a

is

1V

L G EBRA

w hi c h

f ra c ti on s
a,

a1

th e p en ulti m at e

011.

m ay

en

o b tai n

pm ,

q 3n

p4

21.

gi

su c

h o u l d b e no ti ce d th a t e qu a ti o n
thu s

h o l ds

2e n

9 2m

fo r

all

m ulti p l e s

p en

th e p roo f b e i n g si m il a r t o th a t a l r e ady g i ven

I n A r t 3 56 , we h a ve seen th a t a p er i o di c con ti n u e d
f a c ti o n c an b e e x p e sse d as th e oo t o f a qu ad ati c e q u a ti o n
w ith a ti on al coe fc i en t s
*

365
.

R EC U RR I N G

N TI N U ED F RA C TI O N S

CO

3 01

C o n v e r s e ly , w e m i g ht p ro v e b y t h e m e th od o f A r t 3 57 th a t
A + B
e r e A , B, 0 a r e
w
h
o
siti
v
e
e x r e ssi o n o f t h e f or m
p
p
0
.

an

i n te g e r s a n d B n o t a p e r f e c t s q u a r e c a n b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o a
r e c u rr i n g c o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n I n this c as e t h e pe r i od i c pa r t w ill
w ith t h e s e c o n d pa r ti a l q u o ti e n t n o r will
n o t u su a ll y b e g i n
t h e l a s t pa r ti a l q u o ti e n t b e do u b l e t h e r st
,

For fu r th e r i n f orm a ti o n o n t h e s u b je c t o f r e c u rr i n g c o n ti n u e d

f rac ti o n s we r e fe r t h e stu d e n t t o Se r r e t s Co m 3 d A lg b r e Su p e
a me a n d t o a p a m p hl e t o n Th e E p r essio n of a Qu a dr a t ic Su r cl
b y Th o m a s Mui r M A
a s a C o n t in u ed Fr a c t io
-

EX A MPLES

XXV II

followi g s u rd s

Ex p re ss t h e

fo u rt h o v rg t t
c

Ja

en

+l

o e ac

as c

h:

Pro ve

fth o v rg t
c

h w th

an

N/a

n s,

d n d

a
n

th at

d n d t h e

2a

an

o ti u e d fra ti o

en

2 a + 6 a + 2a + 6 a +
.

p + 1
+ p + 1+ p + 1+

h w th

10

29
9

If

a2
?

M
N

m d
b e e p r e e d as

3 +

If

+
1

3/

h w th
e

a c

ss

11

+p n

2 +

2Pn

+ l a

9n

1
a2 +

2 a l + 2 a a+ 2 a l + 2 622 +
_

3 a l + 3 a 2 + 3 a l + 3 a2 +

x@

on ti u ed frac ti o s h ew th at

(
x

the

H I GH ER

3 02
12

Pro v e

13

6+

6+

+ b+

b+

sh ew th at
If

6+ 6+

+ b+

+ b+ b+

2 b e th e

3
4

th

o v e rg t t o J a

en

0+

ot

j
If

6+

+ 1

9n

de n

P3 +P5+
.

th e

Pro v e

+ P2n

th at

'

th

q u al t o

18
n um b e r

P2

t h e di ffe
1

b+

+ 6+

1+be

M5

0+

s h ew t h at

re n c e

f th e

92

92

b+

1 + ab

If J N is c on v erted i n to a c o n ti n u e d frac ti o n
o f q u oti en ts in t h e p er i od s h ew that
2
%
p
g

i n n i te c o n ti n u e d f rac ti o n s

1
m

1 + ab

+ 0+

on v erg e t t o

9m

2n

I J N b e c o n er te d i n t o a
19
u lt i m at e c o n e r e n ts in t h e r st,
d en ote d b y n 1 ,
r e s p e c t i e ly ,
.

91 92

"

+ 2

s h ew t h at

+ 1,

1s e

'

Sh e w t h at

15

17

9n

16

x = a

14

If

G EBR A

th at
1

AL

v g

ah

JN _
JN

219n +

an

d if

is

th e

on tin u ed frac ti o a d if t h e p en
se c o d
re c u rri n g pe ri ods b e
sh e w th at
c

H I GH ER

3 04

AL

G EBR A

this e q u ati o n c an b e s o l v e d in p o siti v e i n t e ge rs t h e

orig i n al e qu a ti o n do e s n o t a d m it o f a p o siti v e i n t e g r al s o luti o n
W e sh all r e t u r n t o this p o i n t in A r t 3 7 4
U n l e ss

b , h a r e all p o siti v e ,
is li m it e d, b e c aus e f or

it is c l e a r th a t t h e n u m b e r o f
s o luti o n s
l a rge v al u e s o f a:an d y t h e si gn

o f t h e e x p r e ssi o n o n t h e l e ft d e p e n d s u p o n th a t o f a x + 2 h w
b
y
y
a n d th u s c a n n o t b e z e ro f or l a r e
o
siti
v
rt
e i n t e ra l
A
g p
g
[
v al u e s o f a:a n d y
If

a,

ti
v
e
g
s o luti o n s
a

n e

if

o ve i

S l

o itive i tege rs the e qu at i

s

vi g

as a

Bu t 3 0
By t
51

ri

4 2:y

ar e

2y + l

nc

ss

whe

1;

c an n

ea e

ca

an

s o l u ti o n

the

a ti o n
u
q

b e m ad e
f or m

2h wy

by

t o d e pe n d u p on
x

Th e

an

ati o n
u
q

a are

a ti o n
u
q

n
s o luti o n

2g x
th e
2

ZVf
g

s o

Ny

= a

To sh ew th a t th e
36 9
so l v ed in p o sitiv e in teg er s
*

in p o siti
c

whe

5;

=
13,
y

v i t eg r s
e

O
an

u
ti
o
q
a

f the

=
k a
,

o
siti
v
e in te e rs
p
g

h as a
d b y t ri a l ; w e
2
o f t h e f orm x

f o un
t o e q u a ti o n s

m ay b e

Ny

or

=
7,
y

W e h a v e s ee n th a t

c an

29

J ao + 24g

dz

ax

w h e re

on

he
e
o
t
g
r
t
r
h
b
t
y
(e re io u(
de r the r di l b e om e
p
or 4 9 ; t hu th p o itive i tegr l v lu e f y

en

3 68

f the

2 y
2 31 : 1 02
2 4y
al we n d t at t h e

is

h ve

we

x,

(
31
p e r fe t squ r e wh
5 7 13
Whe y 5 = 2 1 or
c

2 0y

q u adrat i c in
x

Ex a mp le

So l

a b is n e a ti e , t h e c o e f c i e n t o f
h
i
n
1
g
g
)
m
a r r e as o n i n
w
an d b
at t h e n um b e r
si
il
th
e
s
e
e
y
g
is li m it e d

A ga i n ,

r e a l roo ts whilst t h e
li m it e d n u m b e r o f s o luti o n s whi c h
sh all th e r e f ore c o n n e o u r a tt e n ti o n

h as

N
y

:1:

eq u a tio n

n o

Ny

can

a lwa

s
y

be

L et
p
q

22

p
q

"

o n v e r t e d in t o a c o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n an d l e t
an
e e c o n s e c uti v e c o n v e r e n ts ; su
at
th
r
o
s
th
e
y
pp
g

N
b
e
J
,

be

I N D ETER M I N A T E
V
U
N

an

the

1s

U A TI O N S

o m ple te

EQ

tl en t

u o

r.

Bu t

r"

the

at

en

9
2 1)

orre s p o d
7

/2

IVY

in

th e n

/
I q

A
[

rt
A
[

3 05

II

'

to

N
r
n

f a n y p e r i od

SE C O N D DEGREE

O F TH E

] q ;
)

I
'

h
e
en
t
p
g

e in

lt n

n at e c

o n v e rg e t
n

f an y

r e u rr
c

g p

in

e rl o

'

If the
c

um b r of q u ot

o n v e r ge n t

p q

th u s

r
a t e r th a
e
g
q
a d th e r e f or e a

ts

3/

r od

1S e

ate r
an
r
th
e
g

pg

t h e pe

1 11

is th e r e f or e

an

ien

is a

of

lu t 1o n

so

en

IV
/
N

thl S

In

the

I S an

9
an d

ca e

a i

Ng

n x

ve

th e re f or e

u
t
o
q

'

Ny

1,

:
z

'

Si n c e
p

r i od

th e

is

the

u mb r

ulti m a t e

en

f s o luti o n s

o v e rge t O f
n

is u n li m it e d

r e u rr i n g

r i od is O dd t h e p e n u lti m a t
h
t
e r st p e r i od is a n
o dd c o n v e r e n t
b
c o n v e r e n t in
h
u
t
t
g
g
t
h
ulti
ate c on v e r e n t i
e s e c o d p e r i od is a n ev en c o v e r e n t
m
e
n
g
p
g

y
Th u s i t e g r a l s o l u ti o n s w il l b e o b t a i n e d b y p u tti n g a: p
IJ
t h e se c on d
f o u rth
w h e re L 1 S t h e pe u lt m a t e c o n v e rg e t
If t h e

u m b e r o f q u o tie ts i

an

t h e pe

'

1 11

si x th
r e c u rr i n g pe r i od s
o f s o luti o n s is u n li m it e d

e n c e al s

in

this

the

th e

ca e

um b r
e

37 0

To
1

Ny
A

2
:2

b t a in

a so lu

um b r

we

eq u a tio n

have

I
n

r ti c l e

N M
a

If t h e

in p o s itiv e in t eg e r s

in t h e p r e c e d i n g

t io n

rq

f q u o ti e n ts in t h e p e r i od

is

d d,

an

if

p
,

'

IS an

an

dd p e n u l t l m a t e

th e re f or e p

In
e

u
ti
o
q
a

wh e r e

r e c u rri

this
n

)3

q
n

is

V?

pq
p

t h e pe n

e r i od s
p
g

o v e rg e t

ca e
e

Nq
1

1 11 a n

re c u rrl n

g p

r d
1e

i n t e g ra l s o l u ti o n s o f

=
n
O b tai n e d b
utti
x
y
g
y p
p

1,

:2

w ill

a e c

an

en

the

o v e rg e n t
n

in t h e

r st thi rd
,

fifth

pp

u lti m t
ha

t t;

we

c an

Cl l S L U V b

c,

'

3 06

G EBRA

E I G HER A L

E x amp l e

So l

ve i

po s

We c a Shew that

i ti v e i

eger

4:

s a
s

H ere t h

um b e r o f quo t i e t
n

e n

verg e t i the r
n

18

p e ri o d i

st

h en c e

By A r t 3 6 4 ,
.

n c

e
r
i
p

64 9 ,

= 1 80
y

cc

ss

37 1
b een

W hen

fo un d
m e th od

Su pp o s e

we

dd ; t h e p

a so l

e ultim te
a

ut i o

n o

th e

t 1s

s co n

r e ur i g p e r i
r n

us
Pu t

a:

i 86
.

on s

h, g

(
li

e urri g
c

ons

+1

b y th

(
h

an

v lu s 1
a

h JN )

h JN )

(
(

"

N
pd

a:

2x

a;

N
yJ )

a:

Th e a l e s o f
a s c ri b i n
n the
t
o
g
c a n b e o b t ai n e d

s o l u ti o n It a n d It b e i n g p o siti v e
w h e r e n is a n y p o siti v e i n t eg e r
a

(
N
(
J
(
N
a/
(
f

is

10

N
yJ )

v u

d is

649

s o luti o n in p o siti v e i n t ege r s o f as

m ay o b t a i n a s m a n y as w e p l e a s e

(
a;

an

co n

th a t

i n t e g e r s ; th e n

1,

on e

f o ll ow i n g

Th

d is

1 8 , y = 5 is

2
:
0

h as

1
i s a sol uti o o f
f rmi g th e u e ive p e ulti m t e o verge t s o f the
o f t h e qu at i
w c a o b tai a y um b e r o f ol u t i

By
o ds

e ri

the p en ul ti m at e c on v erge n t in
2

he e

in t h e p

(
h

"

o
siti
v
i
t
r
s
e
n
e
e
a
n d b
p
g
y
a s m an
s
o
l
u
ti
o
s
l
s
n
w
a
s
e
a
e
e
y
p

fou n d

SO

2,

ar e

Si m il a r l y

Ng

2 :

if
1,

an

x =

if

h,
n
x

b ec om e

olve

c e

es

Ny

v lu s of x d y a
is r t r i t d t o t h v l u s 1 3

3 7 2 By p u tti g a:
y/
Thu s t h e

y h is a s o l u ti o n o f
is a n y o dd p o s iti v e i n t e ge r
an

ax

a
n

1,

w hi c h

u
a ti o n
q

re

the

the

s am e

as a

l r e a dy fo u n d

but

we

the

h av e

eq
a

u ti o s w
a

N9

:1:

l re a dy sh e w n h ow

to

A L GE B R A

H I GHER

3 08

= a w hen a
N
o
siti
v
e i n t e g r a l s o luti o n o f t h e e q u a ti o n s 90
y
p
is n o t o n e o f t h e ab o v e m e n ti o n e d d e n o m i na t or s 3 thus we e asily
53 is s atis e d b y y
2 x
7y
9
d th a t t h e e q u a ti o n x
W h e n o n e s o luti o n in i n t e g e r s h a s b e e n f o u n d a n y n u m b e r o f
s o l u ti o n s m ay b e o b t a i n e d a s e x p l a i n e d in t h e n e x t a r ti c l e
2

Ny
Ny

37 6

Su pp o s e th a t x ]
h, y
a n d l e t a:
a
1 3 th e n
z

Ny

(
f
(

u tti

d a s c r i b i n g t o h , Is
w e m ay o b t a i n a n y n

an

Ng ) h

Ng h )

as ex

u
ti
o
q
a

a ti o n
u
q

h
g ,

v lu s f o u d
r f s o l u ti o s
e

N/c

f the
o f the

ain e d
l
p

in A r t

3 7 1,

s u p p o s e d th a t N is n o t a p e r fe c t !
if h ow e v e r N is a p e r f e c t s q u ar e t h e e q u a ti o n t ak e s t h e

a w hi c h m a
b
e r e a d il
s
o
l
v
e d a s f o ll ow s
n
y
y
y

37 7

"

h as b e en

it

s quare 3
f orm x

Su pp

H ith r t o

umb

e an

s o l u ti o n
s o luti o n

Ng k y t

th e i r

is

By p

;y

o s e th t
a

f w hi c h b

is

th e

w h ere b
r
e a t e r 3 th e n
g
b e,

an

( )(
a:

a:

t wo p

c ar e

y)

bc

o siti v e i n t e g e r

s,

h
a lu e s o f x a n d
if
t
e
v
f
o
u
d
n
3
y
y
y
f r om th e s e e q u ati o n s a r e i n t e g e r s w e h av e o b t a i n e d o n e s o luti o n
o f t h e e q u a ti o n 3 t h e r e m a i n i n g s o luti o n s m ay b e o b t a i n e d b
y
o
ssi
l
as c rib in
t
o b a n d c al l th e i r
b
e v a lu e s
p
g

Pu t

b,

E x amp l e
al t o 6 0

e qu

L et

Fi

d t wo p

o itiv e i t eger
n

i fe r e

th e d f

n ce

of wh o

x,

y b

the

t wo

i tege
n

rs ;

of a

the n

of th

6 0; t

73

t is

ir o f fact o rs

pa

1 , 6 0; 2 , 3 0; 3 , 2 0; 4 , 1 53 5, 1 2 ; 6 , 1 0;

d th e

v l u e r e q u i re d
a

ar e

ob t i e d f
a n

ro

m th e

+ y = 3 0,

(
ll

th e

quares is

No w 60 is t h e produ c t

an

se s

quat i on s

+ y = 1 0,

(
1)

ot her e qu ati o s givi g fr ti o l v l ue s o f x a

Th u s t h
um b ers a 1 6 1 4 ; or 8 2
n

e n

re

ac

n a

dy

( (
x

+ y)

=
0
6
)
y

I NDE T ER MI N A T E E QUA TI O NS
CO R

li k e

In
o f

i n tege r s

m an n e r we m a y
"

2hwy

a ss

if t h e l e ft h a n d
fa c t or s

m emb e r

by
b

c an

SE C O ND DEGRE E

O F TH E

o b tai

2fy

2g cs

s o l u ti o n

th e

in p o siti

h,

c =

r e s o l v e d i t o t wo r a ti o

3 09

n a

l li n e a r

I f in t h e g e n e r a l e q u a ti o n a , o r b , o r b o th , ar e
o f e m pl o y i n g t h e m e th od e x pl ai n e d in A r t 3 6 7
t o p ro c e e d a s in t h e f o ll ow i n g e x a m pl e

378

i n st e a d
S i m ple r

o ve i

S l

o itive i teger
s

2ry

4x

re i g y

in t

ss n

e rm o f
s

we

2x

order th at y

In

be

st

m ay b e

e c as s i

a ar e

5y

dt

an

3, y = 1 1 ;

herefore th

1+

J:

2x

i teger 2 5 m u t b
r A=3 or
l e arly b e r eje te d ; h

we

ob tai

th e

oluti

= 9 ; mz
y

i ib l e v l u e

adm s s

o n s

1, y

1;

n s ar e

3, y = 11 ;

th e

nc

3;

i i b l e o l u ti o

e adm ss

en ce

5:

cc e s s o n

2, y

i=

he e

33

i te g e r ;

e an

a: ar e

an

it is

h ve

11

a n

nc

e qu l t 1 or 2
Th
e 2 6my
f
o b t i e d from 2 5 1
whe e t h v lu e o f
3 2 4 1
T k i g the e v l u e s i
u
i
m

ro

E x a mp l e

Ex p

ze

=
9
y

i pl e s a l re a d y e x p l ai n e d e n a b l e u s t o d is c o v e r
fo r w h a t v a l u e s o f t h e v a r i ab l e s g i v e n li n e a r o r q u a dra ti c
f u n c ti o n s o f a: an d y b e c o m e p e r fe c t s q u a r e s Pro b l e m s o f this
k i n d a r e s o m e ti m e s c a ll e d D io p h a n tin e Pr o b lem s b e c a u s e th e y
w e re r st i n v e sti ga t e d b y t h e G r e e k m ath e m a ti c i an D i o p h an t u s
ab o u t t h e m i dd l e o f t h e f o u r th c e n tu r
y
*

37 9

Th e p r i n

F i d th ge er l e pre io for tw
u h t h t if t he ir produ t i t k e fr m th
d iffe r e e i
p e rfe t qu r e
D e o t the i t e g er b y x
d y ; the
E x amp l e 1

ar e

is

sa t s

mr =

wher e m a

ar e

po

a
cy

x (y )

2
2

s u pp O S e

po

su

e s

it i v e i t e g e r
n

(
r

e d b y t h up po itio
y)

n s
7 11

(y)
z

itive i t eger wh i h
f t he ir q u ar e t h

h i e q u ti o

an

n s

ss

s a

n c

H I GH E R

310

He e
m
From t he e e quati o

nc

2 ma

d s nc
l ti o n

ou

m= 7 ,

we

= 4,

2 r7m

t wo p

ar e an y

h ve

= 33,

37

ss

an

z =

mb

ei

11

ef

th e g

or

e er
n

al

2
.

gr e t e r ; t h u i f

g th e

su

fo

ss o n

by

+ y ; an

x, x

y,

hr ee p itive i teger i
f every t w i
p erfe t
o s

on

is

ti s e d b y the

whe re m

ar e

ro

He e w
nc

on s

e O

ef

th e

m ay t ak
n

or

n c

by

m + 71
2

a s

s c

(
m
( )
m2

o r

77 1.

wh i h
c

co n

ii

d t

on

is

u re o f

sat s

SW
2
u

8n

ed if m

8 11

he
3362
o f he e t k e i
r e p e t i ve l y

If m = 9 , n 2 1 , t
Th e s m s
t
6 2 42
s
62, 8 2 , 9 8
sq a
.

2
,

m2

2 mn

e s

m q + x) ,

4 mn

y
n

m lti p l i c at i o n

utio

al so

s c an

n s,

c r o ss

hree i t eger
b f u d
F r m th v l ue of it i l e r t h t m
dd ; l o t he i r v l u e m u t b
u h th t
d th e t

()
7

ge er
g

whe e

2 mn

o itive i teger
F m t he e e quat i w b tai
an

2 _

() (
=n
g

up p o i t i o

sa

2 q2 ,

2
2

h i e qu t i

d l et

= q 2 , 2x + y =

2x

2
13

an

mn

s,

or

9
11 ,

we m ay t ak

o itive i t eger

2x

he

en

mn

ge er l e pre i
d u h t h t th

th e

Fi d
ri t hm e t i pr gre io
qu r e
D o t e t h i t eg er
E x a mp l e 2

)y

m2 : 0

m l tipl i c ati o n

ss

ro

an

in

give e qu t io i s h om ge eou

th e

H er e

an

by

a n

G EBRA
m

nx

ob t i

we

ns

O,

nz

AL

an

e i ther b th eve or b t h
gr e t e r t h y t h t i

is

).

8 mn

ar e

an

s,

0;

er

2 8 8 0, an d th e n m b s ar e 4 8 2 , 33 6 2
y
,
n p a r s ar e 3 8 4 4
6 7 2 4 , 9 604 , w c ar e t h e
,

hi h

XX IX

C HA PTER

U MMA TI O N

R I ES

O F SE

u
v

f su m m ati o n O f c e r ta i n s e r i e s h a e o c c rr e d
in p r e i o s c h ap t e r s ; it w ill b e c o n e n i e n t h e r e t o g i e a
sy n o p sis o f t h e m e th od s o f su mm ati o n w hi c h h a e al r e ady b e e n
e x l ai n e d
p
i)
A r ith m e ti c a l Pro g r e ssi o n , C h a p I V

Ex am p l e s

3 80

v u

(
ii
o
t
r
i
l
ro
r
ssi
o
h
P
(
)
iii
r
i
s
w
hi
h
r
tl
r
ith
ti
l
)
(
t ri l
N
N
m
i
v
u
s
ow
r
s
t
u
r
l
u
)
(
ri s r s
to 7
v
u
ti
o
s
d
t
r
i
d
U
m
)
(
X
v
i
u
rr
i
r
i
s
h
C
R
()
.

Ge me

me

Se e
A rt 6 0
,

ca

Se

A t

A rt 3 1 2
.

f th e p
5
68

t in

f the

f the

ca

m e an

by

e e

an

d p a r tl y g e o

b e rs

an

lli e d

n e

C o e f c i e n ts ,

S
e
g

X IV

w p ro c e e d t o d is c uss m e th od s
t h e c o u r s e o f t h e p r e s e n t c h ap t e r it
f or e g o i n g m e th od s m a y still b e us e f

We
u

V
p
me

ec

ma

S m

ar e

ca

n o

f g r e at e r g e n e r a lity 3
w ill b e s e e n th a t s o m e
lly e m pl o y e d

te r m o f a s e r i e s c an b e e x p r e ss e d a s t h e d if
If the r
fe r e n c e o f t wo q u an titi e s o n e o f w hi c h is t h e s a m e f n c ti o n o f r
th a t t h e o th e r is o f r 1 , t h e su m o f t h e s e r i e s m ay b e r e ad ily
381

th

foun d

s e ri e s

Fo r l e t t h e

be

d en o te d

by
+ u
n

an

the

its

su

f orm
S

m by S

(
r

vl

v,

_l 3

th e n

su pp o s e th at

(
v

an

an

te rm

(l
v

_v

b e p u t in

c an

u
r

ii

U MM A TI O N

E x a mp le

Su m

to n

erm the eri e

s

1
x

by

we

313

1
3
(
(
1 + 2x )

1 + 2x )

e ote the eri e

I f we d

( (
1 +x)

SER I E S

OF

h ve
a

+ 112 + u 3 +

1 +x

1 + 2x

1 + 3x

1
u

1 + 3x

1
n a;

by

a dd

i ti o

Sn

l +ux

1 +n +1

i 1

3 82

s u it ab l e t ra n sf or m ati o n m ay b e o b t a i n e d
i n t o p a r ti a l f ra c ti o n s b y t h e m e th od s e x pl a i n e d

So m e ti m e s

b y s e pa r a ti n g u
in C h ap X X I I I

"

E x a mp le

Fi

the

of

su m

( (

to

l + x ) 1 + ax )

Th e

th

t e rm

By

u
tt
g
i
1
p
n

"

(
1

He e
nc

e qu

1 + a" x

x,

2 2

te rm s

7:

rt

n
_

a x

al

+B 1

to

n s

B_

ax

n
'

ero i u e i

2
g
a x

cc ss o n

we

ob t i

a n

H I GH E R

314

AL

G EBRA

To fin d th e su m of n t er m s of a ser ies ea ch t er m of wh ich

38 3
is c o mp o se d of r fa c t o r s in a r ith m et ica l p r o g r essio n , th e r s t fac to r s
r o g r essio n
h
ev er a l t er ms b ein g in t h e s a m e a r it h m etic a l
o
t
e
s
p
f
.

L et t h e

w h e re

s e r ie s

R ep la c i n g

by

den ote d

be

by

u 2

u 3

,,

h av e

1 , we

u 1

2 b) 3
.

a + n

R e pl a c i n g

th e r e f or e

by

by

1 we

s u b t ra c ti o n

Si m il a r l y ,

11

vn

v 71

t 1i a t

dd iti o

(
(
r

Sn

i s,

l) b

Sn

vn

UH

v,
vl

fo un d

h ave

By

()
b
(
r

sa

vi

v1

r +

w h e re C is a q u an tity i n d e pe n d e n t O f
asc rib in
n s om e
t
o
r
ti
ul
r
v
l
u
a
a
c
a
e
g
p

w hi c h

m ay b

by

Th e

ab

o v e r e sult g i v e s us

the

f o ll ow i n g c o n v e n i e n t r u le

Wr ite do wn th e n ter m a x th e n ex t fa c to r a t th e en d d iv ide

th e n u m b er offa c t o r s th u s in cr ea sed a n d b y th e c o m m o n dr r
th

by

en c e, a n

a dd a c o n s t a n

I t m ay b

h ow e v e r b e tt e r
i n d i c at e d
.

(
this r s u lt

o ti c e d th at

n o

t o q u o te

v ,l

1) b

but

(
to o t i
r

a n

1) b

Qt

as

it is

ab

ov e

H I GH E R

316

L G EB R A

3 86
To n d th e su m of n ter m s of a ser ies e a ch t er m of wh ich
is co mp o sed of th e r ecip r o c a l of th e p r o du c t of r fa c t o r s in a r ith
m e tica l p r o g r essio n , th e r s t fa c to r s of th e sev er a l ter ms b ein g in
the same ar ith me tic a l p r o g r essio n
.

L et t h e

w h e re

se rie s

d e n o te d

by

u l

u 3

a + n + r

R e p l ac i n g

(
(

a + n

by

th e re f or e

by

by

b)

su b t r ac ti o n

v n _1

Sn

vl

v2
vn

vl

Sn

th a t is

v3 ,

1 b

vm
'

dd iti o n

= v
n

1 b

sa

have

we

(
()
(
(
()
()

Si m il a r l y

b)

a + n

1) b

By

l,

a + n + r

R e p l ac i n g

1 b)

w h e r e 0 is a q u an tity i n d e pe n d e t o f
asc ri b in
a r ti c ul a r v a lu e
t
o n s om e
g
p
n

l) b

w hi c h

m ay b e

f ou n d

by

Thus

en ce

0
the

su

m m ay b e

Wr ite do wn th e

th

foun d

t er m ,

b y the

s tr ike o

f o ll o wi n g r ul e

facto r fr o m

div ide b y th e n u mb er of fa cto r s so dim in ish ed

dif er en c e, cha n g e th e sign a n d add a c o n s tan t

an

th e b eg in n in g ,
d b y th e co mmo n

Th e
e ac

ca

v alu e o f 0
s e t o d e t rm i
e

ne

0 by

s r i b in g t o

a c

s om e

rti c ul a r v alu e

S U MM A T I O N
E x a mp le 1

Fi

the

su

e e
nc

e n

th

b y th e

Sn

Pu t

he

Fi

d th e

su

ac

ac

s n o

s o

an

as

we

at ,

to

+ 1)

+ 2)

1
2

t erm s o f the

ri e

se

ire tly appl i b l e b e au e alt h ough 1 2 3

i ar ith m e t i al p rogre i o
ever l de om i t or
n t
I
t h i e am p l e we m ay
de o m i at o r a
ca

s, are

re

one

n a

( 2)

+2

ss

(
n

(
n

( )( )(
u

+1

h of the e pre i m
to wh i h the rul e i ppl i b l e
Eac

+ 3)

+ 1 ) + 3n + 4

ss o n s

ex

ca

s a

Sn = C
1

=
u
t
n
p

b tai n

t d

e s

18

3
(
)
( (

H er e t h ul e i
t h e r t f tor
f th
the f tor o f y
follow :
p ro ee d
s

n c

g i de itely gre

E x a mp l e 2

+ 3)
+ 2) (
(+ 1 ) (
1
whe e C

O
By m ak

is

317

(
ru l e w h v e

t e i In

E R I ES

term s O f the s eri e s

fn

OF S

ay

n o

+ 3)

w b e t ak

(
n

as

+3

+ 1

th e

th

t e rm o f a s e r i e s

1
n

+2

( )( )
n

+2

+3

the n
3

2
9
_
Sn

29

1
n

+3

3
2

( 1 ) ( 2) (+ 3 )
n

H I G HE R

31 8

G EBR A

AL

I n c a s e s wh e r e t h e m e th od s o f A r ts 3 8 3 , 3 8 6 a r e dir ec t ly
387
li
c a b l e , i n st e a d o f q o ti n g t h e r l e s w e m a y a l wa y s e ffe c t t h e
a
pp

s m m a ti o n in t h e f o ll ow i n g w a y , w hi c h is s o m e ti m e s c all e d t h e

Me th od o f S b t ra c ti o n
.

E x amp l e

Fi

su m o

d th e

fn t

e m of th e i e
e s r

14 +

ri thm et i

Th e

c al

pr

ogre io
ss

in t

hi

s c as

ei

2 , 5, 8 , 1 1 ,

e h er
ih ei
he

give e i e i tr du e
rog e i ; de t e t h i e i e

I n ac t m O f t h e
r
o f t h e ar t m t c al p
by S; t n
'

S
S

s r

s s r

n o

ss o n

as a n e w

by S

e t t e rm
d the give
e ri e

f t r th
ac o

an

e n

+ 3n

( ) term
n

ub tr t i
ac

o n

14+

5]

(
(

e rm ] (
3
s

(
3n

3n

3 n + 5)

9S = 3n
S=

1) t

n s

14 +

'

By

5 9,
.

t e r m o f a s e ri e s is a r a ti o n al i n t e g r a l
f u n c ti o n o f n it c an b e e x p r e ss e d in a f orm w hi c h w ill e n ab l e u s
r e ad il y t o appl y t h e m e t h od g i v e n in A r t 3 8 3
388

W hen

the

th

F o r s u pp o s e (
I
)

di n i e n Si o n s,

w h e re

ss u m e

C, D

A , B,

umb r

an

is

r a ti o n a l i n t e g r a l f u n c ti o n o f

u n d e te r m i n e d

are

o n sta n ts

fp

in

i d e n tity b e i n g t r u e f or a ll v a l u e s o f n w e m ay e q u a t e
t h e c o e f c i e n ts o f li k e p ow e r s o f n 3 w e th u s O b t a i n p + 1 si m p l e
1
c o n s t a n ts
e u a ti o n s to d e t e rm i n e t h e p
q
This

E x a mp l e

Fi

the

su

f
n

u e

erm

s o

2
521

the

eri e wh e ge er l t erm i
s

o s

A ss m
4

+ 6n + 5n

it

is

cc s s

at o n c

A + B n + Cn

e ob vi u th

u e iv e l y

we

ob t ai

+ 6n

at

1)
A

0:

+ 5n

0, B 2 0, E : 1 ;
6, D 2 O
T s

hu

22

an

( )()(
n

+1

+2

u i g

d b y p tt

+ 3)

6n

(
n

2,

n =

H I GHER

3 20

L GE B RA

r m a n d th e s u m of n t er m s of th e r
d
t
h
e
n
t
e

o r der of g u r a te n u m b e r s
th
th
t e rm o f t h e r st ord e r is 1 3 t h e n t e rm o f t h e
Th e n
th
s e c o n d ord e r is n 3 t h e n t e r m o f t h e thi rd ord e r is 2 n , th a t is
n + 1
n
)
th
t e rm o f t h e f o r th ord e r is 2
th a t i s
n
l ) 3 the n
n
1 2

392

To

th

th

(1 1

7 5 7 71

the

t e rm

th

th a t

an

Thus

it is

to

e a sy

th t
a

se e

fth ord e r is

f the

th e

SO o n

th

t e rm

f the

n + r
r

A g ain , t h e

su

w hi c h is
N O TE
an

Z GI O

the
In

order of
.

ap p l y n

g u r at e

t e rm s O f

fn

( (

t e rm

orde r is
2

1)

n +

th

th

n +

f the

the

2)

th

1)

o rd e r is

+ r

(
r

th

1)

orde r

g th rul e of A t 3 83 t d th m of
u mb er it will b fou d th t th o t
r

s,

e su

e c

n s an

er m o f
s

t is alway s

o f fig u r a te
u m b er s
ro
e
r
ti
e
s
a
re
hist
or
i
ll
n
c
a
p p
y
i t e r e sti g o n a c c o u n t o f t h e u se m a d e o f th e m b y Pas c a l in
his Tr ait da tr ia g le a ith mtiq u e p ub lish e d in 1 6 6 5
Th e f o ll ow i n g t ab l e e hib its t h e A r ith m e tica l Tr ia n g le in its
si m p l e st f orm

39 3

Th e

10

15

21

28

36

10

20

35

56

84

15

35

7 0 126

21

56 1 2 6

28

84

36

S U MM ATI O N
Pas c a l

r ul e

in g

o n st r u c t e d

the

u mb e r s

Ea ch n u mb e r is th e s u m
im media tely to th e left of it;

th a t

SE R I ES

OF

in t h e

321

t ri an g l e

im m edia t ely

f o ll o w

b y the

abo ve

it

an

d th a t

thus

od e o f c o n st r u c ti o n it f o ll o ws th a t t h e n u m b e r s in
t h e su c c e ssi v e h or i z o n t a l r ows o r v e r ti c a l c o lu m n s a r e t h e g u r at e
n u mb e r s o f t h e r st s e c o n d
thi rd
o rd e r s
A li n e dra w n s o a s t o c u t o ff an e q u al n u m b e r o f u n its f ro m
t h e t o p row a n d t h e l e ft h an d c o lu m n is c all e d a b a se an d t h e
b a s e s ar e n u m b e r e d b eg i n n i n g f r o m t h e t o p l e ft h a n d c orn e r
Thus t h e 6 t h b a s e is a li n e dr awn th ro u g h t h e n u m b e r s 1 5 1 0
1 0 5 l 3 an d it will b e o b s e r v e d th at th e r e a r e Six o f th e s e n u m
b e r s an d th at th e y a r e t h e c o ef c i e n ts o f t h e t e r m s in t h e e x
Fro m

the m

a n sio n
p

Th e p r o p e r ti e s o f th e s e n u m b e r s w e r e d is c uss e d b y Pa s c a l
w ith g r e a t s k ill : in pa r ti c u l a r h e us e d his A r ith m etica l Tr ia n g le
t o d e v e l o p t h e th e ory o f C o m b i n ati on s, a n d t o e st ab lish s o m e
i n t e r e sti n g p ro p o siti o n s in Pro b ab ility Th e su b je c t is f u ll y

t re a te d in To d hu n t e r s Histo r y of Pr o b a b ility , C h ap te r
.

II

i guity e x ists as t o t h e n u m b e r O f t e rm s
in a s e r i e s we h a v e us e d t h e s y m b o l 2 t o i n d i c a t e s u m m ati o n 3
b u t in s o m e c a s e s t h e f o ll ow i n g m od i e d n o t a ti o n w hi c h i n d i c at e s
t h e li m its b e t wee n w hi c h t h e su mm a ti o n is t o b e e ffe c t e d w ill b e
f ou n d m o r e c on v en i en t
39 4

W h ere

no

am b

xz

L et
o

be

4
)

an

fu n c ti o n

x,

d en o te s

th e n 2 4)

)
s e r i e s o f t e rm s o b t ai n e d f ro m (
f
i n te g r al v alu e s f ro m Zt o m i n c lusi v e

b y gi

f th e

ti v e

vi

( (
p

b y gi

vi

t
o
g
p

H H
.

al l

1) p

i n t e g r al

to

x al l

su

v alu e s f ro m

o
si
p

al l

()
-

su

For i n stan c e su pp o s e it is r e q ui r e d t o n d t h e
te r m s o f t h e s e r i e s o b t ai n e d f ro m t h e e x p r e ssi o n

the

t o p i n c lusi v e

21

the

H I GH E R

3 22

W r iti n g t h e fa c t or s o f

r e q ui r e d

the

su

AL

the

u m r t or

2)

(
p

1) r

2)

iv

( (

1) r

A
rt
[

foll owi g seri s t

e

t e rm s

to

term s

XX IX

r +

2)

5
.

Su m t h e
6

1
4

foll owi g s ri
e

es

7
1

9
1

10
'

11

is z e ro f or a ll v alu e s o f p f ro m
r e sult in t h e f orm

Su m t h e
.

EXA MPL ES

( (

1)

Si n c e t h e g i e n e x p r e ssi o n
i n c l si e , we m ay wr ite t h e

u v

r +

d i n g ord e r
29

( )(
(
(
)
(
r

a cen

1)

in

( (
P

G EBR A

'

an

d to

i n n ity

(
)
1

to

H I GH E R

3 24

Fro m this s e r i e s

t h e l aw

'

Fro m

G EBR A

we m ay p ro c e e d t o f or m t h e ser ies of th e
o r der s of dier en c es, t h e g e n e r a l t e r m s o f
r e sp e c ti e ly

fo u r th
th e s e s e r i e s b e i n g
thir d,

AL

f f or m a ti o n

of

s e r ie s

th e

Au l

Au

A gu

l ,

A su

2,

Au

A 2u

2,

Au

A 31 52 a

A u 5,

A gu 3 ,

A 2u

A su

4,

s2

it a pp e a r s th a t a n y t e rm in a n y se r i e s is e q u a l t o
i m m e d i at e l y p r e c e d i n g it a dd e d t o t h e t e r m b e l ow it o n
Thus
By

dd iti o n si
,

Au

u 1

u 2

l ,

Au 2

n ce u 2

an
u

u ,

d Au 2

A gu

th e

h av e

we
2A u

u 1

Au

te rm
l e ft

t he

A gu

tly S i m ila r m a n n e r b y usi n g t h e s e c o n d thi rd an d

f o u r th s e r i e s in p l ac e o f t h e r st s e c o n d an d thi rd w e o b tai n
In

an

e x ac

Au

By

dd iti o n S i n c e
,

Au

3A u l

u ,

A 3u

we

h av e

3 A ,,u 1

A 3u

SO far a s we h a e p ro c ee d e d , t h e n m e r i c a l c o e f c i e n ts f o ll ow
s am e law a s th o s e o f t h e Bi n o m i al th e or e m W e sh all n o w
e b y i n d u c ti n th a t this w ill a l w a s b e t h e c a s e
F
o r su p
y
.

r
ov
p

o
s
th
t
e
p

n
u

2 A 2u

Au1

u 3

u ,

the

n +1

th en b y

r st t o
A l bn + 1
/

By

"

usi n g
the

Aul

the

(
n

A 2u

0J

A 2u

A ,,u

s e c on d t o t h e n
s e r i e s we h a v e

2)

th

s e r ie s

in t h e p l a c e

f the

1)

dd iti o n S i n c e
u 1

l)

Aul

n +1

1)

A 37 6 1
1

Au

n +1

oo

o
m

g,

we

o b ta i

A n +1u

Ann

a]

S U MM A TI O N

SER I ES

OF

32 5

n
7

n +

l)

r +

1)

+l

'

if t h e law o f f or m ati o n h o l d s f or u 1 it a ls o h o l d s f or
u
b
u t it is t r u e in t h e c a s e O f u ,
th
r
or
it
h
o
l
d
s
n d
e
e
f
f
a
r
e
o
u
,
,
m
H en c e
t h e r e f ore u n i v e r s all y

en ce

n +

396

u ,

,,

1) A u

To n d t h e

o f n te rm s
u

d iffe r e n c e s o f
u
Su pp o s e t h e s e r i e s u
o f t h e series
in

t e rm s o f

the

, ,

th e n

a.

in t h e

e n ce

t h e la w

u ,

n u ,

0 0

r st o rd e r o f d iffe r en c e s

v 7.

u 2

is

t he

s am e

v.

u1

12.
v,

i d e n ti c ally

(
n

+ u

1)

,,

in t h e p r e c e d in g

as

(
u

s e r ie s

f the
0

s e r ie s

f f or m ati o n

A zu

is t h e

th at is

3 )

,,

su

1)

Au

( (
u

l)

r ti c l e ;

2)

A 271 1

A nlt l

IE
Th e f or m ul ae o f this a n d t h e p r e c e d i n g a r ti c l e m ay b e e x
r
e ss e d in a S li g htl y d iffe r e n t f or m a s f o ll ow s : if a is t h e r st
p
te rm o f a gi v e n s e ri e s d d d
t h e r st t e r m s o f t h e su c
t e r m o f t h e g i v e n s e r i e s is
fe r e n c e s t h e n
c e ssiv e ord e r s o f d i f
ob tai n e d f ro m t h e f orm ul a
l

2,

th

d3

H I G HER

3 26
an

d t he
n

a +

su

AL

t e r m s is

fn

( (

l)

2)

d2

3
:

'

E x amp le

Fi

d th e

ge er l t erm
a

an

u e ive orde o f differe e

Th e

G EBR A

nc

rs

s c c ss

( ( (
l)

2)

3)

'

d th e

su

of term
n

s o

he erie

ft

ar e

1 1 2 , 1 52 ,

28,

4 0,

22 ,

6,

6,
0,

H e n e th
c

e n

te rm

th

28

12
3

5n

1)

6n

er

of

fo u d b y writi g dow th v l u o f
he form ul of the pr e t rti l e d

m s m ay n o w b e
n t
Th e s u m
2
3
2 7 1 + 52 n + 6 2 7 a O r we m ay u se t

ob t i

28n

1 2a

a n

( 1)
n

2 2 71
.

( 1 ) ( 2)
n

es n

6n

( 1 ) ( 2) (3)
n

L
2

an

i2

()

1
-

12

+1

s e en th a t this m e th od o f su m m ati o n w ill o n l y

s u c c e e d wh e n t h e s e r i e s is s u c h th at in f or m i n g t h e ord e r s o f
d i ffe r e n c e s w e e v e n tu ally c om e t o a s e r i e s in w hi c h all t h e t e rm s
th
a l w a s b e t h e c a s e if t h e n
his
w
ill
e rm o f t h e
T
t
a r e e u al
y
q
s e r i e s is a r a ti o n a l i n t e g ra l f u n c ti o n o f n
397

It

w ill

be

For si m p li c ity we w ill c o si d e r a f u n c ti o n o f th r e e d i m e n si o s 3

t h e m e th od o f p roo f h ow e v e r is p e r f e c tl y g e e r a l
n

L et th e
u

s e r ie s

+ u

w h e re
an

An

Bn

"

w , 2 : d en ote t h e
fe re n c e s 3
o f dif
v

I :,

"

be

d let

rd e r s

th

t e rm

D,

f the

r st s e c on d thi rd
,

H I G HER

3 28

L G E B RA

it f o ll ow s th at aft e r t h e su c c e ssi v e m ultip li c ati o n s b y

i c i e n ts o f x in t h e rst s e c o n d thi rd
rod
u
ts
c
x t h e c o e ff
1
p
ord
e r s o f d i ffe r e n c e s
n e r a l t e r m s in t h e r st s e c o n d thi rd
a re
e
g
o f t h e c o e f c i e n ts
By h y p o th e sis a is a r ati o n a l i n t e g ra l fu n c ti o n o f n o f p
d i m e n si o n s ; th e r e f or e afte r p m ultipli c a ti on s b y 1 x we S h all
w ith t h e e x c ep ti o n o f p
a rr i v e at a s e r i e s t h e t e r m s o f w hi c h
t e r m s a t t h e b e gin n in g an d p t e r m s at t h e e n d o f t h e s e r i e s f orm
e a c h o f w h o s e c o e f c i e n ts is t h e s a m e
a
e o m e t r i c a l p ro g r e ssi o n
g
en c e

"

rt
A
[

S l

Thus

w h e re

is a c o n st an t an d f
b e g i n n i n g an d p t e r m s a t t h e

th e

(
_
(

S 1

th a t is
th u s

st an d s f or

kx

A
rt
[

f t h e p rod u c t

)
s e r i e s w h o s e s c al e

r e c u rr i n g

at

m
m
u

_x

s e r i e s is

the

en

te rm s

the p

p+

r e l ati o n is

I f t h e g e n e r a l t e rm is n o t g i e n , t h e d i m e n si o n
r e adily f o u n d b y t h e m e th od e x p l a in e d in A r t 3 9 7

ar e
n

E x amp le

Fi

th e s

hu

cc e ss

9x

nc

2 3x4 + 3 3 x 5+

1 5x 3

ive order s o f di ffere

n c

es of the oe f i e
c

of re i o

t s, we

h ve
a

er

2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 1 0,

he s

eg

fu ti
.

2 , 2 , 2, 2 ,

order of di ffere e s
o f o f t w di m e i o

ec o n

on

We

n c

h ve

n s

ar e

n s

3x8

3x 3
x

"

itio

add

9x

1 5x

27x

1556

4
4 5x

27 x

6 9x

5a:

3 263

4x + 3 x

()
1

e qu

; an

S : 3 + 5x +

By

t h e t m s in t
n al
n t
n
r al
3
1
l at n is
x
)

ti o

ra

th e

5x +

F orm i g
e ri e

ge er t i g fu ti o of the s ri es

d th e

he e
d t he r e f r e t h
al ;

n c

an

is

sc al

S U MM A T I O N

SE R I ES

OE

3 29

XX I V th a t t h e g e n e rati n g
fu n c ti o n o f a r e c u rr i n g s e r i e s is a r ati o n a l f ra c ti o n w h o s e de n o m i
Su pp o s e th a t this d e n o m i n a t o r c a n
n at or is t h e s c al e o f r e l a ti o n
b x ) 1 cx )
b e r e s o l v e d i n t o t h e fa c t or s 1 ax ) 1
3 th e n t h e
a rti a l f r ac ti o n s o f t h e
n c ti o n c an b e s e a r a t e d i n t o
fu
n e ra tin
e
p
p
g
g
399

W e h a v e s ee n

in

C h ap

( ( (

f or m

'

ax

bx

cx

Ea ch o f th e s e f r ac ti o n s c a n b e e x p an d e d b y t h e Bi n o m i a l Th e or e m
in t h e f or m o f a g e o m e t r i c a l s e r i e s ; h e n c e in this c a s e t h e r e
c u rr i n
e r i e s c an
as t h e
su m
o f a n umb e r
s
x r e ss e d
b
e
o
f
e
g
p
e o m e t r i c al s e r i e s
g
.

h ow e v e r
m or e th an o n c e
If

s c al e o f r e l ati o n c o n t ai n s an y fac t or l ax
t
o
this
r
e p e a t e d fa c t or th e r e w ill b e
c orr e s o n d i n
p
g

the
,

A3

A2

al
ac ti o n s
m
w
hi
r
ti
f
r
f
or
ch
o
f
t
h
e
3
p
1
ax
1
ax
)
)
wh e n e x pa n d e d b y t h e Bi n o m i a l Th e or e m do n o t f or m g e o m e t r i c a l
s e r i e s ; h e n c e in this c as e t h e r e c u rr i n g s e r i e s c an n o t b e e x p r e ss e d
as t h e su m o f a n u m b e r o f
e om e t ri c a l s e ri e s
g

2 ,

4 00
.

Th e

ro
r
e
ssi
o
n
p g
are

su c c e ssi v e

(
r

a,

l)

ar ,

o rd e r s
ar

ar

d iffe r e n c e s o f

( (
( ()
a r

1) r,

a r

1)r

2
,

r,

4 01

Le t

us c o n si d e r

(
()
a

"

h
t
e
g

s am e

2
,

the

r i c al

w hi c h a r e th e m se l v e s g e o m et r i c al p ro g r e ssi o n s h a v i
c o m m o n r a t i o r a s t h e or i i a l s e r i e s
g
n

t h e ge m e t

s e ri e s

ar

"

'

in

w hi h

)
(

5
9

rati o n al i n t eg ra l f u n c ti o n o f n o f p d i m e n si o s
o
s e r i e s l e t us f orm t h e s u c c e ssi v e o rd e r s o f d i ffe r e n c e s
Ea c h t e r m in an y o f th e s e o rd e r s is t h e su m o f t wo p a r ts o n e
a r isi n
m
m
e
o
f
h
f
ro
t
r
s
t
e
f
or
m
o
th
r
f
ro
t
r
s
h
m
m
a
n
t
e
e
e
Of
d
g
t h e f orm
in t h e or i g i n a l s e r i e s
No w S i n c e g6 n ) is o f p
l
t
m
n
e
n
h
t
e p a r t a r isi n
di
si o s
f
ro
w
ill
1
m
z e r o in t h e
n
b
e
)
g
p
)
an d su cc e e d i
e
ord
rs o f d i ffe r e c e s an d th e r e for e th e s e s e ri e s
g
w ill b e g e o m e t r i c a l p ro g re ssi o n s w h o s e c o m m o n r ati o is r
A
rt
[
wh e r e q5 n ) is
an d f r m this

(
.

(
(

A L GE B RA

H I GHER

3 30

r st fe w t e r m s o f a s e r i e s a e g i v e n a d i f t h e
h o rd r
o f d iffe r e n c e s O f th e s e t e r m s f or m a g e o m e t r i c a l p r o
e
p
W
h
o
s
e c o m m o n r a ti o is r th e n w e m a y a ss u m e th a t t h e
r e ssio n
g
n
w
h
r
e
e f
is
a
e e r a l t e r m o f t h e g i v e n s e r i e s is ar
f
)
g
r ati o n a l i n t e g r a l fu n c ti o n o f n o f p 1 d i m e n si o n s
if

en c e

the

"

E x amp le

Fi

the n

th

e rm o f t h e r i e
e s

1 0, 2 3 , 6 0, 1 6 9 , 4 9 4 ,

Th e

u e ive orde r of differ

s

c c ss

en ce s ar e

1 3 , 3 7 , 1 09 , 3 35,

21 6,

24 , 7 2 ,

hu

e o d order of differe e i ge om t i l pr gr i o
om mo r t i o i 3 ; he w m y u m e for th g er l t erm

T
th e

th e

n ce

e e rm i

he
whe
t

ne

th e

o ta
ns

ts

a,

b,

e r ca

s a

ass

To d t

n c

s c

"

c,

en

bn + c

m ak

e ss

in

wh i h
c

e e qu
71.

al

t o 1 , 2, 3

u e i ve l y ;

c c ss

9 a + 3 b + c = 6 03

a:

n ce

6, b z 1,

hus

f t h e e x am p l e s 0 1 1 r e c u rr i n g s e r i e s th a t we
h a e j st g i e n , o n f orm i n g t h e s c c e ssi e ord e r s o f d i ffe r e n c e s
w e h a e o b t a i n e d a s e r i e s t h e l a w o f whi c h is o b i o s o n in sp e c
ti o n , an d we h a e thus b e e n e n ab l e d t o n d a g e n e ra l e x p r e ssi o n
th
f or t h e n t e rm o f t h e or i gi n a l s e r i e s
4 02

In

u
v

e ac

v u

I f, h ow e e r, t h e r e c u rr i n g s e r i e s is e q u a l t o t h e s u m o f a
n
m b e r o f g e o m e t r i c a l p ro g r e ssi o n s w h o s e c o mm o n r a ti o s ar e
its g e n e ra l t e rm is o f t h e f orm
a , b , c,
th e r e for e t h e g e n e r a l t e r m in t h e s c c e ssi e ord e r s o f
an d
d i ffe r e n c e s is o f t h e s am e f orm ; th a t is , all t h e ord e r s o f d iffe r
I n this c a s e t o
e n c e s f o ll ow t h e s am e l a w a s t h e or i g i n a l s e r i e s
n d t h e g e n e r a l t e r m o f t h e s e r i e s w e m ust h a e r e c o u r s e t o t h e
Bu t w h e n t h e
m or e g e n e r a l m e th od e x p l a i n e d in C h ap XX V
is n o t f o u n d w ith o t
c o e f c i e n ts a r e l a r ge t h e s c a l e o f r e l a ti o n
l ab o r ; h e n c e it is g e n e rally wor th
c o n si d e r ab l e a r ith m e ti c a l
w hile t o wr it e dow n a fe w o f t h e ord e r s o f d i ffe re n c e s t o se e
w h e th e r we S h all a rr i e at a s e ri e s t h e law o f wh s e t e rm s is

v
.

v i de t

4 03

r
ece di
p

We
g

s om e
n c i le s
r
i
p
p
a dd

e x am p e

l s

in

f u r th e r illust ra ti o n o f

the

A L GE B RA

H I GHER

3 32

He

(
( )( )( ( )( )
( )( )
)( )( )

E x amp le 4

Fi

2
n
{

+ 2)

n ce

2n

+1

+2

+2

+3

d th e

su

+1

o f t e rm s

ri e

f th e

se

he e

s er i e s 2

u e +
divi di g out b y 2

(
n

an

th

)
A
{

A n + Bn +

72
n

th e

6 , 1 2 , 2 0, 3 0,

nc

A ss m

whe ce
n

an

A = 2, B :

= 2n 2

Su

(
2n

{2

5
.

d th e

te rm

an

d th e

su

8,

64,

2 00,

Fi

d th e

12

9x

3 x + 5x 2
2

20x

3
7x

fn

54 x 5

l 1x +

f the

i n n ite s e r i e s :

3
1

+u 3

1) + B
2

(
n

t e rm s

2
5

+
5
5

432 ,

5i aA

1)

ofn

XX IX

s Of t h e

3 5x 4

+ 9x

su

3 0, 1 4 4 , 4 2 0, 9 6 0, 1 8 9 0, 3 3 6 0,

10

11

2 , 1 2 , 3 6 , 8 0, 1 50, 2 52 ,

2x

+3

A +B 3

8 , 2 6 , 54 , 9 2 , 1 4 0, 1 9 8 ,

4 , 1 4 , 3 0, 52 , 8 0, 1 1 4 ,

F i d t h e g en er ati g fu c ti on
6

(
n

Fi

erm i s

2,

EX A MPLES
th

qu ati n g co ef c i e n t s o f l i k e p owers

2 2 A , 2 = 2 A + B , O= C

+2

32 +

In t h e

+2 3

se ri e s

f th e

s e ri e s :

C} 2
,

we

hv

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n

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14

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19

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H I GH ER

3 34

s e r i e s t h e su m m a ti o n o f w hi c h c an b e
I n s o m e c a s e s a s k ilful m o di
b ro u g ht u n d e r n o g e n e r a l r ul e
in o th e r s it
c a ti o n o f t h e f or e g o i n g m e th od s m a y b e n e c e ss a r y
w ill b e f o u n d th a t t h e su m m ati on d ep e n d s o n t h e p ro pe rti e s o f
c e r t a i n k n o w n e x p an si o n s su c h a s th o s e o b t ai n e d b y t h e Bi n o m i al
L og a r ith m i c an d Ex p o n e n ti al Th e or e m s
4 04

Th e r e

G EBRA

AL

m an y

are

E x amp le 1

Fi

the

su m

12

e rm o f t h e r i e
g

3
n
_

n n

28

50

e qu

to

al

71,

cc

ss o n

the n

h ve

we

I:
d

so o n

Whe

nc

u e i

in

1 , 2, 3,

an

he e

2;

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1 + 4 11

is 3 n + n
2

78

()

3n

+ n

i t e s e ri e

2 , 1 2 , 2 8 , 50,

e s

o f th e i

nc

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= 3e + 4 e

E x amp le 2

If

C0

0 5
5
1

2 202

cu

as

n d th e

v lu e o f
a

03

u cn

e ily hew th

A s in A r t 3 9 8 we m ay

at

1 +x

(
1

Als

cn _ a:
1

on

c2x

Multip ly to get he r the se t wo

th e

o ef i e t o f

Th e

ly t

n +1

in

s c

()
1

the given seri es

a n n

n
1
2
+ )

()
1

su

( 1)
n

; t

+1

h at
a t
1

in t

hi e

()
1

(
n

o1 n

1) 2

ri e

is

+1

x 3

s i o n ari se fro m

()
n

se

xp an

( my
(>
2

he the give

i s,

()
1

+1

erm o t i i g

c om

r e u lt

(i
( p

1 Fx

+1

( my

( 1) 2

E
:

e qu

al

to

H I GH ER

33 6
4 05
n u m b er s

To

n d

th e

su

AL

th e

G EBRA

th

p o wer s

su

d en o t e d

m be

by S ;

"

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'

ssu m e th a t

A 0n

n a tu r a

th e n

tk e r s t

L et t h e

'

Aln

w he re A A
d e te rm in e d
O,

A gu

'

A an

A2 , A3 ,

1 ,

"

u
r

+1

u
titi
s
w
h
o
s
v
lu
s
h
v
t
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q

are

an

W r it e

1 in t h e p l a c e

fu

AO

7 2.

an

su b t r ac t ; th u s

Al

A3

A2

Ex p an d
c i e n ts o f
ef
we h av e

(
li k

(
(
ow r s
u ti
u

By

s o th a t
By

eq

th e

u ati n g

A0

o ef c i en ts

(
r +

"

1)

we

Ao

In

(
1)

wr it e

Eq u at e t h e
1

0
p

1 _
A2
A3

AI

0
1

p
,

an

1)

()
r

fu

'

fu

P P

an

h av e
H
=

fo r A O

A2

1) P

an

d A)

an

2)

s u b t ra c t ; thus

"

n.

(
u

sub stitut e f or

DO

( (

l)

th e p l a c e

o e f c i e n ts
9

in

(
r

T +

thus o b t ai n

'

o e f c i en ts o f
sub stitut e
m ulti p ly b o th si d e s o f t h e e q u ati o n b y
Eq u a t e t h e

we

u
ate t h e c o
q
c o ef
c i e n ts o f u

t
h
e
g

A 1 r ; wh e n c e A ,

an

}
}

'

A O, A ,

2)

thus

Fro m

M I SC ELLA N EO U S M ET H O D S

OF S

s u b t ra c ti o n

3)

1
2

an

A2

by

an

2
r

By a s c r i b i n g t p in su c c e ssi o n t h e a lu e s 2 , 4 ,
f ro m 6 ) th a t e ac h o f t h e c e f c i e n ts A A 5 ,
t o z e ro ; an d f ro m 5) w e o b tai n

Ae

'

lg

(
1

44

3 37

dd iti o n

(
()( )

U MM A T IO N

we

is

se e

u
al
q

( )(
r

(
6

By

the

a ti n
u
q
g

s o lut e t e r m s

ab

we

in

o b t ai

A ;

+
an

d b y p utti n g

1 in

u =

eq

u ati o n

we

A
r

4 06
ex

ed
r
ss
e
p

+ 1

r +

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B:

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Bl

Ber

e:

et

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1
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+ 1 )

r ti c l e is

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2
r<
7
1>
v
< )

"

Th e r e sult o f t h e p r e c e d i n g
b y t h e f or m ul a ,

h ave
+

thus

By

3
1
em
9

3 6

Th e q u a n titi e s B l Ba , B5 ,
a r e k n w n a s Bern o u lli s Nu m b er s ;
f or e x am p l e s o f th e i r app li c ati o n t o t h e s m m ati o n o f o th e r s e ri e s

t h e a d a n c e d stu d e n t m ay c o n sult B oo l e s F in ite D ifer en c es

E x amp le

Fi

W e h av e

v lu e

d th e

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n
:

b
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e i g ero
n

11

the c o n stan t

15

H H

E+

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n4

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11

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H I G H ER

338

AL

G EBR A

EXA MPLES

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n

27

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to

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71

2 3 305

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te rm s
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to

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Wi th o u t assum i g t h e form u la n d t h
E

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H I GH ER

3 40
24

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o f 6 Sh ew that eac h o f t h e s eri e s

d A4:

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n

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P1 Q1 + P2 Q2 + P3 Q3 +
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m ul tipl e o f 3 ,

+ Pn _l Qn _ l
-

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sh ew th at

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ac c

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XXX

C HA PTER
TH EO R Y
4 07

v le t
a

in

OF

NU M B ER S

I n this c h ap t e r we S h al l u se t h e
m e an i n g t o p o sitiv e in teger

word

n u

m b er

as e

u
i
q

u m b e r w hi c h is n o t e x a c tly d i v isib l e b y an y n u m b e r
e x c e p t its e lf a n d u n it y is c all e d a p r im e n u m b er
o r a p r im e ; a
n u m b e r w hi c h is d i v isi b l e b
o
th
e r n u m b e r s b e si d e s its e lf a n d
y
u n ity is c all e d a c o mp o site n u m b er ; thus 53 is a p r i m e n u m b e r
w
n u m b e r s w hi c h h a v e n o
a n d 3 5 is a c o m o sit e n u m b e r
T
o
p
a re s a i d t o b e
c o m m o n f a c t or e x c e p t u n it
m
a c h o th e r ;
r
i
t
o
e
e
y
p
thu s 2 4 is p r i m e t o 7 7
A

W e S h all m ak e f re q u en t

f o ll ow i n g e l e m e n ta ry
ro
o
siti
o
n s s o m e o f w hi c h a r is e s o n a tu r a ll
u t o f t h e d e n iti o n
o
y
p p
a
a t th e
m
r
i
th
r
o f a
m
b
e
e a rd e d a s a x i o m s
e
y
g
p
y
4 08

u se o

f the

(
to r
i)

fac

u mb e r a d i v i d e s a p rod u c t
it m ust d i v i d e t h e o th e r fac t o r 0

If

b,

be

an

is

m
r
i
e to
p

On e

For S i n c e a d i v i d e s b e e v e ry fac t or o f a is f o u n d in b e ; b u t
si n c e a is p r i m e t o b n o fa c t o r o f a is f o u n d in b ; th e r e f or e all
t h e fa c t or s o f a a r e f o u n d in e ; th a t is a d i v i d e s 0
ii ) I f a p r im e n u m b e r a d i v i d e s a p rod u c t
it m u st
d i v i d e o n e o f t h e fa c t or s o f th at p r o d u c t ; an d th e r e f ore if a
m
n um b e r a d i vi de s b
an
e in te e r
r
i
w
h
r
is
o
siti
v
it
e
e
e
n
p
g
y p
m ust d i v i d e b
iii ) I f a is p r i m e t o e a c h o f t h e n u m b e r s b an d c it is p r i m e
t o t h e p r o du c t b e F o r n o fa c t or o f a c an d i v i d e b o r e th e re
f or e t h e p rod u c t b e is n o t d i v isi b l e b y an y fac t or o f a th a t is a
is p r i m e t o b e C o n v e r s e l y if a is p r i m e t o b e it is p r i m e t o e ac h
o f t h e n u mb e r s b an d 6
A ls o if a is p r i m e t o e a c h o f t h e n u m b e r s b 0 cl
it is
m
m
e t o an y
r
i
t
o
rod
u
t
o
if
is
r
i
e
h
a
c
n v e rse l
a
t
e
c
d
b
e
d
p
p
y
p
n u m b e r it is
a c t or o f th a t n u m b e r
r
i
t
o
f
m
e ve r
e
y
p
,

"

H I GH ER

342

(
iv)

AL

GEBRA

m
r
i
e
t
o
e a c h o th e r
v
r
o
siti
v
e
e
e
p
y p
i n t eg ral p o we r o f a is p ri m e t o e v e ry p o siti v e i n t e g r a l p o we r o f b
This f o ll ows at o n c e f r o m iii )
If

d b

an

ar e

)
(
v

If

l ow e st t e r m s
c

ar e an

m
r
i
e to
p

is

an

w
t
o
y

409

Th e

d m b e in g

an

a l f r a c ti o n s
u
q

d cl m ust b e

e an

b, the

n u

m
e
ui
ulti
l
s
p
q

mb e r

Ci

f rac ti o n s

an

fa

b
an

Is

I ts l ow

'"

cl

an

st t e rm s th e n

r e spe c ti v e ly

d b

th e i r

in

ls o if

In

ar e

o
siti
v
e
i
t
e
r
s
e
y p
g

an

i
e
s
i
s
m
fp

b
e the
at e st
r
r
i
u
r
th
e
m
n
m
b
n
h
e
e
t
e
e
p
g
p
;
i
n w hi c h e a c h fa c t or is a
rod
u
ct 2
3
5
r
i
m
7
e n um
p
p
an d th e r e f or e
b e r , is d i isi b l e b y e a c h o f t h e fac t or s 2 , 3 ,
t h e n u m b e r f or m e d b y a dd i n g u n ity t o th e i r p rod u c t is n o t
d i isi b l e b y an y o f th e s e fac t or s ; h en c e it is e ith e r a p r im e
m
m
s
o
r
i
u
r
r
t
r
th
n u m b e r its e lf o r is d i isi b l e b
e
e
n
m
b
a
a
e
e
n
e
p
y
g
n o t t h e g r ea test
i
n e ith e r c a s e
is
r
i
m
n
u
r
n d th e r e
e
m
b
e
a
:
,
p
p
p
f or e t h e n um b e r o f p r i m e s is n o t li m it e d

if

Fo r

n o

t , l et

4 10
n u m b er s

No

on

ly

r atio n a l

a lg eb r a ica l

fo r m u la
0x

bm

b m

th a t is

h
e
t
p

r ssi o n

ex p e

+ np
e

o r

t p r ime

ex p e

m= m t h e

r e p r e se n t

v alu e

b ec o m e s

+ up

m ulti p l e

r ssi on is d i v isib l e

thus t h e
n um b e r

dx

m
l
m
( ) (

alm
a

w h en

a:

r ep r esen

I f p o ssi b l e , l e t t h e f orm ul a a b x
r
i
m
e n u m b e r s o n l y , a n d su pp o s e th a t
p
t h e e x p r e ssi n is p , s o th a t

w hen

c an

by p,

+ np

m ultip l e

fp ,

fp ,
an

is th e re f or e

n o

m
e
r
i
p

411
way

b,

m b er

c an

be

r eso lv ed

in t o p r im e fa c to r s in
,

on

ly

on e

L et
a,

n u

6 , cl,

w h e re

d en o t e t h e n u m b e r su pp o s e N
are
r
i
m
u
o
s
a ls o th a t
e n um b e rs
S
e
pp
p
T
ar e o th e r p r im e n u m b e r s
h
en
8
y
.

)8,

wh e r e
a8 3
, y

H I GH ER

344
414
n u m b er
o th e r

ca n

G EBRA

a
i
n
h
w
s
w
i
c
h
a
c o mp o site
f
y
facto r s wh ich ar e p r ime to each

h
u m b er
d
t
e
n

b e r eso lv ed in to two

To

AL

O f t h e t wo fac t o r s
A s b e f or e , l et t h e n u m b e r N a b e

o n e m u st c o n t ai n a , fo r o th e r wis e th e r e w o ul d b e s o m e p owe r o f
a in o n e f a c t o r a n d s o m e p ow e r o f a in t h e o th e r fa c t or , a n d thu s
7
Si m il a r ly b
t h e t w o f a c t or s wo ul d n o t b e p r i m e t o e a c h o th e r
en c e t h e
m ust o c c u r in o n e o f t h e f a c t or s o n l y ; a n d so o n
r e q ui r e d n u m b e r is e qu al t o t h e n u m b e r o f w ay s in whi c h t h e
b
a c t o r s ; th a t is , t h e
r
o
d
u
t
f
e r e s o l v e d i n t o t wo
c an
c
p
p

'

umb e r

the

u mb e r
.

L et t h e
t e rm o f t h e

(
1

+ a + a

1) l

su

wh e r e

or

r s of a

by

mb er

n u

as

f or e

+ c + c

the

of

su

is

in

th e div iso

n u mb e r b e d e n o t e d
r
o
d
u
ct
p
d t he

d i v is or an d th e r e for e
rod
u
c t ; th at is
p
is

1) 1

fac to r s

f dier en t p r i m e

To

415

( (

w ay s is

th e

Th e n

e ac

d i v is o r s is

u
l
t
o
this
q
a

the

su

r e qui r e d

E x amp l e 1

1 b

_
a

_
_1

g+ l

b_1

+l

_1

o i der th e umb er 2 1 600

ns

n ce

the n um b er o f divi sors

o f th e div i or

t h e su m

( ( )()
1) 3

26
s

63

34
'

3
5

'

5,

72

1
1

4 0x 3 1

7 8 1 20

A l so 2 1 6 00 c an b e

or 4 way s

re olve d i to tw factor
o

pr m

to

e h other
ac

in

3
2 1

E x a mp le 2

I f n is

dd

S h w th t
a

72.

(
n

i v i si b l e b y

1 ) is d

24

=
We h ave
l
1) (
n
+
( ) n(
is dd
1 an d
umb e s ; he ce
Si n c e
+ 1 a e t wo c o s e c utive eve
e o f them i s di vi i b l e b y 2 a d th e o th er b
o
4
y
A gai
1
e o of t hem
+ 1 a e t h r e e c o sec uti v e n u m b ers ; he
s div ib l e b y 3 Thu t h e give e pr es i is divi sib le b y t h p r duct o f 2
n

is

3,

an

d 4, t

t is

n n

b y 24

nc

s on

ne
o

T H EO RY
Ex amp le 3

Fi

d th e

high

N U M B ER S

OF

3 45

t p ower o f 3 wh i c h

is

es

o tai e d i
n

(
u er o f
1 00

the rst 1 00 in tegers as m an y are divi sib le b y 3 as t h e n m b

tim e s t h at 3 is c o n tai n ed in 1 00 th at is 3 3 an d th e in teger s ar e 3 6
O f the se s o m e c o n tain the facto r 3 ag ai n n am el y 9 1 8
an d the i r
n um b er is the qu oti e n t o f 1 00 di vi de d b y 9
So m e ag ai n o f the se l ast
i n tegers c o n t ai n th e fac t or 3 a th ird ti m e n am ely 2 7 54 8 1 th e n u m b er o f
t he m b e i n g t h e q u o t i en t o f 1 00 b y 2 7
On e n u m b e r o n ly 8 1 c o n tai n s t h e
fac tor 3 four ti m e s
H e n c e t h e high est power requ ir ed 3 3 1 1 3 1 48
This examp le i s a p art i c ul ar case o f th e theore m i n ve sti gate d in t h e n e x t
arti c l e
Of

416
To
ta in e d in
.

co n

th e

nd

th e

a n

so

a
o n

at

ar e

l e a st

to

o t
n

r ss

1 11

wh ich is

d ,

am

a at

th e r e

on g t h e n u m b ers

l e a st o n c e
ar e

n am e

ly

w hi c h

m ulti p l e

f this c h ap t e r we sh a ll n d
o f n b y t h e s mb ol M
y

f r

"

(
n +

2 ,

r e spe c ti v e ly

L e t P st an d fo r t h e p rod u c t
l e a st o f w hi c h is n th e n

Si m il a r l y

Th e n

418
To p r o v e th a t th e p r o du c t
d ivis ib le b y 1
:
L

an

m b er

w hi c h c o n t ai n a at l e a st o n c e ;
hig h e st p o w e r o f a c o n t a i n e d in [n is

n c e , an

r e m ai n d e r

ex p e

ai n e

w hi c h c o t a i

the

en c e

In t h e

n u

I
41 7
v e n ie n t

2 a, 3 a , 4 a ,

a,

te ge r

th e r e

um b ers

o t i

an

d en o t ed b y I

1 , 2, 3 ,

me

r
i
p

L e t t h e g r e a te st
be

h ig h est p o wer

c o n sec u

co n

tiv e in teg er s

o n s ec uti v e i t eg e r s

2)

it

is

the

l ),

+,

)
n

+ l

P
u

"

x 7

'

tim e s

the p

rod u c t

fr

o n s e c u ti v e i t e g e r
n

H I GH ER

346

if

en ce

the p

1 , we

have

rod u c t

P
u

AL

G EBR A

o n s e c uti v e i n t eg e r s is d i v isi b l e

by

1)

+1

e r e f or e P
th
is
th
r
a m u lti l e o f r
e f or e
e
p
[
)
W e h a v e th u s p ro v e d th a t if
a ls o P
ar e m ulti p l e s o f
P
1 c o n s ec uti v e i n te g e r s is d i v isi b l e b y r
1
the
t h e p rod u c t o f r
|
n te e rs
rod
u
t
o
n s e c u ti v e
i
is
d
i
v
isi
b
l
e
b
f
r
t
h
e
u
c
o
c
b
t
;
g
y l:
p
c o n s e c uti v e i n t e e r s is d i v isi b l e
rod
u
t
v
r
t
wo
c
o
f
e
e
b
g
p
y
y [2 ;
th e r e f or e t h e p rod u c t o f e v e ry th r ee c o n s e c uti v e i n t e ge r s is d i v isi b le
by
a n d s o o n g e n e r a ll y
3
'

No w

r , an

3 ,

4,

This p ro p o siti o n m ay a ls o b e p ro v e d th u s :
By m e an s o f A r t 4 1 6 , w e c a n S h ow th a t e v e ry p r i m e
n
r a s o ft e n a t lea s t a s it is c o n t a i n e d in
c o n t a i n e d in
I
.

is

This w e

ex e

r c is e t o

stu d e n t

the

W ith t h e
e

a s an

If p is a p r im e n u mb er , th e
ex c ep t th e r s t
exp an sio n of a
41 9

th e

l ea v e

f c i e n t

e x c ep

f th e

ti o n

f the

f orm

r st

( 1) (
29

an

fa c t or
n

n t o
i
i
e
c
e
r
r
e
v
t
e
m in
e
f
y
a n d la s t, is div isib le b
y p

co

l a st

v ry t r m
e

h as

a co

(
r

l1

h a v e an y i n t e g r al v a l u e n o t e x c e e d i n g p 1 No w
this e x p r e ssi o n is an i n t e g e r ; a ls o S i n c e p is p r im e n o fac t or o f r
is a d i v is or o f it an d si n c e p is g re a te r th an r it c an n o t d i v i d e
p
p
p
r
ust
r ; th a t is
1
1
m
f
a c t or o f
+
an
b
e
)
y
)
I
d i v isib l e b y I H en c e e v e r y c o e f c i en t e x c e p t t h e r st an d
t h e l a st is d i v isi b l e b y p

w h e re

'

m ay

'

( (

4 20
.

If p is

W r it e ,8 f or b

m
i
e
p

+ c +

n u

mb er , t o p r o v e th a t

th e n

b y t h e p re c e din g

r ti c le

s u pp o s e ;

A ga i n

By p ro c ee d i n g in

this

way we m ay

sta b lish

th e

r e q ui r e d r e s u lt

348

I GH ER

G EBRA

AL

EXA MPLES

XXX

F i n d t h e least m ul ti pl i e r

s o

sp e c

tiv ely wh i c h will

Fi

mu

l e ast

d th e

um b r

e s

7 4 08 8

u ts p rf t q u r e
l ti p l i r s f t h
umb rs

m ak e t h e p ro d

1 83 7 5,

3 6 7 5, 4 3 7 4 ,

re

f the

ec

e n

7 6 2 3 , 1 09 3 50, 539 539

re

sp e c

Is e

m ake t h e p rod u c ts p e rf

I f x an d y are p o sitive in t eger s

2
d
i
v
is
i
b
l
e by 4
i
s
y
3

tively wh i c h will

if

an d

ub

is

es

en

h w th
e

Sh ew

en

I f 4x

b etwe en

an y n

umb e r

an

its

sq

u r

a e

i
s
y

m u lt i p l e

s h ew t h at 4 x

f 3,

+ 7 xy

2y

is di

vi ib l
s

Fi

d th e

umb r

di vis or s o f 8 06 4

way s

h o w m an y

In

f tors ?

t wo

di ffe r en c e

th e

5
by 9

th at

th e

c an

um b r
e

re s olv e d in t o

7 056 b e

ac

10

v th t 2 1 i divi i b l b y 15
Pro v th t (
m u ltip l
f6
+ 1) (
+ 5) i
Sh w th at v ry u m b r a d its u b e w he divi d
Pro

4n

11

12

13

I f n is

en

s a

sam e r emain de r

th e

e o

ed

by 6

le av e

s h e w th at

(
n

+ 2 o ) is

d i vi i b l e

w th at n (
n
1) (
3 n + 2 ) is d i v is i b l e
5
I f n is gr eate r th an 2 sh ew th at n

Sh e

b y 48

b y 24

di visib le

5n + 4 u is

by

1 20

14

16
240

15 I
m u l tip l e
.

Pro

18
19

is

is

+7

p im e

of 24
5
Sh e w th at n

i f n is

17
mb e

v th at 3

2n

m u ltipl e

f8

u m b r gr t r t h
ea e

an

3,

S h w th t
a

1 is

dd

is div is i b l e

b y 3 0 fo r

th at t h e di ffe ren c e o f
rs g reater than 6 is di v i s i b le b y
Sh ew th at

h w th
e

al l

v lu s
a

n , an

d by

Sh e w

no
e

square

v ry u b
e

th e
24

e n

s o

an y

two

m
e
r
i
p

um b r i
um b r i
e

sq u are s

form 3
f t h form 9

f th e

s o

n or

Qn

T H EO RY
Sh ew

20

is 0, 1

or

If

21
form 7 n
.

or

th at if

a n

umb r

7n + l

div

u m b r is d iv i de d

rem ai de r

b y 7 , the

Sh ew
24
m ay b e
.

o th s q u are

is b

no

tr i an g ul ar

an d c

ub s h w th t i t
e,

is

f the

I 2u + 1
23
i ded b y 2n + 1
.

ub

3 49

Sh ew th at

22

a c

N U M B ER S

OF

is

m
e
r
i
p

l eav e d i ffe ren t

th at

a an

u m b er

be

c an

m b e r, sh e w
remai n ders

o f t h e form

th at

en

3n

wh en

2
,

lway s

a ar e a

wh ate v e r a

an

25 Pro
form 8 r + 1
.

v that e v ry ev
e

en

e r o f e v e ry
ow
p

dd

u mb r

is

f th e

26
or

13n + 1

27
or

th at

th e

th at

th e

29

If

30
an d 3 7

31

l
2p + 1

umb e r is

f th e f m l 3n

an y

umb r i s

f t h e form l 7 n

an

or

umb e r
n

gr eat er th an

u mb r gr ater th
e

S h w th t

5,

3,

an

e xc e

t
p

7,

1 is

s h ew th at

that

36

1 is

d i visib le

b y 3 3 7 4 4 if

is p i m e

to

2, 3 , 1 9

Wh e n

QP
x

Sh ow

is an y p i m e
i s ib le b y 1 6 8

iv

1 is d

owe r

o
w
e
r
o
f
p

I n is a p rim e
28
is i b l e b y 2 4 0
.

Pro ve

17n

di v
n

Prov e

m
12

is di

+ 1 an d 2p + 1

vis ipl

b o th p r i m e n m b e r s , h ew th at
i x is prim e t o 2 , p + 1 , an d

ar e

by

d iv

33

ro
v
e
p
is

I f is
32
"
isib le b y p

If m
that

m u ltipl e

r
i
m
e
p

is

pr

r
i
n um b e r
m
e
p

m
a
i

fm

an d x

m
a

b+

m
a

ime t o

an

a,

p,

sh ew th at

b t wo

6 +

nu

m
b

xp

mb ers

'

r _1

l e ss th an

1 is

m,

u mb e r th

o
th
r
u
r
N
n
e
m
b
e
m
a
y
y
y
b e e x p r e ss e d in t h e f or m N = a q + r w h e r e q is t h e i n t e r a l
g
e
n
u
o
ti
t w h e n N is d i v i d e d b y a a d r is a r e m a i d e r l e ss th an a
q
Th e n u m b e r a t o w hi c h t h e o th e r is r e fe rr e d is s o m e ti m e s c a ll e d
t h e m o du lu s ; an d t o a n
i
v
e n m od u l u s a th e r e a e a d i f
r
t
f
e
e
n
y g
4 23

If

is

an

en

an
,

H I GH ER

3 50

fo r ms
v alu e

AL

G EBR A

f a n m b e r N, e ac h f or m c orr e s p n d i n g t o a d iffe r en t
Th s t m od ulus 3 , w e h a e n u m b e r s o f t h e f or m
o f r
3q
i n c e 3 g + 2 is
3 9 , 3 q + l , 3 g + 2 ; o r , m or e s im p l y , 3 g, :
,
I
n li k e m an n e r t o m od ulus 5 a n
u
1
1
n
m
al t o 3
b
e
e
g
y
)
q
w ill b e o n e o f t h e v e f rm s 59 , 5g 4 1 , 5g =h 2
o

I f b , c a r e t w o i n t e g e r s , w hi c h wh e n d i i d e d b y a
l ea e t h e s am e r e m ai n d e r , th e y a r e s ai d t o b e c n gru en t w ith
r e s p e c t t o t h e m od lus a I n this c a s e b c is a m ultipl e o f a , a n d
f o ll ow in g t h e n o t ati o n o f G a uss we sh all s o m e ti m e s e x p r e ss this

4 24

as

f o ll ow s

b E

Eith e r

mo d

f or m ul ae is

f th e s e

or

ca

ll e d

0 mo d

a c o n gru en c e .

If b , c a r e co n gr u en t with r esp ec t to m o du lu
4 25
b
a n d p c a r e c o n g r u en t, p b ein g a n y in teger
p
.

a,

th en

Fo r , b y
th e r e for e p b
4 26

If

su pp o siti on
=
c
p

n a

div ided b y b , the

Fo r

ma

n a,

w hi c h p ro v e s

is p r ime to b ,
a,

ar e

an

is s o m e i n te ge r
ro
o
siti
o
n
p p

t he

d the q u an tities

2a, 3 a,
r em ain

wh e r e

der s

1)

difer en t

a r e al l

b
e
e
a
w
o
ssi
l
su
o
s
th
t
u
t
o o f the
an titi e s m a
p
pp
q
d i v i de d b y b l e a v e t h e s am e r em a i n d e r r s o th at

if

wh en

an

ma

b
g

(
divid s ( )
to
this is i
m

th e n
th e r e f o r e b
it is p r i m e
l e ss th an b

+ r,

m)

; but

(
q

'

b;

h e n c e it m ust d i v i de m
si n c e

m p o ssi b l e s i n c e m an d m are e ac h

r em a i n de r s a r e all d iffe r e n t an d si n c e n o n e
n titi e s is e x a c tl
a
u
q
y d i v isi b l e b y b t h e r e m a i n d e r s m ust
t e rms o f t h e se ri e s 1 2 3
b
1 b u t n o t n ec e ss a r ily
ord e r
Thu s t h e

f the
b e the
in this
o

C OR
o f th e

If

is p r i m e t o

b,

an

is

an

c,

+ a,

e +

2a,

(
b

u mb e r
1)

a,

th e b

t e rm s

H I GH ER

3 52
To
4 30
ea ch o th e r ,
.

sh ew

th e

th a t

AL

n u

G EBR A

m b er s

b,

a,

c,

ar e

p r im e t o

ad
5
s

C o n si d e r t h e p rod u c t a b ; th e n t h e r st a b n u m b e r s
wr itt e n in b li n e s , e ac h li n e c o n t a i n i n g a n u m b e r s thus
2,

1
a +

2a

l,

a +

2a

1,

2,

a +

2,

a)

h,

a + a,

2a

be

a,

(
b

k,

12,

2a

c an

us c o n si d e r t h e v e r ti c al c o lu m n w hi c h b egi n s with k if
k is p r i m e t o a al l t h e t e rm s o f this c o lu m n will b e p r im e t o a ;
b u t if k an d a h av e a c o mm o n d i v is o r n o n u m b e r in t h e c o lu m n
No w t h e r st r o w c o n ta i n s 95 a) n u m b e r s
will b e p r i m e t o a
a
e r ti c a l c o lu m n s in e a c h
r
i
t
o
v
m
a ; th e r e f or e th e r e a r e (
e
b
)
p
o f whi c h e v e r y t e r m is p r i m e t o a ; l e t us su pp o s e th a t t h e
v e rti c al c o lu m n w hi c h b eg i n s w ith h is o n e o f t h e s e This c o lum n
is an A P t h e t e r m s o f w hi c h wh en d i v i d e d b y b l e av e r em ai n d e r s
l [ A r t 4 2 6 C o r ] h e n c e t h e c o lu m n c o n t ain s
b
0 1 2 3
i
n t e e r s p r im e t o b
b
t
a )
g
Le t

(
,

(
o
(
M
(
o
o
l (
)
(
) M)
a
4(
) 1(
(
.

a
e
r
ti
a
l
lu
m
n
s
w
hi
h
r
c
c
i
n
Sim il ar l y , e a c h o f t h e <
;
c
e
e
1 )
y
t e rm is p r im e t o a c n t a i n 4) b ) i n t e g e r s p r i m e t o b h e n ce in t h e
t ab l e th e r e ar e ( a ) 4) b ) i n t e ge r s whi c h ar e p r i m e t o a an d
t b , an d th e r e f or e t ab th at is
a ls
.

o o

>
<

Th e re f or e

a5 =

95

a b cd

5
9

<
:

b ed

ed

>
<
l

d)

To n d th e n u m b er
n u m b er , an d
r im e t o it
p

43 1
i
g v en

in teg er s less th a n

o
s
i
t
i
v
e
p

L e t N d e n o t e t h e n u m b e r , an d su pp o s e th at N
w h e r e a , b , c,
a r e d iffe r e n t p r i m e n u m b e r s , an d
p , q,
"
h
o
siti
v
i
n te e rs
o
n si d e r t h e fa c t o r a
o
f
t
n
a
tu
r
a
l
e
C
e
p
g
b e rs 1 , 2, 3 ,
a
1 , a , t h e o n ly o n e s n o t p r i m e t o a ar e

a,

2 a, 3a,

(
a

'

1)

a,

()
p

a,

r
n u

T H EO RY
an

d the

umb e r

f th e s e

a
r

Now

al l

fac to r s

t he

is
s

h
1

co

en c e

"

'

a re

N
a )

h w th

E x a mp le
an d p m t o

"

t th e su m o f

n s s

i t i on

add

an

ri

to i t

d p me

an d

N
(

1
ar e

ss

is

al s

an

en

an

the i r su m

( erm

s;

l ast a rti c l e it fo ll o ws th a t t h e
l e ss th an N an d n o t p r i m e t o it is

the

ar e

N 1

en

t o es N ) t

Fro m

by S; t

rm s
evers e or der

um b r
e

H r

th e

N
(

i n t e g e r s w hi c h

th a t is

the i n tegers wh i c h

al l

r,

te

S:

N)
(

432

ri es c o i ti g of
Writi g t h e seri es i

by

'

se

'

"

th e

h o th e r ;

e ac

'

i t is N (
N)
I f x is a y i teger l e ss th an N
i teger l e s t h an N an d pri m e t o it
D en ote t h e i t egers b y 1 p q

ri e

to

me

"

th a t is

3 53

b
ri
(
(
f(
) I(
) p(
)

c)

N U M B ER S

OF

e e

t he

N
7)

t e rm

N
?

N
a

i
v
es
g
a,

w hi c h c o n t ai n

'

as a

ab

ac

be

th e

u mb e r o f

2a , 3 a,

f t or
ac

N
+
7 06
6

h
e
t
;

th e

i n te ge r s

N
.

t e rm

ab

i
v
es
g

the

um b e r o f

H I G H ER

3 54

i n t e ge r s

th e
an

so

on

2a b , 3 a b,

ab,

F u rth e r

ab

AL

G EBRA

a b,

whi c h

o t i

a b as a

a n

v e ry i t ege r is r e ko d o
c

ne

an

n c e,

fac t or

n ce

ly ; thus e ac h m ultipl e o f a b will app e a r o n c e am o n g t h e

m u lti p l e s o f a o n c e a m o n g t h e m ulti p l e s o f b an d o n c e n e g ati v e ly
a n d is
thus r e c k o n e d o n c e o n l y
am o n g t h e m ulti p l e s o f a b
on

am o n
r
t
h
e
pp
g
a
0
b
t e r m s w hi c h ar e m ultip l e s o f a b 0 r e sp e c ti v e ly ; am o n g t h e
m
w
c h ar e m ulti l e s o f a b a c b e r e s e c ti v e l
t
r
s
hi
e

p
y;

A gai n ,

eac

m ulti p l e

will

abc

ea

ab
an

be

ae

c as e

m ay b e

4 33

d is c uss e d

ils
o
n s Th e o r e m
W
]
[

p
(

1) p

F e r m at s

(
p)

Th e r e f or e 1

p
l

m
r, 1
m
e
n
u
b
e
i
p

( (

1) p

P
(

si n c e p

1,

2)

ex

is

ve

t e rm s ;

r
e ssi o n s
p

thus
2

l t erms

Th e or e m e a c h o f t h e
is o f t h e f or m 1

have

d by

( (
( )( )( )(
l
-

an

n c

If p b e

By Ex 2, A r t 3 1 4 we

an

is div isib le b y p

m ulti pl e s o f a b c th t is S i c e 3
o g th e
3
l
1
abc
h m u ltip l e f a b o c c u r s o c e
d o e o ly
Si m il r l y o th r
am

e ac

th e o r em is o n ly t r u e w h en p is p r i m e Fo r su pp o s e p
h as a fa c t or q th en 9 is l e ss th an p an d m ust d i v i d e ip
l
hen ce
1 is n o t a m ulti p l e o f q an d th e r e f or e n o t a m ultip l e o f p
I
Ip
This

W ils o n s Th e or e m m ay

r e sult qu o t e d fro m

A r t 3 1 4,
.

ls o

as

in

ro
v
usi
e d w ith o ut
p
t h e f o ll ow i n g a r ti c l e

the

H I GH ER

3 56

AL

Man y th e or e m s r el ati n g
4 35
b e p ro e d b y i n d u c ti o n

to

c an

x 70

the p

rop e r ti e s

u mb e r s

E x amp l e 1
L et

G EBR A

e u e
de o te d b y f (
) ; th
If p

be

is a

pr

r, x1

+ 1)

l)

vi i b l e b y p

is di

oi

s o al s

2 ) = 2P

if p

m lti pl e o p ,
m l ti p l

+ 1)

i vi i b l e b y p

xp

r p

I f the refore f x )

is d

en

mb

is p

O fp

ri m e [ A

but

rt

2,

t her efor e f (
3 ) i di i i b l e
h i i multipl of p whe p i pri m e [A t
d
4 ) i s divi i b l b y p
b y p ther e fore f (
; t h u t h p rop o iti o i t ru e
u iver lly
other pr f o f Ferm t s t he orem for i f i pr im e t p
Th i fur i he
m ulti p l o f p
it follows th t
1 i
24
2 5 i d i vi i b l b y 57 6
Prove th t
E mp l 2
2 5 b d ot e d b y f (
24
L t
);
H
2 4 (1)
5
25
the
f(
an

dt

sa

sa

an

so o n

xa

l9

s a

en

+ 1)

2 n +2

2 4n

= 2 5 24n + 2 5)

49 ;
24 n

49

l o i f(
n) i divi ib l e b y 57 6
her efore i f f (
b
+
1 t he re for e it i t ru whe
h
he rem i t ru e whe
3
fore
rue whe
d
; th u i t i t u u iv er l ly
Th
follow
b ove r e ult m y l o b prov ed

T
see t at t h e t
it is t

e a

n n

n n =

an

25

25W

25 1

sa

rial w
2 t he r e

t by t

n n

s:

25
2 4n

25
2 4n

25

XXX

w t h at 1 0 + 3 4 + 5 i di visib le b y 9
5 is a m u l t i p l e o f 24
e w t h at 2
7 +3 5

w th at 4 6
w h e di v i de d b y 2 0 l eav r e m ai de r 9
e w t h at 8
i
f t h e form 24 (
2

57 6n + M 57 6 )

h
Sh
Sh
Sh

2 4n

EX A MPLES
S

as

n
-

a s

so

so o n

a s

2 4n

(
)
(
57 6 (
n

2 5f

27 "

o o

s an

v s

+2

s o

es

T H EO RY
If p

5
.

2"

h w th

w that

4b + l

is

th at

2n +

+ 1 6 0n

th e
of 1

(b
su

the e x pan si o n
o th e r th an 5 is div isi b l e
.

in

I n is
11
isib le b y 504
.

12

m lti pl e
13

(
l f
.

f 1

tip

e o

m l ti p l e

fp

b y 30

3 57

owe r

f 2

o tai
n

n e

d in

is

"

Pro ve

10

d iv

d i vi i b le

is

h i gh e s t

th e

3 + 1 is

Sh o w th at 3

r i m e s h e w t h at 2

Sh e w th at

Sh o

is p

N U M B ER S

OF

If

m ult i p l e

f 14

2 4 3 is di

56 n

f th e

vi i b l
s

b y 51 2

o ef c ie n t o f t h e dd p o we r o f x
w h e n n is a p r i m e n u m b e r

m
e n u m b e r g r e at e r t h an
r
i
p

7,

p ro v e t h at

S h w th at
e

is

is

is
o f 128

an

dd

um b r
e

4
2
n
n
3
+
+7

11

If p

is

ar e

ri me n u m b e r h ew th at t h e c o e f ie ts o f t h e t e r m s
alte rn at e ly g r e at e r an d l e ss b y u ity th an s o m e m u l
p

h
u m o f th e
a
t
e
s
1
is
r
i
S
h
th
t
e
w
e
o
a
m
e
ow
r
s
f
)
p
p
p
p
an
p
n u m b e rs in ar ith m e ti c al p ro gr e s s i o n wh e r e i n t h e c o m m o n di ffe r
y
an a m ulti p l e o f
b
1
e n ce is n o t di visi b l e b
i
l
e
ss
th
s
y
p
y p,

14

If

th

15

to

91

Sh e w th at

z
l
a

12

is

d ivisi b le b y

9 1,

if

a an d

ar e

b o th p ri me

2
r 2r
1
1
p
is
d
i
v
isi
l
p
w
a
b
b
m
e
e
e
r
i
sh
th
t
y
p
)
l
I f n l u + 1 ar e b o th p rime n u m b e r s gr eate r th an 5 sh ew
17
t h at ( 4 ) is di v is i b l e b y 1 2 0 a d n (+ 1 6 ) b y 7 20 A l s o S h e w
th at n must b e o f t h e form 3 0t o r 30t + 12

16

I f p is

18
Is eq

Sh ew

u lt

19
m b er

l oo
a

"

u r

If

c an

Fi

is

be

d th e

d i v i i b le b y p

wh i c h is c o tai n e d
n

9 8x

in

2
0

f th e

mo d

if

p i m e t o p , an d
a is d
s b le b
y p,

ivi i

r l ol u tio n

en e a

fn

ri m e n u m b e r a
fo u d s u c h th at

+r

l is

20

h i gh e st p owe r
n

II

th at

th e

o n gr u e

n ce

a sq

u r

a e

h e w th at

H I GH ER

3 58
21

AL

G EBRA

o f all t h e n u m b e r s l ess tha

Sh e w th at t h e su m o f t h e s q u are s
m b e r N an d p r i m e t o it is
n

i
v
n
e
g

an

d th e

b ei n

di

gi v

g th

fp

I
22
isib l e b y
.

23

diffe

d g

( (
t) i

ren t p r m e fac t or s o f N
i

ar e

(
g

an

is
e w t h at
e i n teg e r s
o
siti
v
S
h
p
q
p
)

two

an y

d by

Sh ew th at t h e s q uare n mb e rs whi c h ar e als o

b y t h e sq ar e s o f t h e c o ef c i e n ts o t h e p ower s

p an sio n
n
e
p

an

en

o f t h e c u b es is

su m

a,

(b ) (
1

of

2 ,

6x + x
b y t h e c ef
1

tagon al

an

th at

th e

s q u are

tri an gu lar

of

in t h e

u mb rs wh i h
e

o c ien t s o f t h e p ow e rs o f x

are

in t h e

e x pan

are
ex

ls o

si on o f

1
1

24

Sh e w

th at

th e

su

of

l ess th an N an d prim e t o it is

1 0x + x

ou r th p owe rs

th e f

N3

1_

b ei n

g th

f re t p rim f tors

di fe

(f

30
a,

ac

N)

l
f
x

26

I f d1

th e

umb e rs

'

0 mo d

b) 1
3

fN

den ote t h e di vis ors

d2 , d3 ,

w als o t hat

N
n
h
t
e
m
b
e
o
n
e
25 I <
is
r
i
t
r
s
h
i
h
)
f
w
c
e
)
1
p ri m e t o it , an d i x is p ri m e t o N, sh ew t at
.

o f all

( (
N
b
(
(

N)
o

ar e

l ess th an N

fa

nu

mb er

N th e n
,

(
I)

Sh e

an )

3
x
,

5
x

an d

H I GH ER A L G EB RA

3 60

Su pp o s e th a t t h e su c c e ssi v e c o n v e rg e n ts a r e f orm e d in
S im il ar way ; l e t t h e n u m e r at or s b e d en o te d b y p l , p 2 , p 3
an d t h e d e n o m i n a t or s b y
q, , 9 3 ,

ssu m e th at t h e l aw
v e rgen t ; th a t is supp o s e
A

f or m ati o n h o l d s f or

the

th

co n

(
b

Th e

n +

a
n

ri

th

l)

a
d i ffe r s f ro m
c o n v e r ge n t
J

11

fa ;

th

b q

iz

the

ii

'

o n ly

th

h a vi n g

in

h en c e

o n v e r ge t
n

b p

qn _1 +

b q
u

_2

1z

a
n

th e r e f or e
]

)
n

_l

+ l

_l

+1

+4) n

+l

_]

+ 1

we pu t

+l

+1

2L

If

+1

()
n

in t h e p l a c e

th e

t 1
-

1:

+l p

l ,

i l
-

t 1
-

1:

+l

(
n

th at t h e n u m e rat or an d d e n o m i n at or o f t h e n l ) c o n
v e rge n t f o ll ow t h e l aw w hi c h was s u pp o s e d t o h o l d in c a s e o f t h e
th
Bu t t h e l a w do e s h o l d in t h e c a s e o f t h e thi rd c o n v e r g e n t ;
n
h e n c e it h o l d s f o r t h e f o u r th ; an d s o o n ; th e r e f or e it h ol d s
u n i v e r s ally
we

se e

th

43 9

In t h e

ca e o

f th e

b1
a

a,

we m ay p ro v e
)

o n ti n u e d f r ac ti o
3

as

th a t
an

b p

m ay b e d e d u c e d
b y c h an g i n g t h e S i gn o f b
a

r e sult w hi c h

f ro m th a t

f t h e p re c e d in g

"

4 40
.

In th e

o n ti n u e d f r a c ti o n
b1
a, +

we

b2
a

63
a

h a v e s e e n th a t
p

a
n

bu p u

a
n

b u g
s

'

r ti c l e

G ENERA L T HEO RY
q

b
n

but

i IQ

is th e r e for e

+ l

t 1

+l

an

an

CO NTIN U ED F RA C TI O N S

OF

t 1
-

11

i n

fl

+l

l
+l

ro
r
f
r
a c ti o n
e
p p

hen ce

41 1

an
R

is o f o pp o sit e S i gn

is

l e ss th an

361

u m r i ll y
ca

+1

By r e a s o n i n g a s in A r t 3 3 5, w e m ay S h e w th a t e v e r y c o n
v e rgen t o f an odd ord e r is g re at e r th an t h e c o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n ,
an d e ve r
c o n v e r e n t o f a n e v e n ord e r is l e ss th a n t h e c o n ti n u e d
y
g
f ra c ti o n h e n c e e v e ry c o n v e rgen t o f an o dd O rd e r is g re a t e r th an
.

v e r y c o v e rge t o f a
n

Thus

ls o

p2

92

11

ge

+1

v e o rd e r
n

pos t v
i i

is

d l e ss

th an

p2

+ l

PQ

q2

+l

92

II

an

q2

he n c e

2"

71

l e ss th an

q2

p it

92

71

QQ

q2

])2

e an

23 1 is p o siti v e
3

q2

ge

he n c e
n

o n v e rge n ts o f an O dd ord e r ar e all g re at e r th an

t h e c o n ti n u e d f r a c ti o n b u t c o n ti n u all y d e c r e a s e a n d t h e c o n
v e r e n t s o f an e v e n o rd e r a r e al l l e ss th an t h e c o n ti n u e d f r ac ti o n
g
b u t c o n tin u all y i n c r e as e
Su pp o s e n o w th a t t h e n u m b e r o f c o m p o n e n ts is i n n it e th e n
t h e c o n v e r g en ts o f an o dd o rd e r m ust t e n d t o s o m e n it e l i m it
a n d t h e c o n v e r e n ts o f an e v e n o rd e r m ust als o t e n d t o s o m e
g
n it e li m it if th e s e li m its are e qu a l t h e c o n tin u e d f r ac ti o n t e n d s
t o o n e d e n ite li m it ; if th ey ar e n o t e q u al t h e O dd c o n v e rg e n ts
t e n d t o o n e li m it an d t h e e v e n c o n v e rgen ts t e n d t o a d i ffe re n t
li m it an d t h e c o n ti n u e d f rac ti o n m ay b e s a i d t o b e o sc illa tin g ; in
this c as e t h e c o n tin u e d f r ac ti o n is t h e sym b o li c al r e p re s e n ta ti o n o f
t wo q u an titi e s o n e o f w hi c h is t h e li m it o f t h e o dd a n d t h e o th e r
th at o f t h e e v e n c o n v e rg e n ts
en c e

th e

H I GH ER A L G EBRA

362
*

44 1

sh ew

To

th a t th e

tin u

co n

fr a ctio n

b2

a1

h as

d en i te

if

v a lu e

li m i t

th e

a
1

wh en

i;

a
n

b3
a

is

n i te

is

u +1

th a n

r ea ter

Th e

z er o

o ti ue d f r ti o w ill h v e

i n n it e if

ac

th e

d e n it e v alu e w h e n
p
p
an d
IS e qual t o
li m its o f
a

d iffe r e n c e o f

th e

NO W

+l

+l

w hen ce

+1

+l

1)

b
1
a
n

art

ll

H qn

b n +1 qn

ls o

n e

an

lim it

the

s am e
Fo r

64 9 2 63 9 1

94

ll
-

b q"
n

an an

be

c an

q1

q"

+1

n e

is l e ss th an

f t h e p rod u c t

an

be

n +l

an

L im

th e r e f or e

2
5

n n

b n +1
c

+1 gn

+1

the

lim it

2n

p
g

f ra c ti o n s

191

(
n +

27

ten d

1)

o n tin u e d f ra c ti on t e n d s t o

is
.

L im b 1 ) (: )

q"

+l

git

f p r pe r
an

o n ti n u e d f ra c ti o n

9!

a a

the

th e r e f or e

in t h e

b 9

ti v e ; h e n c e if

e x am p e ,

+1

i n n it e n u m b e r

+l

l
e ro ; th t is
u
t
o
q
li m it w hi h p ro v e s t h e p rop o siti o

th e r e f or e

ai l

93

6M 1 q

II gn

g
-

+l

an

an

1;

d m ust

the

bn

ith e r o f th e s e t e rm s

lim it

the

9n

b Q

git H

an

b n +l
ca e

ca

ro

gn +1

+1

ze

ob tai n

we

Bu t

an

vt

is

d e n it e li m it

to

H I GHE R

3 64

th e

LG E BR A

th e om p o nen t s i s i n it e th e o
f
i n n it e se i es f p op e f ac ti o s i n s e di n g
d
it d e 3 a d i n thi s se th e o ti n e d f ti m s t
t e d t o a d e n it e lim it whi c h a o t e c ee d u n it y
If
o
rm
v er en t s
g
o r er o f m ag n

C OR

nu

mb er

an

a c

rac

on

th e

co n

"

b p
n

z ?

raga

b q
u

l way s d e t e rm i ne i s c ess i o n
m ny
as we
l
e
a se
I
e
t
i
n
ses
h
o
w
eve
p
ess i o
b e fo
d fo r th e
c o nve
en
t
g

we m ay
v e r en t s
g

c an

r a

un

To

n d

c onver g en t t

th

ca

th

th e

as

u c

E x amp le

e
n er a l
g

r,

6p _ ; h enc e th e n u m e r at or s for m a r e c urr i ng s e r ie s

h ave p = 5p
th r ee c on se c u t ive term s f wh i ch a e c onn e c t e d b y the r el at i on

We
an y

F r o m th e f o r m u l a

ex pr

nn

443

ca

nh

5Pn

Pn

'

61375

L et
:
12 +

Bu t

r t

the

t wo

30

c onve rg e n t s a e 5
r

6
1

wh enc e

5x + 6x

19

18

2
12
6

12

3x

2x

12

18

6 3

"

i i r y if

S m la l

I
S

W e n d

wh enc e

6x

5
1

5x +

2
6x

6 3

qn

n.

Pn

3x

2x

2 H
"

2 n +1

o ns t t
d
d will o n l y s u ee d wh e
T h s i n th e c ase o f th e c o ti n e d f ac ti o n
f all v al es O f n
6
b
b
m e t o s o f th e
we m y s h e w th at th e
a
a
a
s u c ess i ve o nve g e t s e th e o ef c i en t s o f th e p owe s o f as i
b
d th e d e om in t o s
e
th e e pa s i o O f
th e

T hi s

or

m e th o

cc

an

an

nu

ar

ax

are
u

ra

bx

an

an

o e f c i e n t s o f th e p o w e r s o f a i n th e e x p a ns i o n

ar

GENER A L T HE O RY

OF

C O N TI N U E D

F R A C TI O NS

365

th e i nves ti gati o o f th e g ene l v l u es o f p

dq
th e s t u d en t i s e fe e d t o w o k s o Fi it D ie es ; it i s o n l y
b e f o n d b y A lg b a
i n s p e c i l ses th t th ese v l u es
The
f o ll o wi n g m e th o d will s o m e ti m es b f o n d u se f u l
*

444

Fo r

ra

an

"

'

ca

rr

Fi

n d th e val u e

sam

or

S im il arly

1)

un

m in

_1

n un

an

nu

nun

an

1
(
)p

hu

(
n

pn

pn

+1

pn

I
n

+ 1)

l)

'
n

by

P2
E

PI

PI

1 ) qn

qn

+1

I
qn

'

2
I

n
:

+1

IE

(
I
th e r e for e th e val u e f th e g ive n e p r e i on
o

ing i n n i t e w e O b t i n
n

9n

wh i h i

l)

1
3

ss

2
9

+l

91
2

Q2
3

ir

gn

'

ddi t i on

(
n

qn

pn

By m ak

h e nc e

(
In

Wh enc e

s ar e

n
I
13n

nu_
3

it n _
1

r t two c onve rg n t

Th e

to

4u 2 :

wh nc e b y m ul t ip l i c t ion we ob t i n
e

t ak e

u s

1L
3

d q n ; le t

_2,

(
n

or

e r

e l w f form t i on h ol ds f
eith e r f th em ; th en
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r en c

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e

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3
9

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366
If ev er y

44 5
.

r a c tio n

f
n
r
a
c
t
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o
f

with in tegr a l n u m er a to r
is in co m m en su r a b le

b2

bl

co mp o n en t

an

b3
a

is

d den o m in a to r , th e

co n

ro

r
e
p

tin u

ed

i f p o ss i b l e s pp o se th at th e c o n ti n u e d f ac ti o i s c o m
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wh e e A d B a e p o s iti ve i t e ge s 3
m ens ab l e a d e q l t o
Fo r

ur

bl

t h en

A
63

62

u a

an

wh e e j; d en o t es th e in n it e o ti n u e d f
r

r ac

ti o

A bl

Ba1

_
h en c e ] ;
s u pp o se No w A B a b
B
E
+
th e e f o e 0 i s a p o s iti ve i n t ege
a e i n t e g e s a d j; i s p o s iti ve
b
wh e e j ; d e o t es th e i n n it e o ti n u e d
Si m il a l y
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00

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to

jf

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B 62

3 h e c e j;
a
a
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61

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al

63

l ess th n
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th a n

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an

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,

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an

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so

on

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on

an

as

Z
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op e r f r a c ti o n 3 Q I s l ess th an

64

63

l ess

13

D
3

IS

T hu s

o r m an in n ite ser i es o f p o sitiv e in teg er s

A , B, C , D ,
He n c e th e
in descen din g o r d e r o f m ag n it u d e 3 whi c h i s ab s u r d
i
v en
r a c ti o n c a n n o t b e c o mm e n s u r ab l e
g
.

o ve r es u lt s till h o ld s i f s om e o f th e c o mp o n en t s ar e
n ot
r
o
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r
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r
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ti
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t
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p
n e n t a ll th e o th e r s ar e
o
r
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r
a
c
p
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The

ab

s u pp ose th at

th e s u c c ee di g c omp o en t s a e
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c ti o ns ; th s a s we h a ve
f
u st
o
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d
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e
i

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e
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p
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6
t i u e d f ac ti o n b e g i n i n g with
i s i c omm en s ab l e 3 d e n ot e
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an

al l

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ra

it

b y k,

th e

th e om pl e t e
c

ur

o ti en t c or r esp on din g t o
Q

11"

i s 5
6

[6 9 11

Sh

In

2a +
a

2a +

2a +

2a

t h at

be

h ew th t

r o

rove th t t h

1
a

a +

59 n

+1

6+

r
p

odu c t

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11

13

Bth e

a,

oots

t h e eq u ati o n

b= 0

d+

1
+

b+

a+

1 _

5_

2
2_

3
3_

4 _

+ 1)

4 _

3+
3
5_

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w
(
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e

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1+

15

13

14

t h e c o nti n u e d fra ti o ns

64

1_

12

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an

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c

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i s eq u l t o 1
Sh e w th t
10

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h
.

i ng th e n u mb e

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th e c o n ti n u e d f ac ti o n
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1
a

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ew th at
1

A L GE B RA

H IGHER

368

3+

(
2
e

1)

+1

(
n

+ 2)

n +

e
ac h su c c e ss v e fr ac t o n
a+b
3
a + 26
b e i n fo rm e d b y t aking t h e den o min at or a d t h e su m o f t h e n u m er at o r
a d
n o m in at o r o f th e
r
e
e
i
ng
f
c
t
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o
n
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r i t s n u m er at o r an d de o m i
c
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r
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p
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n at o r r es pe cti v el y sh ew t h at
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16

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ul

uz

a+

u3

C O N V ERS I O N
17

ro ve th t t h

SER I ES I N T O C O N TI N U E D F R A C TI O NS 3 6 9

OF

e u

c o nv e r gen t t o

t l1

'

c o n ti n u e d frac ti o n

th e

IS

18

Fi n d th e v al u e

19

h ew th t th e

Z
th e (

1)

20

h e w th t t h

m
3u

g r eater th an u n ity

c o nver g e n t t o

c o nver gen t t o

th

a2

an d

ei ng p o itive

a1 , a2 ,

dl

is

eq u al t o

2+

o nve r gen t t o
1

2+

n
g

21

Sh e w t h at

hence s he w t h t lies b etw een

a

4 47

It

CO N V ERS I O N

will

SER I E S

OF

be

Put

u
r

1
a:

+1

+1

H H
.

u
r

+1

2
r

7b
'

t l

1
2

"

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oooooo

( (
x)

CO N TI N U ED FR A C TI O NS

1
r

Hen c e

e_

d QT?

an

I N TO

th en

3n + 1

on v en i en t h e r e t o wr it e th e se r i es i n th e f o r m

1
u

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3 +

2+

u
u

2
l

24

H I G HER

37 0

i il l y

Sm

ar

1
u

so

o n

u l

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u l

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re s

as a

an

a a +1

n n
an

0+

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r ss
e

yl

a1

a1

a oa a
l 2

(
a

al x
x

l o g 1 + x)

ao x

ao

a x
0

ao x

a a a
0 1 2

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x
0 +

a0

a a1
o

n n

yo

aO

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yn

ca/1 1 2

au x

yn

cal

an

Ga

00

+
n _l

+ u

an

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al

as a c
2

a2

an
au _ l x

al x

a ox

W e h av e

an

ont in ued fr cti on

a

r eq uir e d e p re i on i s m o t simply d e duc e d from

fr c ti on e q u iv l en t t th e s e rie
Th e

c ontin u e d fr ac t i on th e se r ie

v.

th e n

an

16

"

+ u

P11 13

ai

u
u

g n

all y
h
en
e
ene
g
3

an

L GE B R A

ss

th e

c on t in u e

H I G HER

A L G EBR A

EX A MPLES

XXXI

'

hew th t

u1

u 2

no

u 0+
x

ao

a o al

an

il l

260 +

uZ

ul

n
-

_1

a a a
o l 2

a a

a x
l

'

an

x
'

ao
r

T+

1 _

+1

4_

1_

to

4
1

+1

_
2
+

ab

abc

a b cd

10
a

1 +

a2 +

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a
a

an

1+

2n + 1
n

'

1+

l +

1+

a2

a1

a2 +

Q bi
;

3+

0+

d+

6+

1 +

_
4
+

an

3x

_
3
+

a2

14

2x

x :
6

+ 1)

t ien

u
o
q

an

1 _

11

a2 + x

+x

+2

2n
u

+1

'

an _
1

0+

h e w th t
a

12

Sh e

w t h at
1

fr c t o n +
den o m n t o s f the

t in u ed

a]

91

9 192

9 2 93

9 39 4

whe e
+
+
w c o nve gen t s
r

a2

s u c c ess

eq u al t o th e c o n

is

g1

2,

93

ar e

th e

CHA P TER X XX II
PRO BA B

449

w ys
a

th

o r

D E F I N I T I ON
an d e a c
of

c h an c

I L I TY

e v en t c an h app en in a way s an d fail in

th ese w ay s i s e qu all y li k e ly th e p r ob ab ilit y
I f an

e o f l t s li appe n i n

'

IS

a +

an

th at

it s faili n g i s

b
a+

i ns t an c e i f i a l o tt e y th e r e a e 7 p i es a d 2 5 b l a k s
7
th e c h a c e th t a p e r s o h o ldi g 1 ti c k e t will wi a p e s
Fo r

an

hi s c h an c e

no

on

r z

ri z

32

25

wi n n i n g i s

32

m ath e m ati c a l d e n iti on o f p r o

d e c l e ar b y th e oll owin g c on s id e r ati o n s
I f an even t c an h app e n in a way s an d ail t o h app e n in 6
w ay s , an d al l t h ese w ay s ar e e qu all y l ik e l y, we c an a sse r t th at th e
a ili n
as a t
6
c h an c e o f it s h app e n i n g i s t o th e c h an c e o f it s
g
T h u s i th e c h an c e o f it s h app en in g i s r ep r ese n t e d b y h a , wh e r e
h i s an u n d e t e r m i n e d c on s t an t , th e n th e c h an c e o f it s a ili n g
will b e r e p r ese n t e d b y h b

T e r eas
450
b ab il it y m ay b e m a
.

th e

fo r

h a c e o f h pp e i n g c h n e o f faili g h a 6)
No w th e even t i s c e t ai t o h p p e o r t o f ail 3 th e e f o e t h e s m
h a c es o f h pp eni n g d f ili n g m s t e p esen t t i ty
o f th e
I f th e e f o e we ag ee t o t k e c e t i t y as o r u it we h a ve
a

an

r a n

or

cer a n

th e c h an c e th at th e even t will

i s th e p ob
o b ab ility f it s n o t h

COR

th e

d
.

If p

n o

pp en i s

ilit y o f th e h app en i n g
en
i
n
i
s
1
pp
g
p

ab

th e h nce th at th e even t will h app en i s

c

1
a +

an

b
a

an

even t

H I G HER

374
4 51

In s

th e

t , o r b to

th e h

it i s s o m etim es s tat e d th at

s ayi n g th at th e c h a n c e

even t i s

an

t e ad

A L GE B R A

th e

th e ev en t

ain st

en
i
n
pp
g

dds

ar e a

to b

g
f
T h e d e n iti on o f p r ob ab ilit y in A r t 4 4 9 m ay b e g i ven
4 52
I f c i s th e
in a Sli g htl y di ffe r e n t f o rm whi c h i s s om e ti m es U se f u l
t ot al n u mb e r o f c a ses e ac h b e i n g e q u all y li k e l y t o o c c u r an d o f
th ese a ar e fa v ou rab l e t o th e even t th en t h e p r o b ab ilit y th at t h e

in

av o u r o

ev en

a a

ev e n t will h appen i s

h app en i s

an

th e

ob ab ilit y th at it

will

n o

th e ch ance o f th rowing a n umb er g reat er th an 4

with or n y d ie wh o se fac e s a e n umb er e d from 1 t o 6 ?
Th e r e are 6 p o ssib l e w ay s i n wh i ch th e d ie c an fall a d o f th e e t wo
a e favour ab l e t o th e even t r e q u ir e d ;
1
therefore the req u i red ch ance 2
3
6
W h at is

Ex a mp le 1
an
di ar
.

c on t ai n ing 4 wh it e a d 5 b l ack b all a m a

draws 3 at ran dom ; wh at a e the Odd ag ai t the e b eing all b lack ?
Th e t o t al n u m b er o f w ay s i n w hi ch 3 b all c a b e dr awn i s 0
a d
th e n u m b e r f way s f dr awing 3 b l ack b all i s 0 ; th e r e for e th e c h nce
f dr aw i ng 3 b l ack b al l
E x amp le 2

rom

b ag

n s

5 4

03

63

42

h u s th e odds ag ai n t the even t a e 3 7

E x amp le 3

n d the ch anc e

Fi

'

to 5
.

thr owing

at

e t
as

ac e

one

i gl e

in

a s n

th row w i th t wo d i c e
Th e p o s i b l e n u m b er o f c ases i s 6 X 6 o r 3 6
A n ac e o n o e d ie m ay b e as o c i at e d w i th a y o f th e 6 n um b e r
th e
o th er d ie a d th e rem aining 5 n um b e rs o n th e r t d ie m ay each b e as o
c iat d w i th th e ac e o n th e sec o n d d ie ; th u s th e n u m b e r
f favour ab l e c a e s
is 1 1
11
Th er efore th e re q u ired c h ance is
3B
.

s on

f o ll o w s
Th e r
5w y
wh i c h e c h d ie
b th rown
t t
g i ve
f t h t w di c e w i ll e c l ud e c e
Th t i th e c h nc e
; h enc e 2 5 th row
?
t th rowi ng
m or
c es is a
f th row i ng
th
t
th
e
c
h
nc
e
36
25
11
1
t le t
36
O r we m ay

s o

as

is

as

e a

one or

no

ac e a

e as o n

a s in

e ar e

ac e

or

c an

so

so

as n o
a

s.

s,

an

o ne

H I GHE R

37 6

th at

will h

n
e
pp

a +

W i ll h app e n

+ c +

so

an

a +

Sim il ar l y

IS

LGE BRA

is

on

th e h a e th at B
n c

F r om th e e x am pl es we h ave g i v e n it will b e see n th at

th e s ol u ti on o f th e e as i e r k in d s o f qu esti o ns in Pr ob ab ilit y r e qu i r es
n o thi n g m o r e th a n a k n o wl e d g e o f th e d e n iti o n o f Pr ob ab il it y
an d th e a p li c ati o n o f th e l aws o f P e r m u t ati o ns an d C o m b i n a
p
4 54

ti o s
n

EXA MPLES

XXX II

ve
(
1)

In

2)

s in gle thr o w with tw o di ce n d th e c h ances

six

th o wing

F r om

ck

c ar ds

f 52

t wo

n d om ; n d th e

d aw n

ar e

at r a

th e othe a q u een
A b ag o n tai ns 5 wh i te 7 b l k
d b ll s : n d t h e
3
d 4
h an e that th ee b all s d aw at an d om e ll white
I f fo
4
oi s a t ossed n d th e c h an e that th e e s h oul d b
tw o h ead s a d t wo tai l s
5 O
o f tw o even ts m u st h appen : g i ven that th e ha c e f the
i s t w thi d s th at f th e o th e n d th e o dd s i fav ou f th e oth e
If fro m a p c k four c a d s a d r wn n d th e h a ce th at th e y
6
will b t h e fou h o n ou s Of the s am e s u it
Thi r t een p e s o ns t ak e th ei pl a es at a o n d tab l e s h e w th t
7
o
t
agai ns t tw o
ve t o
ti
c
u
l
e
s
o
ns
S
itti
ng
t
o
e
th
e
a
a
p
p
g
Th e e a th r e even t s A B 0 o ne f wh i c h m u s t
8
d o nly
8 t o 3 ag ai ns t A 5 t o 2 ag i ns t B : n d
h p pen ; t h e od d
t h e o d d s agai n t 0
C o m pa e th e c h ances f th o wi ng 4 with
9
e di e 8 w i th tw o
d e a d 1 2 w i th th r ee d i e
1 0 I s h fi g a p ac k f c a d s fo
cc i den tally d opp e d ; nd
a
the c h a e t hat t h e m i ssi ng a d s s h o l d b
from e c h s u i t
11
A h
3 s h es i n a l o tt e y c o n t i n i g 3 p i es a d 9 b l n k s ;
B h 2 s h r es i n a l otte y c o n tai n i ng 2 p i es a d 6 b lank s : c om p ar e
the c hances f s u ccess
12
Sh ew th at th e c h nces f th o wing i wi t h 4 3
2 d i ce
espe ti vely a
1 6
18

h an ce th at

o n e is a

ur c

an

ar

re

ac

re

o ne

r,

on e

o n e c an

re

as

ir

as

on

ur

ar

r z

r z

r e as

re a

e one

c r

an

nc

ic ,

s ar e

re

r o

is

ne

an

kn ave

S x

o r

P R O B A BILI T Y
37 7
th ee w or k s o ne c onsi sti ng of 3 v ol u m e o n e of 4
Th e e
13
Th e y
f 1 v ol m e
h el f t n do m ;
d th e oth e
pl c e d
m
m
k
ro
ve
th
t
th
e
c
h
n
e
t
h
t
o
l
es
f
t
h
e
s
e
w
o
s
l
t
o
e
th
e
l
p
g
.

are

an

a c

s,

ar e

a s

o n

ra

ar e a

is

1 40

14

an

B thr o w with

d i ce if A th ro ws

t wo

of th ow ing hi g h e n u mb e
1 5 Th l ett e r s fo m i ng t h e w o d
.

w:

wh at i

Cl ifto n

are

ra

h an d t wh i st wh at
ie d playe ?

9,

l
ce
d
t
n
do
i
n
a
m
p
th e h ance t h at th e tw o v o w el s c o m e t o gethe ?

In a
16
b y a s pec

h el d

a ro

n d B c h nc e

the han e that th e

is

4 k

i ngs

ar e

er e a e 4 S h i ll i ngs an d 3 h al f c r ow ns pl ac e d at r an d om i n
17
a l i ne : s h e w t h at th e c h ance o f t h e e t r e m e c o i ns b e i ng b o t h h al f
c r o w ns is
G e n er ali e thi s r es u lt i n th e c ase o f m s hill i ngs an d
7
n h al f c r o w n
Th

W e h ve hith e t o o s id e e d o l y th o se o
e es
whi h i n th e l n g g e o f P ob b ilit y
ll e d Simp l even t s
m o e f th ese o u i
W h en t w
o nne ti o n with e h o th e
4 55

ua

o r

th e jo i n t o c

cc

en c e i s

ca

ll e d

cu r r

ar e

ca

ac

eve n t

Co mp o u n d

ccu rr n c

r,

t i i
whit
l
l
d wi
h
th
ll
d f
it u
i l
wi h t o ti t th h
d wi t
hit
th
l
ll
h u ld
d li
ith
u d
t
s u c h a c se th e es lt o f th e se c o n d d a wi n g m i g ht
I
I f th e b ll s
m i g ht
t be dp
d t o th e es lt o f th e s t
e pl a e d ft e b e i n g d a w n th e i f th e s t d wi g g i ves
e n ot
3 whit e b ll s th e ati o o f th e b l a k t o th e W hit e b ll s e m i n i n g
i s g e t e th i f th e s t d a wi n g h ad n o t g i ven th ee whit e ;
th s th e h n e o f d a wi n g 3 b l a k b ll s t th e se o n d t i l
i s ffe t e d b y th e esu lt o f th e s t B t i f th e b all s e
l
f
t
e
e
i
n
d
l
e
th
t
th
e
es
u
lt
b
a w n it i s
o f th e sec o d
ced
g
p
d wi n g i s t i a y way affe c t e d b y th e es lt o f th e s t

Fo r e x am p e , s u pp o se w e
a ve a b a
c on a n n
e
5
g
g
an d 8 b a c k b a l s , an d t w o
ra
n g s , e ac o f r ee b a s , a r e
m a e r om
s c c ess ve y I f we
s
es m a e e c a n c e
ra
n g r s 3 W e an d en 3 b ac k b a s , w e s o
of
be
e a n g w a c om p o n eve n
.

ar

n o

We

o r

ra

ar

ra

an

en

en

n o

r a

ar

re

th u s l e d t o th e f oll o wi n g d e iti o
e s id t o b e d e p e n d e n t o
i n de p e n d e n t
o di n g
Eve t s
th e o c cu en c e o f o e d o es o d o es o t ffe t th e o
ence f th e
ti g
t
o th e s D e pe d e t e v e n t s a s o m e ti m es said t o b
ar e

ar

ac c

rr

re

ccu rr

e co n

as

en

A L GE B R A

H I GHER

37 8
If th er e
4 56
b a b ilities of wh ic h

ar e

ar e

t wo

in dep en den t ev en ts th e r esp ec tiv e p r o

kn o wn , to n d th e p r o b ab ility th at b o t h will

Su pp o se th at th e r s t eve n t m ay h app e n in a way s an d ail

i n b way s, all th es e c a se s b e i n g e qu all y li k e l y 3 an d su pp o se th at

t h e se c on d even t m ay h app en i n a w ay s an d a il in b wa y s,
ac h o f th e a
al l th ese way s b e i n
e
u all y li k e l y
E
b
c ase s m a
g q
y

b e a ss o c i at e d with e a c h o f th e a
b c ases, t o o r m a b ) a
b )
c om o u n d c ases al l e u all y li k e l y t o o c c u r
p
q

'

( (

I n aa o f th ese b o th eve n t s h app e n , in b b o f th e m b o th

i n a b o f th em th e r s t h app en s an d th e se c o n d a il s, an d in
a il s a n d th e se c o n d h a
u s
ens
T
h
o f th e m th e r s t
pp

(f
z
w
b
( il

pp en ;

i s th e c h n e th t b oth eve t s f il
a

i s th e c h an c e th t b o th even t s h

f il

a +

i s th e C h c e th t th e s t h pp e s d th e se c o d
a
a
f il s 3
b
i s th e c h a n c e th t th e s t f il s a d th e se o d
a
a
b
b
( ) ( ) h a ens
pp
T h s i f th e esp e ti ve c h a es o f t w o i n d ep en d e t eve t s a e

a c e th at b o th
m
th
e
h
will
h
e
i
s
i
il
a d
S
a
p
p
p
p
p
p
f
u mb e
l
y
i
n
th
e
se
n
o
f
i
d
e
e
d
en
t
c
o
r e a s o i n g will
pp
y
p
eve t s He e it i s e s y t o see th t i f p p p
a e th e
m b e r o f i n d e p en d e t eve t s will
esp e ti ve c h a c es th t a
sepa t e l y h pp e th e c h a c e th at th e y will l l h ppe i s
a c e th at th e t wo s t will h a
r es t
th
e
h
en
th
e
c
a
d
pp
p p p
d s i m il a l y fo r a y o th e r p a
f il i s 2 p 1 p ) 1
n

an

an

ra

(
(
se

ca

an

3 ,

, ,

nu

t icu la r

,,

an

n c

n c

i s th e h a n c e th t a even t will h pp e n i
th e h n c e th t it will h app e i n a y a ss ig ne d su c
e t i l
o f r t i l s i s p 3 thi s f o ll o w s f om th e pr e e di g ar ti c l e
c ess i o
b y s u pp o s i n g
4 57

on

If p

r a

p2

p3

"

pl

r a

To n d th e c h an c e th a t s m e o n e at l e as t o th e even t s will
h app en we p r c ee d th u s : th e c h a n c e th a t all th e even t s a il
is 1 p,) 1 p ) 1 p 3 )
an d e x c e t i n thi s c a se s o m e o n e
p
o f th e even t s m s t h a
en
h
en
c e th e r e u i r e d c h a n c e i s
pp
3
q

( (u (

(
1

(
1

H I GH E R

3 80

even t s
c

on

h pp en t oge th e r i s
en e i s

c an

L GE B R A

aa

an

th e

o b b ility
a

th e i

da

c u rr

( (

a b) a b )
T h u s i f p i s th e p r o b ab ilit y o f th e r s t even t
c o n ti n en t
r ob ab ilit y th at th e se c o n d will f o ll o w th e
g
p
o f th e c o n c u r r en c e o f th e t w o eve n t s i s p p
'

d p
r ob ab
p
an

th e
ilit y

'

I n a h an d at wh i t n d th e ch anc e th at a sp e c i e d pl ay e r
h o ds o th the i ng a d q u ee n o f t ru m p s
D en o t e t h e p l ay er b y A ; th e n th e c h ance th at A h as th e k i ng i s cl earl y
; f r th i s p ar t i c u l ar c ard c a b e d e al t in 52 d i ffer e n t way s 1 3 o f w h i c h fall
3
to A
Th e c h anc e th at wh e n h e h as t h e k i ng h e c an al so h o l d th e q u ee n is
th e n E
f r th e q u ee n c a b e d eal t in 51 way s 1 2 o f wh i c h fall t o A
51
E xa mp l e 1
l
k
b

h e refore th e ch nc e

r q u re d

13
:

52

12
x

1,
7

51

i ht e s o n s f o ll o w s
Th n u m b e r f w y i n wh i ch th e k ing
d th e q u een
b de lt t A i
e q u l t th e n um b e r f p erm u t t ion f 1 3 th ing 2 t t im e 1 3 1 2
b
A d im il r l y th e t o t l n u m b e r f w y in wh i c h th e k i ng
d q ue n
O r we m g
e

an

a s

de l t i 52 51
Th e r for e th e c h nce
a

s o

a s

can

or

an

c an

13

12

52

51

17

e for e

as

dr ing e ch
d e from b g
t in ing 5 wh i t e
c
d b f
h
pl
d
i l
n d th e ch nc e th t th e rst dr wi g wi ll give 3 wh i t e d
th e e c on d 3 b l c k b ll
A t th r t t r i l 3 b ll m y b dr wn in 0 w y
d 3 wh i t e b ll m y b dr wn i n 0 w y ;
5 4
13 12 11
5
th e r e for e th e ch nc e f 3 wh i t e t r t t r i l
143
W h e n 3 wh i t e b ll h ve b een d wn
d r em ove d th e b g c o n t in
2 wh i t e
d 8 b l ck b l l
th e r efor e t the s e c on d t r i l 3 b ll s m y b dr wn i n 0 w y
d 3 b l ck b l l s m y b d wn i n 0 w y s ;
th e refor the ch nc e f 3 b l ck t th e ec on d t r i l
Ex amp le 2

Two
s,
aw
a
o f 3 b all s, ar e m a
an d 8 b l a k b al l s, t h e b a ll s n o t b e in g

s ec o n

tr

an

an

e o re

a s

'

ra

an

ra

a s

10

7
.

15

th e r e for e th e ch anc e

th e c omp oun d eve n t

5
143

Th e

15

4 29

t ud en t sh oul d c om p ar e th i s sol u t i on wi th th at

an

a ce

co n

a s

13

an

re

f Ex 1 , A r t 4 57
.

PR O BA B

4 59

w hi c h
th e

su

ev en

ar e
o

38 1

h ap p e n in two 0 7 m o r e d if r en t wa y s
m t u a ll y e x c l s i ve , th e c h a n c e th a t it will h ap p en is
th e c h a n c es of its h app en in g in t h ese d zle r en t way s
an

I L I TY

ca n

'

'

T hi s i s s o m e ti m es r e g d e d
se l f e vi d en t p r o p o s iti o n a r i s i n g
i m m e di at e l y o u t o f th e d e n iti o n o f pr ob ab ility I t m ay h o w
ar

as a

d s f o ll o w s
h pp e i n t wo w y s whi c h c nn o t
Su pp o se th e eve t c
a
b
c es o f th e h
th
e
h
n
en
i
n
th
e
e
f
on
l
e
t
d
;
pp
g
1)
b
even t i n th ese t w o w ys es p e ti ve l y T h en o u t f
c ses
th e e e l) i n whi h th e even t m y h pp e i n th e s t w y
d a b w y s i n whi c h th e eve t m y h p p en i n th e se o n d
n d the
T h e e f o e i ll o t o f 6 6
ses
wa y c
o t co
th e e a a b + a 6 ases f v o ab l e t o th e even t ; h en e th e
c h n e th t th e even t will h pp en i o e o o th e o f th e tw o
w ys is
eve r

b e p r o ve

an

an

cu r

ar

an

re

n cu r

an n

ca

u r

se

l
)
l
2

b
g ,

b2

bl

6 1 62

i il
e s o i n g will pp l y wh at eve b e th e m b e f
w y s i whi h th e even t a h pp en
even t a h pp e i n w ay s whi h e m u t ll y
Hen e i f
e th e p o b b iliti es th t th e
e l s i ve a d i f p p p
p
eve t will h pp e i n th ese di ffe e t w y s es p e ti v e l y th e p o
b ab ilit y th t it will h pp en i s o m e o e o f th ese w y s i s
Sm
c l u siv e

ar

xc u

an

,,

2 ,

wi th t w di c e
o

c an

+p2 +

de

b e ma

c an

de

b e ma

de
N w th ch nc e
ep r t e ch nce ;
12

a a

in d the ch nc e
a

up

de

c an

i n 4 w ys

up

up

an

i n 3 w ys

u p in

b e ma

u a

p3

ex

ar

ar

+pn

th rowi ng

at

e t in
as

ingle th row

a s

1 0 can b e m a

11

Pl
1

3 ,

E x amp le

nu

wy

th u s the c h ance o f th rowing 9 is 3 6

an

a s , an

in 1 way ,

an d

th u s th e ch anc e o f th rowi ng
thu s th e c h ance

th u th e ch anc e
s

f t h r o wm g 1 1

9 is t h e

th e re q u r e d c h anc e _
i

36

1 0 is

f t h r o wm g 1 2

th rowi ng a n um b e r n o t l e s th an

3
36

2
is

1
IS

su m o

36

th e e
s

H I G HE R

38 2

LGEBR A

ur e c on t i n 1 s over eign d 3 h ill ing

e c on d
4
hi
l
l
i
d
d
ur
e
c
o
n
t
i
s
o
v
e
r
ei
gn
ng
third c on t in 3 ove rei gn
2
p
f th e p ur e s s el e c t e d
I f c oi n i t k en t f
d 1 s h ill i ng
t
n dom n d the c h nc e th t i t i s s ov e r ei gn
h p ur i q u ll y l ik ely t b t k n th e ch nc f sel e c ting
Si c
l
t
h
t h r t i
d
c
h
nc
e
f
th
e
n
d
w
i
ng
s
o
v
e
r
e
i
gn
i
h
e
nc
e
th
e
;
g
c h c f dr wing s ove r eign f
it d ep en ds up on th e r t pu e i s
1
1
1
m il rl y th c h nc e f dr w ing
x
S
i
s
o
v
e
r
ei
gn
i
t
f
5 E
12
d ep en d
th e e c on d p ur e i g g
d fro m th e th ird p ur e th e
;
g
1
3
1
c h nc f d wm g ove r e gn g Z 4 ;
Ex amp le 2

On e p

s an

a n s

an

e e ac

an

e o

an

or

s on

a s

ra

e o

IS

e o

rs

as

ar

so

an

or

or

th e r eq u r e d ch anc e = 1
i

di

th

as

ar

so

a e

ra

a s

s,

one

ou

s e

se

s , an

an

ra

ti l
ti

th t th
ilit
t
o
id d
th
th
o iliti
t
t
it i
i
t t t
ti th t th
ilit
th
i
t i th
th
o iliti
th
t
t
th t i wh
th
i i
ti l with th
th th
E mp l From 20 t i ck e t m rk e d wi th th e r t 20 n um e r l s
i
dr wn t r n dom : n d the ch nc e th t i t i m ul t ipl e f 3 f 7

e p r e c e n g a r c e w e a ve seen
e pr o
a
In
y o f an even m ay s m e m es b e c o ns e r e a s e su m o f
h ab
e p r b ab
es o f t w o o r m or e sepa r a e even s ; b u t
s ve r y
a
m por an
o n o ce
e p r o b ab y o f o n e o r o e r o f
s e su m o f e p r b ab
es o f e separ a e
a se r es o f eve n s
even s o n ly wh en the ev en ts a r e m u tu a lly ex c lu siv e, a s ,
en
e o c c u r r e n c e o f o n e s n c om pa b e
e o c c u r r e n c e o f an y
e o er s
o f
460

xa

Th e

s a

ch an c e th at th e n u mb e r i s a m ul t ipl e o f 3 i E
20

an

i t i s m ul t ipl e
r eq u re d ch nce
a

f 7 is

3
20

d t h ese

an

ev en ts a r e

6
is

mu tu a l ly

one

th e c h anc e th at

ex c l u siv e ,

h enc e th e

2
or

20

or o

mb
i
i f th e q u e ti o n h d b een : d t h h
th t th
foll ow
f3
f 5 i t wou l d h ve b ee n inc orr e c t t r e on
6
d th e
Be c u s e th e c h nce th t th e n um b r i
m ul t i p l e f 3 i
g6
4
c h nc e th t th e n um b e r i m ul tipl e f 5 i s 2 0 th e r e for e th e c h nc e th t
4
k et
F
n
u
th
e
t
i
c
i t i m l t ipl f 3 5 i s
th
mb er
20
mi ght b
m ul tip l e b t h f 3
d f 5
th t th e t w eve n t c o n i d r e d
t m ut
ll y e cl u ive

Bu t
mu l tip le

or o

s a

e o

e a

ar e n o

461

s i m pl e

h ld

I t s ou
an d c o m o
p

an

ua

or

so

s :

as

as

an

or

er

n u

or

s a

s a

an c e

on

d th t th e di s ti nc ti o n b e twee
u n d eve t s i s i n m n y ses p u e l y ti c i l
be

b se r ve

ca

ar

H I GHER

384
7

F ou r

r s ons

dr a

LGEBR A

c ar d fro m a or di n ary p ac k : n d
2 ) t h at n o tw o c ar d s are o f
o f e ac h s u i t (

w e ch

t h e c h ance (
1 ) t h at a c ar d is
eq u al val u e
F i n d th e c h ance o f th r o wi ng six with a s i ng l e d i e at l eas t o n c e
8
i n ve t rial s
Th e o dd s t h at a b oo k will b e fav o u r ab l y r evi e w e d b y thr e e
9
i n dep en d en t c rit i cs ar e 5 t o 2 4 t o 3 an d 3 t o 4 r es pec ti vely ; what is
th e p rob ab i lity that o f the thr ee r evi ew s a m ajority will b e fav our ab l e ?
.

pe

o ti

whit e d 3 b l ack b ll s d 4 a s cessi vely

d w h at i s th e c h a e t h at th ey a alte ate ly

A b ag c n a n s 5
n o u t an d n o t r ep ac e ;
ffer en c
urs ?

10

dr aw
f di

an

an

re

nc

uc

re

rn

t ol o
ance
r o wi n g
i
di
ce

n
d
th
e
c
h
th
f
f
I th ee th o w s with
11
p
d ou b let s at l e t o nce
n dom
m lti p li e d t o ge th e
I f 4 wh o l e n u m b e r s t k e n t
12
h ew th t th e c h a e that th e l s t di g i t i n the p o du c t i l 3 7 9

as

a r o

ra

ar e

nc

o
r
,

16

1S

6 25

se ar e 1 0 c o ins all s hilli ngs e c e p t o n e whi c h i s a

s o ve r e i gn ; in an o th e r a e t en c o i ns all s h ill i ngs Ni ne c oi ns ar e taken
from th e form er p u rse a d p t i n t o t h e l atte r a d t h en n i ne c o i ns a e
tak en fr om t h e l att e r an d p u t i n t o t h e for mer : n d th e c h ance that
th e so vereign is s ti ll i n th e r st p ur se
13

In

u
r
p

tw o c o ins
t o ssed 5 tim es wh at i th e h nce th at the e
w i ll
h d s a d 5 tails ?
tossed wh t i th e h an e th at o ne d o nly
1 5 I f 8 o i ns
will t
h
e
d
a
?
p
A B C i n o d e c u t p c k o f c r d s ep lac ing th e m ft e eac h
16
c ut
c o n d it i o n th at th e s t wh o c u t s a p ad e s h all wi p i e : n d
th ei espec ti ve c h an es
A
d B d aw f o m a p u se c o n t i n i ng 3 s o verei gns
17
d
4 s h i lli gs : n d th e i
esp ec ti ve c h an es f s t d wing
ove eign
th e c oi s whe d awn t b ei ng epla e d
A p a ty f p e s o ns it t a ou n d t b l e n d t h e o dd s g ai ns t
18
tw o spec ied i n di v id u l s s i t t in g ne t t o e h othe
A is
e
f 6 h o ses en t e e d f
19
ce d i t o b idden b y
o f t w jo ck ey s B a d 0 I t i s 2 t o 1 th t B i des A i n w h i c h
c se ll th e h or ses a e q u ll y l i k e ly t o wi ; if 0 i des A h i c h a ce
i t eb l e d wh t a
th e od d s agai ns t h i wi nn i n g ?
ave
ge 1 vessel i n eve ry 1 0 i s w ec ked n d th e c h nce
20 I f
th t t of 5 ve sel s e pe ted 4 at l e s t w i ll a ri ve s fely
If
14
b e 5 ea

ar e

ar e

on

an

an

on

one

ou

ac

o r a ra

an

e r

re

a s

ra

re

o n an

r z

an

no

n a

r r

u rn u

one

ra

P R O B A B ILIT Y

385

46 2
Th e p r o b a bility of th e h app en in g of a n ev en t in o n e
tr ia l b ein g k n o wn , r eq u ired th e p r o b a b ility of its h app en in g o n ce,
ex a c tl
11 t r ia ls
i
n
twic e, t h r ee t im es ,
y
.

Let

th e

a b ilit y O f th e h a
b
o
e
O
f
th
e
even
t
i
n
n in
p
pp
g
an d l e t
r o b a b ilit y th a t th e
l
th
en
th
e
a s i n g l e t r i al
q
p
p
1
even t will h app e n e x a c tl y r ti m es i n n t r i al s i s th e r l ) t e r m
i n th e e x pa ns i o n O f g
Fo r i f we se l e c t a n y p a r ti c u l a r se t O f r t r i a l s o u t O f th e t o t a l
n u m b e r n th e c h a n c e th at th e even t will h app en in eve r y o n e O f
A
rt
t h ese r t r i a l s an d fa il i n a ll th e r es t i s
an d a s
[
a se t O f r t r i a l s c an b e se l e c t e d in
0 w ay s a l l O f whi c h a r e
e q u all y a ppli c ab l e t o th e c a se in p o i n t th e r e q u i r e d c h an c e i s

b
e
p

"

op q
r

we e

If

nd

()

"

th e Bi n o m i l T h e o e m

by

"

Cap

h ave

we

th s th e te m s O f thi s se i es will e p esen t esp e ti ve l y th e

m
o
b
b
iliti
es
O
f
th
e
h
en
i
n
O
f
th
e
eve
t
e
tl
y
ti
es
1
p
pp
g
ti m es
2 ti m es
in t i ls
u

x ac

r a

th e even t h app ens

ti m es o f il s o n l y o n e
m
m
o
twi e
ti
es
it
h
a
ens
ti
es
o
e
th
e
e
f
o
e
th
e
m
pp
)
t i ls is
t lea t r ti m es i
c h n e th t it h ap p ens
463

If

th e

"

0p
9
'

Of

th e s t
r

r +

In four th rows wi th
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a d M th e su m O f m o ne y whi h h e will
e c e i ve i c ase o f s c c ess
th e s m O f m o e y d e ot e d b y p M i s c all e d hi s ex p ect at io n
464

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46 6
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o f e ac h pl ay e r
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m + 1 g am e
wi n h is m gam es i n e t ly m g am e
o
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th e C h ev ali e r d e M er e i n 1 6 54 an d was di s cu sse d b y Pa s c a l an d
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t ain e d in di ffe r en t w ay s b y L ag r a n g e a n d L ap l a c e a n d b y th e
l att e r th e pr ob l em was t r e at e d v e r y fu ll y u n d e r v ar i ou s m o di

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h e r e a e n d i c e wi th f fac e s m ark e d
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th rown at
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th e n um b e r f way s i n wh i ch th e d ic e m ay fall is f
Al so th e n um b e r o f way s i n whi c h th e n u m b e r th rown wi ll h av e
th ei r s m is e q u al t o th e ei cien t o f i th e e p n si on o f
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s

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m o e l ab o i o s m
e ; h e ppli e d it i
a tt e m t t o d e m o n
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m ay c o s lt T o dh u n t e r s Hi t y f P b bility A t 9 8 7
in

1 7 30

ra

an n

o r

a,

EX A MPLES

an

ro

XXXII

s or

an

n c

ar

ar

ce r t ai n g am e A kill i t o B s as 3 t o 2 : n d t h e c h anc e
f A wi nn i ng 3 g am es at l e as t ou t O f 5
A c o i n wh o se faces ar e m ar k e d 2 3 i s th r o w n 5 ti m es : wh at
2
is th e c h ance Of O b t ai n i ng a t o t al O f 1 2
I n e ac h O f a se t Of g am es it is 2 t o l i n fav ou r O f t h e wi nne r
3
O f th e p r ev i ou s g am e : wh at i s t h e c h ance t h at t h e p lay e r w h o w i ns
th e rst g am e s h all w i n t h r ee at least O f t h e n e t four
Th e r e are 9 c o i n i n a b ag 5 O f wh i c h a e s o ve r e i gns an d
4
th e rest a e u n k n o w n c o i ns O f e q u al val u e ; n d wh at t h e y m u t b e i f
th e p r o b ab l e val u e O f a d r aw is 1 2 s h i ll i ngs
1

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s s

H I G HER

3 90

L GE B RA

c oi n i s t o ssed n ti m es wh at is th e c h ance th at th e h ead will

r esen t i t se l f an Odd n u m b e r O f t im es ?
p
Fr o m a b ag c o ntai n ing 2 s o ver ei gns an d 3 s hillings a p ers o n
6
i s all o wed t o draw 2 c oi ns i n d i sc rim i nately ; n d th e val u e O f h i s e x
A

5
.

e c t at io n

r s o ns th o w f s t ke whi c h i s t o b w b y the
wh o s t th o w s h e d w i th p nn y if th ey th o w i n s u c essi o n n d
th e c h n e f th e fou th pe s o n
d
w
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ce
d
i
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i
s
ith
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8
g
p
Th o p r t i o n b e i ng ep e te d th r e t i m es wh t
d w
d e pl ce d
e o f Ob t i n i ng t ot l f 6 ?
i th e h
m ke d 3
A c o i n wh o se f ces
d 5 i t o s e d 4 ti m e s wh t
9
t h e Od d s g i ns t th e m f th e n u m b e s th ro w n b ei ng l ess th n 1 5?
th o w with
1 0 Fi n d th e c h nce f th o wi ng 1 0 e c tl y i n
7

Six p e

an

ra

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di ce

an

one

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ar e

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one

on

an c

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e q u al s k i ll A an d B are pl ayi ng a s t O f
th y l
lay i ng w h en A w ant 3 po i n t s an d B wan ts 2
f th e t i
w t s h ar e ou g h t eac h t o take ?

A an d B thr o w with 3 d i ce : i f A th r o w s 8 what i s B s c h an c e

12
O f t h ro w i n g a h i gh e r n u m b e r
A h ad i n h is p o c k et a s o ve r ei gn a d fou r s hillings ; t aki ng o u t
13
tw o c o i ns at ran dom h e p ro m i ses t o gi ve t hem t o B a d
W h at i s
th e w orth Of 0 s e p ectati o n ?

l y

Two p a er s o f
11
g am es ; e eave O ff p
I
s ak e s 1 6 , h a
.

ve th ow s wi t h a s i ngl e di wh at i s th e c h nce Of th o win g

1 ) t h ee ac es
2 ) t h ee aces at l east
a tly (
(
s i ng l e th ow with
1 5 A m k es a b t with B f 5 t o 2 th t i n
tw o d i e h will th o w seven b e fo e B th o w s fou Ea h h a a p i
f di e
f th e m w i ns : n d B
d th ey th o w s i m u ltane ou sl y u t i l
e pec t t i o n
the c o m m on ub e d the othe
A p e s o n th o w s tw o di ce
16
eg l tet h edro n th e n u m b e r t h e l o w e t f ce b ei ng t k e i n t h e
c e f th e t e t r h e dro n ; w h t i s t h e c h ance th t th e m f t h e
n u mb e s th o w n i s n ot l e ss th n 5?
f oth e r c o i n
A b g c o n tai ns a o i n f val u e Ill
d a n um b e
17
wh o se gg eg t e v l u e i s m A pe r s o n dr ws
t a ti m e till h e
d w s the oi n M n d th e v al u e f hi e p e tati on
I f 6 t i c k ets n u m b e e d 0 1 2
l
ce
d
i
n
18
6
1
a
a b g
p
a d th ee a
d r wn t sh e w th at th e c h nce that the m f the
u mb e s t h e m i s e q u l t o 6 i s
14

In

ex

as

u ar

a r

on e O

ra

an

su

on

one

ra

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an

an

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one

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re

on

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3n

6
6
(
)(
n

2)

ar e

su

H I G HE R

392

ti m es H ence th e
5
s t p se i s

u r

sec on d

11

LG E BRA

ob ab ilit y th a t th e s o ve r e ig n

e f r o m th e
th e pr ob ab ilit y th a t it c am e fr o m th e

an

c am

'

is

11

i s i m p o rt a n t th t th e s t u d en t s att en ti o s h o ld b
di e t e d t o th e t u e O f th e a ss m pti o th t h s b een m ad e i
th e p e e di n g ti l e T h s t o t k e
ti
l
i
ns
t
n
e
u
r
c
p
lth o g h i 6 0 th o w s with p e f e c tl y s y m m et i l di e it m y
th at a e i s th o w n e a tl y 1 0 ti m es y e t it will
o t h pp e
d ou b tl ess b e t o e dm itt e d th t i f th e n u m b e r O f th ows i s
c o n ti n all y i c e ase d th e ti o O f th e
m b e o f a es t o th e
n m b e r O f th o w s will t e d m o e a d m o e e l y t o th e li m it
1
T h e e i s n o e s o n wh y o e f c e s h o ld pp e o f t ene th
6
n o th e h ence i n th e l o n g
th e n m b e O f ti m es th t e h O f
th e six f es will h ve app e e d will b e app o im t e l y e q al
*

469

It

n a

The

ar

ar

ac

an

ar

ru n

ac

n u

ar

ra

r ca

n c

ar

o ve i ns ta n c e i s a p ar ti c u l a r c a se o f a g en e r a l th e o r em
whi c h i s du e t o J am es B e r n o u lli a n d was r s t g i ven in th e A r s

C o n jecta n di p u b li s h e d i n 1 7 1 3 e i g ht y e a r s a ft e r th e a u th o r s

d e ath Be rn ou lli s th e o r e m m ay b e en u n c i at e d a s f oll o w s :

ab

If p is th e p r o b a b ility th a t a n ev en t h ap p en s in a sin g le tr ia l ,
t h e n u m b er of tr ia ls is in de n itely in cr ea sed, it b eco m s a
th en
c er t a in ty th a t th e l im it qf th e r a t io of th e n u m b er of su c c esses to t h e
th e n u m b er of
n u m b er of tr ia ls is eq u a l t o p ; in o th er wo r ds,
tr ia ls is N, th e n u mb er of su c cesses ma y b e taken to b e p N
e

A p r oo
Se e T o dh u n t e r s Histo r y of Pr o b a b ility , C h ap t e r V I I

o f B e r n o u lli s th e o r e m i s g i ven i n th e a r ti c l e Pr o b a b ility in th e

En cy c lop cedia Br itan n ica
.

A n o b ser v ed ev en t h as h app en ed th r o u g h so me On e of a
47 0
n u m b er of m u tu a l l
r eq u ir ed t o fin d th e
r
o
y ex c lu siv e c a u ses
p
b a b ility of a n y assig n ed c a u se b ein g th e tru e o n e
*

L e t th e r e

be
r o b ab
p

th at th e

c au

se s

an

d b efo r e th e

ev en

t to o k p la ce

'

su

o
pp

ilit y Of th e e i st en e O f th ese c a ses w s es ti m at e d

t P P P
P L e t p d e o t e th e p ob b ilit y th at wh e th e
se e i s t s th e even t will f o ll o w aft r th e ev e t h as o c
ed
"
it i s r e qu i e d t o d t h e p ob ab ilit y th at th e
c au se w a s th e

a
r

th

, ,

2 ,

c au

3 ,

t ru

one

cu r r

P R O BA BILI T Y

393

ve r y g e a t n u m b e r N O f t ri a l s th en th e s t c a u e
e x i s t s i n P N O f th ese a n d o u t O f thi s n u mb e r th e even t f o ll o w s

i n p l N s i m il a r l y th e r e a re p P N t r i al s i n whi c h th e even t
f o ll o w s f r o m th e se c o n d c a u se ; an d s o o n fo r e a c h O f th e o th e r
c au ses
H e n c e th e n u m b e r o f t r i al s i n whi c h th e even t f o ll o w s i s
C o ns

id e

r a

P
p, ,

th e

+ p 2 P2 +

P
p
n

N
)

mb e r

nu

as

ru

er

th t i s th e
a

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se i s

N 2 p P) ;

o b b ility th t th e even t
a

du e

'

P
N
p

P
p );

t o th e
c u se i s

b ilit y t h t th e
c u se

as

nc

N2

o r

i n whi c h th e even t w
e ft th e even t th e p o b
p P N he
w
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d

an

2 PP)

was p

ro d u ce d

by

th e

'

i s ne ess y to di s ti g u i s h l e a l y b e tw een th e p
h b ili t y O f th e e i s t e c e O f th e seve l a ses es ti m t e d b f
th e even t d th e p ob b ilit y afte th
t h
h pp
d Of a y
a se b e i
e
d
th
e
t
e
One
T
h
e
f
o
e
s
u
ll
y
ll
e
d
a ss i
m
e
g
g
i p o b b iliti es
d
e
e p esen t e d b y P P P
a p i
P
;
th e l tt e a e ll e d a p t i i p ob ab iliti es
d i f w e d en o t e
w
th e m b y Q
e h ve
o
ve
d
th
t
Q
p
*

47 1

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e ev en

ar

wh e e p den o t es th e p o b b ility O f th e even t

th
h y p o th e i s
se
O f th e e i s t en e O f th e
F o m thi s es lt it pp e s th t 2 Q) = 1 whi c h i s o th e
wi se ev id en t s th e even t h s h pp ene d f o m o e d o n l y o
O f th e a ses
W e s h ll w g i ve n o th e p oo f O f th e th e o e m O f th e p
e di n g a ti l e whi c h d o es o t d ep e d o th e p i n c i pl e en u nc i te d
i n A rt 4 6 9
r

th

c au

an

ne

ar

o n

n o

re

47 2
A n o b ser v ed ev en t ha s h app en ed th r o u g h
n u m b er of m u tu a ll
e
x c lu siv e ca u ses
u
i
r
d
t
o
r
e
e
y
q
b a b ility of a n y a ssign ed c a u se b ein g th e tr u e o n e
*

m e o n e qf a
i
n d th e p r o
f
so

L e t th e r e b e n c au ses an d b efo r e th e ev en t t o o k p la ce s u pp o se th a t
th e p r ob ab ility O f th e e x i s t en c e O f th ese c a u ses wa s esti m a t e d a t
P P
L e t p d en o t e th e p r o b ab ilit y th at wh en th e
P
,

'

2,

3 ,

se ex i s t s th e eve n t will f o ll o w ; th e n th e a n teceden t p ro b a

th
th at th e eve n t wou ld f oll o w f r o m th e r c au se i s p P
n

c au

b ilit y

H IGH E R

394

L G EB RA

se
w
a s th e
p
th
t ru e o ne ; th en th e p r ob ab ilit y th at th e r c au se wa s th e t r u e o n e
is p r o p o ti o n a l t o th e p r ob ab ilit y th a t i f in ex i s t en c e thi s c au se
w ou ld p r o d u c e th e even t
L e t Q b e th e

o ster io r

i p r b ab i l it y

th t th e
a

th

c au

Q
_ L
P

2 PP)

P
P .

(>

Q"

it

2 PP

r s th a t i n th e
a ss O f
r ob l e m s th e
e
esen
t
l
a
r
c
pp
p
p
will
h
rodu ct P
a ve t o b e c o rr e c tl y es ti m a t e d a s a r s t s t e p ;
p
p
ar e
i n m an y c a ses h o w eve r it will b e f ou n d th at P P P
a l l e u al a n d th e w o r k i s th e r e b y m u c h s i m li e d
q
p

H en c e

,,

3,

2 ,

h e r e a e 3 b ag s e ach c on t ain i g 5 wh i t e b alls a d 2 b l ack

b al l s a d 2 b ag s e ac h c on t ai n i ng 1 whi t e b al l an d 4 b l ac k b al l : a b l ack b al l
h aving b een draw n d the c h ance th at i t c am e from th e r st g roup
Of the ve b ags 3 b el o ng t o t h e r st gr ou p an d 2 t o th e se c on d ; h e n ce
E x amp l e

Pl

If

P2

is sel c te d from th t g roup th e c h nce f drawi g

ll i s ; i f fro m the s o n d g rou p th c h nc e i s 4; th u s p =
p
3
3
a

b ag

ba

rs

ec

:
P
P1 1

35

W h en
Of A

__

:
;

25

43

25

ne o

r t group i

f th e

'

O b se r v e d we ar e ab l e b y
rt
th e
47 2 t
ti t e th e p r ob ab ility O f an y
a r ti c u l ar
at e
c a u se
w
m
e
i
n
th
e
t
e
th
e
es
ti
b
ru
n
m
a
n
o
e
e
p
g
;
y
th e p r ob ab ilit y O f th e even t h app e n i n g i n a se c on d t ri al o r
we m ay n d th e p r ob ab ilit y O f th e o c c u rr en c e O f s om e o th e r
e v en t
Fo r e x am p l e p i s th e c h an c e th at th e e v en t will h app e n
"h
th
fr om th e r c au se i f in e x i st en c e an d th e c h an c e th at th e r
c a u se i s th e t r u e o ne i s Q
h en c e o n a se c on d t ri al th e c h an ce
h
th at th e even t will h app e n f r om th e r c au se is p Q T h e r ef ore
th e c h a n c e th at th e even t will h appe n f r o m s om e o n e o f t h e
c au ses o n a se c o n d t r i a l i s 2
p Q)
*

47 3
m e th o d
.

eve n t

b la k

15

35

Henc e the c h ance that th e b lack b all c ame from o

6

=
P
P2 2

an

h a s b ee n
o es m a

,.

396

H I GHE R

L GE B R A

W e s h ll w s h e w h w th e th e o y O f p o b b ilit y m y
m
m
li
e
d
t
o
es
ti
t
e
th
e
t
u
th
O
f
s
t
t
e
en
t
s
tt
es
t
e
d
W
it
b
b
pp
y
esses wh o se e dib ilit y i s ss m e d t o b k o w n W e s h ll
*

47 4

n o

e a

cr

a t e a c h wit ness s t a t es wh a t h e b e li eves t o b e th e t r u th

o
se
th
pp
w h e th e r hi s s t a t e m en t i s th e r es u lt O f O b se r v ati o n o r d e d u c ti on
so
th at an y m i st ak e o r fal se h o o d m u s t b e
o r e x p e r im en t ;
a tt r i b u t e d t o e r r o r s O f ju dg m en t a n d n o t t o wil f u l d e c e it

su

c l a ss o f p r ob l em s w e s h all di s c u ss fu rn i s h es a u se fu l
i n t e ll e c t u al e x e r c i se an d alth ou g h th e r es u lt s c a nn o t b e r ega r d e d
as O f an
r a c ti c a l i m p o r t a n c e it will b e f ou n d th a t th e y c o n r m
y p
th e v e r di c t O f c o m m o n sense
Th e

Wh en it i s sse t e d th t th e p ob b ility th t p e s o
s p e k s th e t th i s p it i s m e n t th t l g e n u m b e O f s t te
*

47 5

ru

ar

re

n u

ru

an

i s th e

ra

ti o

i n d ep e d en t wit nesses A d B wh o se p ob

i g th e t th e p a d p esp e c ti ve l y g ee i n
t i n s t t em en t : wh t i s th e p ob b ilit y th t th e

Two
47 6
b ilit ie s O s p e ak
m ak n g a c e r a
*

xa

d th t
t s m d e b y h im h s b een e m i ne d
O f th o se whi h a t e t th e wh ol e m b e

m en

an

ar

ru

s t at em en t i s t ru e ?
He r e th e ob se r ve d even t i s th e fac t th at A a n d B m ak e th e
s am e s t at em en t Bef or e th e even t th e r e a r e f o u r h yp o th eses ; fo r
A an d B m ay b o th s p ea k t r u l y o r A m ay s p e a k t r u l y B fa l se l y ;
B t r u l y ; o r A an d B m ay b o th sp e a k
o r A m ay s p e a k f al se l y
fal se l y T h e p r ob ab iliti es O f th ese f o u r h yp oth eses ar e
.

( )(

1
P

f t th e Ob se ve d even t

es
e
c ti ve l y
p
)
r

hi h A an d B m k e th e
s m e s t t em en t th e p ob ab ility th at th e s t t em en t i s t e i s t o
th e p ob b ilit y th t it i s fal se s pp t o (
th
1
at
1
p)
i s th e p ob b ility th t th e jo i n t s t te m en t i s t e i s
H en c e

er

in w

'

ru

ru

PP

rp

(P) (P >

i il l y i f a thi d p e s o wh o se p ob b ility O f s p e k i n g th e

t r u th i s p m k es th e s m e s tat em en t th e p o b b ility th t th e
s t at em en t i s t e i s
Sm

ar

ru

"

PPP
an

so on

fo r

an

()( )(

n u mb er

f p e r s o ns

P R OB A B ILIT Y

397

th e p e e di n g ti l e it h b een s pp o se d th t we
h a ve n o k n o wl e d g e o f th e e en t e ep t th e s t t e m en t m d e b y A
es a s t o th e
d B ; i f w h a ve i f o m ati o n f o m o th e s o
b
al s it y O f th e s t t e m e t thi s m s t b e
o
b
ilit
y
O
f
th
e
t
th
f
o
p
t k en i n t o c c o n t i es ti m ti n g th e p ob ab ilit y O f th e v a i o s
h yp o th eses
F
i ns t e i f A d B ag ee i s t ati n g f t O f whi c h
th e a p i i p o b b ilit y i s P th en we s h ou ld es ti m t e th e p
h b ilit y o f th e t u th
d f al s it y f th e s t te m en t b y

Pp p
d (
l
P) (
l
es
e
ti
ve
l
y
l
p ) (p )
p
*

47 7

In

ar

ru

u rc

xc

an

as

an c

o r

r or

an

ac

an

ro

an

h e r e is a r af e wi th 1 2 t i ck e t s a d t wo p r i e Of 9 a d 3
r
e
e
c
t
i
v
e
y
s
l
A B 0 wh o se p rob ab i l i t ie Of p e ak i ng th e t ru th a
g g
p
r ep ort th e r e ul t t o D wh h old o t i ck e t A a d B a e r t th at h e h
wo n th e 9 p r i e a d C a ser t s th at h e h as wo n th e 3 p ri e ; wh at is D s
e pec t at i on ?
Th r ee c ase s a e p o s i b le ; D m ay h ave wo n 9 3 o r n o t h i g fo r A B
0 m ay all h ave sp ok e n fal e l y
N w w i th th e n o t at i o n o f A t 4 7 2 we h ave th e a p ri ri p ro b ab i l i t ie
E x amp l e

re l

ne

ss

as

P1 =
al S o

101

5 5

1
_

12

P3 2

g_ i

10

1?

P3

30

_
_

iX
2

1
2
_
_x
3
5

2
30

1
4

h ence

e pe ct t on
a i

4
:

57

2O

3
3

27

f 3

1 3s 4 d
.

W ith esp e t t o th e es lt s p o ve d i n A t 4 7 6 it
h ld
ti e d th t it w
ss u m e d th t th e s t t e m e t
b
d
w y s o l y s o th t i f ll th e wit nesses t e l l f l se h oo d s
th e y g ee i n t e ll i g th e m f l se h oo d
I f thi s i s n o t th e
se l e t
s pp o se th t i s th e h n e
*

47 8
s ou b e n o
m a e in t wo

as a
a

sa

ca

c an

us

th at th e t w wit esses A a d B will g ee i n t e lli n g th e s m e

f l se h oo d ; th e th e p o b ab ility th at th e s t t e m en t i s t e i s t o
th e p o b ab ilit y th at it i s fal se as pp t o c (
l
l
p)
A s a g ene r al
l e it i s e t em e l y i mp ob b l e th at t wo
i n d ep en d e t wit nesses will te ll th e s am e fal se h oo d s o th t c i s
s all y ve y s m a ll ; al s o it i s Ob v i o s th at th e q tit y b e om es
s m all e r as th e u mb e f wit esses b e o m es g e t e
T h ese c
s id e ti o ns i e se th e p o b b ilit y th t a s t t e m en t asse t e d b y
t wo o r m o e i n d e p en d e t wit nesses i s t u e eve
th o u gh th e
c e di b ilit y O f e
h wit ness i s s m all
o

'

ru

u an

ra

n cr

r o

ru

o n

ac

AL G E B RA

H I GH E R

398

e t ru th 3 t im e t f 4 d B 7 tim e t f 1 0; th ey
e rt th t wh i t e b ll h b ee n dr wn from b g c on t i ing 6 b ll
b o th
n d th e p rob b ili ty Of th e t ruth f th e er t ion
ll f diffe r e n t c ol our
i) th ei r o inc i d n t t t im o y i t ru (
ii) i t i
Th e r e
t w h yp o th e e ; (
fle
Ex amp l e

as s

sp ak s

s ou

an

ar e

as

a s

sou

a n

es

ass

s s

e,

=
P1

7
X

10

=
p2

25

3
X

10

e t i t in g p we m u t t k in t o coun t th e ch nc e th t A d B will
t b ee n dr wn ; th i c h nc e i
o th s e c t th e wh i t e b ll wh en i t h

fo r in s m a
el
b

th e

th e r e fore as

an

l
X

as n o

l
No w

ac

a e

OI

- -

25

'

w
b
f
t
ro
i
i
t
i
th
e
h yp o th e
b
l
Pp t Pp
p
3 5 t 1 ; th u s th e p rob b il i t y th t th e t t e m n t i t r e i
a

es

ar e as

s a

an

ses we h a ve c o ns id e r e d r el a t e t o th e pr ob ab ility
O f th e t ru th O f c o n cu r r en t t es ti m on y ; th e f o ll o wi n g i s a c a se O f
tr a ditio n a r y t es tim o n y
I f A s tat es th a t a c e r ta i n even t t oo k p l a c e h a v i n g r e c e i ve d a n
wh at i s th e
a c c o u n t O f it s o c c u r r en c e o r n o n o c c u r r en c e f r o m B
r o b ab ilit y th a t th e even t did t a k e p l ac e ?
p
T h e even t h ap p e n e d 1 ) i f th e y b o th sp o k e th e t r u th 2 ) i f
th ey b o th sp o k e fal se l y ; an d th e even t did n o t h app en i f o n l y
o n e O f th e m s o k e th e t r u th
p
*

47 9

Th e

ses

ca

b
b
A
d
e
o
t
e
th
e
o
iliti
es
th
t
d
s
e
k
th
e
B
p
p p
p
t t h th e th e p ob b ilit y th t th e even t did t ak e pl ce i s

Let

ru

21

th e

an

9 9

an

( (

P) 1

ob ab ilit y th at it did n o t tak e pl a ce i s

(P )

1
P

()

+P

l ti
f th e p e e di n g ti l e i s th t whi h h a
ll
i
i t t o o k s b t it is op e t o se ri o s Ob je c
ti o
th
ti th t th e g i ven ev en t h pp ene d i f b oth A
o fl l i
o e t e ep t o th e s pp o s iti o th at
th t t
t
d e o n l y i t wo w ay s M o e o ve
lth g h it i s e pr ess l y t t e d th t A r e c e i ves hi s ac c ou n t f om
f
B thi s a n o t g e e ll y b e t k e
g n te d a s it es t s O

A s t es ti m o n y
h

T e s o u on O
4 80
n ex b
u s u a y b ee n g ve n
ns , fo r e a sse r on a
a n d B s p k e a se y s n o t c
e s a e m e n c an b e m a
*

ar

ra

rr

xc

s a

ou

r,

or

ra

H I G HER

4 00

AL G E B RA

sp eak s t h e tr u th 2 o u t Of 3 ti m es an d B 4 ti m es o u t O f 5;
th y agr ee i n th e assert i o n th at fr om a b ag c o n t ai n i ng 6 b all s o f d i ffe ren t
c o l ou r s a re d b all h as b e en d r aw n : n d t h e p r o b ab i l i ty t h at th e s tat e
m en t i s tr u e
11

c k o f 52 c ar d s h as b e e n l o s t ; from th e r em ai n der
Of th e c tw o c ard s ar e drawn a d a e fou n d to b e spades ; n d th e
c h an c e th at th e m i ss i g c ar d i s a s p ad e
12

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pa k

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ti t
tw o i Of
ti t
i i for d
er t t
t
r e d i i lity Of i d ot d

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t
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t ti o i f t
i

lu

Th er e s a r af e
th 10
ck e s an d
va e 5
13
p r z es
an d 1 r e s p ec ve
s o n e c k e an d s n m e b y B h a
A h
h e h as wo n h e 5 pr z e, h e 0 as s t s h a h e h as wo n h e 1 p iz e :

h a s A s ex pec a n,
he c b
B s en e b y g, an d
ha O 0 b y i ?
.

w ti
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t t

u se c ont i ns fou c oins ; tw o c o i ns h vi ng b e e dr w n

fou n d t o
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s o ve r eign : n d th e c h nce (
ll t h e c o i ns
2 ) th t i f t h e c o i ns
s ove r ei gns (
epl e d n o the d wi n g w i ll g i e
s o ve e gn
14

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a
r ee r aces
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1 20
wo n b y h e h e h s s A , B, 0, ag a ns
h c h e b e ng s 3
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Th e r s r ace av ng b een wo n b y A ,
an d
b e ng k n
n h a h e se c n race was wo n e h er b y B, o r b y
a
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c
e b e ng was 2
e va e P S
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.

l u of

o nt ini ng b ll s ll e ith e wh i t e b l ck ll
n u e r s f e c h i e q u lly l i k el y b ll i d r w n wh i c h t ur ns t
t o b w h ite ; t h i s i r e pl c e d d n o the b l l i s dr w n w h i c h ls o
t u ns t t o b w h ite I f t h i s b l l i s epl ce d p o ve th t t h e c h nce
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16
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esp ecti v e ly ; i f th e y Ob tai n t h e
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s am es u lt a d i f it i 1 000 t o 1 g ai nst thei m aking th e s am e
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es lt i s o e t
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18

ar e

t wo

rr

ac

re

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ar

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witnesses e c h f wh om m ak es b t
f l se s tat em en t i
i
g r e e i n asse t i ng t h t c e rt i n even t t ook p l ce ; s he w t h t th e
odd s
ve t o
t temen t eve
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1
alth ou g h t h e a
i
i
ro
l
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L O C A L PR O B A BILI T Y

METHO D s

G E O ME T R I C A L

t o q es ti o ns O f P
h b ility e q i es i g e e l th
th e I n t eg l C l c l u s ;
b s o l ve d b y
th e e e h o w eve m n y e y q u es ti o ns w hi h
El e m e t y G e o m e t y
*

481

Th e

ar

pp li ti o n

ca

ar

r,

ra

f G e om e r y
e a id O f

ro

ra

as

c an

rom e ch f t w e q u l l in e f l eng th l p or t i on i c u t
d r e m ove d
wh t i th e ch nc e th t th e m f th e
ff t r n do m
r m ind e r i le th n l
n o th e r d u pp o e th t ft e r c u tt ing
Pl c e th e l i n e p r l le l t
th e r i ght h n d p or t i on
r em ove d Th en th e q u e t i on i e q u iv le n t t o
k i ng wh t i th e c h nc e th t th e
m f th e r i ght h n d p or t i o n i g r e t e r
th n th e m Of th e left h n d p or t i on It i c l e r th t th e r t m i
e q u ll y l ik ely t b gr e te r l e th n the s c on d ; th u s th r q u i r d
p ro b b i l i t y i g
E c h f t w l i n e i k n o wn t b
C
f l eng th
t e c ee d i n g l th e
1
c h nc e th t th ei r m i t gr e t r th n l i 2
E mp l 2
I f th r ee l in e
c h o e n t r n dom p rove th t th ey
l ik e ly
f p o i b l e t ri ngl e
t t d e n o t e th e i d e
ju t
equ l t
gr e te r th n e c h Of th e o th e r
O f th r ee l i n e
m
b
tw ; d e n o t e it l e ng th b y l
Th e n ll w e k n ow Of th e o th e r t w l i n e i th t
th e l eng th Of e c h lie b e twee n 0 d I B t i f e ch f t w l in e i k n own t
b
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v n c h nc e th t th e i m
d I it i
i g r e t e r th n l
E
1 C
[
]
Th u s th e r e q u i e d r e ul t fo ll ow
E mp l 3
Th r ee t ng en t
dr wn t r n dom t g ive n c i rcl e
3 t 1 g i n t th e c i r cl e b i ng i
ib d i t h t r i ngl e
h ew th t th e odd
for m e d b y them
E x amp le

a a

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su

su

or

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su

su

ss

as n o

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s o

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xa

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a a

n sc r

r w th ree r ndom lin e P Q R i th e m e p l n e

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dr w t th e c i r cl e t h

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.

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26

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H I G HER

4 02

h en

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s

48 2
v e n ie n t l
y
.

s o l ve d

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t ri ng e s so form e d i t i s evi d en t th t th e c i r cl e wi ll b
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th e r eq u i re d r e sul t foll ows

th e

l
8
f
a
s
b
t o 6 an d
o f P, Q, R,
o

L G E B RA

s o m e ti m es
o r di n at e G e o m e t r y

Pr o b ab ilit y

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a id

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m e ur d t
f th e m e u e d l i n e s wi l l
r n dom n d th e p ro i it y th t
p o in t
c o inc i de
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d PQ
th e li n e
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b
;
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th
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s we m u t h ve A F A Q e l A F > A Q
>
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p
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hen YM E X a e e ach eq u al t o 0 0M 0 T are eac h eq u al t o a

Th e c o n di t i o ns (
1 ) a e o nl y sat i e d b
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a

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s om e Mis c ell an e ou s

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s
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p tm t e c h c o n t in i ng
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c om p rtm n t s c h c ont n ng b ll
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H I G HER

4 04

I n th e p ar t i c ul ar c a e wh e n
1

th e r e q u i r e d ch anc e

+1

L GE B R A

k = 2,

(
(

2n + 1l

+1

+ 1)

2 2n + 1 )

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ind e n i t ely l rg e the ch nc e i eq u

is

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394

:
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s

an

s 71.

ss s n

ette r
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eve ry l e tt er g o es w ong ?
d en o t th e n um b e r f w y in whi ch ll th e l e tt e r g w ong d
L t
rep re en t th t rr ng em en t in wh i c h ll th e l e tt e rs i n th ei r
l t b d
w e nvel op e
N w if i n y o th e r rr ng e m e n t o cc up ie th e p l c e f
ign e d l ett e r b th i s l e tt r m u t ei th e r o ccupy pl c e om e o th e r
l
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di p l c e d i
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ll th e r e m i n i ng
n u m b e r f w y i whi c h m y b d i pl c e d b y in t e r ch ng e wi th om e
l l d i pl c e d i (
1 l e tt e r s
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I L IT Y

PR O A B

4 05

l
b
T
d
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cc
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i
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b
c
e
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rr ng e en ts s t i fyi ng th e q u i r d c on di t i on inc e i e d in b p l c e
b do n e i
th e l e tt e r b d m u t b ll d i pl c e d wh i c h
wy ;
th e r e for e th e n um b e r f w y i wh i c h o cc u p ie th e p l c e f n o th e r l e tt e r
t b y i n t e r c h ng e w i th th t l e tt e r i ( 1 )
b t
;

ii )

S pp
m

c,

re

e a

from wh ich
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s

by
0,

ce

p la

is

11

a s

_
n
1

nun _
1

1
1

e t o t l n um b e r f w y i wh i ch th e
; th r for e th e r e q u i r e d c h nce i
a

a s

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n it

c an

th e m e th od o fA t 4 4 4 w e d a
= 1 ; th u s we n all y Ob t ai n
1

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( (

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s, s

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un

an

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r e i n v o l ve d i s O f c o ns id e r a b l e i n t e r es t an d in
o
l
e
h
e
b
m
p
s o m e O f it s m a n y m o di c a ti o ns h as m a i n t a i ne d a p e rm an e n t p l ac e
I t wa s r s t di s c u sse d
in w o r k s o n th e T h e o r y Of P r ob ab ilit y
b y M o n t m o r t a n d it was g e n e r ali se d b y D e M o i v r e Eu l e r an d
L apl a c e

Th e

t f

ilit i

i th t it i
f th
i i l
f o l
ill
d i W hitw o th
u i t d with th
ti l
l t
t
o dh t

48 4
T e s u b je c O P r o b ab
y s s o e x e n s ve
s
a
m p o ss b e
e r e o g ve m o r e an a s k e c O
e p r n c pa
n a m r ab e c o e c
a
e
b
ra c a m e
o
s
A
n O
r b em s,
s
u
p
g

b e ou n
n
s
t r a t in g eve y a g e b r a c a p r o c ess ,
r
e r e a e r wh o s ac q a n e
e
Ch o ic e a n d Ch a n ce ; an d

P r o ess r Cr o o n s a r c e Pr o b a
I n e g r a C a c u u s m ay c o n s u
e En cy c lo p eedia Br itan n ic a A c o m p e e a c c o u n O f
b ility in

e o r g n an d eve op m en O
e s u b je c s g ve n in T u n e r s
Histo r y of th e Th eo r y of Pr o b a b ility fr o m th e t im e of Pa sca l t o
th a t of L ap la ce
*

i l h
t i
i l th d
r l
i l

d i

th

th

i i

th

l
will
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th
lt

l l

t h
ll ti o

f
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f o

ft

t f th

ti

ti c l ppli ti o ns Of th e th e o y O f
o m m e i l t a s ti o ns ar e b ey o n d th e s o p e O f
t e ti se ; fo th ese w m y e fe t o th e ti l es
I s r a c i n th e E y l p di B it a
i
The

ac
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an

An

to

e l e m en t a r y

n u

it ies

an

XXX II e

EX A MPLES

Pr b ab ilit y

t a th e Od d s i n f v ou f th o w i ng at le t 7 i n s i ng le
t h ro w with tw o dice ?
I
ur
se
th
e
r
e
s
o
ve
r
e
i
gn
4
h
i
ll
i
ngs
I
t
h
e
y
f
a
5
d
2
p
t o ne b y
w h t i t h e c h nc e th t th e y c o m e t o v e ei gns
dr wn
n tely b e g i nn g w i t h o ve ei gn
a d s h ll ng alt
1

Wh

o n e,

r O

er

as

s an

re

o u

re

in

a s

o u

ar e

H I GHER

4 06

G E B RA

s h i ps o u t o f 1 0 r etu r n s afe t o po rt Wh at
i s th e c h an c e th at o t Of 5 s h i p s e pec ted at l e as t 3 will arr i ve ?
In a l o tt er y all th e t i c k e ts ar e b l an k s b t o n e ; e ac h p er s o n
4
draw s a t i c k e t an d r etai ns it : s h e w th at eac h p er s o n h as an e q u al
c h an c e o f dr aw i n g th e pr i z e
5 On e b ag c o n tai ns 5 whit e a d 3 r e d b all s a d a se c o n d b ag
c o n tai ns 4 white a d 5 r ed b all Fr o m o n e Of t h em c h o sen at r an d om
t wo b all s ar e d raw n : n d th e c h ance th at th ey ar e O f di ffer en t c o l our s
Fi ve p ers o n s A B 0 D E thr o w a di e in th e ord er n am ed
6
u n til o n e of th e m t h r o w s an ace : n d th e ir r el ati ve c h an c es o f wi n n i n g
s u pp o s i n g th e th r o w s t o c o n ti n u e t i ll an ac e app e ar s
T hr ee s q u ares o f a c hess b o ard b eing c h o en at r an d o m wh at
7
i s th e c h an c e th at t wo are o f o n e c ol o u r an d o n e o f an other ?
A p er s o n th r o w s tw o di ce o n e th e c o m m o n c u b e an d th e o th er
8
a r eg u l ar t et r ah e dr o n t h e n u m b e r o n th e l o w es t face b e i ng tak e n i n
the c ase o f th e t etrah e dron ; n d th e average val u e O f t h e thr o w an d
c o mpar e the c h an c es o f t h r o wi n g 5 6 7

3:
A s skill is t o B s as 1 :3 ; t o 0 s as 3 :2 ; an d t O D s as 4
9
d th e c h ance t h at A i n thr ee t ri al o n e with e ac h pe r s o n will s u c c ee d
twic e at l east
1 0 A c er tai n st ak e i s t o b e w o n b y th e r s t p e r s o n wh o th r o w s
the
an ac e with an o c tah e dr al d i e : i f th e r e ar e 4 p e r s o ns wh at i
c hance o f th e l as t ?
Two p l ay ers A B Of eq u al sk i ll ar e p l ayi ng a se t o f g am es ; A
11
wants 2 gam es t o c om pl et e t h e se t an d B wan ts 3 gam es : c om pare
their c han ces o f wi nn in g
1 2 A p u r se c o n tai ns 3 s o ve r ei gns an d tw o s hilli ngs : a p ers o n
dr aw s o n e c o i n i n eac h h an d an d l oo k s at o e Of th e m wh i c h p r o ves
t o b e a s o ver ei gn ; s h e w t h at th e ot h er i s e q u all y l i k el y t o b e a s o ver eign
o r a s hilli n
g
A an d B p l ay fo r a p r i e ; A i s t o thr o w a di e r s t an d i s t o
13
win i f h e th ro w s 6
If h e fai l s B i s t o th r o w an d t o wi i f h e t h ro w s
I f h e fai l s A is t o th r o w ag ai n a d t o win w i t h 6 o r 5 o r 4
6 or 5
an d s o o n : n d t h e c h ance o f eac h p l ay er
Seven p er s o ns d raw l o t s fo r th e o cc up an c y O f t h e s i seat s i n
14
a r s t c l ass r ai lway c o m p ar tm en t : n d t h e c h ance 1 ) th at tw o s ec i e d
(
p
b
a
2
a
e
r
s
o
ns
O
t
i
n
o
o
s
it
e
se
t
s
p
(
) that th ey O b tai n adjac ent seat s o n
pp
t he s ame s ide
1 5 A n u m b er c o ns i st s O f 7 d i git s wh o se su m i s 59 ; p r o ve th at th e
c h an ce f its b ei ng d iv i s i b le b y 1 1 is
3

If

AL

on

an

verage

s,

16

Fi n d th e c h an ce

th owing 1 2 i n a s ingl e th ro w wit h 3 d i ce

r

H I GHER

4 08

L G E B RA

tw o p ur es o ne c o n t i n i ng t h ee s o ver eigns a d o
i i ng
e o t er c o nt i n i ng t h r e e s h il li ng d o ver e gn A m
i s t e n fro
i(
t i s n o t k n o w n w h i c h ) d dropp e d nt o th e o the r ;
en dr w i ng a c o i n from e c h p ur se th ey
fou n d t b tw o
i ing
th e Odd s g i ns t t h i h ap pen ng g n f tw o m o e
d wn
f om eac h p u e ?
i i g t h ee p o i n t s t k en t r n do m
I f t r i ngl e i s fo m e d b y
27
3 t o 1 g ai ns t
i n t h c i r c u m fe rence Of c i r cl e p ro ve t h t t h e Odd
it b ei ng c u t e ng l e d
t k en t n dom
t h e c i r c u m fe r e nce f a
Th r ee p o i n t s
28
w
t
c i r cl e : w h t i t h e c h nce t h t t h
Of th e c s o
m Of
y
d etermi ne d i s g e te th n the th i rd ?
n do m i nt o th ee p t s w h at i s th e c h nce
A l i ne i di vi d ed t
29
t h t t h e y for m t h e s i des f p o ss i b l e t r i ngl e ?
or i gi n lly c on t i ne d 2 5 s o ve rei gn d th e
3 0 O f t w p u es
oth e 1 0 ove r eigns d 1 5 s h illi ngs O p ur i t k en b y c h ance
l l s o v e r e i gns : w h t i s th e
t w h i c h p ro ve t o b
d 4 c o i ns dr w n
c h nce th t th i s p ur e c o nt i ns o n ly o ve r ei gn
d w h t i s th e p ro b
b l e v l u e f t h e ne t d r w fro m i t ?
st r i g h t l i ne Of l e ng th t w o p o i n t s
t k en t n dom ;
O
31
f n d t h c h ance t h t t h d i t nce b e t w e e n th e m i s g e at e t h an b
i di v i d d i n t o t h r ee pa t s b y tw o
A s t i g h t l i ne O f l e n gt h
32
o
i
n
t
t
e
n
n
do
t
h
c
h
nce
th
t
n
o
t
i
s
g
r
e
t
e
t
h
n
k
t
m

d
b
a
;
p
p
If on
t r i gh t l i n Of l ength + b tw o lengt h
b
33
m e ur e d t
n dom t h c h ance t h t th e c o mm o n p t Of th e se l ength s
h ll n ot cee d i s
b ; al o t h e c h ance
w
he e
l
ess
th n
b
he e

T r ar e
26
th
h
n
a
d
s h ll
,
m one
ak
a
an d th
on
s
s h ll
W h at ar e
.

ra

one

O n n

r a

ou

as

ar e
r

ra

s , an

s a

ra

se

n e

ra

s , an

e a

n a

ar

ar s

an

an

an

su

one

rs

on

ra

ra

s ar e

ar e

rs

a ai

a re

a a

co

an

a s

s an

ar e

ar

are

a,

ra

ar

9
d

ex

c is

a or

th at th e s m aller l engt h b l i es en ti r ely w ith i n th e l ar ger a i s

t rai g h t l i ne o f l eng th a + b + c tw o l eng th s a b ar e

m e as ur e d at r an do m th e c h anc e o f th e i r hav i ng a c o mm o n p art wh i c h
s h al l n o t e x cee d d is
w h e r e d is l es s than e i th er a o r b
34

If

on

a s

(
c

b)

o
ssenge r
en ti r e st ng e r s t o e c h o the
t ve li ng i n
i lw y t r i n w i c c on t i ns
c l ss
t i rd c l ss c o
t en s
gentl e en w o se
c nc e s t r v e ll i ng r s t sec o n d
t i rd c l ss
r e re ente d e c i n nce
l d i es wh o se
s i il r
c nces
e c h r e r e nte d
ro ve
t t for
v l u es Of
e ce t i n t e r i c u l c se w en
(
or e l i ely t o
ou n d ot i n t e
co
ny t e
e l d y th n e c w i h i e en t o n e

3 5 F u r pa
s , A , B, 0, D ,
ra
a
r , ar e
l
ra
a ra
a
a
h h
a
l rs t
a
, m sec o n d el ass,
an d n
a
m p ar m t
h
h
A an d B ar e
m
re
sp ec t iv e a
r io r i
of
a
ha
h
r
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a
p
,
,

in a h
sta
b y A, p , v ; 0 an d D ar e a
p s
m a a p r io r i h a
ar e
a
e
s
b y l , m, n
P
p
all
a
ha ,
x
h p a t ar a
h
A, p , 1!
p
A p
v = l
m n ) , A an d B ar e m
k
h
be f
b h
m pa
of h
s am
a
t a d ff r
a
a h
.

C HA P TER X XX I I I
D E T ER MI N A N T S

t h ap t e i s d ev o t e d t o a b i e f di s u ss i o O f
d et i t
th i m o e e l e m e t y p o p e ti es T h e s lig ht
i n t o d c t o y s k e t h h e e g i ve will en b l e a s t d en t t o a va il
hi m se l f o f th e d va t g es o f de te m i t o t ati o n i A l y ti l
M th e m ti s ;
d i s o m e o th e
G e om et y
p t s o f Hig h e
f ll e r i f o m ti o o thi s b c h O f A n al y s i s m y b e Ob tai ne d
f rom D S l m o s L so n s I tr o d ct y to th Al d r High
A lg eb a
d M u i s Th eo r y of D eter m in a t
48 5
TH E p r ese n
e rm n an s an d e

an

486

or

m dy
x +

e n

ar

0;

t 1,

su

T hi s r es u lt i s s o m e ti m es

by bl

e,

x,

ra c

er

e q u a ti o ns

lti pl y i n g th e s t e q u ti o n b y h th e sec o n d
t ti n g a d di v idi n g b y we b t i n

mu

b gy

h om og ene u s li ne

a x

ca

t wo

n a

r an

id e th e

ar

C on s

n an

es

an

ar

w itt en
r

a
a

bl

62

0,

th e e p ess i o n
th e l e ft i s c ll e d d e t er mi n an t I t c o ns i s t s
o w s d t w o l m ns d i n it s e p n d e d f o m e h
o f tw o
t e m i s th e p o d t O f tw o q u n titi es ; it i s th e e f o e s id t o b
o f th e s o d o d
an

an

ec n

rm

in nt
a

an

er

,,

an

a
r

u c

T h e l e tt e r s

d et e

o n

ac

b,,

2,

th e t e r m s

b2
a

a re

b
g,
l

ll e d th e co tit t O f th e
ll e d th e lem t
e
b
ns

ca
a

ar

ca

u en

en

s.

H I GHE R

410
48 7

n c

it fo ll o w s th t

bl

b2

ws in to

ro

A ga

a
a

= a

b
2
l

b
,
g

b2

b1

d
e
t
er m in a n t is n o t a l t er ed b y
qf
c o lu m n s, a n d th e co lu m n s in t o r o ws

th e

4 88

LG EBRA

i e

in g th e

th e

v a lu e

m in a n

i n it i s e s il y seen th t
a

b1

b1

al

b2

b2

an

al

b1

b2

b,

t
r
a
w
t
w
o
l
u
m
n
s
w
e
i
n
e
c
h
n
e
t
o
r
o
w
s
o
r
c
o
,
g
t, we o b tain a d eter m in a n t which difer s fr o m it

4 89

Let

u s n o

a x
,

b ,y

c ,z

O,

a x

b gy

c z
z

O,

a x

b sy

c z

e li m i n ati n g

o r

x,

b,

be

61

T hi s e li m i n a n t i s u s u all y

in

as

(
c a

b1

O b t ai n

we

63 02 )

62 6 3

t
e
r
d
e
f
o n ly in sign
th e

o ns id e r th e h o m o ge n e o u s li ne ar e qu ati o n s

By

th t i s
a

ch a n

Ex 2, A r t l 6 ,

d)

+ 0

a
a

a s

a b

b2

Z
)
3

0
.

w itt en
r

al

b1

cl

62

63

0,

th e e p ess i o n
th e l e ft b e i n g d e t e m i n n t whi h o s i st s
O f th ee o w s d th ee o l u m ns i s ll e d a d e t e m i a t o f th e

an

o n

an

t h ir d

ca

o r der

e a r r a n g em en t o f t e r m s th e e x pan d e d f o r m
th e ab o ve d e t e r m i n a n t m ay b e wr itt en
4 90

By

63 02 )
o r

b i o s)

b2

b3

b3

bl

bl

(
6 1 02

b2
.

H I G HER

412

T h e de t e r m i n a n t

4 92

bl

b1

al

61

L G E B RA

(
(
6 a
2

01

c ae

b
a s

b
a s)

a1

bl

cl

bl

a1

cl

62

d2

62

b3

b3

5
3 9)
,

b sa sz) 3

b z a3

02

a 6
2

63 02 )

h ence

Thu s

it

e
a r s th a t
pp

two a d

c o lu

a c en

de ter m in an t a r e in ter ch an g ed, th e sig n

c h a n g ed, b u t its v a lu e r em a in s u n a l ter ed

m n s, o r r o ws,
t h e deter m in a n t

is

I f fo r

th e s k e
a

f b r ev i t y w e

th en th e es lt
r

a1

5.

0.

b2

63

by

d e o t e th e d e t e

(
a

b
c
i s s)

a c
i

b
s s)

m ay b e

w itt en
r

'

b
s sl

a n

s h e w th at

C a
i

h ve j s t o b t i e d

we

m i n an t

b i a 2 03 )

Si m il ar l y w e m ay

493
If t wo r o ws o r t wo co lu m n s
iden tic a l th e deter m in a n t v a n ishes

b
c
2 a)
l

'

t he

deter m in a n t

ar e

th e v l u e O f th e d e t e m i n t th e b y i n t e
ch i
w s o t wo o l m ns we Ob t i n a d e te m i n n t
wh o se v l e i s D ; b t th e d e t e m i n n t i s n lt e e d ; h e e
I)
D th t i s D
T h u s w e h ve th e f o ll o wi n g e q u ti o ns
0
l et

D be
w
an
o
ro
n
t
g g
Fo r

a u

A
l
l

b,A l
e

A
l
l

A
2
2

b, A 2
A
2
,

A
3
3

n c

D2

b3A 3

O,

A
3
3

an

49 4
If e a ch c o n s titu en t in a n y r o w, o r in a n y c olu m n , is
m u ltip lied b y th e sam e fa c to r , th en th e d e ter m in a n t is m u ltip lied
b y th a t fa c to r
.

E T E R MI N A N T S

mal

Al

77 2. a

whi h

o ves th e

o po s iti o

A
I
l

413

m a2

A2

A
2
2

m a3

A3

A
3
3) ;

h o ns titu en t o f O
c o l u m n i s th e s
ow
th c o esp o n di n g o s tit en t o f n o th e o w
m lti p l e
c ol u m th e d e t e m i a t v i s h es
CO R

I f eac
e
Of

n e r

rr

an

o r

am

o r

4 9 5 If ea ch c o n stitu en t in a n y
ter m s, th en th e deter m in an t c an b e
o th er deter m in an ts
.

w,

ro

ex

o r c o lu

r essed

mn

th e

as

f
of

c o n s is ts o

su

two
t wo

Thu s

a,

fo r

th e e

h a ve

we

b,

C,

a,

b1

01

b2

62

b3

ess i o n
_

th e l e ft

on

(
(
a
a

whi h

o ves th e

+ 1

A
l
l

A1

(
a2

a2 A 2

o p o s iti o n

A
3
3)

A2

(
a

A
l
l

01

(
1
2

c,

b,

(
as

13

(
1 11
2
2

li k e

b1

m an ne r i e ac h c o ns tit u e n t in a n y o n e ro w, o r c o l u m n ,
c o n s i s t s o f m t e r m s , th e d e t e r m i n a n t c an b e e x p r esse d a s th e
su m o f m o th e r d e t e r m i n a n t s
In

i il l y

Sm

ar

l) ,

8,

5,

8
, 2

b3

8
, 3

a,
a

a
a

s h e w th a t

w e m ay

H I GHER

4 14

L G E B RA

esu lt s m y e a s il y b e g ene r a li se d ; th u s i f th e c o n
r m s r es e c
t
e
st it u e t s o f th e th ee c o l u m ns c o ns i s t O f m
p
p
t i e ly t h e d e t e m i n a n t c an b e e x p r esse d a s th e su m o f m u p
d e te r m i n a n t s
T h ese

E x amp le 1

Th e

Sh ew th at

+b

3ab c

b3

g iv e n d e t e r m i n n t
a

th e e four d e t e rm in n t th e r t th r ee v n i h A t 4 9 3 ; t s th e ex
p
p r e i o n r e du c e s t th e l a t o f th e four d e t e r m i n an t ; h e nc e it s vi
Of

= 3a b c

E x amp le 2

(
c

ab

b3

in d th e v l u e
a

ao

ue

b cl l

67

19

21

39

13

14

81

24

26

ha e

67

19

21

19

21

10

39

13

14

13

14

81

24

26

24

26

496

We

10

19

21

10

13

14

24

26

10

13

24

+9

19

21

57

19

21

13

14

39

13

14

24

26

72

24

26

19

10

19

13

13

24

24

19

20

63

43

13

o ns id e th e d e t e m i n n t
r

a
a

as

ss

i n th e l s t
a

a1

ar

ti l e w

61

cl

+ p b2

+p

e c an

bs

961

61

Cl

b2

q c3

b3

s h e w th at it i s e qu a l t o

6
p 1

bl

C1

qcl

61

cl

41 6

EH
G HER A L

GEBRA

f o u r d e te r m i n a n ts i n t o whi c h this
th e r e is o n e w hi c h do e s n o t v an ish n am e ly

an

f the

re so l ve d

m ay b e

6
p 1

E x a mp l e 1

Fi

b
p 3

g i ve de t e m i

Th e

26

31

54

12

x
-

ra

ra

29

26

22

25

31

27

63

54

46

n an

26

c
q

v lu e o f

d th e

b
p 2

cl

12

26

31

54

132

26

e o f he redu t io k eep th e o d olum

u lt e ed ; f th r
ou
i i i h e h o titu e t o f t h t
olum b y t h orr e o i g o i u e f t h e o d ; for t h th ird w
ol um dim i i h e h o ti tu e t o f the th ird ol um b y t h rr e p o di g
o t itu e t of th e o d I th e o d t ep t k e t t h f tor 3 d
I t h th ird tep k eep t h t
eod w w
w u l t er e d ; for t h
di m i i h t h
o st itu e t of t h e d b y t h or e p o di g o e o f th
t ; f t h t hi rd
w w dimi i h the o ti tu e t o f the t h i d b y twi e
th
orr p o di g o t itu t of th r t Th rem i i g t p will b
e ily ee ]
r

t
In t h e st st p
st n ew c l m n d m
sp n d n
c n st t
nt

[ E xp la n atio n

na

or

e c

ac

n s

or

rs

as

ne

e s c

es

rs

ro

hew t h

e co

ou

n s

an

ne

ro

a n n

s e

give det erm i

n

+b +c

+b +c

2b

2c

26

0
c

2b

2 1)

2b

2c

26

+b +c

20

n an

2a

1
b

2c

ac

rs

ne

e s c

2a

2c

2b

n s

en

e s c

n a

ro

2b

n s

E x amp l e 2

Th e

e s c

ac

e s co n

ns

e c

n s

n s

e s c

2b

RMI N A N TS

D ETE

4 17

he r t w determ i t the r t w i th m o f
o ti t u e t o f
th
rows o f the ori gi l determi t th e d
th
I t h t h i d o f th
w de ter m i
d th ird row b e i g u lter e d
t th
r em i s u lter e d wh il e the e o d d th ird o lum
r t ol u m
ob t i ed b y ub tr t i g th
ti t u e t o f the r t olu m from t h o e o f
the se o d d th i rd r p t ive ly Th re m i i g tr form ti o
f
In t
th e

E
xp lan a t io n
[

ns

e c

ac

a n

c ien t ly

ob vi ou

s c

e co n s

Z
) 181
1

01
0

63 3 1

n s ar e

an s

n s ar e su

7
7

a a

a a

d a

71

:
s

b i lg e

62 32

63 3 2

72

a a

72

a a

V2

a a

v lue
a

b ug s

62 18 3

633 3

t wo

a a

e s co n

Be f or e sh e w i n g h ow t o e x p r e ss t h e p rod u c t
4 97
t e rm in an t s a s a d e t e rm i n an t , w e sh all i n e stiga t e t h e

l l
aga l

a a

e su

n an

a n n

ne

an

n an

e s ec

an

ro

n a

na

a n

r ee

na

an

n an

ne

de

73

73
,

(
33 3

Fro m A r t 4 9 5 we k n ow th at t h e ab ov e d e t e rm i n an t c a n
o f w hi c h it w ill
e x p r e ss e d as t h e su m o f 2 7 d e t e r m i n a n ts
su fc i e n t t o g i v e t h e f o ll ow i n g s p e c i m e n s

be
be

a a
l

a a
2

a a
3

th e s e
a a a
l

a a
a a
2

a a
3

are
a

a
Ct

r st

th e
ou

a a

a a

(
6
1

62 32

633 2

l l

d a

b l 35,

a a

r e s pe c ti v e ly

f the

r e m ai n

a e;

a a

l l
a a
l
a a
l

y3
73

o
6

yz

b ut? 3

72

62 33

u
l
t
o
q
a

Y
Q

(
1
1337 2

b1

I7 2

63

62

b3

w hi c h v an ish e s ; si m il a r l y it w ill b e f ou n d th a t 2 1
Th e six d e t e r m i n an ts th a t
2 7 d e t e r m i n an ts v a n ish
.

ar e e

al t o
u
q

a
a

3
/
s
s
.7 3

th at

b1

18 ,

,8

33
/

73

h e n c e t h e g i v e n d e t e r m i n an t
t wo o th e r d e te r m i n an ts

c an

53

be

b1

52

0
e

b3

r ss e d

ex p e

as

the p

rod u t
c

498

Th e p r o du ct

C o n si d e r t h e

two deter m in

t wo li n e a r

an

t s is

dete r m in a n

u
ti
o
s
q
a

X
1
1

X
3
1

O)

of

(
1 l

H I GH ER

4 18

Xl

w he re

a x
l

X2

S b stit

u ti

f or

X,

(
g
l
(
a a
l

ord e r th a t

v lu e s
a

f xl

an

a
s,

62 6 1 )

x
x
B
+
I I
B2 2
I

(
( 8)
( 3)
s (
si
u
lt
)
ro
ust h v

w ill

3)

the

ca e e

62

m
m ay
we m
,

ze

an e

l g

w ill h o l d if
a
a

bl

62

o u sl y h o l d

fo r

62 3 ,

(
ith r if

u
ti
o
s
q

me

a a

l l
ag a l

61

a a

u
a ti o n
q
o th e r th an
e

h ave

l ) , we

a a

(
1
n

a a

Bu t

G EBRA

d X 2 in
x

al a

In

an

AL

eq

u ati o s

(
1)

h old

an

this

0 an d
X
or if
w hi c h l a st c o n d iti o n r e q ui r e s th at
2 2

8
, 1

if e q u ati on s 5) an d 6 ) h o l d e q u a ti o n 4 ) m ust a ls o
h o l d ; an d th e r e f or e t h e d e t e r m i n an t in 4 ) m ust c o n t a i n a s
fa c t or s t h e d e t e r m i n an ts in 5) an d
an d a c o n si d e ra ti o n
of
t h e d i m e n si o n s o f t h e d e t e r m i n an ts sh e w s th a t t h e r e m a i n i n g
fa c t or o f 4 ) m ust b e n u m e r i c al 3 h e n c e
en ce

(
a

'8 1

6 13 1

a a

a a

b 1 '8 2

l l
a
a g ar
b
a
a a
b
8
B
l
W
t h e n u m e r i c a l fa c t or b y c o m p a r i n g t h e c o e f c i e n ts o f
o n t h e t wo si d e s o f t h e e u a ti o n s b e i n
s
t
o
u
e
e
n
b
n it
e
q
g
y
l

COR

Th e

ab

w h ate v e r

ove

bl

b2

m e th od

b e the

ord e r

2
1

a a

l g

b,

a a

b l bs

s
2

b ,b2
b ,,

f p roo f is p e r fe c tly ge n e r a l ,
o f t h e d e t e r m in an ts
o

an

h old s

v u

Si n c e t h e
a l e o f a d e t e rm i n an t is n o t al t e r e d wh e n
we
wr it e t h e row s a s c o lu m n s, an d t h e c o l m n s as row s, t h e p rod u c t
o f t wo d e t e r m i n an ts m a
b
e
e x r e ss e d
d
t
r
i
t
a
s
a
m
e
n
e
a
n
in
y
p
s e e ra l w ay s ; b u t th e s e will all g i e t h e s ame r e s lt o n e x

an s1 o n

H I GH ER

4 20
12

x y

So l

Pro

15

17

()
6

20
.

16

14

13

3/

b)

)( )(
(
y

+b

+o

2b

+c

2c
a

(
a

as a

2abc

(
a

b2

Ex p r e ss

()

2
0
'

17

a+

3x

+a

31

ex

b+a
c

'

2a

( )( (
b

yz

10

11

3
c

( )( )(
c

+y

q
b

2x

15

2
0

2
x

19

18

a +

+1 20 + e

w mg i de n ti ti es

(
2)

r
+
q

11

c+a

ns

e t h at
ro
v
p

b +a

x
z

3/

eq

z
+
y

16

v the f ll
e

u ati o
x

th e

1)

14

G EBRA

Wi th o u t e x pan din g t h e de te rm in an ts

13

AL

b)

de te m i n an t

o diti on t h at t h e e q u ati o lx + my + n z = 0 may b e

s at s ed b y t h e t h r e e s e ts o f v al u e (
a
b c ) ;
a
b
a
b 0) (
) (
an d s h e w th at t I s t h e s am
as t h e
o di ti on th at t h e th r e e e q u at i o s
21

Fin d

th e

a r
2

may b e

i mul tan e o u sly

+ b 2 3/

ti s e d b y

sa

2,

2,

l, m,

g,

0 2
2

O,

a x
3

+ b sy +

DE

22

+ ck

bc

ve th t
a

1,

c + id

C + id

ib

ro

du ct

'

t wo

ms

su

A + iB

ad

ca

bd

bc

25
.

c a

cd

b c + ca

exp r essed a s

be

o u r s u a r es c a n

th e

b d

2 2

ca

ab

bc

d
(
()
()( )( (
b

(y )
b yV
(
(y )

()
C

F in d
p res si o n

in t h e form

tb a

m ay b e t h e p rod u c t

12

ab

of
W

22

r si g t h e r e
n

su l

a a
a br
a ca:

d et e rm i n an t

the

on di ti o that
n

2
o

f th e

r st d egr e e

b y m e an s

72

Z
b a

'

v
u

in

ol v e t h e e q u ation
u

d)

()( )(
()
3
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?
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) (b ) @

o f two fac t or s
z

d) b

b c + ca

ab

b)

ab

ca

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e xp e s

ul r :

to

du e

iD

ff

2 2
0

be
ab

28

foll owin g iden titi e s :

ex

'

form

iB

ea ch o

l3

id

27

o u r s u ar es.

Pro v e t h e

26

iB

fo ll owin g th e orem

b e wr itte n in t h e

Th e
su m o
f

+ ib

c an

th e

ak

h en ce d ed u c e

bA

b e + a) \

wh e re i =

ca

ck

+ b 7\

ca

Pro

ab

{r

ab

24

421

Fi n d t h e v al u e o f

23

T E R MI N A N T S

'

b ox
o

fd

'

a cne

b ox

20

e t e rm i

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ts

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4 22
49 9

l
o
ed
p y

in

L et t h e

eq

u ti o s
a

by

o e

d1

O,

m
z

bgy

c z

d2

0,

re sp e c ti v e ly

A2, A3
m ulti p ly th e m b y A l ,
A , , A 2 , A 3 b e I n g m i n or s o f a , ,

Th e c o e f c i e n ts o f y
in A r t 4 9 3 , a n d we

A
l
1

an

cl

62

b3

A
3
3)

63 B3 ) 37

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(

0
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2

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l
1

No w

a,A

0
3
3)

A
2
2

A
s
3

th e

s o l u ti o n

m ay b e

dl Bl

d1

b1

d2

b2

d3

b3

d1

d2

da

d2 B2

3
(
Z
3

0,

d2 02

d3 03 )

b g l? 2

b l Bl

b a133 )

'
1

wr itt e n

z
1

bl

b2

b3

dl

d2

b1

b2

b3

m or e sy m m e t r i c a ll y
as

b1

d1

b2

02

d2

b3

d3

500

eq

(
(
(

d2 A 2

d, C l

2:

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o r

62 E}?

r e sults

dl A

a
s

ad

vi r t u e o f t h r e l ti o s p ro v e d

in

an

sh e w th at

d the
de t e r m l n a n t

an

the

ln

bl

Si m il a r ly we m ay

b l Bl

2,

v ish

o b ta i n

A
2
2

a1

em

be

h en c e

us e f u lly

a x

an

Th e p ro p e rti e s o f d e t e r m in an ts m ay b e
s o l i n g sim ultan e o us li n e a r e q u a ti o n s

L G E B RA

u ati o n s

Su pp o s e we

d1

d2

d3

have

th e

bl

dl

b2

d2

b3

d3

sy st e m

f fou r

ll

61

b2

b3

h o m og e n e o us li n e a r

H I G HER

4 24

L G EB R A

l e ft h an d m em b e r o f this e qu ati o n is a d e t e r m in an t w hi c h
c o n sists o f n r o w s an d n c o lu m n s an d is c a ll e d a d e te r m i n an t o f
Th e
the

o rd e r

th

d is c ussi on o f this m or e g en e r a l f or m o f d e t e rm i n an t is
b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h e p r e s e n t w ork it w ill b e su f c i e n t h e r e
t o r e m ark th a t t h e p ro p e r ti e s w hi c h h a v e b ee n e st ab lish e d in t h e
c a s e o f d e t e r m i n an ts o f t h e s e c o n d a n d thi rd ord e r s ar e q uit e
an d a r e c a ab l e o f b e i n g e x t e n d e d t o d e t e rm i n an ts o f
e n e r al
p
g
er
ord
an
y
th
o rd e r is
Fo r e x am p l e t h e ab o v e d e t e r m in an t o f t h e n
e q u al t o
Th e

A
l
l

a
a

or

A
l
l

b l B,
a

A
2
2

(
ZI D l

0
l
1

+ 0

+ a

A
3
3

A
4
4

ord i g a s we d e v e l op it f ro m t h e r st r o w or t h e r st c o lu m n
H e re t h e c ap ital l e tt e r s stan d f or t h e m i n o r s o f t h e c o n stitu en ts
d e n o te d b y t h e c orr e sp o n d i n g s m all l e tt e r s an d ar e th e m s e l v e s
h
d e t e rm in an ts o f t h e n 1 ) ord e r Ea c h o f th e s e m ay b e ex
h
a s t h e su m o f a n u m b e r o f d e t e r m i n an ts o f t h e
2
r
e
ss
e
d
n
p
)
ord e r ; an d s o o n ; an d thus t h e ex p an d e d f orm o f t h e d e te r
m i n an t m ay b e o b t a i n e d
ac c

lth o u g h we m ay al w ay s d e v e l op a d e t e rm i n an t b y m e an s o f
t h e p ro c e ss d e s c r i b e d ab o v e it is n o t a l w ay s t h e S i m p l e st m e th o d
e sp e c i all
en
o u r o b e c t is n o t s o m u c h t o n d t h e v alu e o f
w
h
y
j
t h e wh o l e d e t e r m i n a n t
as
t o n d t h e sign s o f its s e v e ral
e l e m e n ts
A

502

Th e

e x p an

de d f orm
a
a
a

b
c
, , 3
.

b
c
l s 2

d e t e r m i n an t

f th e

bl

62

63

b
el
z g

c
b
l 3

b
c
a l 2

it app e ar s th at e ac h e l e m e n t is t h e p rod u c t o f th r e e fac t or s

o n e t ak e n f ro m e a c h r o w an d o n e f ro m ea c h c o lu m n
ls
o
a
the
;
si gn s o f h alf t h e t e r m s ar e an d o f t h e o th e r h alf
Th e si gn s
o f t h e s e v e r al e l e m e n ts m a
o
t
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r
st
b
e
b
a
n e d a s f o ll ow s
h
T
e
y
e l e m en t a b c
in whi c h t h e suf x e s f o ll o w t h e a r ith m e ti c a l ord e r
is p o siti v e ; we sh all c all this t h e l e a d in g e l e m e n t ; e v e ry o th e r
e lem e n t m a
y b e o b t a i n e d f ro m it b y suit ab l y i n t e r c h an g i n g t h e
x es
su f
Th e S i gn
or
is t o b e p r e x e d t o a n y e l e m e n t ao

an

3 ,

DE

T ER MI N A N T S

d e d u c e d f r o m t h e l e ad i n g e l e m e n t b y an
fi e s f or i n st a n c e
e v e n o r o d d n u m b e r o f p e r m ut a ti o n s o f t wo su f
t h e e l e m e n t a b c is o b t ai n e d b y i n t e r c h an g i n g t h e su f x e s l a n d
3 th e r e f or e its S i gn is n e g ati v e ; t h e e l e m e n t a b l eg is o b t a i n e d
b y r st i n t e r c h an g i n g t h e su ix e s l an d 3 a n d th e n t h e su f x e s
1 an d 2 h e n c e its S i g n is p o siti v e
c

ord i n g

as

it

be

c an

503

m ay

Th e d e t e r m i n an t w h o s e l e ad i n g
b e e x p r e ss e d b y t h e n o t ati o n

thus

Zi

c d
b
1 2 3
4

e em en

t is

l
ts w hi c h c an b e o b t ai n e d f r o m it
i n te r c h an ge s o f suf x e s an d adju st m e n t o f si gn s
f

b
c d
l
, g
4

2 i p l a c e d b e f or e t h e l e a d i n g e l e m en t i n d i c ati n g t h e agg r eg a t e

the
o

all

e em en

t he

by

suit ab l e

So m e tim e s t h e d e t e r m in an t is still m o r e si m p l y e x p r e ss e d b y
e l e m e n t withi n b r a c k e ts ; thus
t
h
e l e ad i n
a b c d
e n c l o si n
g
g
1 2 3
4
o
k a b 0 d
1 5 us e d a s an ab b r e vi a t i o n o f 2 =
4
l 2 3

he et rm i

E x amp l e
In t
d
t h e el m en t a4 b 3 c l d5e2 ?

n an

(
a

d
b
c
e
l 2 3 4 5)

wh at Sig i s t o
n

be p

r e e d to
x

F rom the l e di g l em e t b y p erm uti g th suf of

d d w ge t
b
d
u f e o f b d w h v e b d ;
; from t h i b y p rm u t i g th
b
b y p e rm ut i g th
uf e s o f
d d w h ve
d
ll y b y p erm uti g
;
t h suf
o f d d w o b t i t h e q ui r e d e l e m e t b d ; d S i
l m e t i p o i ti v
w h v m de four p e rm ut ti o
t h S i g o f th
a

a4 203

1 5

e s

an

x es

a e

c an

a n

ns

e s

x es

an

a4

3 l

e r

a an

a4 3 c 2

na

2 5

e e e

a4 3 c l 5e2
an
n
s
s
e

n ce

I f in A rt 501 , e ac h o f t h e c o n stitu e n ts b , , c l ,
h , is
in o th e r word s
t h e d e t e r m i n an t r e d c e s t o a l A l
e q u al t o z e r
th
it is e q al t o t h e p rod c t o f a l an d a d e te r m i n an t o f t h e n 1 )
rd e r, an d we e asily in fe r t h e f o ll owi n g ge n e ra l th e or em
504

If ea ch of th e c o n s titu en ts of th e r st r o w o r c o lu mn of a
d eter m in a n t is z er o ex c ep t th e r s t, a n d
th is c o n s titu en t is equ a l
t o m , th e deter min a n t is eq u a l t o I n t im es th a t det er m in a n t of lo wer
o r der which is o b ta in e d b y o m it tin g th e r s t c o lu m n a n d r st
ro

ls o si n c e b y suit ab l e i n t e r c h an ge o f row s an d c o l u m n s an y
c o n stitu e n t c a n b e b ro u ht i n t o t h e r st
l
a c e it f o ll ow s th a t if
p
g
an
r o w o r c o l u m n h a s all its c o n stitu e n ts e x c e t o n e e u a l t o
y
p
q
z e ro
t h e d e t e r m i n an t c an i m m e d i at e l y b e e x p r e ss e d a s a d e t e r
m i n an t o f l o we r o rd e r
A

is s o m e ti m e s us e f u l
o f d e t e rm i n an ts
Th is

in t h e

r e d u c ti o n

an

si m p li c a ti o n

E x amp le

Fi

v lue

d th e

11

2O

38

11

36

19

17

22

i i h ea h
titu e t o f
d
l um
t i tu e t i t h e e
t hr ee ti m e s t h e c o rr e p o di
ob t ai n

D mi n

th e
n , an d

s co n

co n s

co n s

co

we

15

e the e

29

15

36

17

s n c

s co n

505 Th e
c a sio n al l
s
f
e
y
.

E x amp le 1

ro

w h as t

ac

itue

36

16

17

hree ero o t itu e

z

19

17

ns

19

17

l s sh e w

olum

w hi c h

a rt i c e s

e x am p e

an

ts t h i s det erm in an t

r ve t h at

se c

ar e

oc

by

t in t h e

20

f o ll ow i n g
ul

e h

um

2O

twi c e the c orr e sp on di n g

c o n st i t u e n t o f th e fo ur t h c ol um n

co l

11

rt

c o n st

an

30

by

A L GE B R A

H I GHE R

426

b +c

d)

d)

g t ogether ll th r w w th t + b
d i
f tor of t h
t ; b y ddi g t oge t her t h r t d th ird row
d u b tr ti g
d et erm i
m
th t
fr m t h re ult th
f th
e o d d f urt h r w w
b+
l o
f t r ; S im il rly it
hew t h t b + d d
d i
b
m
f t rs ; th rem i i g f tor i m e ri l d from
d
+b
o f t h t erm i volvi g
e h i de i e ily see t b u ity ;
p i
he e w h ve th e qui e d re ul t
E mp l 2
P ov e t h t
By

add n
n an

s a s

are

xa

e r

2
0

d
d

an

s c

ac

ac

on

s nu

ca

an

se e

an

as

ac

ac

s an

e s

s a

an

c an

a n n
a

ac o

ac o

su

e se e

ar so n
nc

a co

( ()( ()( (
a

b)

d) b

d)

d)

give det erm i t v i he whe b for t he th r t d s o d

l um
i de ti l ; he e b i f t r of t h dete rm i t [ A t
d b
Si m i l rl y e h o f t h e p r e i o
b
f tor o f
d
d i
th
de t erm i
t ; t h de t erm i
t b e i g o f i di m e
i o the rem i i g
m p ri
f tor m u t b um e i l ; d from
o f th term i volvi g
b d
e h ide it i e ily ee t b u ity ; he e w ob t i th re qui ed
e ul t
Th e

n s ar e

co

r s

on
.

ac

n s a

ss

as

an

c,

s x

a co
n

ns

so n

nc

an

n an

ac o

c, a

n an

r ca

= a,

s a

e n

an s

n c

n an

ac

ca

ac

n an

a n n

a n

ac

n s,
e

s a

ec

H I GHER

4 28
So l
12

th e

eq
x

ax

14

y+

+ by +

13

1,

z =

y+

v th t
a

b +c
c

+a

a+b

bc

ca

ab

Pro v e

th at

()
()
(b)
b

2
0

2
0

hew th

3
a x

+b y +

u =

1,

cz = lc,

3 =
c z

lc3

lc,

(d)
b
d
bd
()
b (d)
d
b
d
b
d
b
()( )( )( )( )(
bc

ca

be

ca

ab

17

+ by +

+ du

02

ad

16

ax

by

ax +

Pro

c,
cz = /

LG EB RA

uati o n s :

15

()( )(
b

b)

wh er e

I f a d e t e r m i n an t
o f I t s r s t s e c o n d t h i rd
t h e rs t S ec on d t h i rd
18

is

+ 2 ae

f th e

th

2bd

orde r

an

if

rows a e t h e r t n
orde r s sh ew th at it s v u
r

u ts

t h e c n stit
g u r at e n m b e
al e is u n ity

en

rs

C HA PTER

XXX IV

H EO R EMS

MI S C E L L A N E O U S

E X A M P L ES

A ND

W E sh a ll b e gin this c h ap t e r with s o m e r e m a rk s o n t h e

506
e r m an e n c e o f al g e b r a i c al fo r m , b r i e y r e v i e w i n g t h e fu n d am e n t a l
p
la ws w hi c h h a v e b ee n e stab lish e d in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e work
.

I n t h e e x p o siti o n o f al g e b ra i c a l p r i n c i p l e s w e p ro c e e d
507
at t h e o uts e t we d o n o t l ay do wn n e w n am e s a n d
al t ic all
:
y
y
i d e as , b u t we b e gi n f r o m o u r k n o wl e dge o f ab st r a c t
n ew
A r ith me ti c w e p r ov e c e r t a i n l aws o f o pe r ati o n whi c h ar e c ap ab l e
o f v e r i c ati o n in e v e r y p a r ti c ul a r c a s e , an d t h e gen e r a l th e ory o f
th e s e Op e r ati o n s c on stitut e s t h e s c i e n c e o f A l ge b ra
.

it is usu al t o sp e ak o f A r ithmetic a l A lg ebr a an d Sy m

In t h e
b o lica l A lg eb r a an d t o m a k e a disti n c ti o n b e t we e n th em
f orm e r we d e n e o u r sy m b o ls in a s e n s e a r ith m e ti c ally i n te lli g i b l e
an d th e n c e d e d u c e fu n d a m e n t a l l a w s o f o p e r a ti o n ; in t h e l att e r
we a ssu m e t h e l aw s o f A r ith m e ti c a l A l g e b r a t o b e t r u e in all
w h at e v e r t h e n atu r e o f t h e sy m b o ls m ay b e an d so n d
c as e s
o u t w h a t m e an i n g m ust b e a tt a c h e d t o t h e s y m b o ls in ord e r th a t
th e y m ay o b e y th e s e l a w s Thus g r ad u all y as we t ran s c e n d t h e
lim its o f ord in a ry A r ith m e ti c n ew r e sults s p r i n g u p n e w lan
u
a e h a s t o b e e m l o y e d a n d i n t e r r e t a ti o n s
i
v
t
o
s
o
ls
e
n
m
b
p
p
g
g g
y
whi c h we r e n o t c o n t e m pl at e d in t h e or i g i n a l d e n iti o n s
A t the
s am e ti m e f ro m t h e way in whi c h t h e ge n e r a l l a w s o f A lg e b ra
we a r e a ssu r e d o f th e i r p e r m a n e n c e an d u n i
a r e e st ab lish e d
n wh e n th e
ar e a
a n titi e s n o t a r it h m e t i
v
li
d
t
o
u
v e r sal it
e
e
e
y
pp
y
q
c all y i n t e lli g ib l e
en c e

o t o p o siti v e i t g r l v lu e s

508
Co n n in g o u r a tt e n ti n
t h e sy m b o ls , t h e f o ll ow i n g l a w s a r e
a r ith m e ti c a l d e n iti o n s
.

ea

sily e st ab lish e d f ro m

f
r io r i
p
o

H I G HER

4 30
I

on w hi h

Th e L aw o f Co mmu t at i

(
i)

A dditio n s

us

Th

(
ii )

an

a +

Mu ltip lic a tio n s

c = a

x c

c +

bs

x c x a

= a x c x

Mu ltip lica tio n s

b tr a c tio n s

a n d su

Th

an

c + a

b;
b

Th e L aw o f D ist rib u t io n ,

n c a e as

an

w hi c h

an

we

so

(
en

on

an

o r der

u n c ia t e

as

o ve

(
( )()

bm

f o ll ow s :

a dditio n s

= ac

ad

+ c m,

bc

bd

r ts

S
ee El em en tar y A lg eb r a , A
[

d i v isi o n is t h e r e v e r s e o f m u lti pli c a ti o

d i v isi o n r e q u i r e s n o s e pa ra t e d is c ussi o n

Th e L aws

d div isio n s m a y b e distr ib u ted

III

o r der

us

A n d si n c e
b u t iv e law fo r

f o ll ow s :

ab + c = a

II

u i t

en

d div isio n s m ay b e m ade in

an

a x
a x

we

b tr ac tio n s m ay b e m ade in

su

us

Th

L G E B RA

o f I n dic es

(
i)

x a

"

"
2

(y
a

wr

3 3,

t h e dist r i

m t:

S
e e El em en ta r
A
l
eb r a , A r t
y
g
[

23 3

to

la id do wn a s f n d am e n t al t o o u r su b je c t, h a i n
g
b e e n p ro e d o n t h e s p p o siti o n th a t t h e sy m b o ls e mp l oy e d
a n d i n t e r al , a n d th a t th e
a r e r e st r i c t e d in su c h a wa
e
o
siti
p
g
y
y
t h a t t h e o p e r a ti o n s a b o e i n d i c a t e d a r e a r ith m e ti c a ll i n t e lli i b l e
y
g
I f th e s e c o n d iti o n s do n o t h o l d , b y t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f S m b o li c a l
y
A l g e b ra w e a ss m e t h e l a w s o f A r ith m e ti c al A l g e b r a t o b e t r e
in e e ry c a s e an d a c c e p t t h e i n t e rp r e tati o n t o w hi c h this a ssu m
p
ti o n l e ad s us By this c o u r s e we a r e a ssu r e d th at t h e l a w s o f
A l g e b rai c a l o p e r a ti o n a r e s e lf c o n sist en t , a n d th at th e i n c lu d e in
y
th e i r g e n e r a lity t h e pa r ti c la r c as e s o f rd in a ry A r ith me ti c

Th e s e

l a w s ar e

509
From t h e l aw o f c o mm utati o n we d e d u c e t h e r l e s
f or t h e re m o al an d i n s e rti o n o f b r ac k e ts [Elem en tar y A lg eb r a ,
A r ts 2 1 , 2 2] an d b y t h e a id o f th e s e r l e s w e e st a b lish t h e law
.

H I G H ER

432

L GE B RA

n ce

v e ry r ti o al fu ti o

i n vo l v e s n o o pe r a ti o n s b u t
th o s e a b o v e m e n ti o n e d it f o ll ow s th at a r a ti o n a l fu n c ti o n o f a
c o m p l e x n u m b e r is in g e n e r al a c o m p l e x n u m b e r
A ls

o si

n c

w
f or m a

l o g x + iy ) c an n o t b e f u lly
Ex p r e ssi o n s o f t h e
,

t re ate d with o ut Tr i g o n o m e t ry ; b u t b y t h e aid o f D e Mo iv r e s

th e or e m , it is e asy t o sh ew th at su c h fu n c ti o n s c an b e r e d u c e d t o
iB
c o m p l e x n u m b e r s o f t h e f or m A
.

Th e
f or m

r ssi o n e is o f c o u r s e i nc l u d e d in t h e m or e g e n e r a l
b u t an o th e r m od e o f t r e ati n g it is worth y o f a tt e n ti o n
x

ex p e

W e h a v e s e e n in A r t

2 2 0 th a t

w h en
b ein g

90

d e n e d

an

by

m
"
c

m
f
a
u
an tit
m
b
e
e
q
y
y

r
u
an tit
eal
t
h
e
y
q
y;
m e an s o f t h e e q u ati o n
.

is i n n it e

S im il rly
a

7:

wh en

L im

is i n n it e

r
u
a n titi e s
e al
y
q
Th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e th e or y o f c o m p l e x n u m b e r s w ill b e

f o u n d full y d is c uss e d in C h ap te r s X an d X I o f Sc h l om ilc h s

Ha n db u ch der a lg eb r aisch en A n a ly sis

x an

d y b ein g

an

'

51 3
W e sh a ll n o w g i e s o m e th e or e m s a n d e x am p l e s illus
t r at in g me th od s w hi c h w ill o ft e n b e f o u n d us e ful in
ro
i
n
p
g
i d e n titi e s , an d in t h e Th e or y o f Eq u a ti n s
.

51 4

; let

d en o te

an

n o

to

in v ol v e
; pu t

f
w

r
r
f
a
t
i
o
l
n
a
i
n
t
e
a
l
u n c tio n
y
g

ati o n a l i n t e r a l f u n c ti o n o f x
r
d
i
v
i
d
e
y
g
;
x
a u n til a r e m a i n d e r is o b t ai n e d w hi c h do e s n o t i n v o l v e
Q b e t h e q u o ti e n t an d E t h e r em ain d e r ; th e n

Sin c e R do e s
v alu e we gi v e

no

an

Le t
by

f
x

To n d th e r em ain der wh en
is div ided b y x
a
.

Q is

it w ill r e m ai n u n al t e r e d w h at e v e r
a th e n

(
)

Qx 0 E

n it e f or it e v al u e s
n

f x,

hen ce

M I S C E LL ANE O U S
f
x

H EO R EMS

E X A M P L ES

A ND

is e x a c tly d i v isi b l e b y x a,
I ff
C OR
h
a r a tio n a l in teg r a l fu n c tio n
en c e
a
0
)
a
a, it is div isib l b y x

433

th e n R 0 th a t is
o
x
a
n
i
v
h
n
s
h
w
e
e
s
f
,

o
v

Th e p r p o siti o n c o n ta i n e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g a r ti c l e is s o
us e ful th a t w e gi e an o th e r p ro f o f it w hi c h h a s t h e a d a n t ag e
o f e x hi b it in g t h e f or m o f t h e q u ti e n t

51 5
.

Su pp o s e
d e n oted b y

th at
po

th e n

the q

o
o

pl

u o ti e t w ill

be

go

ql

p3

p2
o

93

fn

an

ql
92
qa

'

a9

0
z

aq

"

92

01

Q3

or

n ,

+ 12

by

o e f c i e n t s

= a
2

'

be

01

'

it

"

01

aa

d le t

q ,x

th e

13

an

'

p2
l

z
-

qo x

u a ti n g

aq

13

eq

"

+p

d i m e n si o n s d e n o t e it

( )(
ou

d i m en si o n s

Multip ly in g
we h a v e

f u n c ti o n is o f

th e

"

q sz

+ 10

+ 19

f li k e p ow e r s

x,

P3 3

thus e ac h su c c e ssi v e c o e f c i e n t in t h e q u o ti e n t is f orm e d b y

m ulti p ly i ng b y a t h e c o e f c i e n t l a st f orm e d a n d a dd i n g t h e
c i e n t in t h e d i v i d e n d Th e p ro c e ss o f n d in g t h e
n ex t c o e f
su c c e ssi v e t e r m s o f t h e q u o ti e n t a n d t h e r e m ai n d e r m ay b e
a rr an e d thus
g
,

P0

21
9

91

go

aq n

po

"

P2
9

(
aq

+ 17 2 a

(
W

"

93
Q

+
2

s am e

.,

92

I f t h e di i s or is x + a t h e
this c a s e t h e m ulti p li e r is a

P3

+p

m e th od

c an

be

us e d o n ly
,

H H A
.

28

in

H I GH E R

4 34
Ex a

mp l e

Fi

is d

hu

3x

3l x

x6

2 1x

2,

T
s th e
m ain der is 1 1

the quoti en t an d remai n der whe n

ivi ded b y + 2
H ere th e mul ti pl i er is
.

L GE B RA

quoti en t

d we

an

1
6

O
14

14

h ve
a

31
28

is

7x

0
6

12

12

l 4x

5
6

21
24

11

3x

6 33 + l 2 x

3,

an

d th e

re

I n t h e p r e c e d in g e x a m p l e t h e work h a s b e e n a b ri d ge d
b y wr iti n g dow n o n ly t h e c o e f c i e n ts o f t h e s e e r a l t e r m s , z e r
c o e i c ie n t s b e i n g us e d t o r e p r e s e n t t e r m s c orr e s p o n d i n g t o p ow e r s
This m e th od o f D eta ch ed Co eicien ts m ay
o f x w hi c h a re ab s e n t
fr e qu e n tly b e us e d t o s a e l ab o u r in e l e m e n t ary a lg e b ra i c a l
ro
c e ss e s , p a r ti c l a r l y w h e n t h e fu n c ti o n s w e a r e d e a li n g with
p
Th e f o ll o wi n g is an o th e r illust r ati n
a r e r ati o n al an d in t e g r al
51 6

Ex amp le

D ivi de 3

8x

5x

2
6
x
2

26 b y

33 x

2x 2

4x

2+
2

24

7+ 2
4

33

3
6
3+

24

hu the quot ie t i s 3 2 + 3 d the em i der i 5 2

ot i e d t h t i wri t i g dow the divi or th Sig o f very
I t h ul d b
h
b ee
term
h ged ; thi e b l e
r
h
l
h
p
p
p
t
dd
i
b
h
t
i
r
i
e h su e ive t ge of th work
b
t
t
f
y
f
T

e n

t t e

ex c e

su

on

ac

rs t

as

t a

an

n c

an

t on a

a n

ac

na

c c ss

s u s to r e

s a

ac e

o cess

work m ay b e still fu r th e r ab r i dge d b y t h e f o ll o wi n g

w hi c h is k n ow n as H o rn e r s Meth o d of Sy n th etic
a rr an g e m e n t
51 7

Th e

D iv isio n

1
2
4

8
6

12
4
+

24
8
6
0

16
12
5+

24
2

o u o f gure o
ef of
vri
i e
i e of
ivi or
S i g o f e h f er
r ei g
hori o
i e o i
u i i g
of
uo i e
We he
er
he e o
o f he ver i
i e h i gi v e
wh i h
of
uo i e
Wi h
o e i e hu o i

Th e c l m n

s t
th e l t
th e
e t c al l n
c o n si sts
th e c fc n t s
th e d
s
th e
n
ac
a t
t h e st b n
,
c an
d ; th e s c n d
z n t al l n
is b t a n ed b y m l t p ly n
2, 4,
8
by 3, t
r st t m
th e q
t nt
t
n add t h e t m s in t
s c nd
e
c o l mn t
i
t
t t
t c al l n ; t s
s
2,
c
is t h e c o e f
nt
c
th e
t
nt
t
t
t
ec n d t er m
t
t
h
e
c
f

c
n
s b ta n ed
q

[ E xp lan at io n

oe
h ge
eo
he
r
u
o he r gh
i e of he S o
of

H I G HER

43 6
Pu t
p

an sio n

th en

0,

()
y

3, b e in g t h e

Thus

o ef ie t

d we g e t

an

n th e
i
y

6)

B ; w h en c e

{in

3xy

3g

3y z

32

3z x

6xy z

A fu n c ti o n is s ai d t o b e a lter n atin g with r e s p ec t

52 0
h
t
e
b
e
e
a
a
e
r
i
l
s
h
its
si
its
lu
is
lt
r
d
o
t
n
u
n
t
b
w
n
e
a
a
b e ,
y
g
an d
s x
T
hu
c h an e o f an y p a i r o f th e m
y
g
.

a
ar e a

ex

Pu t
B

L G E B RA

(
b

lt e rn atin g fu n c ti o n s

+ c

its

in

te r

b)

is e v i d e n t th a t th e r e c an b e n o li n e a r a lt e r n ati n g fu n c ti o n
i n v o l v i n g m or e th an t wo v ar i ab l e s an d als o th at t h e p rod u c t o f
a s mm e t r i c al fu n c ti o n an d an a lt e r n ati n g fu n c ti o n m ust b e a n
y
a lt e r n ati n
fu
n c ti o n
g
It

52 1
Sy mme t r i c a l an d alt e r n ati n g fu n c ti o n s m ay b e c o n
d
en o te d b
w
r
iti
n
do
r e x in
c isel
w
n
n e o f t h e t e r m s an d
o
y
p
g
y
g
t h e s y m b l 2 ; thus 2 a st an d s f or t h e su m o f al l t h e t e r m s o f w hi c h
a is t h e t p e , 2 ab st an d s f or t h e s u m o f al l t h e t e r m s o f w hi c h
y
a b is t h e t
a
n
h
s
o
i
st
if
f
ti
o
i
l
s
e
d
n
n
t
e
n
c
n
n
n
o
F
o
r
a
c
e
e
,
yp ;
f o u r l e tt e r s a, b , c, d,
.

an

so o n

Sim il a r ly

fun c ti o n i n v o l v e s th r ee l e tt e r s

th e

if

()

Ea b
2

= a

Ea b c
g

an

so

on

bc

ca

o a

b,

c,

b ;

b;

Ea b
g

sy m b o l 2

r e ga rd t o

a,

() ( ) ( )

I t sh o ul d b e n ti c e d
2
2 a b do e s n o t c o n sist o f

Th e

vo v

t wo

or

a o

0 a

ls o b e us e d t o i m p ly su m m ati o n with
m or e s e ts o f l e tt e r s ; thus

Ey z b

th at wh e n th e r e ar e th r e e l e tt e r s i n vo l v e d
th r ee t e rm s b u t o f six : thus

m ay

b)

MI S C E LL A NE O U S T HE O RE M S

v e o t ati o

52 2 Th e ab o
rm t h e p rod u c ts
.

fo

(
b
(
b
(
a

Ea

d)

Ea

Ea

2a

Ba
Ex amp le 1

Sa

e n ab

32a b

Ga b e ;

32a b

GEab c ;

4 Ea b

62a b

Ea b

rove th at

(
a

+ b)

5=

1 22 a bc ;

437

l e s us t o e x p r e ss in a n ab r i d ge d
e r s o f s mm e t r i c a l e x r e ssi o n s : thus
ow
p
y
p

an

E X A M P L ES

A ND

( (

5a b

b)

+ ab + b

ot e th e e pre ss i on th e l e ft b y E ; the E i s a fu t io o f whi h

va i he whe
e i s a f t or o f E im il rly b is a f t r of E
o ; he
b t h at is + b i a fa tor o f E ; a d t here for e
A gain E va i he s wh e a
Th
r e mai i g fa t r m u t b o f t wo
E c o tai s b (
+ b ) a a fa tor
i e it i s y m m etri al wi th r e p ect t o a d b i t mu t b
a d
di m e i o
o f th e form A + B b + A b ; t hu s
D en

n s

on

n s

n s

n s,

P tt i n

u
t
i
g
t
p

whe

n ce

in depe

a=

2, b

5=

+b

a an

db

re

at

f tors o f

n ce

follow

ac

() ( )()
b

+a

()

the n E is a fun cti o n o f a whi ch van i she s

n t ai n s a
b as a fac t or [ A r t
Si m il arly i t
c
a ; th u s E c o n tain s b
c
) c a) a b ) as a

r ion b y
here fore c o
r
c a d

D en t e t h e exp e s s
n a = b , an d t
n ta n s t h e ac to s b

a e

d th e

b +c

a e

an

Fi

c o

()

ab

of

den t

A = 5,

h v I 5= 2A + B ;
1 w h v 1 5= 5A
2B ;
d th u s t h r q u i d r s ul t

1 , b = 1 , we

whe
i
co
factor

a=

E x amp le 2

are

ac o

n n

nc

an d

sn c

(+ b )

where A

ac

nc

az

E;

( ( (
.

o i
r egr ee
for

A l s s n ce E is
st d
; an d s
m M a+ 6
th e

of

fourth degree the rem i i g f tor m u t b o f th

it i s a y mm etri l fu tio of b it mu t b of

th e

n ce

a n n

[ A rt

r ui

hu

r u

h w th

a=

to

o, b

b,

a,
z

1,

c,

c an

v lue t h t
s

2 , we n d

a=

we n d m o st c o n
1 , an d we
a e th e

hv

at

5
x

+ x)

e e t h e pr s io
t h l e ft b y E ; t he
here for e y + i f tor o f E ; i m il rly

D not
d t

a,

E x amp le 3

an

u i g

nc

() ( ) ( )
b

giv

To b ta n M we m ay
s b y p tt n
v en ien t ; t
eq
r e d es l t

E:

ca

ac

es

th erefore E c o n tain s

n on

( ) ( ) (y )

s a

z
+
y

ac

+x

as a

an s

+ x an d

f tor
ac

v i he whe

o si

Al s

f t ;
i o f th

+ y ar e
n ce

ac o r s

H I G HER

43 8

fth

de

sy mmet

main in

th e

r ee

re

rical i

n x,

2,

g f tor

AL

of

is

ac

G EB RA

th e

of t h f

it must b e

sec n

o rm

d de

gr

ee , an

d,

s nc

e it i s

Pu t

1 0= A + B ;

=
1
,
y

pu t

hu

hu

3 5= 5A + 2B ;

A = B = 5,

en c e

hv

we

an d

a e

requ ired resul t

th e

We

o lle c t h e r e fo r r e fe r en c e a list o f i d en titi e s whi c h

ar e us e ful in t h e t r an sf o rm a ti o n o f a l e b r a i c al e x r e ssi o n s ; m an y
g
p
o f th e s e h a v e o c c u rr e d in C h a
XX
I
X
h
r
l
r
a
f
A
o
t
e
E
e
n
t
a
e
b
l
e
m
g
p
y
523

()
( ) () ( ) ( )
)( )( )
() ( )( )( )
b
(
( )() )
.

2 be b

Thi s
a

+ c

be

i d e n tity m ay
a

b e gi

3a bc =

+ e

(
(

ve

a +

in

an

+ c

+ o

()

Eb e b

2c

"

2e

z 2

2a b

c + a

a +

ab e =

EXA MPLES

XXX IV

by

+5

Fi d
n

th e

m ay b e di visib le b y

main de r wh en 3 x 5+ 1 1 x 4 + 9 0x 2

b)

2 ab c = b

ab

2 ab c = b

+ e

ca

( (
)()()
()
(
)( )
(
)
(

b
{

a +

o th e r f o rm

1 9x

53

i s divided

A L GEB R A

H I G HER

4 40

25
.

26

b+e

If x =

27

Pro

s u b s t i t u te

+y + z

v th t

b,

a, s

28

v ly
e

we

()( )(
b

z
c

2
a

( ( ()

b)
b

b)

( (
a

33

b)

is u n alte re d i f
wh e r e

e o

( ( )(

30

31

29

v lu

d th e

(b

3 abc

3
c

f a +b +
a, b , 0 e s p ec ti
o

33

Fi

fo r

w t h at

3 a b e)

v lu

th e

e, Sh e

3 a bc)

b)

If x

b ed

d xy z

s, an

'

32

>
< >< >
a

()(

( (
b

'

2
,

( >< ) <
ca

>

sh ew th at
3

11
23

'

}?

MI SCE L LAN E OU S

I D EN T I T I E S

Man y i d e n titi e s c an b e r e a d ily e st ab lish e d b y m ak i n g

u se o f t h e
e
e
h
ro
r
ti
s
o
f
t
e
c
u
b
roo
ts
u
t
us
u
l
th
s
e
f
o
n
i
a
s
a
e
e
p p
y;
w ill b e d e n o t e d b y 1 w
52 4

Ex amp le

h w th

(W
M

he

Th e

e pr i o
e ss

E,

7
x

th e l e

on

it m u st con tai n y (
x + y)
Putt i g x wy we h ave
,

n ce

n c

t ai n s

a ns x
as a

+v

an s

ac

es

en

0, y = 0,

+ y = 0;

he e E o t i

ft v i h wh
f tor

as a

()

=
7 mtl
e
7

co y as

f tor ; th
ac

f tor ;

at

ac

1} y

is ,

we)

5
6

d sim il a ly we m ay
E is d s b l b y

( (
x

w7

an

ivi i

01

my + y 2

Shew t h t it
a

co n

MI S C E LL A N E O U S I DEN TITI ES
th e

F urther

E be

g o f s ve

H )
(
z/

utti g

x=

p utti g

96

1,

ls o

b
b

b e pu t
Th e p

bc

x7

we

h w th

1 1 0,

c an

be

+b +c

3 ab c

A 3 +3

(b

+ wb + w c )

th e

th e p

th a t

be

ca

wb

we ) ;

t t h e pro duct o f

+ co y

C3

+y + z

3x y z

(
(w y

we )

+ wz )

(
(

in t h e p a r s
an

3A B O

wz ) ;

an

(w
(wy
x

+ wb

we)

(
x

);

wy

three p arti al p ro du cts

wh ere

hu

r e s o l v e d in t o th r e e li n ea r fac t o r s ;

A + w B + w0,

A + B + 0,

ra th at

A l ge b
2

93
.

in t o th e form

+a

a +

tak i n g th ese six factors

o b tai

+ c

ro du t

( ) ww w

7 xy

3/

ea

By

7 =

3, A r t

3a bc

3
a
c an

+ y)

E x amp l e

+ e

n s,

A = 7, B= 7 ;

in Ex

ab

n s

a e

th u s

) + B xy ;

e io

h a v e s ee n

we

h en ce
thus

a e

k n o w f rom e l e m e n t a ry

We

52 5

+y

ve d m

(
x

(
x

of

h v 2 1 2A + B ;
w h v 2 1 5A 2 B ;

1 , y = 1 , we

= 2,

m e)
(

7 =x
y
y

(
for

d xy x + y )
m A
th e

an

whe c e

rem ai in g fa tor m u t b o f
,

441

rodu t
c

(
A

+3

C) A

wB

wC)

3 A BC

I n o rd e r t o n d t h e v alu e s o f e x p r e ssi o n s
52 6
b , e wh e n th e s e q u an titi e s ar e c o n n e c t e d b y t h e
0, w e m i ght e mp l o y t h e su b stituti o n
b c

in v o l vi n g
e u a ti o n
q

a,

a =

h,

= wh + w

k,

c =

w h + wk

h ow e v e r t h e e x p r e ssi o n s i n v o l v e a b c sy mm e t r i c a lly
m e th o d e x hi b it e d in t h e f o ll ow i n g e x am pl e is p re fe rab l e
If

t he

A L GE B RA

H I GHE R

44 2
E x amp l e

If

(
5

+b

hew t h

O,

(
3
a

b3

+e

(
2

+b +

We h ave i de tic ally

n

( ( (

b x ) 1 + ax)

1 + ax ) 1

= 1 + p x + q x 2 + rx 3 ,

where
He

u i g th o ditio give
n

e c n

s n

n ce,

( (

l)

(
a

n
c

g l og r i t h m
b

o e fcie t of
n

By p

"

"

utti g
n

ob tai

+b +

whe e

= 2.

+b +e

nc

an

we
6

If

re

+b +c

a=

h ve i
a

z
b
,
y
B 7
den t c all y

for

all

+ b +c

val u e of
s

a,

te ge r
2

(b

If

is

an

(
be

y)

(
ex

o ditio i s

he

sat s e d ;

l3 )

n ce

CL

l3) }

( l (B)

3
c ,

+ b +e

XXX IV

2n + l

a2

va

) ;

en

is

2n + l
c

(
2b

y is di vi s i b l e
a m ulti l e o f 3
p

(
y
a

sh ew th at

th at

ql ;

w th at
x
os i ti v e in tege r n o t
Sh ew th at

c n

en

Sh e
o dd
p

+b +

B) }

Sh ew

B7

3
0

EXA MPLES

giv
3 th
(

3
rx

"s
rx

3 , A r t 522

= a

B
(

= 5{

x.

omp are E

a e

(
g

qx

"

'

t a is,

a,

'

an s

" 2
rx

quir ed r esul t at o n ce foll ows

{B

qx

d th e

qx

3
+ rx

= 2, 3 , 5 we

in

3
x
r

+ qx

e qu t i g the oef i e ts of
w h v

1 q
o f i e t of i th e p i o o f l g (
)
d

an

= ab c

l + ax ) 1 + b x )

Takin

by

xy

2e

<

2
5
0 +x

o
s
i
ti
v
e
p

b)
y

if

bx )3

3 ab c be

y)

(
ex

az

(
y
a

bx )

H I GH E R

44 4

If a +

s
5
+c +

5
b

a +

23

24

wt
a

(
a

L G E B RA

+b +

c3

+d

25
.

3
c

da b

9 b ed + cda

3 2

26

d 20

c an

b)

3
x

6x

( ()(
Sh w t h t (
y
y
2

+b +c +d
2

3x

2
0 ,

3 3

ad

(
ca

b d)

(
ab

(
2
s

6W

27

28

wt

Re s ol

t2

(
a_

(
a_

b)

>

s 3

3a y

+30
a

ed

ro
v
e th at
p

5a b cs

ab c

9 be

I f 23

5
s

as

+9 3

3
.

d)

v i t o f tors
e

ac

2 2
2a b 0
2

(
a

abc

3 3

EL I MIN AT I O N

III

3 3
c a

3b 3

v
o

we h a e s ee n th a t t h e e li m i n an t o f
I n C h apt e r X XX
n c e b e w r itt e n d wn in t h e
o f li n e a r e q u ati o n s m ay a t
G e n e r al m e th od s o f e li m i n ati n ap
a d e t e rm i n an t
t e qu ati o n s o f an y d e g r e e wi ll b e f o u n d dis c uss e d in
t r e atis e s o n t h e Th e ory o f Eq u ati n s in par ti c ul a r we may r e fe r

t h e stu de n t t C h ap t e r s I V an d V I o f D r Sal m o n s L esso n s I n tr o

C h ap X III o f
du c to r y t o th e Mo der n Hig h er A lg ebr a, an d t

Bu rn si d e an d Pan t o n s Th eo r y of Equ a tio n s

52 7
a s st e m
y
f orm o f
li
c ab l e
p
.

Th e s e m e th od s, th o u g h th e or e ti c all y c o m p l e t e , a r e n o t a l way s
W e sh all th e r e f or e o n ly gi v e a
t h e m o st c o n v e n i e n t in p r ac ti c e
b r i e f e x p l an ati on o f t h e g en e ral th e o ry , an d sh all th e n illust rat e
b y e x am p l e s so m e m e th o d s o f e li m i n ati o n th at a r e m o r e p r ac t i
.

lly use ful

ca

us r st c o n si d e r t h e e lim i n ati o n o f o n e u n k n o wn
u
an tit
b
e t w ee n t wo e u ati o n s
q
y
q
D e n o t e t h e e q u a ti on s b y f x ) = 0 an d 95
o
s
an d su
e
pp
th at if n e c e ss a ry t h e e q u ati o n s h av e b e en r e d u c e d t o a f orm in
an d <
e
n
whi c h f
e
e
)
r
r
s
t r ati on al i n t e g ral fu n c ti on s o f x
1
p
Si n c e th e se t wo fu n c ti o n s v an ish si m ult an e o usl y th e r e m ust b e
s om e v alu e o f x whi c h s atis e s b o th t h e gi v e n e q u ati o n s ; h en c e
52 8

L et

(
.

E LIMI NA TI O N

445

lim in an t e x p re ss e s t h e c o n d iti o n th a t m ust h o l d b e t we e n t h e

c o e f c i e n ts in o rd e r th a t t h e e q u a ti o n s m ay h a v e a c o mm o n r oo t

the

Su pp o s e

th e n
be

th at
l e ast

o n e at

eq

u al t o

ze

x = a, x

(4
a re

f t h e q u an titi e s 95 a ) ,
h e n c e t h e e lim i n an t is
o

ro

5
9

)4

r oo ts

ff

(
r)

the

0
(
)
m ust
x

Th e e x p r e ssi o n o n t h e l e ft is a s y mm e t r i c a l fu n c ti o n o f t h e
r oo ts o f t h e e q u ati on f
0, a n d its v alu e c an b e f o u n d b y t h e
m e th od s e x p l ai n e d in t r eatis e s o n t h e Th eo r y of Equ a tio n s
.

a i n th r e e
l
e n e r a l m e th o d s o f e li m i n a
p
g
ti o n : it w ill b e su f c i e n t f or o u r p u rp o s e t o t ak e a si m p l e
b u t it will b e s e e n th at in e a c h c a s e t h e p r o c e ss is
e x am p l e
a
li
c ab l e t o e u ati o n s o f a n
d
r
e
e
e
pp
q
y
g

52 9

W e sh all

n o

ex

Th e p r i n c i p l e

Eul e r

illust rat e d

El i min at e

3
dx

L et
,

e x amp e

is

du e

to

Ex amp le

ti o n s

f o ll ow i n g

in t h e

etw

2
b
x
+

uppos that

qu ati on s

+ d = o,

ex

ac

th e

een

f t or or

+ k b e th e

an d s

r e sp

o di g

+ gx + h = 0

t o th e

oot c omm o n

to b

oth equa

an d

e i g u k ow qu titi s
F rom th s qu ti o w h v i de ti

k , l , m,

e e e

Eq

an

n s,

a e

a n

an

cn

km

da

on s

x,

+ ag

b n + ah

kl + ym

F rom the e li e r qu t i
w ob t i t h det rm i
t
e

c al ly

e s

g l +fm

u ti g o ef i e ts o f li k pow r o f
fl

by

el

we ob tai n
bf= 0,

=
f 0,

df= 0,

i m i ati
n

g th

n an

ag

ah

lo

f
g

bf

f
df

un k n own q uan t i t i e s

l , m,

H I G HE R

44 6

L GE B RA

0, (
1)

c
a
n
0
a
h
e
e
f
t
n
o
li
t
u
ti
o
i
n
a
m
Th e e
53 0
f )
q

i a l ti c
D
e
e
b
S
a
n
n
m
e
a
e
v
r
sil
r
ss
d
d
t
r
i
t
l
v
st
r
s
a
s
e
e
e
x
y
b e e y ea y
y y
p
a
m
e
a
s
x
e
m
a
e
h
e
sh
ll
t
k
s
l
a
e
t
a
e
W
p
h l eth o d of Elimin a tio n
b e f or e
n s

El im i n at e

E x amp le

wee

b et

th e

quati on s

+ gx + h = 0

i
n
b
t
a
n
d
i
r
t
e
q
u
i
o
h
s
e
c
o
e
q
u
i
d
t
e
b
a
t
a
y
M l t ply t h e s
y
h
4
m
l
m
a
t
e
t
e
a
w
c
c
u
e
i
h
u
h
v
e
e
u
t
i
o
b
e
t
w
ee
w
h
i
h
s
a
5
a
t
s
w
e
s
q
;
q u a ti t i e
regarde d as di ti t vari ab l e s Th e e quat i o s a e
s x

n c

ax

bx

0x

fx
f

H e e the el im i
nc

cx

+ d = 0,

dx

0,

2
x
g

3
3
x

hx

gx

e i

2
b
x
+
+

3
ax

c c ss o n
n

on

x,

x an

O,
0,

hx
2

t is

n an

0 f

Th e p ri n c i pl e o f t h e f o ll ow i n g m e th od is du e t o Be z o u t
it h as t h e a d an t a g e o f e x p r e ssin g t h e r e s lt a s a d e t e r m i n an t o f
l ow e r ord e r th an e ith e r o f t h e d e t e r m i n an ts o b t ai n e d b y t h e p r e
c e d in
m
all c h oo s e t h e s am e e x a m l e a s b e f or e ,
th
od
s
h
e
W
e
g
p

an d
h
i
u
h
s
od
e o f c o n d u c ti n
t
e li m i n a ti o n
m
e
a
c
e
C
g
g
y
53 1

E x amp le

i i ate

El m

ax

F o m t h e q u ti o
r

es

ew

b t

th e

ee n

+ b x + ex + d = 0,

n s,

we

he e

an

nc

d
Co m b

a ir

i i

n n

fx

+g

hx

bf)
2

h= O

g x + hx
c m+ d

(h
a

f)

0,

bh

g t he e t w e qu t i
s

+ gx

+b

f) m +

fx

ax

g
(

qu ati on s

h ve
f

on s

wi t h

df= 0,

H I GHER

44 8
E x amp l e 2

We h ave

u i

b y m l t p ly

El min at

g
o

a,

in g t

x,

gether th
Z

he e

2+

nc

i i

El m
x

Mul t i ply i n g the

y b et

n ate x ,

px

n ce ,

b y th e t

r t e quat i o
s

hi d qu ti o
r

hu

+ b +c

th e

amt/

_ ab e

4=

ab c

quati o n s

o
b
t
ai n
e
w
y
,

o u r) ;

22

s eco n d b y

d th e

x , an

we e

by

=
p

S mil a

4 xy = q x + 19 9 . m2 + e2 =

ar,

s
a

he

we ob tain ,

(
a

ons

E x amp le 3

three e quat i on s

ese

e qu t i

th e

2+

etwee

L G E B RA

+ 3xy

2
3
=
q 3x y + y

ly

lm

y) ;
3

(
P

E x amp le 4

Elimin at

g_3
z

y,

x,

th e

quati on s

x y

a,

we e

b et

x(
i

( ) (
()()()
f

We h ave

) +9

0
6

2
95

2
95

+2

31

xyz

h g the Sig of
i g o f e m i u l t er e d ;
h e
b
If

we

an

a r

en c

a ns

i i r

th e

x,

na

S m l a ly ,
an d

I;

ig

n s

of

an

H ) (a)
()(
y

06

xy z

x yz
-

c ar e c

xy z

y)

h ged whil the

an

EL I MI

N A TI O N

449

a
2

9 2

26

2c

2a b

EX A MPLES

fro m

Eli m i n at e m

th e

Eli m i n at e m,

m
3

mx

from t h

e eq

2 2 2

+a b

m
(
2

fro m

my + x = 0

mn
eq

eq

2 amu ,

El im i n at e

ax

from

2a

from

Eli m i n at e m

m
x
+
y

Eli m i n ate

x,

x,

+x

3 ax

fro m

the

eq

xy

th e

x,

Elim i n ate
Eli m in at e

x,

from

= a
,

+y

x,

from

= a
,
,

z, u

the
x

Eli m i n ate

x,

y,

eq

+y

u atio s
n

= 4

u ti o s
a

u ati o

2=

th e

th e

= c2
,

2=

eq

fro m

fro m

m)

29

x 9

th e
x

Eli m i n ate

u ti o s

eq

2
,

eq

12

11

0,

10

fro m

u atio s

q u ati o n s
1 + m) ,
my m=

zx =

Eli m i n at e p , q
4

+1

th e

= a

2
=
z
a ,
y

eq

u ti o s

th e

m2

+1= 0

uati on s

my

th e

r = 0,
+
q

nx

u ati o s

b e tw e e n t h e

it

Eli m i n at e p , q ,

2
x

Eli mi n ate m,

uati o n s

my + a = 0,

eq

XXX I V

g 2

3= 3
c

ns

x4

4=
t
c
+y

u ti o
a

= ee

ns

+ du + a x ,

uati o n s

4150
E

13
7

li m i n a e x ,

i on s
u
t
a
e
e
h
t
m
fro
q

y,

_
3
+
+

14

El i mi n ate

x,

fro

m th e

Me w )

16

(
y

17

x,

(
x

+y

y,

x,

19

x,

th e

eq

+y

+ by

eq

2 = ax

bz x ,

= e

3 3
b e

+ a)

u ati o s
n

x2

3 a3
0

3b 3 =

z =

by

b e,
x,

y,

=
ca,
x
z
+

2
c

5as

os

Em pl oy

Be z o u t
2

bx y

exy

xy

xy z = a b e

= ab,

from

(
3
ax

) y

4 0 xy

of

El i m in ate

u ati o n s

c
'

23

(y )
x

2x + y

e
h
t
m
ro
f
y
2

Sh ew t h at

ax

w th at

is t h e e lim i n an t
22

2
4 52270,

= a
,

ax

21

q uati on s

from t h e e quati on s

from

et

ab c

z
+
y

x,

Elim i n ate

20

+x

(
)(
N
e) (
(
x

Elimin at e

18

<
x

3
0

()

2 z
4a y ,

li
i
t
e
a
n
m
E

y,

from t h e

u ati o s

+ x)

Eli mi n at e

eq

m e t h o d t o e li mi n at e
dy

0,

'

ax

?
x

x,

from

c xy

dy

H I GH E R

_
J

53 8

D e n o te t h e g i

ve
=

Th e

ati o n f
u
q

d en o te d

by

h
t
e
of

eq u a tio n

Ev er y

po

a ti o n
u
q

byf
+ p 2x

r o o ts

an d n o

mo re

w h e re

0,

"

r oo t r eal o r i m agi n a ry ; l e t this

is d i v isib l e b y x a s o th at

n
h
t
e
,;

degr ee h as n

th

"

0 h as

L G E B RA

,,

)
is a r ati on al i n t e g r al f u n c ti o n o f n 1 d i m e n si on s
wh e r e gt
h a s a roo t r e a l o r i m ag i n a r y ; l e t
A g a i n t h e e q u ati o n
this b e d e n o t e d b y a ; th e n
is d i v isib l e b y x a s o th at
a

wh e r e qb,

is

2 ,

r ati o n al in t egr a l fu n c ti on

(( )(

Thus

f )
this way

Pro c e e d i n g in

o b t ai n

we

)a

as

fn

(
w)

th e

en c e

w h en

h as

an

A ls o t h e
an

th e

ati o n f
u
q
o

0 h as

v alu e s

f th e

, ,

_a
n

v ish s
an

2 ,

s,

3 09 ,

roo ts si n c e f

d i m e n si on s

in A r t
x

u
ati o n c an n o t h a v e m or e th an n r oo ts ; f or if x h as
q
v alu e d iffe r e n t f ro m an y o f t h e q u an titi e s a a a
all
fact or s o n t h e r ig ht ar e d iffe r en t f r o m z e ro an d th e r e f or e
c a n n o t v an ish f o r th a t v a lu e o f x
e

,,

2,

s,

o v e i n v e stigati o n s om e o f t h e q u an titi e s a a a
m ay b e e q u al ; in this c as e h o we v e r w e S h all su pp o s e th a t
e u ati o n h as still n r o o ts a lth o u h th e s e a r e n o t al l d iffe r e n t
q
g
In the

ab

1,

2 ,

r ela t io n s

r o o ts

b etween th e

a
,,

the

To in v estig a te th e
53 9
co
cien ts in a n y equ a tio n
i
e

s,

an d

th e

us d e n o t e

L et

an

d the
n
.

{L

roo ts

+ 19 2
1

"

u
a ti o n
q
p zx

by

a,

b,

+ 29 2)

n
.

th e

'

'

x
_
p" l

rc

the

it

o t ti o

+ P2 x

Sl x

"

h a v e i d e n ti c ally

( )( ()

0,

+ p _x
n
1

'

h e n c e w ith

we

th e n

c,
2

by

o
2

f A rt

q2 x

1 6 3 , we
+

11

b)

h av e

m
_
n
l

"

(
x

h) ;

T H E ORY
Eq u a ti n g

su m o

f li k e p o w e r s

p1
p2

o ef c i e ts
= Su m

E Q U A TI O N S

OF

this i d e n tity

f x in

r oo ts ;
t h e p r o d u c ts

4 53

f the
f

roo ts t ak e n

f the

t wo

at a

ro o ts t ak e n th re e

at a

ti m e ;
p3

33

su

f t h e p rod u c ts

f the

ti m e
l)

rod
u
ct
p

"

I f t h e c o e ic ie n t o f m
t h e e q u ati o n b ec o m e s

is

0,

"

"

I3

d, with t h e

Ea =

S l

F rom the

e qu t i o

u b i q u ti o
c e

en c

for

we

If a

E x amp le 2
m t h e e q at

t is

c ar e

e r

Bu t
h en ce

20

a,

b,

= 0;

th e

roots of th e e qu atio

s ar e a

3
n x

or
m

01

i f we r epl ac e

2
x

0
6
4

+ 29 24 + 19 3 )

b y y , we

2
+
1
P2
2

p1

+ p 2x

p3

( l
229 2

+1

+p 1

34

P2

ob tai

P1

)y

(w e
3
96

(
2
19 2

+s

2P1 P3 )

a)

= 0.

0;

33

31

P3

2:

es

of

wh i h
c

3
0
0

= ab c

v lu

th e

ar e

( )( )(
( ) (b )
x

3
a
c

yt

h u s the r e quir d e qu tio i s

an

h av e

p3

th at

t2

Po

(
y
y
)(
) O
y b )(
=
b
i
f
)
(
(
)
y
(
b
)
( ()(
a

co

b,

u i o wh o s oot
r e q u i r e d e q u ti o i s
.

by

"

=
y

or

h te rm

see

Th e

Po

p0

t3

o ve t h e e quati on

E x amp le 1

eac

2 ab c =

20

th e

po,

d i v i din g

on

s ati sfy

th e n

f A r t 52 1 , we

E , Ea b = p

se

Po

o tati o

Po
an

r oo ts

f the

= 0,
.x + p
+p _
3

H I G HER

4 54

L GE B R A

stu d e n t m ig ht su pp o s e th at t h e r e l a ti on s e stab lish e d

e
a
n
i
m
e
h
a
b
r
d
i
r
ti
l
o
ul
d
n
l
e
t
o
s
o
l
v
ro
o
s
d
e
w
c
e
a
n
e
in t h e p e c
y
p
p
g
m
b
e
h
n
a
t
e
e
a
n
u
ti
o
f
or
u
r
r
l
ti
o
s
is
u
l
t
o
u
r
h
e
t
e
o
f
n
m
b
e
h
e
t
n
eq a
q
;
h
e
n
o
t
t
a
s
e
ro
o
ts
littl
r
ti
o
n
w
ill
S
h
w
th
t
is
thi

c
e
e
e
A
o f the
n titi e s
a
h
f
e
o
t
1
a
n
n
s
f
or
su
o
s
li
i
t
u
n
a
e
m
w
e
e
e
ca e
q
y
pp
n
n
h
m
a
e
m
n
t
e
e
e
e
n
a
a
n
e
n
s
o
o
t
i
u
ti
o
t
o
d
t
r
i
r
i
i
b
a
n
d
a
7e
a b c
g
q
i
n
a
mm
e
c
e
n
a
r
e
e
s
th
si
th
s
u
a
n
titi
i
v
o
l
v
d
s
t
r
i
ll
e
e
n
c
e
n
e
on e;
y
y
q
a
n
b
a
n
a
a
w
a
e
a
h
u
ti
o
s
it
is
l
a
r
th
t
sh
ll
l
w
s
o
t
i
c
e
n
a
e
h
t
e
a
o
f
e c
y
q
e u ati o n h a v i n g t h e s am e c o e f c i e n ts ; this e q u a ti o n is th e r e f or e
q
su b
t h e o r i g i n a l e q u ati o n w ith som e o n e o f t h e r oo ts a b c
stitut e d fo r x
Th e

54 0

us tak e f o r

L et

e x am p e
x

an

d le t

a,

b,

the

b e the

g
-

pl

ati o n
u
q

roo ts ; th e n
a +

+ e =

be =

a b + ac +

p2 ,

abc

Multi pl y th e s e

u
a ti o n s
q

by

th at i s
whi c h

is

or igi n a l

the

ve

Th e ab o
a
a
li
l
t
o
c
b
e
pp

p,

p3

2
,

p1

p2

ro
c e ss
p
e u ati o n s
q

P2

u
ti
o
w
ith
q
a

a,
a

r e sp e c ti v e ly

add ;

thu s

P3 ;

0,

p3

of

in t h e p l a c e

an

f e li m i n ati o n
o f an y d e g r e e

is

r l

uit
e
q

ne a
e
g

an

is

oo

54 1
If t wo o r m r e o f t h e r t s o f an e q u ati o n a r e c o n
5
3
9
n e ct ed b
a n a ssi n e d r e l a ti o n , t h e
ro
r
ti
s
ro
e d in A r t
e
e
p
y
g
p p
will s me tim e s e n ab l e us t
b t ai n t h e c o m p l e t e s luti o n
.

oo
e qu t io

v
o

4
a
Solve th e
th
roo a i arithm et i al progressi o
D e o t e t h e roots b y
b a
+ b ; t he t h e su m o f
su m o f th e p ro du ts o f t h
root s t wo at a t i m e i 3
of t h oot s i s ( b ) ; h e e we h ave th e e quat io

E x amp le 1
at t h e
ts

re

3a

23

re

'

4
a:

en

th e
2

b ;

root s i s 3
an

d th e p

; th e

roduct

ns

nc

h vi g g iv

rst e quatio we d
s i ce thes e valu es sati s fy th e th ir d
l2 9
Th u the r o t s a
th e

3a _ 6,

from

e r

2,

(
a

from the e o
thr e qu ti o

an d

th e

s c n

ee

ns

d b
ar e

:h

an

o i te t
ns s

H I GHER

4 56

From th

ese e

AL

GEB R A

%(

quati on s we h ave
2

Za b

3r

Ea b

3r ;

pq

EXA MPL ES

XXX V

Form t h e e q u ati on
.

2, 2,

So l

2x

re

0, O,

a+

2 , O, 5
.

2, 2,

b,

b,

3,

a+

b,

u ati o n s :

3
x

roots b ein g 1 an d 7
9x
3 6 = 0 t h e su m o f two o f t h e roo ts b e i n g z e ro
2 3x + 6
0 two o f t h e roo ts b e i n g e q u al
52 x
24
O t h e roo ts b e i n g in ge o m e tr i c al pr o

+ 86x

1 6x

2 0x

1 7 6x

0, t wo

1 05

two

2 2x

roots

f th e

rati o

b ei n g in t h e

2 4 x3

+ 4 6x + 9 x

roo t

one

b e in

g doub l

an

oth e r o f

the

11

8x

o
sit
e in Si gn
pp
12

54 x

s
i
s
on
re
g

13
14

15
.

b ei n g

eq

ual

bu t

3 9x

2 6x + 1 6

4 8 x 2 + 2 2x

2 9 x3

4 0x 2

x4

2 x3

7x

2 1 x 2 + 22 x

O, t h e

roots

b e in

ri c al

pr o

rithm eti cal

o
r
p

of

roots

in ge m e t

O, t h e

roots

b e in g in

12

0, t h e p

rodu c t o f

t wo

th e

2 7 x4

O, t h e

1 9 5x 3

4 9 4x

52 0x + 1 9 2

roo ts

b ei n

in

rithme tic al

O, t h e

roots

b ein

in

g eo

one

oth er two

40

m e tri c al p rogre ssi on

17

roo ts

rogression
16

f th e

6x

g2

3
3 2x

I
r
S
S
On
e
g

t wo

2x 3

10

b ei n

roots a

3x3

roots

16

4x 3

2,

eq

8
gr essio n
4

th e

4
x

J3

wh o s e

b ed )

a ed

a b cl

ab c

2 61

pq

roo t

b ein

g h lf
a

th e

su

o f th e

T HE ORY
18

th e

If a

al u e o

b,

c ar e

OF

roo ts o f

th e

E QU A TI O NS

th e

eq

u ati o n

)
(

(
) b

19

If a

((

b,

c ar e

roo ts o f

th e

I)

b)

px

2
5 d

n d th e

2 2
a

valu

21

F in d t h e su m o f t h e fo u rth p owe r s o f t h e roo ts o f

with

eq u a tio n

I n an
543
o c cu r in p air s
.

e o

2)

Fi d t h e su m o f t h e s q u ar e s an d o f t h e c u b e s

20

O, n d

r=

+ qx

2 2

4 57

r ea

fth e

roo ts

c
t
l
i
en
s
m
a
i
n
a
r
i

g
y

co e

ro o

ts

o n with r ea l o ef i e ts
o o t a ib ; we S h ll sh e w

Su pp s e th a t f
0 is an e q u a ti
r
an d su p o s e th a t it h a s an i m a i n a r
p
g
y
th at a ib is als o a ro t

f ac t o r

Th e

ff

L et f
an d t h e

In

thi s i d e n tity

()
x

be
rem a

0;

to

Eq u a ti n g

t
p
u

o rr e sp o d i
n

ib )

by

ze

ro

a +

ib ) ,

d b by

an

b ;

n o

ze

He n c e f

is

e x ac

is

ib

is als o

root

t h e qu

o ti e n t

by

th e n

0 by

h yp o th e sis

ls o

d i m ag i n a r y par ts ,
0

'

an

()
)(

by

ib

2
,

th a t is

by

I n t h e p r e c e d i n g a r ti c l e we h a v e s e e n th a t if t h e e q a
2
2
b
h
a
a
m
a
i
r
i
a
i
r
roo
ts
th
0
s
a
o
f
n
a
a
ib
e
x
n
f
,
)
p
g
y
fac t or o f t h e e x pr e ssio n f

544
t io n

tly d i v isi b l e
x

h en c e

ro

d en ote

R ;

(
r e al

ib , th en
+ ib )

the

h y p o th e si s is

()

or

Rb
an

t o th e s e t wo r oo ts is

b
R
x
y
y

an

h en c e

(
di vi d d
)
(
i d r if

(
x

H IGHE R

4 58

AL

G E B RA

=
1
a r e t h e im a i n a r
id e
r
oo
a
0
t
s
u
o
s
th
t
a
i
b
e
S pp
g
y
t
h
is
e
rod
u
ct o f the
0 a n d th a t (
)
o f t h e e q u a ti o n f
1
p
u
a dr ati c fac to r s c o rr e sp o n d in g t o th e s e i m ag in a ry ro o ts ; th e n
q
:

(
)

4
No w e ac h
h en c e (
I)

o
e qu ti o

o ve t h e

S l

t o n e r oot i s 2

sp o n

a ti o n with
u
q
is, if a ~/b is

6x

1 3x

3 5x

h vi g g iv

0,

root we k n ow th at
is al o a root
4
g t o t h i p ai o f oots we h av e th e qu ad ati factor

din

Al s

6x

en

1 3x

d
1

an

orre

3 5x 2

oth er root s ar e ob tain e d from

or (
3 + 1) (
2 + 3 ) = 0;

th e

en ce

3
i
s
J

hus th oots

ar e

e r

F orm th qu t i o of th fourth deg e with tio

o f i e t
o f wh os oot i s J 2 l 3
m t h v J2+ J 3
He e w
3
i
r
o
f
oo
t
p
_
3
3
othe r p i
Corr p o di g t t h t p ir w h v e the q u dr ti f tor
2 /2
d or
p o di g t t h s e o d p i w h v t h q uadr ti f tor
Ex amp le 2

i n ce

v alu e

E x amp l e 1

A s in A r t 54 3 we m ay S h e w th at in an
ai r s ; th a t
c o e ic ie n t s, su rd roo ts e n t e r in
p
th e n a ,Jb is a ls a roo t

roo t

th e s e fa c t or s is p o siti v e fo r e v e ry r e al
is al way s p o siti v e f o r r e al v alu e s o f x

54 5
r a tio n a l
a

s, o n e

e r

us

an

hu

r es

th e

as o n e

ar

r e quired equat i o

a e

2 J 2x

s,

an d

a r

c n

n al

as an

rs

ra

r e

a e

es

ac

5,

ac

5
.

is

(
x

or

2
x

+ 5)

8x2 = 0,

or

Ex amp le 3

h w th

no

e se

imagin ary r oots

I f p ossi b le l et p + iq

h as

t th e e quati on

0
b

k:

v lu s f
a

o r x an

roo

u r

r re u fro

root Sub stitu te

s e co d ; th u

be a
t ; t en p iq is al s
b t act th e st
s lt m t h e

whi h is i mpo i b le u
c

ss

n l e ss

0;

H I G HE R

4 60

AL

G EB RA

th at in t h e p rod u c t
i ) an am b ig uity r epl ac e s e ac h c o n ti n u ati o n
o rigin al p oly n om ial ;
ii) t h e S ign s b e fo r e an d aft e r an am b iguity
b igu it ie s a r e u n li k e ;
en c e

we

see

(
(

S i gn

set

or

in t h e

am

h an ge o f S ign is in t r o d u c e d at t h e e n d
L et u s t ak e t h e m o st u n fa v o u r ab l e c as e an d su pp o s e th a t all
t h e amb i g uiti e s a r e r e p l a c e d b y c on ti n u a ti o n s ; f ro m ii ) w e see
th a t t h e n u m b e r o f c h an ge s o f S ig n will b e t h e s am e wh e th e r we
t ak e t h e u pp e r o r t h e l ow e r sig n s ; l et us t ak e t h e u pp e r ; thus
th e n u m b e r o f c h an ge s o f S i gn c an n o t b e l e ss th an in
a c

this s e ri e s o f sign s is t h e s am e as in
with an a dd iti o n al c h an ge o f S ign at t h e

an

or igi n al p o ly n om i al

the

en

suppo s e t h e fac t o r s c o rr e sp on d in g t o t h e n e g ati v e

r o o ts t o b e a l re a dy m ultip li e d t o e t h e r e ac h fac t or
a c orr e s o n d i n
a
e
n t rod
t
o
o
siti
v
r
o
o
t
i
u
s
l
st
x
c
e
a
t
a
one
e
p
g
p
c h an e o f si n ; th e r e f or e n o e u a ti o n
h
v
or
o
siti
v
c
a
n
a
e
m
e
e
g
g
q
p
roo ts th an it h as c h an ge s o f sign
I f th en we
an d i m a i n a r
g
y

'

o
o

o
v

A gai n , t h e ro ts o f t h e e q u ati o n f
x = 0 a r e e u al t
th
s
e
)
q
o ff
0 b u t pp o sit e t th e m in S i g n ; th e r e f or e t h e n e g ati e
roo ts o f f x ) = 0 ar e t h e p o siti e roo ts Of f x ) = 0; b u t t h e
n u m b e r o f th e s e
p o siti e roo ts c an n o t e x c e e d t h e n u m b e r o f
c h an e s o f si n in f
x
a
h
t
e n u mb e r
th
t
is
f n egati e roo ts
;
,
g
g
)
o f f x = 0 c an n t e x c e e d t h e n u m b e r
o f c h an ge s o f ig n in
)

96

Ex amp le

o s i er

th e

qu i o
at

n x9

5x8

7x

v
S

H er e the e a e two cha ge s of sig th erefore there a e at m o t two

p o itive r ot
A gain f
5 +
2 a d he r e the r e a
t
h
h
g
7
ee
a
)
es
1
4
o f S g t her efore the g ve e quatio h a at m o t thre e egat iv e root a d
t h erefor e i t m u t h av e at l e a t fo u i m agi ary r ot
r

9
x

re

EX A MPLES

XXX V

o ve t h e e q u ati o s

S l

1
2

4
x

4
6x
x

1 0x 3
1 3x

3
+ 4x

+ 4x

3 5x 2
2

+ 5x + 2 x

one

root b ei g
n

root b i n g 2
o n e roo t b e i n g
one

s,

T HE O R Y
4

4a

6x

5 So l e t h e
J 3 an d an oth e r 1
.

q u ati o n
1

Form t h e e q u ati o n
n e o f w h o s e roo ts Is
6

J3 +

:2

4x

E QU A TI O N S

OF

0,

x5

8x

9x

Form t h e
Form

12

13

the

u ati o n wh o s e roo ts

eq

u ti o
a

one o

f th e

ar e

J 2
1

::

Sh e w

th at
i m agi n ary root s
.

g
,

th e

eq

+ 1 2 x + 5x

uati o n

2x

co

i g ht h _ de g re e with r at i o n al

3 x4

14

J3

wh o s e root is J 2 + J 3 + J 1
F i d t h e n atu re o f t h e roots o f t h e q u ati o

ts

b ei n

11

eq

root

o ne

0,

l ow e s t d im e n si o n s with rati o n al c o e f c ie n ts

Form t h e e q u ati o wh o s e roo ts are

e f c ie n

l5

10
.

:1

4
x

7
2

roo t b e i g

o ne

46 1

+ 4x

h as

l e as t fo u r

at

W h at m ay

15
.

be

i n fe rr e d resp e c t i n g t h e roo ts
x

16
eq

u atio n
17

Fi d
x

4x + x

o
ssi
b
l
e
p

l east

the

1 0

f th e

q u at i o n

2x

um b r

i magin ary roo ts

= 0 ma
o n diti o n t h at
h
x
av
x
y
q
p
1
t
w
o roo t e q u al b u t o f o
o
sit
i
g
e
n
(
)
;
pp
2)
t h e roo ts in g e om e tri c al p ro gr e ss i o
(

Fi d
n

th e

f the

4
3
2
=
t
h
I
f
roo
ts
u
ti
o
e
o
f
t
h
e
a
n
x
x
x
r
x
s
18
0 ar e in
eq
+q
+
+p
3
arit h m e ti c al p ro gr e ssi o n
s h e w t h at
an d i f th ey are
p
in g e o m etri c al p ro gr e ssi o n S h e w t h at p gs = r 2
.

19

If

th e

roots

f th e

v lu
a

e o

b,

e ar e

20

Ea b

22

If a
.

q u ati o n

roo ts

b,

21

Ea c

are

the roo t

s o fa +
.

0 ar e 1 ,

a,

B,

h e w th at

y)

'

the e q uati o n

3
x

2
ax

r=

0, n d t h e

b
)( )
(
+a

2a b

+a

23
c,

2 2

24

the

( )(
1

If a

3
x

25
.

rx

0, n d

the v al u e

H I G HE R

462

AL

f
f

To n d th e
54 8
in teg r a l fu n c tio n of x

v a lu e o

G EBRA

h)

wh en f

)
(

is

r at o n a

L et

h)

po

po

+ p lx

h)

+ p 2x

(
n

+p2 x

pl

th e n

+pn
.

Ex pan d i n g e a c h t e rm
o
r
s
w
o f h, we h av e
e
p
w
po

"

{ po

lb
[2
1

p2

n _l

This

_2

an

1 ) p 1x

1) r o w

r e sult is usu ally

"

_2

rr an gi n g

(
n

2) p z x

2 e w

w r itt e n in t h e
h

2
I!

(
e
n

d t h e fu n c ti o n s f x ),
der iv ed fu n c tio n s
sec o n d, th ir d,
an

in

'

a c en

din g

3
-

r
3

Il l

(
s

E:
r (
)
n

ar e

+pn

f or m

A
-

'

< >
< >
n

r e sult

th e

ca

ll e d

the

r st

ff

stu d e n t w h o k n o ws t h e e l e m e n ts o f t h e D i ffe re n ti al Cal

of f x + h
c ul n s w ill s e e th a t t h e ab ov e e x p an si o n
is
o
n l
a
)
y

a r ti c ul a r c a s e o f Tay lo r s Th eo r em ; t h e f u n c ti o n s f x
p
)
w
n at o n c e b
a
th
r
f
or
e b e w r itt e n
d
o
h
ord
i
r
m
e
e
t
e
n
a
y
y
f
y
fr o m f
r ul e s f or d i ffe r e n ti ati o n : thus t o o b t ai n
w e m ulti p ly
b y t h e i n d e x o f x in th at t e r m an d th e n
e a c h t e rm in f
d i m in ish t h e i n d e x b y u n ity
Th e

(
,

Si m il a r l y

by

su c c e ssi v e

di ffe r e n ti ati o n s

o b ta i n

we

il l

By wr iti n g

to

h in t h e p l ac e

Th e fu n c ti o n f
x an d h ; h e n c e

(
x +

h)

is

f h , we

have

vi de tly sy m m e t ri l w ith re sp e t
n

ca

f( ) f (
) f (
) ;f (
)
I

f (
)

"

H I GH E R

464
Ex amp l e

Fi

c c ss

1
6

5
39

15

2x + 5x
2

3
x

H ere w divide su e ively b y

3 in t h e

e pr e i o
ss

ore b ri e y thu

s:

Or m

1
1 32

_1

2
=

91

11

17

23

97

H e e th e result is 2 23 9 7 1 8 2 1 3 1 C ompar e A rt

It may b e emark e d th at Hom er s process i s ch i e y us e ful i

nc

3
x

_1

13

1 82 = q3

the r e sult of c h an gin g x i n t o x

4
2x

L GE B RA

548

nu

mer ica l

o rk .

550
fu n ctio n
.

L et

If th e v ar ia b le
x
l
c h an e
w
i
l
g
)

(
d

c an

e + 11.

be

W e h av e

re

an

v alu e s

w
t
o
y

x<
>
c

ha n g es co n tin u o u sly fr o m
c o n tin u o u sly fr o m f a) to f
x

f x l y i n g b e t we e n

to b t h e

a an

d b

sm all e n o u g h t h e d iffe r e n c e b e twe e n f c h ) an d

l
c an b e m a d e a s s m a ll as we
a s e ; h e n c e t o a s m a ll c h a n g e
c
e
f )
p
in t h e v a r i ab l e x th e r e c orr e sp o n d s a s m all c h an g e in t h e fu n c ti o n
h
t
e fu n c
a n d th e r e f or e as x c h an e s
r
d
u
ll
f
ro
m
a
t
o
b
x
a
a
f )
y
g
g
t io n f
c h an e s
r
a d u all
f
r
o
m
a
t
o
f ) f
g
y
g
t ak i n g

d by

(
(

an

is i mp or tan t t o n o ti c e th at we h a v e n o t p r ov e d th at
n c r e a s e s f ro m f a
a s e s f ro m f a
i
r
d
e
c
r
e
t
o
b
o
f
f )
)
)
th at it p ass e s f ro m o n e v alu e t o t h e o th e r with o ut
to
an
e n c h an e ; s o m e ti m e s it m a
su
dd
i
r
si
an d at o th e r
n
n
b
e
c
e
a
y
g
g
y
t i m e s it m ay b e d ec r e asi n g
It
551
a l wa s
y
b
u
t
b
,
f )

( (

stu d e n t wh o h as a k n o w l e d ge o f t h e e l e m e n ts o f C u r v e
t r ac in g will in an y pa r ti c ul a r e x am pl e n d it e a sy t o f o ll o w t h e
=
ad u a l c h an e s o f v a lu e o f f
r
dr
w
i
u
r
v
a
n
t
h
e
e
b
c
g
g
y f
y
g
Th e

( (
(
h
s r d u ll f ro
f ro f (
t
o
) f(
)

If f a)
eq u a tio n f x
)
552

th e

s x c

ad u a ll
r
g
y

an

ge

an

d f b)

ar e o

co n

0 m u st lie b etween

m
y
b , an d

to

tr a y

a an

sig n s

d b

th en

o n e ro ot

Qf

c h an g e s
b , t h e fu n c t io n f
th e r e for e m ust p a ss th ro u g h all

T H EORY

E Q UA TI O NS

OF

465

i n t e rm e d i ate v a lu e s ; b u t S i n c e f a ) an d f b ) h a v e c o n t r ary sig n s

0 f or s o m e
t h e v a lu e z e ro m ust l ie b e t w e e n th em ; th a t is
v alu e o f x b e t w e e n a an d b
:

= 0 h as o n l
o
n
I t d e s n o t f o ll o w th a t
y
a n d b ; n e ith e r d e s it f o ll ow th a t if f a ) an d
a s n o roo t b e t w e e n a a n d b
h
si n f
0
g

roo t

hav

b e t ween a
e t h e sa m e

553
Ev er y equ atio n of a n o dd deg r ee h as
r o o t who se sig n is Opp o site to th a t of its last ter m

at

f u n c ti o n f
su c c e ssi v e l y th e n

su b stitut e f or

In t h e

l ea s t

v lu s

the

o n e r ea l

0,

co

co

If p

is

an

an

oo

(
ti v

en f x = 0
e
o
siti
v
th
p
)

if

is

"

n e

h a s a roo t
= 0 h as a

OO

ly in g b e t w e e n 0 a n d
roo t ly i n g b e t w e e n 0

00

554
la st ter m
n eg a tiv e
.

Ev er y

n eg a tiv e

ha s

at

wh ich is

eq u a tio n

lea st two

an

d eg r ee a n d h a s its
on e
p o sitiv e a n d o n e

ev en

r ea l r o o ts

Fo r in

this

ca e

f
b u t p a is
00
an d

(
o)

= 0 h a s a roo t l i n
ti v e ; h en c e f
y g
a roo t l i n
b
t
w
n 0 an d
e
ee
w
y g

b et we en 0

n e

g
an d

(
(

555 If th e exp r essio n s f a) a n d f b ) h av e c o n tr ar y sig n s,

0
l
l
l
a n o dd n u m b e r of r o o ts of f x
w
i
i
e b et ween a a n d b ; a n d
)
a
f
h
s
a
m
i
n
i
t
h
n
f
a
b
v
e
t
e
e
s
e
e
r
o
r
o
o
r
n
u
r
e
n
d
h
a
t
o
a
e
v
n
n
m
b
e
,
g
if )
)
ll
w
r
een a a n d b
o
t
s
w
i
li
e
e
t
b
o
o
f
.

( (

Su pp o s e

r epre sen t

al l

L et

be

(
)

()
x

is g r e at e r th an b a n d th at a B
t h e r o o ts o f f x ) = 0 w hi c h l ie b e t we e n a a n d b
t h e q u o ti e n t w h e n f
is d i v i d e d b y t h e p rod u c t
x
x
K
th
n
e
);
y)

th at

en c e

No w d)

r oo t

lie b e t w e e n

)
(
u ti o

f t he

an

an

d b

SC

7)
y)

r)

(
() (
)
(
Q
C

qS

f t h e s am e si g n , f o r
a n d th e r e f or e o f f

ust
d (
m
b
b
e
N)

(
w
)( (
f(
) ( ) (B) (
3
5
3
f(
) ([ H
)

A
rt
[

o th e r wis e a
= 0 wo u l d
w hi c h is c o n t r a ry t o t h e h y po
,

HI

466

G HER

(
)
()

th e sis H e n c e if f
r
e ss i o n s
p
.

L GEBRA

(
() ( )
() ()

an

_a

ha v e

b)

ci

2
)

o n t r a ry sig n s
K

the

ex

h av e c o n t r ary si gn s A ls o t h e fac t o r s in t h e r st e x p r e ssi o n

o
siti
v
a r e a ll
e an d t h e fa c t or s in t h e s e c o n d a r e al l n e g a ti v e ;
p
h en c e t h e n u m b e r o f fa c t or s m ust b e o dd th at is t h e n u m b e r o f
r o o t s a 8 y K m ust b e O dd
Sim il a r l y if f a ) an d f b ) h a v e t h e s am e S i gn t h e n u m b e r o f
fac t or s m ust b e e v e n I n this c as e t h e g i v e n c o n d iti on is s atis e d
a t e r th an a o r l e ss th an b
e
r
thus
it
do
s
K a r e all
if a B y
e
;
g
h
as a r o o t b e t w e e n a an d b
at f
t
0
h
f
o
ll
ow
n o t n e c e ss a r il
y
m ust

556

I f a, b ,

f ) p <
H e r e t h e q u an titi e s a
I f r o f th e m ar e e q u al t o a
=

r oo ts

the

ar e

c,

a
o

e,

to

b, t

ar e

to

no

n ec e

f )
x

en

ss a r il y u n e q u al

th e n

c,

k)

a
c

( ( ( (
,

( 0 th

f t h e e q u ati o n

(2 ( )
>
a
c

b,

f )
l
I n this c as e it is c o n v e n i e n t still t o s p e ak o f t h e e q u ati o n
x
a
O
s
a
n
a c h o f t h e e u a l r oo ts b e i n
h
v
i
it
ro
o
ts
o
si
d
r
d
e
c
n
e
e
f )
g
q
g
a d isti n c t roo t
96

= 9
2

96

'

57

90

90

557
If th e equ a tio n f x ) = 0 h a s r r o o ts eq u a l to

equ atio n f x
ll
0
w
i
h
ve r
a
l
r
t
a
o
o
s
e
u
a
l
o
t
)
q
.

L et

th en f
W r it e

(
(

b e t h e q u o ti e n t wh e n

is d i v i d e d

th e

by

(
x

h in t h e p l ac e

fx;

thus
h) ;

this i d e n tity

by

eq

u atin g

( (
,

f )

Thus f
c o n t ai n s t h e f a c t o r

i s t h e e u ati o n
x
0
a
h
s
r
q
f )
x

th en

In

a,

the

c o e i c ie n

ts

f h , we

h ave

96

r ep eat e d

roo ts

u
al t o
q

tim e s ; th at

H I GHER

468

u l to

is
)
f (
eq

th e

a,

L GEB RA

n of f
f
u
ti
o
n
c
t h e r st d r i v d
x
n
a
e
e
S
i
l
r
l
h
u
ti
o
t
a
i
m
a
q
a
y
e
ust
h
v
roo
ts
u
l
t
o
2
;
a e r
q
m
0
j
e
e
T
n
o
d
n
a; a
a
ust
h
v
roo
ts
u
l
t
o
s
o
h
s
e
3
r
e
a
q
0m
e q u al
e
h
t
e
c
l
us
t
o
d
is
o
v
r
n ab e
e
e
m
e
m
w
ill
s
o
ti
s
c o n si d e r ati o n s
5
9
5
r
t
f
A
o
e
m
e
h
t
w
ith
l
ss
t
ro
u
l
th
n
th
od
a
e
b
e
O
roo ts o f f

If
56 1
r
o v e th a t
p

a,

b,

ar e

c,

th e

h)

h)

r o o ts o

( (
x

th e

)
(

equ a t o n

(
x

0, t

h)

Bu t

h en c e f
m emb e r

'

is

E x amp le

e qu

an

S, d

no

4,

86

an

d8

su m

+px

of
qx

No w l
x

an

t h e la

h p owers o f

t : 0,

_a

i milar e pre ssio

n s

o ld

fo r

( f () f (
)
f(
)

f x)
x

(
1)

r ti c l e en ab l e s us v e ry e asi
o f t h e roo ts o f an e q u a ti o n

en
ai

L et
t

r i g ht b an

f t h e p r ec e d i n g
o
w
er
a ssi n e d
g
p

v lu o f S

ati o n

n d th e

f h in

1 6 3,

e te t h

If

in A r t

r e s u lt

as

Th e
56 2
n d t h e su m

to

(
h
b
)
(
)
(
)
(
(
)
)
(
f(
)
)
) f(
f(
) f(
f
k

c o e f c i e n t

the

th e r e f or e

1)

th at is

u
l
t
o
q

th e

:
1; _ e

th e

oot s of

th e

T HE O RY
He e by

i ti o

add

nc

4
5x

3
4
+ px

By

2 q x = 5x4 + 8 1 + 5p )

quati n g c o e f c i e n t s

E QUA TI O NS

OF

x3

+ 8 2 + p Sl )

wh e

Sl

n ce

When ce

3 2 2 192 ;

nc

" 1
x +p x

re ul t
s

s,

we ob tain

Pu t h : 5;

wh e ce

in

k 3

+ gee

v l ue
a

b,

s a,

c,

d,

e an

add n

t S, _5= 0

th e

5
p q

5t

S4 + p S3 + q SI + t S

3 g2

6p 3 q

=
To n d S_
u
k
4 , 3 , 2 , 1 in
t
_
4, p

S 2 + PSI + q S

+ ts

wh e e
nc

he
= O wh
whe

n ce

en ce

n ce

W h e n t h e c o eic ie n t s
56 3
c ee d as i n t h e f o ll ow in
x am l e
e
g
p

ar e

Fi

d th e

su m

(
)
0
0

S _3 = 0;

S _4 =

29
t

u m e r i c al

41)
t

we m ay

2x2 + x

2 x2 + x

4x + 1
1

i x)

l
l

s_2

f(
)

f (
) 3

'

S _1 = 0;

o f the fou th p owers o f th e roots o f

x

H er e

i on ; then

O,

6p t

c ce ss

A 1

roceed as follow

th u s
86

th u s

nc

E x a mp le

p + 4p q

th e
q Sk _3

S5

whe e

we p

3g ;

successi o n

Pu t k = 6 ;

3 _

* 5

"

_
~

nc

u ituti g for

+ 19 3 3

P;

wh e e S
whe e S
T d t h e val ue o f S for o th er val u es o f k
Multiplyin g th e gi ve equ ati o b y
S b st

52 )

S2 + Psl = 0,

+ PS2

: 4
SI + 5
P
P,

46 9

1,

ls o

ro

H I GHE R

47 0

AL

G E B RA

f(
)
he e S i qu l to th o f i e t of g
q u ot i t o f f (
)
wh i h i v ry o v i tly ob t i d b y th m th o d of sy th t d v o
th e

'

nc

f llow

s e

e c e

en

by

e ic

ane

en en

c n

i si

as

H
N

H e c e th e q
n

uo

ti e n t

18

1
3
4

4
6

3
2
4

2
2
10

thus

S4 : 1 0

EXA MPLES

XXX V

1
2
3

If f

ween
.

ween

b et

b etwe en
9
3 , an d

1 3x

= x4

16x

Sh e w
0 an d

th t
a

eq

7 6x

6 5, n d t h e

1 7x

9x +

l 0x

19,

6 4x

7 2x
ex

+ d, n

u ti o
a

Sh ew th at t h e e quati on
2 an d 3 an d o n e b etwe e n
Sh ew
3

an

(
ff (
7 d h v lu
d h v lu
ff (
d h v lu o f f(
d h v lu
ff ( h) f ( h )

3 9x

1 29,

3
0x

e o

val u

1 7x +

that

3
5x

0 h as

x5

5x

2 0x
1 9x
4 an d
5

0 h as

roo t b e twe en

12

5
x

13

11

15

ii
x

16

17

x
x

1 3 x4 + 6 7 x3
3
x

+ 4x

14

2 x5

3
1
2
x
+

4
4x

6 x + 1 2x 2

1 7 1x2 + 2 16x

3 x 5+ 6 x 3

roo t

roo t

root b etwe en
So l v e t h e fo ll owi n g e q u ati on s whi c h h av e e u al roo ts
q
x

roo t

h as

+ 3 x + 3 5x
2 an d
3

q u ati on x4 l 2x 2 + 1 2x
an d an o t h e r b e twe en 2 an d 3

th e

w th at

10

0 h as

+ 6

ff

e o

e o

e o

Sh e

th e

8
=
x
ax + b x 5

b et

3
2
1 x

(
If f(
)
If f x)

I f f x)
4
=
2x
If

5
6

l 0x

= x4

= x4

8 x4 + 4 x 3

1 8x 2 + 1 1 x

3x 2

(
a

2
3x

b)

(
a

+ b) x

b= 0

an d

H I G H ER

47 2
I f t h e p ro p
po

th e n it is
"

h e

"

+ p 2x
a

L GEB RA

a ti o n is
u
q

v i d e t th t

P1 9

ose d

"

"

r e q ui r e d

the

eq

0,

u ati o n w ill

be

We

0.

w hi c h is ob t ai n e d f ro m t h e r i g i n a l e q u ati n b y c ha n g in g
sig n of ev er y a lter n ate ter m b eg in n in g with th e seco n d

th e

To tr a n sfo r m a n eq u a tio n in to a n o th er who se

56 6
m u ltip lied b y
eq u a l to th o se of th e p r op o sed equ a tio n
u an tity
q
.

r o o ts a r e

i
v
n
e
g

L et

i
v
en
g
e

0 b e t h e p r opo s e d e q u ati o n a n d l et
f
g
= x
an tit
P
at x
u
s
o
th
ut
th
n
e
y
y
q
q

u
ati o n is f
q

the

r e q ui r e d

the

hi e f u se o f this t ran sf o rm ati on is t o c l e a r

f rac ti on al c o ef c i e n ts
Th e

d en o t e

an

u
ati o n
q

Examp le

Rem

ove fractio

n al c

3
2x

Pu t

x :

3
4

an d

multip ly
2y

u i g

By p t t
we b t a n

all

3
2

eac

oef ci en ts from th e equ ati o

16
;

1
29

h t erm b y 9

th e

term s
3

3y

16

b ec m e

th u s
3

e t/ +

i n tegr al

iv i

d id

an d o n

b y 2,

56 7
To tr a n sfo r m a n equ a tio n in to an o th er wh o se
r eci r o ca ls o
p
f th e r o o ts of th e p r o p o sed equ a tio n
.

th e

r o o ts ar e

L et
1

)I
!

f
th e n

0 b
the

the p

r e q u i re d

rop o s e d

u
a ti o n is
q

u
a ti o n
q

; p t y
u

so

th at

f t h e c hi e f us e s o f this t ran sf orm ati on is t o o b t ai n t h e

v alue s o f e x p re ssi on s w hi c h i n v o l v e sy mm e t ri ca l fun c ti o n s o f
n e at i v e
w
o
r
s
r
oo
ts
e
o
f
t
h
e
g
p

On e

TR A N SFO R M A TI O N
E x amp l e 1

If a,

c ar e

n d th e

v al u e o

Wr ite

fo r

su l t in g e q

2
x

c
+ q:

ul t i p ly

b y 31

oo ts

ab

%
If

a,

b,

val

ue o

r i tin g

fo r

+ 2x

th e t

g iv

en e xp re

when ce we ob t ain
is

ca

ll e d

If

t h e gi
"

as

th e

83 :

v en
pl

a ti o n
u
q

eq

ne

dby

th e

f S3 in t

e o

h i e q u t i on
s

2 SI

u n alt e r e d

by

h a n gi n g

cc

m to

1t

+ 19 n _2 x

wr iti n g

u
ti
o
n
s
q
p

v lu

71

+ 19 30

a;

I f th e s e t wo

u a ti on is

"

9
1

18

l equ a tio n

"

o b t ai

2p r

2y

42

u
at i on
q

a r eci r o ca
p

S3 + 33 2

0,

ss i o n i e q u l t

an d

an

re

If

th e

3x

SI :

s i gn s ; t he

r n s for m e d qu t i on i s

H e re

56 8

th e

roo t s

y + 3y

th e

al l

7(2

+b

an d

h ng e

th e

c ar e
x

n d th e

1
1

ce

E x amp le 2

u t i on

+p y

eq

47 3

= 0,

an

f th e

s o

NS

u t i on

h as fo r I t s

hn

roo t

at,

th e

O F EQU A TIO

_2 x

s am e

f r om t h e l a st r e sult we h a v e
c l a ss e s o f r e c i r o c a l e u ati o n s
p
q
.

= =
h
n

0,

c ea

r i n g o f f ra c t i o n s

+ p lx +

we m u st

p2

an

+ 19 2 c

the

""

are

f o r ac

an

pl

ha v e

1,

thus

we

h av e

t wo

H I GH ER

47 4
If P

1.

th at

is, t h e
an d e n d a r e

(
ii )

If p

p2

u al

t erm s

p3

eq

t a

ui dist an t f r o m

t h e b eg i n n i n g

1,

"

pi

o ef c i e ts

eq

th e n

1,

L G EB RA

th e n
P3

1 9

_s ,

h e n c e if t h e e q u ati on is o f 2 m di m e n si on s p m
o
r
0
pm
pm
I n this c a s e t h e c o e f c i en ts o f t e r m s e q ui dist an t f r o m t h e b e gi n
a n d e n d a r e e u a l in m a n i tu de an d o p o sit e in si n a n d
n in
g
p
g
q
g
if t h e e qu ati on is o f an e v en deg r e e t h e m i ddl e t e r m is wan tin g
z

56 9

Su pp o s e

O is

th at f

r e c i p r o c al

u
ati o n
q

is o f t h e r st c l ass an d o f an o dd deg r e e it h as a
is di v isi b l e b y so 1 I f (
h
)
is
t
r oo
s o th at f
e
I
u
o
ti
O
is
a r e c i r o c a l e u ati o n o f t h e r st c l ass
e n t th e n 95
q
p
q
If f
t
1;

an

f an

(
)
r oo t

If f
h as
b ef
an

degr ee

e v en

0 is o f t h e s e c o n d c l ass an d o f an o dd de g r e e ,
is di v isi b l e b y x 1 , an d
+ 1 ; in this c a s e J
O is a r ec i p r o c al e q u ati o n o f t h e r st c l a ss an d
"

o r e (I
e v e n de r e e
g
)

it
as

is
0
o f t h e s e c o n d c l ass an d o f a n e v e n deg r ee , it
)
h as a r oo t
1 an d a r oo t
1 3 i n this c a s e f
is di v isi b l e b y
2
90
1 , an d as b e f o r e (
a
a
a
c
n
m
is
r
i
r
o
l
u
ti
o
r
st
ec
e
o
f
t
h
O
e
b )
q
p
c l ass an d o f an e v en de r e e
g
If f

He n c e

r ec ip r o ca l

an

is

th e

y
its la st t er m p o sitiv e, o r can
th e r e f r e b e c n si de r e d as

o
e u ati o s
q
n

57 0
du ced to
.

an

ev en

r ecip r o ca
equ a tio n

an

L et t h e
ax

deg r ee with
b e r edu ced to this fo r m ; whi c h m ay
t h e st a n da r d f o rm o f r e c i p r o c a l

eq u a tio n

2m

di v i di n g b y

u
ati o n
q
2 m"

bw
x

"

an

s ta n da r

h a lf its dim en sio n s

d fo r m

c an

be

be

+ cx

eq u a tio n

2m

r e arr an gi n g

the

te rm s

we

h av e
H

re

H I GHE R

47 6
E x amp le
eq

Fin d

4x +

b y 2 th e

xc

7 6 2: 2 1

e qu t i on wh os roo t e ee d

th e

u t i on

L G E B RA

e c a cu a

an

f th e

a:

r eq u i r d e q u t i on wil l b ob t in d b y ub st itut i g
m p l oy
p rop os e d e q u t i o n ; hen e i H om e r s p ro e s s w
d th
l l t i on i s p e rform ed foll ows :
Th e

root s

e e

76

21

2 fo r a: in t h e
+ 2 as
,

d ivi sor

as

32

83

24

35

16

13

hu s th t r n s form d e q u t i on i s
9 0 or
3
root s f t hi qu t i on
Th
p ro p os e d q u t i o n
T

th e

57 3
a

Th e

hi e f

ve

po

th e n if y

a
c

eq

+p

l
at

h , we

"

ce

root

th e

s o

th e

n ew e

<
y

u
ati o n
q

de s c e n di n g p o w e r s
7
2
0

the

sec on d

t e rm t o

r e m ov e d is

5 if t h e

0;

k
ec

hen

1;

(
th a t

be

Ob ta i n

SO

f the

+ p 2x

w hi c h w h en a rran g e d in

If th e

+ 1,

1)

u a ti on

+ z9

su b stituti o n in t h e p r e c e di n g
a ssi n e d te r m f r o m a n e u a ti o n
g
q

u se

r ti c l e is t o r em ov e s om e
L et t h e gi

ar e

ar e

s e

9)

t e rm t o

be

f y , b ec om e s

1 ) p ,h

+p

w e pu t

np

r e m ov e d is

h
o

0
.

0,

thi rd

w e pu t

we m ay

r e m ov e

the

7
0
0
an

an

s o O b tain a q u a dr a ti c t o
o th e r a ssig n e d t e rm
.

(
n

1 ) l 9ik

n d h ;

an

+ P2

S i m ila r l y

T RA NS F O RM A TI O N
fo

S m e ti m e s it w ill b e m
ll w in g e x am p l e

E QU A TI O NS

OF

47 7

o r e o n v e n ie t t o p r o c ee d
c

in

as

the

E x amp le

e ove th s ond t rm fro m t h e qu t i on

R m

ec

=
t
t
t
roo
s
so
h
Then if w in re s e
+
+
B 7
7
e h f th roots b y 3 in th tr ns form ed qu ti on th m f th roo t s
$
t h t i s th
wil l b qu l t
o f i nt f th s ond t rm wi ll
b
ro
H en th r qu ir d tr ns form ti on will b t d b y s ub s t itu ti g 3
P
f
i th g iv e n q u ti o n
57 4
F r om t h q u ti o f (
w
m
m
0
f
o
r
u
ti
o
)
y
q

L et

ac

a,

b e th e

e ze

ce

c e

e su

c e

ec

or x

w h o s e r oo ts

a re

ec e

e e

e e

n n ec e

th o s e

d with

an

f t h e gi v e n

u
ati o n
q

by

s om e assign e d r e l ati o n
L e t y b e a r oo t o f t h e r e q ui r e d e q u ati o n an d l e t x y )
0
de n o t e t h e a ssi gn e d r e l ati o n ; th en t h e t r an sf o r m e d e q u ati o n c an
b e O b t ain e d e ith e r b y e x p r e ssi n g x as a fu n c ti o n O f y b y m e an s
n d su b stitu t in
)
o f t h e e u a ti o n 4
x
0
a
this
v alu e o f x in
y)
g
q
= 0
w
x
b
l
m
n
a
n
b
h
n
i
i
ti
t
u
ti
o
s
O
o
r
e
x
e
e
e
n
t
e
e
a
x
;
f )
f )
y
g
q
an d 4
x
0
)
y)

(
:

E x amp le 1
If
f m th e e q at i n

a,

b,

c ar e

u o wh s root s

or

en x

in

th e g

be

an d

or

eref

th e

5b

d r es

bj

eq

a,

u t i on
a

b,

are

r ns form d
a

ab E

'

x
r

or

F orm

r o ot s

x_
-

b e th e

roots

f th e

() (
b

s ub s t i tu t i o n

1 +r

ar e

th e

s qu r e s
a

f th e

ub i
)

th e

u t i on ;

u i on wh os roo t
u i

t h e e q at
o f th e c b c

eq

tran sform e d e qu at i o n will b e ob t ain e d b y

3
x

L et

x3

thus th e requ ir ed e q u at i o n i s
.

in t h e t

_x+
y

Ex amp le 2
i ffe en c o f th e

u at ion

ab

ca

1
a

eq

iven eq u ati on

but

f th e

ar e

ro o t s

th e

2
,

; t

hen th r ts

()
a

2
.

oo

of

th e

r qu i d
e

re

H I GH E R

47 8

L G EBR A

NO W

2 b0

2r

l so wh en
e q u t i on ;
a

in

th e

g iv e n

l im in

at e a
s

eq

u t i on
a

()

=
b
y

th e t

in

r n sform d
a

hu

an

we

hv

to

a e

ween th e e qu at i o n s

b et

2r = 0

By

r ac t

su

(y )

mn
o

q+

u s u ga

S b t i t t in

r edu ing
c

y
CO R
If a , b , c
2 7 r2
4q3
at

Henc e in

r l
ea

27 r

9g y
,

:
1:

o
z

Or

4 93

() () (
b

b)

ar e all

p os i t iv

here for

ord th t th qu t i on
mu s t b n g t iv t h t i
a

er

2 7 r 2 + 4 93

we b tain

re l

ar e

i s n e g ive

e e

e a

e,

3
x

hv

m ay

+ qx + r = 0

a e al l

it s

u s t b n g ti v
e a

ro t s
o

r n s or d q u t i on h
oot ro t h r for
or i g in l u i on
u l roo t s
n g t iv root
If 2 7 + 4 q i s p s i t iv
th
t r n s for m d e q u t i n h
f
h
A
t
m
he
r
e
or
or
i
g
in
l
u
i
o
n
u
s
h
v
i
g i ry roo t s
t
t
t
m
t
w
t
q
[
s in e it i s o ly su h p ir f roots wh i h
n eg t ive root i
p rodu e
t h t r n s for m d e q u t i on
I f 2 7 r + 4 q 3 = 0 th e t a f m e
h as t wo e q a
th e
a e q at
2

e,

as o n e r

ze

e e

a e

c an

e a

as a

n a

EXA MPL ES

XXX V

4x
ran sfo rm t h e e q u at i o n
0 in t o an o t h e r w i t h
g
integral c oef c i en t s an d u ni ty fo r t h e c oef c i e n t o f t h e rs t te rm
2
3
Tran sform t h e e q u at i o n 3 x
5x + x
x + 1 = 0 in t o an o t he r
2
t h e c oef c i en t o f w h o s e r s t t e rm is u ni t y

3
x

ol v

th e

eq

u at i on s :

5
.

2x + x 3
x

3
1 0x

4
5x

x5

4x

+ 2 6x

9 x3

24 x + 57
~

2
2

9 x + 5x
4
x

73

3
x

2
5
+ 7x

2 4x + 4

H I G HER

48 0

L GE B R A

C U B I C EQUAT I O N S
Th e g e n e r a l

57 5
.

ty p e
x

as e x

l
p

in e d i n

L et

s ol ve

TO

x =

+ z
x

an

d t h e gi v e n

;
=

eq

Pin

+
.

the

+ z

u a ti o n
3

u
at i o n i s
q

R = O,

x +

c an

x
q

()

3 px y

be

r du
e

ce

to

the

O,

sta n da r d f o rm O f

ati o n
u
q

ub ic

Q
this e q u a ti o n

th e n
3

a c

0
0
9

the

as

f
g

A r t 57 3

S i m pl e r f o rm
w hi c h w e sh a ll t ak e
57 6

+ z

a c

u
a ti o n
q

ub i c

+ z

3 pm ,

b ec m e s

+ z

an titi e s su b j e c t t o t h e c o n
u
q
diti o n th a t th e i r su m is e q u al t o o n e o f t h e r oo ts o f t h e g i v e n
t
h
e u a ti o n 3 if w e fu r th e r s u pp o s e th a t th e y s a tisf
e
e u a ti o n
q
y
q
a r e c om l e te l
n at e
e
d
e
e
m
th
t
r
i
thus
o
t
i
Sy z
0
b
a
W
e
n
q
p
y
y

A t p re s e n t

ar e

an

w
t
o
y

hence

s
,

ar e

the

r oo ts

y
o

27

f t h e q u a dr a ti c
3

t +

So l v i n g

this

a ti o n ,
u
q

an

dp

rt

9
27

ob t i

a n

the

v lu
a

e o

u ttin g

we

f r om

the

5
;

r e l ati on

thus

Th e ab ov e s o luti o n is g e n e r all y k n own as Car da n s So lu tio n ,

a s it w a s r st
i
u
b
lish
i
m
n t h e A r s Ma n a , in 1 54 5 Ca r dan
h
e
d
b
p
y
g
O b tai n e d t h e s o luti on f r o m Ta r tag li a ; b u t t h e s o l u ti o n o f t h e
c u b i c s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n du e o r i i n all
i
i
o
e rr e o , ab o ut
t
o
c
S
g
p
y
.

CU

1 505
fo u n d
.

at

EQp A TI O Ns

B IC

48 1

i n t e r e sti n g hist o r i c al n o t e o n this su b j e c t w i l l b e

t h e e n d O f B u r n si de an d Pa n t o n s Th eo r y of Eq u a tio n s
n

By A r t 1 1 0, e ac h O f t h e q u an titi e s o n t h e r i g ht
1 ) a n d 2 ) o f t h e p r e c e di n g a r ti c l e h a s
e q u a ti o n s
oo ts , h e n c e it w o ul d appe a r th a t x h as n in e v alu e s

57 7
si de o f
c ub e r

h o w e v e r is

F o r si n c e y z
a i r s s o th a t t h e
d
ct
r
o
u
p
p
s

t the

n o

ca e

the

u b e r oo ts

are

i
r
is
r
a ti o n a l
p
t h e v a lu e s o f an y p a i r o f c u b e r oo ts w hi c h
t h e o n l y o th e r a dm issi b l e pai r s wi l l b e
an d (
ar e t h e i ma in ar
w
h
e
w
e
e re w (
0
c u b e r oo ts O f
g
g
y
He n c e t h e r oo ts o f t h e e q u a ti on a r e

tak e n in
He n c e if y z de n o t e
ful l this c o n diti o n

to b

g
,

h an d
th r ee
this

eac

0
my , (

u n ity

/
:
E x amp le

Pu t

y+

o lv

fo r

x,

th e

(
0
3/

z,

eq

u at i on

3
z
+

hn
l so
h n ey
t

By z

15: 0,

= 1 26

3
z
+

y
,

ar e

th e

roots

f th e
t

1 5x : 1 2 6

1 5)

3z 3 =

eq

(
02

(
0
/
3

wz,

+ 3y z

pu t

12 6 ;

1 25

u ti on
a

1 2 6 t + 1 2 5= 0 ;

3z

1 2 5,

hu s

wy + w z _

1+

5+

1
2

Z 5,
J

3 +2

an d

th e

ro o

6,

t s are

3+2

3,

on

To e x p l a i n t h e r e a s
57 8
v alu e s fo r x i n A r t
57 6 , we b
.

the

eq

wh y we

o s e rv e th t y

f r om

u ati o n s 3f

0, y z

r n tly O b ta i n

a e
p

an

are

but

in

to

be

the p

in e
fou n d
n

r o c e ss

s o luti o n

the

s ec o n d

th e s e

wa s

h an g e d i n t o

"

gi

w hi c h

H I GHER

482

lu e s O f

57 9
e

96

( 2
If

an

9
27

y +z

r oo ts

9
27

is

b ec m e

3f

en

ze

wz,

an

f th e

o th r e al 3 l t
r oo ts th e n t h e r oo ts
3

ar e

w y + wz

su b stituti n g f o r

d by

r o th e n

an

9
the
d (
2

+ z

is

n e

w
p

ti v e th e n
,

f the

f
c u b i c b ec m e
o

_
J 3,

f o r m a + ib
th e s e q u an titi e s ar e
o

an

w
p

( g 5
If

r
e s si o n s
p

r oo ts

the

i n this

;
e

w ),

or

ca e

2y ,

= z
,

an

iii )

six

the

f u ll y

m o re

wy

+ z,

oo ts

o n si d r
,

r st O f th e s e is r e al
o th e r t w o b e c om e

( 3

ub i c s

o
siti
v
th
e
p

is

If

o th r

the

Th e

he nce

ar e

th e

r ep r e s e n t th e i r a r ith m e ti c al c ub e

ii)

e
y

(
D
9

f the

W e p r o c ee d t o
3

u
ati o n
q

o r

s o l u ti o n s

x a re

i)

e
y

(
0

w o u l d a l s o h o l d if
va

L GE B R A

an

iu

in ,

(
m

g
,

in ) w,

ar e

i m ag i n a ry

o s e th at

or

in )

an

ib
Su pp
an d m
in ;

in

th en

ub e
r oo ts o f

the

the

ex

2m ;

or

o r

3
J 3

+n

3
J ;

w h i c h ar e all r e a l q u an titi e s A S h o w e v e r th e re is n o ge n e ral

a r i th m e ti c a l o r al g e b r ai c al m e th o d O f n di n
h
t
e
e x a c t v alu e O f
g
t h e c u b e r oo t o f i m ag i n a ry q u an titi e s [ C om p a r e A rt
the
s o luti o n ob t ai n e d in A r t 57 6 is o f littl e p rac ti c a l u se w h e n t h e
r oo ts o f t h e c u b i c ar e al l r ea l an d u n e q u al

This c a s e is s om e ti m e s c all e d t h e I r r edu cib le Case o f Ca r dan s

.

s oluti on

I n t h e ir r edu cib le ca se j ust m e n ti o n e d t h e

58 0
c om l e t e d b
T
m
r
i
o
n
o
t
r
f
o
ll
o
s
e
a
s
w
e
h
t
L
t
e
p
y
g
y
.

be

ib ) 3
3

s o l u ti on
s o luti on

m ay
be I

H I GH ER

484
by

lim i n a ti n g

a an

f r om th e s e

d b

(
( )
216

7
2

06

2k

o r

qk

AL

2 pr

u ti o s
a

eq

+ 19

ob ta i

we

lc + p

GEBRA

qs

Fro m this c u b i c e q u ati o n o n e r e al v a lu e o f 10 c an

fo u n d [ A r t 553 ] 5 thus a an d b ar e k n ow n
A ls o

d the

an

v al u s
e

m
an

to

a: a r e
z

a n

be

ob t i e d f r o m

be

l w ay s

dx +

+px +

or
;

b)

t wo q u a dr a ti c s

th e

0,

d
E x amp l e

o ve th e equ ati o

S l

2ab m

A dd
x

th en

by

2 x3

to

(
2
a

2x

e ac

5)

quati n g c oef ci en ts
2=

5x + 1 0x
2

h si d o f th

e e

+2

we

hv

2k + 6 ,

ab

+ 5)

qu ati o n

+b

3=

an

(
x

ssum e

a e

ab

2k
(

b 2 = k2 + 3 ;

5,

+ 6)
3

2 k + 5k

By

tri al

Bu t

th at

we n d

from th

th t

is,

wh e

n ce

th e

58 3

s ar e

Th e

ssu m e

k)

a:

a an

4, b

(
ax

d b , we

4,

ab

:I:

b)

hv

a e

t h e t wo

quati o n s

2x
x

+x

J5

f o ll ow i n g s o luti o n

th a t

2=

an

root

Su pp o s e

u ituti g th v lues of k

en c

4k

sumpti on i t foll ows th at

e as

S b st

k:

t h e b iqu a

dr a ti c

wa s g i
e

ve

b y D e s c a rt e s in 1 6 3 7

u
a ti o n is r e d u ce d t o
q

the

fo rm

th e n

by

u
ti
q
a

l+ m

Fro m

the

IQ U A D RA TI C

o e f c i e n ts

r st

h e n c e su b stit u ti n g

(
k

o r

lm

a ti o n s
u
q

o b ta i
7

2l = k +

u
ti
o
q

(
(

29 10

we

'

k
q

thi rd

in t h e
3

485

l)

o f th e s e

t wo

2m

U A TI O N S

h a ve

we

EQ

k
q

'

'

7C

4 k

43 ) k

0
.

This is a c u b i c in k w hi c h al w ay s h as o n e r e a l p o siti v e s o lu
2
ti o n [ A r t
thus w h e n k is k n ow n t h e v al u e s o f l an d m
a r e d e t e r m i n e d , a n d t h e s o luti o n o f t h e b i q u a dr a ti c is o b t a i n e d
b y s o l v i n g t h e t w o q u a dr ati c s
2

an

o ve t h e equ atio

E xamp le

S l

4
23

A ss me

th e n

by

4
x

+8

2x + 8 x

qu ati n g c o ef c i en ts

we

2=

k
(

we o b t ai n

n ce

l +m

whe
or

d w

k m

2,

8) k

2k
6

h ve

l) = 8 ,

Zm =

8)

1 2 762 ,

2k

4k + 16k

3;

h i e qu tio i s e s i e whe k
or k
It wi ll b
su i e t to o i de r
of th v u o f k putti g k = 2 w h ve
m+ l = 2
m l 4 ; th t i s l = 1
Th u
2 +8
1) (
h
d
+2
d th r for the roots
1 JQ 1
J 2
T
f c

c ns

cl

ar l y

at

one

en ce

an

e e

:
v

an

ar e

s d
al es

5:

Th e g e n e r al al g eb r a i c a l s o luti o n o f e q u ati o n s o f a

d egr ee hi gh e r th an t h e f o u r th h as n o t b ee n ob tai n e d , an d A b e l s
d e m o n st r a ti on o f t h e i m p o ssi b ility o f su c h a s o luti o n is g e n e rally
an
n
a c c ep t e d b
M
a th e m a ti c i an s
h
ow
v
r
h
c
o
e
f

c
i
ts
o
f
t
e
e
I
f
e
e
,
,
y
e fo u n d
al r o o t m a
b
r
e u a ti o n a r e n u m e r i c al , t h e v alu e o f a n
e
y
q
y

t o a n y r e q ui r e d d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y b y
or n e r s Me th od o f a p
x i m ati o n , a full a c c o u n t o f w hi c h w ill b e f o u n d in t r e a tis e s o n
ro
p
t h e Th eo ry of Eq u atio n s
584

H I GH ER

4 86

W e sh all

58 5
.

n eo u s e

a ti o n s
u
q

E x amp le 1

o n c lu d e w ith

GEBRA

d is c ussi o n

th e

f s o m e m isce ll a

o ve the e quat i o

S l

AL

a x

b y

b y

a x

Mu l t i p ly the se

(
29

0,

%
%%

by

ax

ns

0,

a=

e qu t i o b egi i g from th lowe t b y 1 p q

t i ti e s wh i h
b ei g qu
t p r e e t u dete rm i e d
t i ly
p q
um th t t hey su h th t the o f i e t o f y
v i h th

sp ec

ve

A ss

ar e

c e

c,

th e

ar e

by

e x

is

fo u

d)

an d

d,

en

es

7c

v lu of y

th e

be

c an

z, u

writt e

own

I f th e e qu ati on s are

+ by

ax

ro ceedi g as b efor e
n

%%

a x

6 y

3
a x

b 3y

g
d u

(
1

hu

own

by

th e
sy

v al

mm

u e of

etry

b)

ab

rs

an

( )( )

b) k

valu o f y

d th e

ove equat i o

es

b)

h as b e

ns

c an

e f il it ted b y
ac

t the roots o f the e quat i on

real
From th e give e quatio

ar e all

d,

be

2
'

(
x

b)

(
x

L e t p , g b e th e

writte

th e

hew t h

( ) ( ()
x

ou i

Ex amp le 2

i s fou

Th e s l t o n o f t h e
Un de te min ed Mu l tip lie

h ve

we

( ( )(
a

Co s

by p

re

an s

( ) ( d)

b)

( ( )(
b)

s n

= k,

h refor
Th u t h v l u
y mm etry

dt

roots o f th e e qu ation

Hen c e
an

wh i l t b

an

ar e

'

nn

n s,

b)

()
a
v

we

h ve
a

f }

{9

root o f t h qu dr t i
s

( ()
x

b)

bl + h

0,

()
x

2fg h }

u se

of

H I GH ER

488

hi

s e

qu ati o n when

AL

G EBRA

e red o f fr ti o i of th
v lu e s
6=
a= b

cl a

ac

ns

i ed b y t h e t h
a
e quat i on s ; h en ce it m u st b e an i de ti ty
To d t h e val ue o f
m ul t i p l y p b y

is

sat s

r ee

hu

th at is

etry

we

h ve
a

in

v r

an d
en

0,

egr e i 0
i tu e f th giv
d

e sec o n d

an
a

d t
V

he

pu t

( ()
a

sy mm

By

a+

( )()
b

(b)

[A rt

a:

s
,

x,

b)

b
al
(
3

( )( )
()
b
(
)
)
(
b

an

EX A MPLES

XXX V

So l
1
3

is

12
13

f/4

4
x

uatio n s :
2

35
.

x3

6 3x

4
x

4
x

7 2x

1 7 2 0= O

3
x

1 5x

ea

th e

q u ti o
a

1 2x

12

3
8x

4 2x

+ 9x

2
2

+ 2x

7x

3x

6x

4 O=

6x

9x

17

3
x

1 2x

the

th e

+ 1 7x + 6x

8 0x

ti on

el a

0 m ay b e

s ol v e

10

14

4
x

2= O

2 0x

Fi d
=
x
+

4
x

1 0x

2 0x

I G= O

8x

en c e

r l root o f

th e

16

th at

3x

5
x

oll owi n g e q u ati on s

4x

+q

th e f

18
3

15

17

Prove

So l

11

1 8x =

2 ,2/2

eq

2 8x3

oll owi n g

th e f

+a

192

2 x3

1= O

i c h h as eq ual roots
an d 7 in orde r t h a t t h e e q u ati o n

O, wh

b e tween 9
h
u
t
i
n
t
o
t
e
f
or
m
p

'

q u ati on

8 x3

3 6x + 2 7 = 0

IQ U A D R A TI C

19

h av e

If

a c

3 gx + 7

an

'

a e

If

h w th
e

as a

22

the
e ac

u r ti i f
a

th em

th e
=

2
8

q u al

is e

q u ati o

to

4
n x

bc

h as t wo

ad

q u al roo ts

( 6)
d c

+p

3
x

9x

xx

0 m ay b e

olv e d

o lve t h e e q u ati o n

23

x
one o

o mm o n fac tors sh ew t h at
= o
2
9
m
e q u at i o n ax3 + 3 b
+ 3 cx + d = 0
t wo

h w th

S
a
d
q

21

2p m

(
P q) (
a P )
2

2
0

489

hyh v

20

omm o n fac tor shew th at

4

If t

U A TI O N S

EQ

1 8x + 1 6 x + 2 8x

wh o s e roots is J6
.

If a B y
,

n d th e

roots

q u ati o n wh o s e roo ts

3 2x + 8

0,

the

ar e

f th e

quatio n
1

ar e

&c

ve

x
I n t h e e q at i on x
rx + s = 0, p ro
th
t
if
t
h
e su m
a
24
+
p
g
3
w
o
roo
ts
i
s
e
q
l
t
o
t
h
e
u
m
o
h
e
o
t
e
r
t
wo
4
8
r = 0;
a
s
ft
o ft
o fthe
+
p
pq
t h e p ro d c t o f t wo o f t h e roo ts is e q al t o t h e p ro d c t o f
an d th at i
.

o th e r two

th e

26

27

Th e

5
x

2 09 x + 56

b,

0 h as

two roo ts wh o s e p ro du c t

is

F in d t h e t wo roots o f
If a

q uatio
u n ity : d et ermin e th em
25

3
x

ar e

th e

5
x

4 09 x + 2 8 5= 0

roo ts

wh o s e su m is 5

of

+p n _l x

sh e w th at

28

Th e

su

f two
x

is 4
le d

roots
8x

f the

2
2
1
x
+

eq

u atio

P3 +P5

20x + 5= 0
.

l i wh y o n attem p ti n g t o s ol v e
o f this fac t t h e m e th o d fai l s
exp a n

P2 +P4

the

eq

u at i o fro m
n

th

kn w

EX A MPLES

MISCELLA NEOUS
I f 3 1 3 2 3 3 ar e t h e s u m s o f 9i
arit h m e ti c al p ro gr e ssi on s h e w th at
1

term s re sp ec tiv ely

3 72

an

F i d two n u m b e r s s u c h th at th ei r di ffer en c e s m a d p rod u c t

ar e t o o n e an o th e r as 1 7 2 4
In wh at s c al e o f n o tati o n is 2 5 do u b l e d b y r e v e r si n g t h e d i g i t ?
3
So l v e t h e e q u ati o n s
4
2

(( ( ( (
)
(
y(

l)

+ 2)

+ 3)

4)

In

rst p t erm s

o f whic h

A P,

an

0,

sh e w th at

r st term i f t h e
ne t
t
r
m
s
e
9

is t h e
su m o f t h e

th e

(
2x

[R

So l

th e

q u ati on s

b
b
b
+
+
(
) ( )( )( ) (
2
3
(
)
(
{ (
1

dx

d x

i
x

(
a+

12

f th e

p
.

(
r
g) e

su

bx )

W OOLWIC H ]
.

I
N
D
I
A
C
I
V
I
L
[

RV I CE ]
i u ity

SE

rith m eti c al p ro gr ess i o wh o s e r st term s n

s u ch th at t h e s ec o n d ten th an d thi rty fourth te rm s form a ge om e tri c
s e ri e s
I f B ar e t h e roo ts o f x +p x g 0 n d t h e valu e s o f
8
7

F in d

an

a,

I f 2x

10
.

F in d

the

2
1

an

valu

B+ B,
d 2y

e o

+ B,

+a

+ lg

val u

n d t h e

e o

HS?

(wa
a

vs ?

R
[

11

If a

an d ,8 ar e

t h e i magi n a y
a

+3

c
l

u b root

s o

WO O L W I C H ]

u i ty s h
n

w th a t

H I GH ER

49 2

AL

GEBRA

F in d t h e su m o f t h e p rod u c ts o f t h e in te g er s 1 2 3
tak en
two at a tim e a d sh e w th at it is e q u al t o h al f t h e e c e ss o f t h e su m o f
t h e c u b e s o f t h e gi v en i n t ege r s o ve r t h e su m Of th ei r s q u ar e s
23

d h is fam ily c o n sum e 20 l o a e s o f b re ad in a we e k

I h i s wa e s we re rai sed 5 p er c e n t , an d t h e p r i c e Of b r e ad we re rai s e d
Bu t i h is wa e s we r e l owe re d
2 p e r c en t , h e wou l d ai n 6 d a w ee k
r c e n t , an d b r ead fel l 1 0 p er c en t , th e n h e wo l d l o s e L d
e
7
p
t
a wee k : n d hi s week ly wa e s an d t h e p r i c e o f a l o af

24

A m an

an

ou r n u mb er s in arith m eti c al p ro gr ess i on is 4 8 an d

t h e p ro du c t o f t h e e x t r em e s is t o t h e p rod u c t o f t h e m ean s as 2 7 t o 3 5
n d t h e n um b e rs
So l v e t h e e q u ati on s :
26
Th e

25
.

su

ff

( ()
) W
(
1)

+b

(
c

+c

(
a

b) = 0

[ M A T IL

27

an d

If V

+ Vb

if

x=

0,

TRI Po s ]
.

sh ew th at

sh ew th at

train an h o u r after star tin g m eets with an acc i de n t w hic h

detai n s it an h o ur afte r whi c h it p ro ceed s at th r e e ft h s o f it s form e r
rate an d arri v e s 3 h o u r s afte r ti m e : b u t h ad t h e acc i den t h app en ed 50
m i l e s far th e r o n t h e l i n e it wo ul d h av e arri v ed 1 h rs s oon e r : n d t h e
l en gth o f t h e j ou rn ey
28

29

So l

th e

eq

u ti o s :
a

2 x + y = 2z , 9 2

7 x = 6y ,

[R

W OO L W I C H ]
.

30 Six p ap e r s ar e se t in ex am in ati on , two o f th em in m ath e m at i c s :

in h o w m an y d iffe r en t or de r s c an t h e p ap e r s b e i e n , p ro i ded o n ly t at
t h e two m ath e m ati cal p ap e r s ar e n o t s c c e ss i e ?
.

31

In

o s i stin g
.

gv

h ow m an y way s c an 5 4 3 2 01 b e pai d in e xac tly

o f h al f c rown s shil li n g s an d fo ur p e n n
i
s
ece
?
y p
.

oin s

F in d a an d b s o th at x 3 + axa + I l a
an d
hav e a c o mm on fac t or o f t h e form x +p x + g
.

+ b x + 14x + 8

O
L
[

In
do it in Six
t h e t i me ?

33

60 c

32

m ay

N D ON U N I ER S I T
V

w hat time wou ld A B 0 t ogeth e r do a work i f A al o e c oul d

h o u r s m ore B al on e in o n e h ou r more an d 0 al on e in twice
,

M I SCEL L A N EO U S
34

I f t h e e q u tio s
a

ro
v
e t h at
p
35
.

i on

1,

an

1,

2
ex

dy

x =

T
M
A
T
R
I
P
S
E
[
]
O

a
,

2x + 2x

If o n e
3

roo ts O f x

f th e

l)

9 3p

o lv e

th e

If a

b,

an

o t he r

f the

P
E
M
E
[

C O LL CAM E ]
.

q u ati o n
4

5x

ax

6x

E
E
U
N
Q
[

fra ti o

th e

+ 19x

it

to

e
-

a=

b=

c,

an d

x =

S C O LL

Cx

its l owe st te rm s

z a r al q u a titi s
re

Red u ce

c, x ,

sh ew th at

sq u ar e

+p x + g = 0 is t h e

F i n d th e v al u e o f a fo r whi c h

its o f r e d u c ti o n

3
x

39

h ave o n ly o n e s o l utio n

3
x

adm

38

+ by

49 3

F i n d b y th e Bi o m i al Th e ore m the r t v e ter m s i the e

sh ew th at p
37

dx

E
,

36

f 1

Ex A MPL ES

an

0, y = 0,

R I PO S ]

)
l
[ IA TH T

z =

[ C HR I S T S C O LL CAM E ]

40

th e

Wh at is t h e greate st te rm

in t h e

ex p an

si on

value o f is g?

E
[ MM

wh e n

C O L L CAM E ]
.

F i n d two n u m b e r s s u h th at the i r su m m u lti plie d b y t h e su m

f th e i r s q u ar es is 5500 an d t h e i r d i ffe ren c e m u l ti pl i e d b y t he di ffe r e n e

o f th e ir s q u ar e s is 3 52
[ C HR I S T S C O LL C A M E ]
41

1+b +
2

in it s

43

si mpl e st form

in

te rm s

f a, b ,

2
3c

I D N EY C LL

[S

CAM E ]

ol ve t h e e q u ati o n s :

)
(
(
) 3y
1

44

If x

y,

za

re

lo g

+z

in

= x2 + 2
y

h arm o n i c al p ro g re ssi o n

(
x

lo g

[ C O R P U S C O LL

h e w t h at

(
a:

Cx

HI GH ER A L GEBR A

4 94
Sh e

45
.

w t h at
5
6

E
MM
[

46

th e n

3 x + 2y
3a
2b

If

wi ll

3y + 2 z

3 2 + 2x

3b

2c

3c

3 a) :

2a

C O L L CAM E ]
.

1 32 )

9 x + 8y

(
a

+ b + a)

C
HR
I
S
T
S
C
O
LL
CAM
E
]
[

on s o a ts an d 5 v owe ls h o w m a y word o f fo u r
form e d h av in g 2 diffe r e t v owel s in t h e m i ddl e a d 1
l e tt e r s c a b
rep e at ed or di fferen t ) at e ac h en d ?
c on so a t (
47

W ith
n

A q
a

s n
e
p

as

u sti o w l o st whi h 6 00 p ers o s h ad v o t d ; t h s am

r o s h v i g v ot d ag i o t h s m q u sti o it w
rri e d b y twi
i t w b for l o st b y a d t h w m jority wa t the for m r
m y

h ow m a y h g ed t h i r m i ds ? [ ST J O H N S C O L L CAM E ]
8 t 7
48

as

17

an

as

as

ce

as c a

ene

an

Sh e w

on

a n

49

as

th at

(
l g
(
1

5x

5
x

1 3x

E]
C
HR
I
S
T
S
C
O LL
CAM
[

ody o f m en w ere form ed i t o a h o ll ow sq u are th ree de ep

w h en i t was o b se rv e d th at wi th t h e addi tio o f 2 5 t o th e i r n um b e r a
s ol i d sq u are m i gh t b e form ed o f w h i h t h e n u m b e r O f m en i e a h s i d e
wo ul d b greate r b y 2 2 th an t h e sq u are roo t o f t h e n u m b e r o f m en i
eac h si d e o f t h e h o ll o w sq u ar e : r e q u i r e d t h e n u m b e r o f m en
50
.

A b

51

Sol

th e

eq

u ati o s :
n

(
()
b
(
) (
( (
t/ a

"

1)

52

:
c

Pro

2=

"

th

2
.

v th t
e

J4
3

IDN

S
[

53

5x + 6 )
olv e 3 6 (
6x
f/5 (

EY

C O LL CAM E ]
.

E
U
N
S
C
L
L
C
A
M
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]
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H I GH ER

49 6

I f t h e roo ts

65
.

f th e

AL

G EBRA

q u ati o n

1
3
9+ 2
are

e qu
66

l sh ew th at p

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2=

2
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1H E

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l g
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If n

is

r o ic
we en

d i 7i h a m
n
d I er e n c e b e t

68

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1

ac

m e an s

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P4 = 57

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ro
r

in s e t e b e t e e n a an d
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r
So l v e t h e

70

S C O LL

eq

7t

wo u d
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(
93

}{

c,

If

by

li min atin g x
x

=
b
0
+

+ ax

th e e q u ati o n

b e twe en
an

na

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1
x
+ ) + }
3

(
4
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Gi v e n lo g

ar e

an

(
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73
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.

an

d b = m,

V5

+ vb

su

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A

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Of

al

th e

W OO L W I C H ]
eq

u ati on s :

?g
.

is

L
O
[

th o s e

as

or

s ol ve

F in d two n um b e r s su c h t h at th ei r
u rth p owers 24 1 7

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th e

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2)

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[ M RT N

R
[

72

x/

en e

t G o v e rn m e n t
r e c e i ve d 4; p er c en t
oan i ss u ed ?
c en

l )3

dr ti i y is for m d w h o s roo ts
u
q
or gi l q u adr ti i
th
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th e

x
A
DH
A
M
C
L
L
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W
0
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]

71

0x

sh ew t h at

o ac (
c)
a

A p e s n i n e s ts a c e tai n su m in a 6 p e r
l an : 1 f t h e p i c e h ad b een 3 l ess h e
l ha e
m e n te e st o n h is m n ey ; at h at p i c e was t h e l

EEN

ar e

r st

the

If

roo t o f t h e e q u ati on
x

WO O L W I C H ]

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U
Q
[
.

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67

S h w th t

7 ab ,

z=

an d

9,

the

su

N D N U N I VER S I T
O

%
Y

o walk at t h e r at f 4 mile s an h o u r ; afte r h e h ad

b e en w
o ur s B s et o u t t ov e rtak e h im an d we t 4 m i le s
t h e rst h o u r
m i l e s t h e s ec on d 5 t h e thi rd a d so g ai n i n g a q u ar te r
f a m il e e v e ry h o u r
I n h o w m an y h o ur s wo u l d h e o v e r tak e A ?
74

A se t o u t t
al k i n g 2 2 h

Pro v e

75
.

fac tor

th at

th e

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ab

ov e (
J3 +

on tai n s

as

M I SC EL L A N EO U S EX A M PL ES

49 7

76

s er i e s

Th e

5, 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ;
n

f n at

group i ( 1 ) +
Sh w t h t t h
77
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e su

:
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7 l 3.

on

u r l u m b e rs i di vid d i t o g rou p 1
th t t h
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m f th
3

e su

te r m s

u l to
a

5 7

2n

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R
[

78

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the

o ef c ien t o f x

13

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79

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th e

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(
1)

form

(
r l v lu f

82

i n teg

e o

%%
5
0

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xy z

Is

2
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C O LL C X ]
ac c ordi n g as t h e s e ri e s a x y z
v alu e s o f a an d b ass u m i n g t h em
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M
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T
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v
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is arithm eti c o r h ar o
t o b e p o siti v e i n te g e r s
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is 7
3
m n ic : n d t h e

e x p an sI o n o

3 m, 3 m + 1 , 3 m + 2

v lu o f
a

WO O L W I C H ]

Th e

the

1)

u ati o s :

(
)
3
80

Is e
q

e n

2, 3 , 4 ;
in t h e

s e r i es

f th e
5

5x

l ess th an

an d

7x

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I f P is t h e n u mb e r Of i n t eg e r s w h o s e l o garit h m s h av e t h e
o f wh ose
c h ar ac t e r isti c
n d Q t h e n u mb e r o f in t e g e r s t h e l o garI t t
a
p
r ec i pro c als h av e t h e c h arac ter isti c q S h ew th at
83

l o gIOP

84

t I at

way s

In h o w m an y

no

pe

rs on

m ay

lo gi o Q= P

m ay 20 shillin

rec ei v e l e ss t h an

wishi g

1
+
9

gs

b e gi

S hilli g s

ug

en

to

5 pe

rs on

SO

or o

da hte s t o e c e i e e q al p t i n s
w e n t e y c am e o f age b e q u e ath e d t o t h e e lde t h e ac c u m u l at edm t eres t
i
st
t
h
e ti m e o f h i s de ath I n 4 p e r
o f a c e tai n su m o f m n e
t
n
e
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y
c n t st c k at 8 8 ; an d t o t h e
n e
h
e b e q ti e at h e d t h e ac c m l ate d
y
i n te e st Of a su m l ess t an t
m e b y 3 500 i n e s te d at t h e s am e
ti m e in t h e 3 p e r c en ts at 6 3 S p p s i n t e i a e s at t h a t i m e o f

at was t h e su m In es t d
t e i at e s deat t h a e b ee n 1 7 an d 1 4 ,

in eac h c as e , an d h at was e ac da
t s t ne

h
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85
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r
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h is t wo

u o

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wh

u gh e r for u

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v

32

H I GH ER

498
86

AL

G EBRA

u m b r f th di gits i
l 7 wh
i g i ts r v r s d i ord r : d t h u mb r

A
d

h as it s

r ee

sca e

e n

r ss ed i s c ale 9

en e x p e

J O H N S C O L L C AM E ]
I f t h e s u m o f m te rm s o f an ar i thm etic al p ro gr e ssi on is e q u al
an d al s o t o t h e su m o f t h e n e x t p
s u m o f t h e n e x t 72 t e
.

T
S
[

87

to t h e

p ro v e t h at

te rm s
88

Pro

m+n)

(
m

J O H N S C O L L CAM E ]

S
T
[

v th t

ex

1,

WO O LW I C H ]
s h ew th at

E
M
[ M

C O LL CAM E ]

If m

is

ne

g ti v
a

o
i
t
i
v
e
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p

e, o r

gr e t r t h
a e

m
m
m
5
1 +3 +
+

R
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89

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+ 2n

h ve
a

a c

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p

2_
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om m on roo t prov e th at
,

01

i r o f t h e t h re e e q u ati on s

I f e ac h

90

2
+ 29 2

0
+2
3

(9

4 91

+ 9 3 = 02

9 3)

P3

2 202 203 + 223 4

J O H N S C O LL CA M E ]
A an d B t r av e ll e d o n t h e s am e ro ad an d at t h e sa m e rate fro m
91
Hu n ti n gdon t o L on don A t t h e 50 m i leston e fro m L on don A ov e r
too k a dro v e o f g e e s e wh i c h we re pro c ee di n g at t he rate o f 3 mile s in 2
h o u rs a n d t wo h o u rs afterwards m e t a waggon w h i c h was m o vin g at
t h e r at e o f 9 m i l e s in 4 h o u r s
B o v e rt ook t h e s am e drov e o f g ees e at
h
t h e 4 5 m i l e st on e an d m e t t h e wagg o n e x a c tly 4 0 m i n u t e s b e fore h e
c am e t o t h e 3 1
W h er e was B w h en A r e ac he d L on don ?
m il e st on e

[ ST J O H N S C O L L CAM E ]
If
92
p ro v e t h at

S
T
[

th

"t

R
[

93
t e rm s

A n A P,

G P,

an

in

h w th

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on

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Of x

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of

h ve

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7

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is

5
3

d b fo r
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in

in t h e

1
a

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"

WO O LW IC H ]
th e i r rs t t wo
.

[ MATE

n
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oef c i e t o f

1
(

an

th

ba b

94

S h w th t th ir (
+ 2 ) t rm w i ll b

e x p an

dt

si on

Of

R I P OS ]
x

( )(
x

t the c o

e f c ie n t

E
M
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b)

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C O LL CAM E ]
.

H I GH ER

500

Sh e w

105
.

th at

th e

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e x p an

AL

G EBRA

18

1 06

If a

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%

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roo ts o f t h e e q u at i on s

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en

F i d t h e differ en c e
on tin u ed frac ti on s
1 07

"

b
06 +

2d + 2a + 2a +

C O LL CAM E ]
sq u ares o f t h e i n n ite

th e

an

F
E
M
E
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roo ts

b e tween

B
n

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Bar e

0+

20+ 20+ 20 +

C
HR
I
S
T
S
C
O
LL
CAM
E
[
]
A su m O f m o n e y is d ist r i b u te d am o n gst a c e r tai n n u m b e r o f
1 08
an t h e r st t h e t h ir d 2 3
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m
e
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T
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I f t h e r st p ers on ge ts 1 3 an d t h e l ast p er s on 3
wh at is t h e
n d t h e su m dist ri b ute d ?
n u mb e r Of
r
s
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e
p

o l ve t h e

(
1)

eq

uati o n s

2 + 31 1
a
b +c
3

3
1+
b

+x _
c+ a

+ 3/ _

my

my
1 10

If a

an d

ar e

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xy
+
2

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b
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( )
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b)

T
S
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valu s o f
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3 f

o
s
i
ti
v
n d un e q u al p ro v e t h at
e
a
p
n

1 11

109

CA T H C O L L CAM E ]
.

763

o
tin u e d frac ti o ; h en ce n d
396
whic h s at i s fy t h e e q u ati on 3 9 6 x 7 6 3g 1 2
-

as a c n

th e

l east

To c om p l e te a c e rtai n work, a workm an A al on e wo l d tak e

112
977 ti m e s as m an
to e t er ; B al on e wo ld
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k
t a e 77 ti m e s as m an y day s as A an d 0 to e t r ; 0 al on e wo l d tak e
i
m
e
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s
m an y day s as A an d B t o t e r s ew t at t h e n um b e r s o f
t
s
p
day s in wh i c h e ac h wo l d do i t al on e ar e as 7 n + 1 n
l
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+
p
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g g h
g he
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h h

Pro ve

a] s o

m
m+ 1

+1

1
+
2
,

R
[

W O OLW I CE ]

M ISCEL L A N EO U S EX A M PL ES

501

Th e e xpe n s e s o f a h y dro p ath i c s tab l i s m en t ar e p ar tly c o n

stan t an d partly ary with t h e n m b e r O f b o ard e rs Eac h b oarde r
an d t h e an n al p ro ts ar e 9 a h e ad w h e n t e r e ar e
5
a
e
a
a
s
6
r

,
p y
y
50 b o arde r s , an d 1 0 1 3 3 4 d w h en th e r e are 6 0 : w at is t h e p ro t o n
eac h b o arde r wh en th e r e ar e 80?

1 13

1 14

If x y
2

2x

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is

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no

t r th an

sh ew th at

1,

ea e

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5
P
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T
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If

1 15
.

ar e

n eq

=
a

al ,

an

If

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(
(
()
)
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1 16

an

2 2=
b 0

ro
v
th
a
t
e
p

or

0,

sh ew th at wh e n

2
0

2:

So l

th e

(
) (
)
(
1

+ kl x + k2x +

3r =
3r _
3r
x
x
cl

1,
+

2
7
I
L
.

R
[

q u ati o n s :
2y z

a a
l 2

h en c e p ro ve th at t h e
p rod u c ts two t o geth e r
q u an titi e s
.

119

If

Fin d t h e

x6

su

(
)
1

are

F nd
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th e

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d if t h e

b e fo u n d , p ro

sq u are roo ts O f t h e
is l ess th an t h e arith m eti c m e an o f t he gi v e n
A
M
W
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C
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R
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r ith m e ti c

m e an

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r st 72 te rm s o f t h e s e ri es wh o s e

((

2r + 1

ea e

2)

+ ? b)

[ ST
1 21

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o ooo oo +a ) i

b
1 20

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71,

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I f th er e ar e 77 p o siti v e q u an titi e s d l
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1 18

a an d c

1 17

= c2
,

RH O U S E C A M E ]

val u

e o

x
2

+2

2x +

t erm s

J O H N S C O L L CAM E ]

H I GH ER

502
1 22

So l

th e

(
(
) 3

eq

uati on s

22

= xz

AL

G EBRA

1)

x /

I d l , a2 , a 3 ,
1 23
e x p an de d b i n m i al, p
.

4
e

ro v th at

3
x

+ a4

+ 7x

en e a

_ 4x _ 4

In th e

U
EE
N
C
LL
S
O
A
M
E
C
Q
[
.

is

e x p an

de d in

as c e n

d i g p ower s
n

s c al e

rec u rr i n g s e ri e s

r elati on is a q u adrati e pre ssi o

o e f i e t o f th e fo u rth te rm an d t h e s c ale
gen eral term o f t h e s e ri es

an

1 25

th e

2 + ai3

3x

r l t e rm w h en

2d 2

a3

al 2
+
1

fo u r c o n s ec uti ve c o e f c i en ts

ar e an y

a1

n d t h e

23 x + 3 x

6p

126

If x

2a

th en wi ll
1 27

th e

(
) ()
(
l

I
ax Og

1 28

6
+
y

(
)
(

2x

2
,

(>
by/

103 b

l
b o g it

s o

[MATH

R I PO S]

a lo g y

2
.

wh en
wo u

wh en

d 2a

an

an

1)

(y )

u ti o s

/
xx

if

Fi d t h e li m iti g v al u e

3x

eq

an

(w)
y
(
)
y

3y

2a

Sol

u n eq u al

z ar e

te rm i n e t h e un k n own
o f r e l at i o n
an d g i v e t h e
R
A
M
WO O LW I C H ]
[

; de

x = oc

x= a

r w o
hr o

rod

[ LON D ON

U N I V ER S I T Y ]

uo

n mb e s
h s e p u c t is 1 9 2 , an d t h e q ti en t
Th e e ar e t
129
t h e a ith m e t i c al b y t h e a m n i c al m e an o f t
i
e at e s t c m m n
m e as e an d l e ast c m m n m ltiple is
n d t h e n mb e s
E
L
I
C
R
A
O
O
W
W
]
[

of

ur

he r gr
u
M
.

H I GH ER

504
1 39

G EBRA

) (
(
f
h
h
sq
u
r
s
o
f
t
h
t
r
m
s
T
)
(
i
T
h
t
r
m
s
h
s
r
i
s
d
d
f
t
(
)
1

th at

2n

e O

If

1 40

te rm s :

Su m t o

AL

a,

B,

a e
e

roo ts o f

the

are

s e ri e s

R I N C O L L CAME ]

T
[

th e

1 , 3 , 6 , 10,

q u ti o
a

3
x

+ gx + r = 0 p

ro v e

[ ST J O H N S C O L L C AM E ]

141

ol ve t h e e q u ati on s

(
) (
y
1

(
)
2

3
x
x

+y

3=

495

z =

15

+ z

+y +

2
x3
/

1 05

R I N C O L L C AME ]
form t h

T
[

I f a b c are t h e roo ts o f t h e e q uati on

b c b +c a c a
e q u ati o n wh o s e roo ts ar e a
1 42

Su m t h e

(
)
(
)
)
(

2x

l 6x

28 x 4

an

be

eq

h w th t i f
a

u lt
a

1 45
.

al l

El i m i n ate

u qu
ne

x,

from

2 are al l

x,

th e

+x

6 7 6 x 5+

to

1 44

s e ri e s :

1 43

th

f th e
em

i n n ity ;
[ O X F O RD

M OD S ]

quati on s

n ite an d n u m e ri cally
[R

roo ts

to

t er m s

Th e
al : n d

q u ati o n

R
[

u n eq

u al

c an n

ot

WO O L W I C H ]

ar e n o t

WO OL W I C H ]

A tra e ll er set o ut ro m a ce r tain p l ac e, an d wen t 1 m il e t h e

1 46
rs t day , 3 t h e s c on d, 5 t h e n e x t, an d s o o n , o i n e e ry day 2 m ile s
m ore th an h e h ad o n e t h e p r e c edi n day
on e
A fte r h e h ad b e en
t ree day s , a s e c o n d s e ts o t, an d tra els 1 2 m il e s t h e r st day , 1 3 t h e
s e c o n d, an d SO o n In h o w m an y day s will t h e s e c o n d o e r take t h e
r st ? Explai n t h e doub le an swe r
.

g g v

1 47

F in d t h e value o f
1

3+ 2+

1
1+ 3+ 2+

M I SCEL LA NEO U S EX A M PL ES

505

148

So l

th e

u atio

eq
2

+ 3 ax + 3

(
a

I f n is a p ri m e
1 49
n
z
b
a + b , p ro e t at a
m lti p l o f n
.

If

e q u at l o n

3
b
c
+
+

a,

is
b,

th

c ar e

th e

ar e

<
y+

Pro v e

R V I C E]

ithe r a b n o r
2
e x c e e ds b y
1 a
+db

S
T J O H N S C O LL CA M E
[
]

ne

d th e

(
an

ax

m to

t er m s

f the

s eri e s w h o s e

s Of
e
2
2
2
0 +a
c

+b

M D S]

[ O X F O RD

th e q u ati o n

roo t

b +

su
2

n d t h e

T
[

152

SE

w h ose roots

I
N
D
I
A
C
I
V
I
L
[
.

c
4 3

te rm

a bx

3abc = 0

u mb r whi h wi l l di id e

th e

b c)

1 50 F i d
S u m t o i n n it
y
1 51

R I N C O LL CAM E ]
.

that

yz

zx

y>
2

CLA
R
E
C
O
LL
CAM
E
[
]
.

1 53

olve t h e e q u ati on s :

(
(
)

1)

5
x

3 0x

133

0, b y

4
4x

3
0x

2
x

+ 40

a,

C ardan s

m e th o d
0,

36

9x

h avi n g roo ts o ft h e form

l b, c
:
_

It is fo un d th at t h e q u an tity o f work don e b y a m an in an

h o ur v ari es di rec tly as his p ay p e r h o u r an d i n v e r s ely as t h e s q u are
roo t o f th e n u m b e r O f h our s h e work s p er day He c an n ish a p i e c e
ork in six day s w h en workin g 9 h o u r s a day at 1 3 p er h o u r Ho w
Of w
m an y d ay s will h e t ak e t o n i s h t h e sam e p i ece O f work w h en work i n g
1 6 h o ur s a day at 1 3 6 d p er h our ?
1 54

If

1 55
.

an

d e n o t e t h e su m t o n t e r m s o f t h e

th at t o

ri e

h ew th at
156

se

t e r m s o f t h e s e ri e s

[ MA C E C O LL

0x

o ve t h e e q u ati o s :

S l

((
)
(
1)

l 2x

3
( ( )(

1) 6x

1 ) 4x

>

6)

H o e
(

13

S
T
[

7)

92

8)

58 5

'

J O H N S C O L L CAM E ]

H I GH ER

506

G EBR A

g i i g f y r w worth 250 b t it
u d th t b y di l p i d ti o t t h d f h y r i t l ost t p
e t f t h v l u i t h d t t h b g i i g f h y r ft r wh t
u m b r f y r s wo u ld t h v l u e f t h o tt g b r du d b l ow 2 5?
47 7 1213
G iv
l g 3
R
M
A
L
W
I
C
H
W
[
]

1 57
was fo
c

1 58

10

nn n

ea

e en

ns a

e ac

nn n

ea

en

ea

ce

e ac

a e

e C

as

er

'

w th at t h e i

Sh e

ea

en

th e b e

at

ottage

AL

OO

i te s e ri e s

ar e e

q u al

1 59

H O U S E CAM E ]

P
E
T
ER
[

Pro

t h e de n t

(
x

i ty

( ) (B)

x x

3
x

(
1 3

(
x

xx

By

6 )

RI N C OL L CA ME ]

T
[

1 60

If n

is

ositive in te ge r gr e ate r than

n

is

572

56 7i

of 1 20

m ultip l e

sh ew th at

1,

[ WA DH AM C O L L

u mb r f p rs o s w r
g g d t do pi
wh i h wo u l d h v o u p i d t he m 2 4 h ou
i f th y h d omm
1 61

a e

cc

e e

en

a e

rs

ece

OX]

work
c e d at

en

s am e ti m e ; b u t i n ste ad o f do i n g so the y c om m e n c e d at e q u al
i n t er val s an d t he n c o n ti n u e d t o work ti ll t h e wh ol e was n i s h ed t h e
ne b
t
h
e rs t c o m e r
t
e
i
g
ro
or
t
i
o
l
t
he
work
o
h
a
m
e
n
b
n
d
e
a
c
:
n
a
t
o
p y
y
p p
re c e i ve d el e ven ti m e s as m u c h as t h e last ; n d t h e ti m e o c c up ied
the

162

So l

th e

+ 3/

q u ati on s :

z(
+y )
x

2
0

F
E
M
E
[

C O LL C AM E ]
.

H I G HER

508
17 1

i n t e ge r

She w t h

17 2

So l

the

les s than

no

at

3
4
1
n
+

7n

AL

GEBRA

divi ib l e

8 n is

b y 8 4 0,

if

If 3

u ti o s :
a

eq

b e th e

su

o f 77 p o sit i v e u n eq u al q u a tities

3
3

an

[ M AT E
17 3

is

71

RI POS]
th en

b,

a,

M
A
T
T
R
I
P
S
E
]
[
O

o o

gd

A m e c h an t b ught a q an tity f c tt n ; this h e e x c h an e

c tt n ,
fo r i l hi c h h e s ld He b s e e d t at t h e n m b e o f c wt
t h e n m b e o f all n s o f O il O b t ai n e fo r e ac h c wt , an d t h e n m b e Of
shill i n s fo r wh i c h h e s l e ac h all n f m e a e sc en din e m et i cal
c al c l at e
of
e ssi n
H
e
th
a
t
i
h
e
h
a
b
t
a
i
ne
o n e c wt m
e
d
p
all n
m e f O il fo r e ac h c wt , an d 1 3 m e fo r e ac h
c tt n , o n e
l d h a e b t ai n e d 508 9 3 m e ; wh e eas i h e h ad
all n , h e
b tai n e d o n e c wt l e ss o f c tt n , o n e all n l e ss o f o il fo r e ac h c wt , an d
ul h a e b tain e 4 83 1 3 3 l e ss : h
1 3 l e ss fo r e ac h all n , h e
m u c h i h e ac t ally ecei e

17 4

o w

rogr
o o
g o
o
.

g o

d
g o or

od

d
f
g o or o
wo u
v o
o o
g o
g o
wo d v o
dd
u
r v
1 7 5 Pro v e th at
o

rv

of o o
u r
gg o r
or
or

d d
o

or

b +o

( )(
b

ow

( ( )( ( )
b)

b)

[ J ES U S C O LL CAM E ]
.

17 6
e

If a , B y

th e

ar e

quati o n wh o s e roo ts

roo ts

B+ y

are

f th e

y
,

q u ati o

n d t h e

R
[

W OO LW I C H ]

I f y u m b e r o f fac tor s o f t h e form a + b are m u lti p l i e d

t o ge th e r sh e w th at t h e p ro du c t c an b e e x p re ss e d as t h e su m o f t wo
177

an

G iven

t e rm s

17 8

th at

f a, b ,

So l

(
l
a

0, c

2
,

+b

)
e, ,
fg

th e

eq
x

12

+g

LO

an

d g in

N D N U N IV ER S I T Y ]
,

u ti o s

+y

2=

6 1,

M A W LWI CH ]
wh i h th r
fo u
r
h
w
t
h
t
t
h
;
p p

[R

3
x

A m an
o es in fo r an Exam i n ati on in
c
it
e
s
a
a m ax i m m o f m m ar k s fo r e ac h
r
W
a e
p p
n m b e r o f way s o f e tt i n
2 m m ark s o n t h e w h o l e is

17 9

n d p

(
(
:
1
3

1)

2 m2

4m

OO

e e ar e

T
M
A
T
R
I
P
S
E
]
[
O

M I SCEL L A N EO U S EX A M PL ES

509

If

1 80

Of x

+ qx + 1

roots

B ar e t h e

a,

0;

S h w th at (y ) (
B y )(
e

roo

ts
d y , 8 ar e t h e
2
2
=
a + 6
) B+ O) g p
R
A
W O OL W I CE ]
[

an

181

w th at if am b e
th e n wh atev e r n b e
Sh e

th e

o i t
ef

c en

m
x

in t h e

e x p an

si o n

ao

al

a"

am

N
[ EW C O L 0x ]
.

rtain n u m b e r is t h e p rod uc t o f th ree p ri m e fac t or s t h e

wh o s e sq u ar e s is 23 3 1 Th e re are 7 56 0 n u m b e r s (
i n cl u d i n g
u n i ty ) whic h a e l ess th an t h e n u m b er an d pri m e t o i t Th e s m o f
it s d i vi ors (
i n c ludi g un i ty an d t h e n u m b er its el f ) is 1 056 0 F i d t h e
n um b e r
C
R
P
U
S
C
L
L
CAM
O
O
E
[
]
A

1 82
su m o f
.

ce

1 83
Form an e q at i o n wh o s e
t wo O f t h e roo ts o f t h e e q at i o n x 3
.

So l

v o m pl t e l y
e c

th e

u atio

eq

roots sh all b e t h e p roduc ts

Prov e
n

th at if in is

"

e
e
o
siti
v
i
n
t
ge r
p

an d

185

ro ve

186

n +

So l

th e

1)

If
2
=
th at NF 20

(
n

if

4)

<

W OO LWI C H]

m
,

fra t i o l

F b e th e

na

rt

pa

C O LL CAM E ]

E
M
M
[

u at i o s :
n

v ry

1)

2)

R
[
.

1 2x

184

<
y

<
x

C
HR
I
S
T
S
C
L
L
C
A
M
O
E]
[

w h o le n um b e r o f Li b e ral s retu rn ed
was 1 5 m ore th an t h e n u m b e r o f En gl ish C on s e r v ati v e t h e w h ol
u m b e r o f C o se rvati ve s was 5 m ore th an twi c e t h e n u mb e r o f E gl i s h
Th e n u m b e r o f Sc o tc h C o n s e rv ati ve s was t h e s am e as t h e
L ib e ral s
n u m b e r o f W e l sh L i b e r als an d t h e Sc o t c h L i b e r al m aj or ity was e q u al
t o twi c e t h e n u m b er o f W e lsh C o n s erv ati ves an d was t o t h e I ris h
Li b e ral m ajori ty as 2 3
Th e E gl i sh C o n s e r v ati v e m ajority was 10
Th e wh o le u m b e r o f
m ore t h an t h e wh ol e n um b e r o f I ris h m e mb e rs
m e m b e rs was 6 52 Of wh o m 6 0 w er e r e t u r ed b y Sc o tc h c o n sti t u e n c ie s
F i d t h e u m b e rs o f e ac h p ar ty r eturn ed b y E gla d Sc otla d Ir e

lan d a d W al e s resp ec tive l y

N S C O LL CAM E ]
H
T
J
O
S
[
1 87

At

r l ele c ti on

en e a

th e

s,

188

Sh o w th at

(b )

() ()
b
( )( )( (

5
0

EG

abc

H I GH ER

51 0
1 89

Pro

v th t
a

If

190

191

n ,

ss

2d

(
)
1

O, p

2
4x

ALL
B
[

ro ve th at a

b,

C O LL

0x

h arm on i c al
C O LL CA M E ]

0 ar e I n

RIN

T
[

n s :

h v i g gi v e

1 3 x + 1 5x +

3
x

oth er roo t b y

c e e ds an

2)

7)

olve the e q u ati o

2a

G EBRA

3a
2a

b=

a E

u le
p ro gr e s i o

3x

AL

8 33 + 3 5

th at

1
/
x

roo t

o ne

[R

root i
M A WO O L W I C H ]
one

g ve

ex

h avin g g i v e n t h at

0,
2

f
f
f

Two n m b e rs a an d b are i n ; t wo o th e rs d l , b 1 ar e orm ed

r elati on s 3 a l = 2 a + b , 3 b l = a + 2 b ; t wo m ore a 2 , b 2 ar e orm e d
rom Oil , b 1 in t h e s am e m an n e r, an d so o n ; n d an , b ,, in t rm s o a an d
b , an d p ro e t at w e n 72 is i n n i te , a n = b u
O O LW C
W
R
A
[
]

1 92
b y th e

v h

1 93

If

I H

S h w th t
a

w
t

+32 w

()

+ zx w

+ wz w

+ xy w

4 xy z w= 0

M
A
T
R
I
P
S
E
T
[
]
r d in v l u b y i t r h gi g
e h othe r i t wi ll t b lt r d
O

1 94

b0
a

z
j
g
+
4

be

n o

al e e

e c

i r o f t h e l e tt e rs a b 0 n o t e q u al t o ac
no
b y in t e rc h an g in g an y o th e r p ai r ; an d i t w i ll v an i s h i f a + b

a
p

M
A
T
E
[

an

e a

0:

e e

I PO S]

TR

1 95 On a q adr pl e li n e o f rai l s b e twe en t wo t e rm in i A an d B,

t wo down t r ai n s star t at
an d
an d t wo u p t r ai n s at
an d
I t h e o r trai n s r e ar ded as p o i n ts ) all pas s o n e an o t r
s i m ltan e o sly , n d t h e ollowi n e q ati on s b e twe en x l , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 , t ei r
.

g
(
f
g

fu

rate s in m ile s p er h o ur
2

4m

xl

Pro

+ x3

ec

AB

v th at r ej ti g t e rm
e

4m

5x 3

wh e re m is t h e n u m b r O f m i l e s in
196

3x2
x

he
h

s o

l Ox 4
+ x4

R I N C O LL CA M E ]

T
[

f th e

t h i rd

an

h i ghe r ord r

e s,

R I N C LL CAM E ]

T
[

H I GH ER

51 2
206

in

If

term s

B, y

f m,

q,

roo ts Of x

th e

ar e

208

ma

my

n
ar

n a
r

Of

E
E
U
N S C O LL C AM E ]
Q
[

'

value

+ r = 0, n d t h e

mB

3 01 0300, l o g 1 53 1

If

my + n

lo g 2

mB+ n

GEBRA

ma + n

In En lan d o n e p e r s on
207
an d o n e o t o f 3 3 t o b e b or n
m an y y e ar s wo ld t h e p o p l ati o n
.

AL

(
n

o f 4 6 is s ai d to die every y ear

I f th er e we re n o e mi grat i on in h o w
do ub l e its el f at this r ate ? G i ven
t

ou

3 1 8 4 9 7 52 , l o g 1 51 8

3 1 8 12 7 1 8

rov e that

'

of 3

m ultipl e

v lu

W h at is its

this c ase ?

S
T
J
H
N
S
C
L
L
CAM
O
O
E
[
]
I n a m i x e d c o m p an y c o n sistin g o f Po le s Turks G ree k s
209
G erm an s an d Itali an s t h e Pol e s ar e o n e l e ss than o n e thi rd o f t h e
n u m b e r o f G e rm an s an d th r ee l e ss th an h alf t h e n u m b e r o f Itali an s
Th e Tu rks an d G e r m an s o u tn u m b e r t h e G r e e ks an d Itali an s b y 3 ;
t h e G re ek s an d G e rm an s for m o n e l e ss t h an h al f t h e c o m p an y ; w h i l e
t h e Itali an s an d G r e ek s for m s ev en si xt e e n ths o f t h e c o mp an y : d e te r
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u n l ess

is

in

210
.

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Of t h e

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21 1

If n
9i

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n

6 , 2 4 , 6 0, 1 20, 2 1 0, 3 3 6 ,

1)

71

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9 x + 1 6x
3

2 5x + 3 6 x
5 7

2
e

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Fi n d t h e su m o f t h e s eri e s :

(
)
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()
21 3

( (
2

2 12

RD M O D S ]

t e rm s

to

7 4

t o in f

5
4 9x +

C O L L CAM E ]

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f
.

4x

6x + 2

8x + 1

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l 2x

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[

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.

M I SC EL L A N EO U S EX A M PL ES

51 3

214

th at

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)
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216

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()
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R I N C LL CAM E ]

T
[

visib l

by

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0x

sh oo ti n g c o m p e titi o n a m an c an s c ore 5 4 3 2 o r 0
n
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h
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m
b
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p
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c an s c or e 3 0 in 7 sh o ts
E
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CA
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21 7

In

v th t

+ 0x +
p re ssi o n x
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218

Pro

th e

ex

1 2b _ 9 d
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56

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u k ow u m b r t
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th t

A b ag c n tai n s 6 b l ac
b alls an d
e ate
th an six , o f h i te b alls ; th e e ar e d
c ed a n d ar e all f
a
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l
t be
i te ; p
p
3
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a n n ex t is 1

gr
re
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219

r
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an

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an

no
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E
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S
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[
.

9 09

w th at t h e s m o f t h e p rodu c ts Of e v e ry p ai r o f t h
4
572
n
1) (
1) (
s q u are s o f t h e rst w h o l e n u m b e r s is
(
CA
I
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O
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CAM
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[
]
Sh e

220
.

221

( ) i B( ) i (
x

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Pro v e

th at wh en

M
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H I GH ER

51 4
223

So l

th e

AL

G EBRA

qu ati on s :

(
)
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1)

]
Z

[ C HR I S T S C O L L CAM E ]
Pro v e th at i f e ac h o f m p o i n ts in o n e strai g ht l i n e b e j o i n e d
224
to e ac h o f a in an oth e r b y str ai ght l i n e s t erm i n ate d b y t h e p oi n ts th en

xc

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tim e s

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s h ew th at

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o
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li n es

th e

i
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225

an

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en

3abc

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dx

e x p an

mn c
m

[ M A TE

(
n

1)

RI POS]

form

in t h e

[ BALL C O L L

]
c al v e s

OX

f rm r s pe t th r q u l s u m s o f m o y i b uy i g
E
a
1
m
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g
s
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h
h
l
f
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or
th
or
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m

p
p g
p
t h a s h p ; lt o g the r h b o u g ht 4 7 a im ls Th
um b r f pig
m y sh e p a h e o u l d h v e b o u gh t
lv s b y
d d th t f th
u m b r f im ls f h k i d
f 9 : d th
E pr ss l o g 2 i t h for m f t h i ite o ti u d fra ti on
227
226

ee

an

ee

an

e x cee

e ca

ne

as

an

an

e ac

an

e n

or

ac

ee e

1+ 1+ 1+ 1+

E
U
[

1+

L EE ]

r tain e ami n ati o n si p ap e r s a e se t a d t o e ac h are

Sh e w th at t h e
u m b e r o f way
ass i g e d 1 00 m ark s as a m a i m u m
in w h i c h a c an d idat e m ay Ob tai n for ty p er c e n t o f t h e wh ol e n u m b e r
o f m ark s is
228

In

a ce

E
LE

[ 5 I2 40
229

Te st

for o v rg
c

1
4
I 4

e
ag

+ 15

fo r

o h
r

Sh e
t at t h e
als
m
it s r t e m t h e s u m
2

su

RD M O D S ]

7
70

l4

| 38

23 0 F i n d t h e s c al e o r e l ati o n , t h e
te rm s o t h e rec rrin s eri es 1 + 6

[ OX F O

en c y

Iii

Of 7

'

1)

term

th

an

d the

t e rm s O f t h e s e ri e s for me d
te rm s o f t h is s er i e s is
o

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su

by

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CA
I
U
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]
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H I GH ER

51 6

h w th

240

th e

re d u c e s t o a s i m p l e
S

ol v e t h e

eq

eq

uati o

eq

u ati o

AL

G EBRA

u ati o i f

l
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c=

gr

r o dr w

A b ag c n t ai n s 3 r e d an d 3
ee n b alls , an d a p e s n
a s
He t e n d p s 3 b l e b al l s n t th b ag, an d a ai n
an d m
o u t 3 at
an d m
S e
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a a n st t h e 3 l att e
b alls b e n al l o f d fe e n t
ad an ta e t o hi m s el
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rs
[ FEM E C O L C M E ]

241

rw

o ou

i o
ju

e
i g

Fi n d t h e s
4x

ms

fth p owe r s

f th e

a,

[ LO N D O N

lo g a + b

(
c

wi
if r

q u ati o n
U N I V ER S I T Y ]

f the

th e

r i al an d Harm o i cal Pro gr e ssi o n h av e

b 0 r e p e c t i v e ly : s h ew t h at

()
b

roo ts

f th e

A Ge m et

t r

243

7x

h ro
u
r o
hw h
f g i
r

24 2
x

sam e

lo g b + 0

[ C HR I S T S C O LL CAM E ]

F in d fo u r n u mb er s s u c h that t h e su m o f t h e rst t h i rd an d
fo u rth ex c ee ds t h at f t h e s e c o d b y 8 ; t h e su m o f t h e sq u ar e s o f t h e
rst a d s e c o d e c ee ds t h e s m o f t h e sq u are s o f t h e th i rd an d fo urth
b y 3 6 ; t h e su m o f t h e p ro d u ts o f t h e rst a d s ec o d an d o f t h e
t h i rd a d fo u rt h is 4 2 ; t h e c u b e O f t he r st is e q ual t o t h e su m o f t h e
ub es o f t h e s ec o n d th i rd a d fo u rth
244

245

If

on n e c te d

T,

by t

T
T

h r l ti o
n

e a

T
{ n

be 3

o n s e c u ti v e te rm s o f a r ec u rri n g s e ri e s
a p ro v e t h at
,

246

El i m i n at e
1
.

x
3
x

= a c

x,

z fro m

1
z

y
+y

t h e eq

u ti o
a

on ta t
s

ns :

1
.

= 03
,

%
xy z =

E
M
M
[

24 7

roo ts o f t h e

w th at t h e

eq

u ati o

C O LL CAM E ]
.

ar e

in p

rop or ti o

He n c e

+q

s ol v e

xx

1 2x

4 7x 2

7 2x

36

M I SC EL LA N EO U S EX A M PL ES

51 7

g fu
h

he
h
h h

i t a tar e t o r ti m e s in 5 s h o ts ; B t r e ti m e s in 4
A c an

Th e y r e a o ll ey : w a t is t h e p ro
s o ts ; an d 0 tw i c e in 3 s o t s
h ab i l i ty t at t wo s o ts at l e ast h it ? A n d i t wo i t w at is t h e p r o
b ilit y t at i t is 0 wh o h as m i s s e d ?
[ ST CA T C O LL CAM E ]
248

249

Su m

e ac

foll owi g s e r i e

f the

to

te r m s :

it

1)

(
)

3
x

1}

G
1
2
9
x
+

"

E
S
[

ol ve t h e e q u ati o

250
.

CON D

IC

PU B L

EX AM

0x

ns

2)
(
(
y +

1)

y (
(y
a+ x
.

+ y +y
x

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P
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T
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1

lf

251 o

1
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252

()
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1 6 23

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72

it

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a

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a

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2 7P + 3 6P2

3=
z

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4 ab0

24r

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87 3

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a
e
ro
v
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OU

4 2w 1

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tn

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an d

it

o
2
72

it I S

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x z = 7
y

253

(
(

51s

6
72

an

RH S E CA M E ]

(
ax

by

A ME ]
C
A
I
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S
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C
[
.

x +

Sh e w th at

y +

x +

> xx

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By m ean s

of
rH

th e

i den tity

J O H N S C O LL CAM E ]

1 +x

1
?3

1
s

213 3

S
T
[

255

y +

at
ro
v
e
t
h
p

C
F
E
[

C O LL CA M E ]
.

H I GH ER

51 8
256

o lv e

e q u ti o

the

AL

G EBRA

s:

6,
x

+y

257

If p

I f 13

y + zu

r ly

n ea

gr with

l
s
w
i
ll
th
i
s
a
c
e
p

app

an d n

un ity

ee

45

far

as

ro imat i o
x

1,

in

h ew th at

d ec i m al plac e t h o w m an y
ge eral b e c orre c t ? [ M A T E TR I P O S]

as

th e

l ady b ou ght 54 lb s o f t ea an d c offee ; i f sh e h ad b o u ght

v e s i x ths o f t h e q u an t i ty o f t e a an d fo u r ft h s o f t h e q u an t i ty o f
c o e e sh e wo u l d h av e s p e n t n i n e e l e v e n t h s o f w h at sh e h ad ac t u al ly
sp e n t ; an d i f sh e h ad b o u gh t as m u c h t e a as sh e did c o ffee an d v ice
Te a is m or e e x
r ersd sh e wo u l d h av e S p e n t 53 m or e t h an sh e d i d
an c o ffe e
n d t h e p rice o f 6 l
c o ffe e e x c e e ds th at o f
e
i
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n
s
e
a
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258

"

2 lb s

f t e a b y 53

259
mb ers
.

n d t h e p

r i c e o f e ac h

I f re p r esen t t h e s u m o f t h e p rod u c ts
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f the

rst 77

tu ral

na

11
+
n

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24

CA
I
U
S
C
LL
CAM
O
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[
]
.

260

If

P
a

ro
v
e
t
h
a
t
P
p
p;
t h e e q u al i t i e s
,

2 ga b + r b

d R,

g;

an

p ac + g b e
7

'

If

O,

Ta b

=
2

+ fa

0
P

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i n t e rc h an ge d with o u t alt e ri n g
M
A
T
R
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[
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m ay b e

261

sh ew th at
I

C
A
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[
.

26 2

If

a,

[3, y , 6 b e t h e
x

n d in

roots o f t h e

eq

u ati o

t erm s o f t h e c o ef c i en ts

th e

v lu of
a

( (
a

L
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[

N D N UN I V RS I T Y]
O

H I GH ER

520

r e al roo ts

Fin d t h e

27 0

+a +

AL

f th e

eq

2 =
2
22
c ,

GEBR A

uatio

ns

as

M
A
T
E
[

R I PO S]

It is a ru l e in G aeli c th at n o c on s on an t or gro u p o f c on s o n an ts
c a n s tan d i m m e d i ate l y b e tw ee n a st ro n g an d a we ak v owe l ; t h e stro n g
v owel s b e i n g a o a ; an d t he w e ak v owels e an d i She w th at t h e
wh ol e n um b e r o f G ae lic word s o f n 3 le tt e rs e ac h whi c h c an b e form e d
27 1

of

on s on an ts

27 2

he w th

2x = r

wh e r e

l,

27 3

an

d It

t if

2y

i n tege rs

wh er

ar e

is

wh e r e

+2

no

l ette r

is

re

CA
I
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C
LL
CAM
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in t h e

e
a
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2 1n + 3

(
l

2
e

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r
z
a
e
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,

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l
P)
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2

CA
I
U
S
C
LL
CA
M
E
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[
]

t o in f
.

1 + 1 + 3 + 5+ 7 +

[ C HR I S T S C O LL CAM E ]

27 4

s e ri e s :

Su m t h e

o ve

S l

3J

(
1)

tO

II I f
.

2
L

27 5

2x 3

the

2xy z + 3

q u ati on s :

(
2x

(
2)

27 6

is

di v

3ux

2 0y

hew th

3
i
l
b
is e b y A

vx

+ y
2l

an

d n d th e

3u +
ab

2
2 22

14 ;

a0

o the r fac tor

xy =

1 0in )

ad

C
R
P
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C
L
L
CA
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M ISC ELL A N EO U S
27 7

If

b,

a,

fin

d th

e su

fa

3
1

+ 19

+P2

'

3
3
b
+c +
+

s he w t h

33

+ Pn = 0 ;

at

+ Pn

an

52 1

e q u ti on

f the

"

r oo ts

th e

ar e

c,

M P L ES

EX A

pn

S
T J O H N s C O L L Om an
[

27 8

By t h e

n s i on

a
p

( )(
1

3 22

3n

3n

( )( )(

2)

3n

o th rwi s e p ro v t h

o r

4)

3n
/

( ( ( (
3n

3) 3n

4 ) Sn

5) 3 n

6)

Sm

whe n 7 b i

in t e g e r

rs t t e rm t h t v ni he
[ M A T E T OS ]
Tw s p ort s m n A
d B w nt
t s h oo t in g
d b ro ug h t
27 9
h o m 1 0 b i rds Th m f t h s q u r s f t h n u mb e r f s h o t s w
2 880
d t h p r od u t f t h n u m b r s f s h o t s r d b y e h w
48
tim s t h p rod u t f t h n u m b rs f b i rds ki lle d b y
h If A h d
d o ft n B d B o ft e n
A t h n B w o u l d h v k i ll d 5
A : nd t h
m b r f b i rds kill d b y
h
mor b ir ds t h
s an

s ri e s

at

d th e

an

s
p

s o

the

at

RIP

e su

an

as

re

an

280

Pr

an

ov th
e

(b
a

eac

( ( )(
b e ) I)

at2

2
0

ca

E
E
M
F
[

28 1

h w th

th e

Wh

is t h e l i m i t

282

If

ft

is t h e

th

1
a

o nv r g
e

nt

is 2

h i s wh

9n

th

en

is

+ b+

2o 2
"

ab

C O LL

C A MB

to

in ni te ?

on v r g n t t

as

ac

e ac

as

as

e nu

as

an

a e

as

an

ou

the

K
I
N
G
[

o ti u
n

ed

S C O LL

frac t i

CA ME ]

on

+ b+

+
EE
N
C
O
LL
U
S
Q
[

w th at

CA MB ]
.

st rai g h t l i n es wh o s e l e n gt h s are 1 2 3
n in c h e s
re s pe c t i v el y t h e n um b e r o f way s in w h i c h fo u r m ay b e c h os e n w h i c h
w i ll fo rm a q u adr i l ate r al in wh i c h a c i rc l e m ay b e in s c ri b ed is
283

Ou t

72.

1
(
13

2) 2n

5)

M
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A
T
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[

TRI PO S ]
.

H IGH ER

52 2
e
262 , 26 are
3
mb
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u s

r sp e ti v ely t h r i th m ti m
n u e rs le ss t h n
d p rim
m
r
i
0 u ni t y b in g o u n t d
p

I
284
an d c b e

A L GE BRA

6n u 2 + 4u 3 =

e a

an

as a

ea

ns

to

it

If

is

is

or

f th e f m 6 m

d ivi s ib l b y + y +
s h w th t i t i d i v i s i b l
.

by

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.

term i s

72

73

79

(
1)

7, 2

lo g 3

:
h

::

lo g 6

81

[ P ut :
c

S m

86

503

i n sc l e sev n
a

th e fortune

ie

25 m l

2 51 1 0

18

82

from

7 1
J

su

l _ x _ 2 $2

m_

x :

84

e ch w
a

as

L ondon

1 26

1 400

96

29

l + 4x

unct on

g f

u an d

91

29

Gener ti
te rm

1 00

h ou r s

:1:

lo g 2

7 7 00 an d 3 500:

mi en/T i

5 1 ,

_ i

2)

2 lo g 2)

ab c

u s i nvested were

85

2)

or

80

95

o 6 14 o

74

l)

553

N SW ER S

1 _ 2x

4x

1 07

1 09

mz

1)

a,

1
111

117

y
1

=
y b;

a,

or

2)

(
m
(
)
(
u

'

1;

(
)
(
)
(

l 1,

1 38

11 3

12 1 08
r

i
+
+ a:

11

or

2
2
a: +
n + 2n

1)

2x ; g

a:

ene r l t rm i s
a

(
2)

1 29

12 , 16 ;

2
{

"

:
r

1
;

or 4 8

2ab c

1 34

3 28

or

29

z :

e a

7
1 37

1;

(
)
z

+2

6, 2 ; y = 9 ,

2) E g
a
b
1 33

3;

3;

1)

=
y b

1 0x

1 30

or

sc le fr l ti on i s 1

x=

1)

_ 9 48 , y _ 4 9 2

=
2 2a
;
y

a,

1)

23

3 53

1 25

1 4 1 88

1 ; y = 1,

= 0, y = 0,

1 22

2)

1 27

1)

1
.

_1

1 24

1 20

or

1 , y = 2,
29
=
y

a:

1 21

12 + 1 + 1 + 1 +

mz

1 2 p er son

2)

b,

1 08

where

2b

3 8 4 sq y ds

2 2

2 2
26 a

1 36

+ 2a b

at th e r s t sal e an d

:1:

d:

12 s

at

th e sec ond sal

e.

"

H I GH ER

554

1 39

(
(
)
(
)
(
)

2)

1)

L G EBRA

141

142

gy

31

'

145

_2

1 46

+1

(
2)

a:

+7

s o

the values 3

5, 7

a:

(
(
)
(
)
(
)
(

8r : 0

1)

0
a: 5

g y

or

15

h ve th e p erm ut ti on
3

m ay

"

143

or

14

1 4x

1 57 a:

5x
1 44

8x

(
b3

d3

( )()

3 b

2,

walk s i n succe ss ive d ay s 1 3 5 7 9 1 1 1 3 1 5 1 7 1 9 2 1 23 m i l es

12 13
1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 20
B walk s
so th at B overtak e s A in 2 d ay s an d p asse s h im on th e th i rd day ; A
tb
sub seq u e n tly g ain s on B an d overt ak e s h im on B s 9
day
,

6
1 47

1
148

+ wb +

2
c0 0

n
n
"(
a
b

1 50

wh ere A
sp o n

1 51
1 53

qy

un cti on

(
1)

22 y

(
1)

:l:

[E
.

2:

a
::

(
b4

easy to
g

3, 4

/i

&c

+y +

44

h o ur s

d ay s

wher e

an

3x y z =

2
a z

(
be

2e

=
F1

2 k2

= O,

c z

=
=
p 2,
y

b zy

1,

x = i

Q 2

2
c x

1 61

1 54

13

a x

l,

s h ew th t

58 5

4
4

39

92

corr e

2)

qu ti on re duce s to ( b

(
1)

a s

I
V 9

2:

5i

e r ne rly

[ It is

1 64

(
2)

1 63

(
1 62

denotes

219 3

2)

1 57

fB

d B

ax

din g f

1
1 56

an

I)

5
.

4 ab c

ab

7;

ab c

3 a b 202)

ca

=
x
;

556

22 3

H I GH ER

4, 6 ,

4,

)
(
(
x

230

235

Sc al e

)
d
)

2n

3n

24 3

((
1

21

(
u

L im

1 2 2:

3 202 ;
2

b +c

S= 1

a x

23 7

h ou r

5 8
a x

4x

24 9

8 12
a x

51 m in

3 , 4 , 5, 6
.

2, 6 , 1 , 3

(
1)

(
(

3n

24 6

a3

1 2 20
33

16

2 40

term

th

1
w
8
+
{
-

+b

6n 2

&c

4) xn + 1

3n

1) x

3n

3
+
n x

in

17

( ) (
2

or

2
3
3d

ab

2 42
3

+ 2d

72 +

1 40

(b
a

32

3 ?

2 71 +

71

1
m
(
E

2 1

+] x n t l
-

a:

=y = z = 0

or

+y +z =

a , an

2)
(
(

17

( )(

(
1 5
3

28

13

hen is odd

1)

conve rgent

+1

2 50

( 1 ) ( 3)
71

2
2

ab

2 36

24 7

3 71

cd

'

b
4

22 9

bc

7
232

1)

a a

heep
is 1

rel ati on

()
()( (

11

1 2 c alv e s , 1 5pig s, 2 0s

5,

W h ere b

= 5, 5,

233

6;
4;

=
y 6: 4 :

231

L G EBRA

or x=

226

a:

I f h owever

th e n

the s oluti on is i ndeterm i n ate

y

2 53

A + By
(
b
A
J (
:

A x + By

+ Oz )

0.

&C

Oz ) A x

By

Oz ) A x + B y

02 )

wh e re

(
2)

()
+b

or

3,

T0

26 2

26 6

2q

6p r

(
1)

ba

or
or

= 4,

ces

2 pla

'

au

2 58

; &c

en

erage
f v er g e g
2 4 D o ctor
f ver ge g
2 0 L wy r
s o

(
or

an

27 4

2
3

a
_

(
27 6

27 9

2 87
291
294

w ork

(
b

a 23

a 1 a4

(
)
2

{
1

(b

24

27 7

28 1

al k

C AMBRID G E : PRI NTE D

(
2

C L AY

+ 3p 1 p 2

3193

( )(
( )(

b1

dl

b2

b1

0, 1 0 d ay

b1

dI a

Dal

bu )

&c

p1

x1

BY

d ay s ;

2 89

s; B

e d 3 m i les w ork e d 4 h ours

or w lk e d 4 m i les work e d 3 h our s
W

4 5 d ay
2

5,

4 b ird

5a

1;

5a,

a,

ird s ; B

A, 6 b

5
3

4, y =

267

x = i

2b

3
2)

:
15

27 3

:
1:

27 5

(
b

1)

a1 a3

a oa

8d

e rs ;
3 0 y e rs

35y

a e

e,

13

4 5 y ear s

ag e

a e

2 a1 a2 a3

23 2

a a 2a
4
0

27 0

f av

e s o

a o a2

'

; C ff

n gZ
1 6 C lergy m

s o

2b

26 9

Te a, 23 6 d

+ b ro

a,

268

% %
u

s.

y,

x,

ee
3 d uc k s
1 1 turk ey s 9 g ees
26 3
+ 24
h ve the p ermut ti on f the v lues

e st 3

at

aw +

=
7, or 3
y
2 57

557

N SW ER S

day ;

day

A ND

SO NS , A T TH E U NI V

E R SITY

PR S S