FOUNDATION

ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN
Third Edition

Joseph E. Bowles
Consulting Engineer/ Software Consultant
Engineering Computer Software
Peoria, Illinois

INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION

McGRAW-HILL INTERNATIONAL BOOK COMPANY

Auckland Bogotii Guatemala Hamburg Johannesburg Lisbon
London Madrid Mexico New Delhi Panama Paris
San Juan Sao Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo

CONTENTS

Preface
apter l
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7

apter 2
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8
2-9
2-10
2-11
2- 12
2- 13
2- 14
2- 15

xiii

Introduction
Foundations-Definition and Purpose
Foundation Classifications
Foundation Site and System Economics
Generai Requirements of Foundations
Foundation Selection
SI and Fps Units
Computational Accuracy versus Design Precision

Soil Mechanics in Foundation Engineering

Introduction
Foundation Materials
Soil Volume and Density Relationships
Major Factors Which Atfect the Engineering Properties
of Soils
Routine Laboratory Tests
Soil Classification in Foundation Design
Soil Classification Terms
In Situ StresSl;_S and K Conditions
Soil Water- Soil Hydraulics
Consolidation Principles
Shear Strength
Sensitivity and Thixotropy
Stress Paths
Elastic Properties of Soil
Isotropic and Anisotropie Soil Masses

l
2
3

5
6
6
9

IO
IO
12
13
16
19
24
25
32
35
41
50
60
61
66
70
v

CONTENTS

Chapter 3
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-9
3-10
3-1 1
3-12
3-13

3-14
3-15

3-16
3-17
3-18

Exploration, Sampling, and In Situ

Soil Measurements
Data Required
Methods of Exploration
Planning the Explo ration Program
Soil Boring
Soil Sampling
Marine Sampling
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Other Penetration Methods
Core Sampling
Water-Table Location
Depth and Number of Borings
Presentation of Data
Field Load Tests
Field Vane Testing of Soils
Measurements of In Situ Stresses and K . Conditions
Static Penetration Testing-Dutch-Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
The Borehole Shear Test
Seismic Exploration

5-8
5-9

5-1 0
5-11
5- 12
5-13

Chapter 6
6- 1

6-2
6-3
6-4
6-5
114

6-6
6-7

117

6-8

121
122
123

Chapter 7
7- 1

Chapter 4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5

~
4-8

e
4-12

4-13
4-14

Bearing Capacity of Foundations

Introduction
Bearing-Capacity Equations
Generai Comments on Bearing-Capacity Computations
Bearing Capacity- Examples
Footings with Eccentric o r Inclined Loadings
Etfect of Water Table o n Bearing Capacity
Bearing Capacity for Footings on Layered Soils
Bearing Capacity of Footings on Slopes
Bearing Capacity from SPT
Bearing Capacity Using Cone Penetration Test (CPT) Data
Bearing Capacity of Foundations with Uplift or Tension Forces
Bearing Capacity Based on Building Codes
(Presumptive Pressure)
Safety Factors in Foundation Design
Bearing Capacity of Rocks

130
130
131

7-2
7-3

7-4
7-5

135
140
143
147

7-6
7-7

149

7-10

153
155

7- 11
7-12
7-13

159

7-8
7-9

5-1

Foundation Settlements

The Settlement Problem

Stresses in a Soil Mass Due to Footing Pressure
The Boussinesq Method for Evaluating Soil Pressure
~ Westergaard's Method for Evaluating Soil Pressures
5-5 Immediate (Eiastic) Settlement Computation-Theory
5-6 Immediate Settlements- Application
5-7 Alternati ve Methods of Computing Elastic Settlements
5-2

Improving Site Soils for Foundation Use

Introduction
Compaction
.
.
Precompression to Improve S1te S01ls .
Drainage Using Sand Blankets and Drams
Vibratory Methods to lncrease Soil Dens~~ .
Foundation Grouting and Chemical Stab1hzation
Altering Groundwater Conditions
Use of Geotextiles to l mprove Soil

Factors to Consider in Foundation Design

Footing Depth and Spacing
Displaced Soil Etfects
.
.
Net versus Gross Soil Pressure-Des1gn Soil Press~res
Erosion Problems for Structures Adjacent to Flowmg Water
Corrosion Protection
Water-Table Fluctuation
Foundations in Sand Deposits
Foundations on Loess
Foundations on Expansive Soils
Foundations on Clays and Silts
Foundations on Sanitary Landfill Sites
Frost Depth and Foundations on Permafrost
Environmental Considerations

196
197

200

201
203
204

208
208
209
211
213
215
217
218
218
221
221
224
225
226
227
227
227
228
230
233
235
236
238

160

f63
163

Chapter 8

167

8-2

8-1
8-3

Chapter 5

Stresses and Displacements in Layered and Anisotropie Soils

Consolidatio n Settlements
Reliability of Settlement Computations
Proportioning Footings for a Given Settlement or
Equal Settlements
Structures on Fills
Structural Tolerance to Settlement and Ditferential Settlements

vii

171
171
172

173
178
183
187
192

8-4

8-5
8-6
8-7
8-8

~
8-11
8-12

Spread Footing Design

Footings-Classification and Purpose .
.
Allowable Soil Pressures in Spread Footmg Des1gn
Assumptions Used in Footing Design
Reinforced-Concrete Design-USO
Structural Design of Spread F ootings
Bearing Plates and Anchor Bolts
Pedestals
Rectangular Footings
.
Eccentrically Loaded Spread Footmgs
Unsymmetrical Footings
.
.
.
Wali Footings and Footings for Resdentlal Construction
Spread Footings with Overturning Moment

240
240
241
242
243
249
258
265

269
273

282
286
290

viii CONTENTS
CONTENTS ix

Chapter 9
9- 1
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5
9-6
9-7
9-8
9-9
9-10
9-1 l

Chapter 10
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4

Chapter 11
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
11-5

~
7

11-9

~
l

3
ll-14

Chapter 12
12-1
12-2
12-3
12-4

Introd uction
Rectangular Combined Footings
Design of Trapezoid-Shaped Footings
Design of Strap (or Cantilever) Footings
Footings for Industriai Equipment
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
Classica! Solution of Beam on Elastic Foundation
Finite- Element Solution of Beam on Elastic Foundation
Bridge Piers
Ring Foundations
Generai Comments on the Finite-Element Procedure

Mat Foundations

@)
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9

Special Footings and Beams on

Elastic Foundations

Introduction
Types of Mat Foundatio ns
Bearing Capacity of Mat Foundations
Mat Settlements
Design of Ma t Foundations
Finite-Difference Method for Mats
Finite-Eiement Method for Mat Foundations
Mat-Superstructure Interaction
Circular Mats or Plates

Latera! Earth Pressure

The Latera) Earth Pressure Problem
Active Earth Pressure
Passive Earth Pressure
Coulomb Earth-Pressure Theory
Rankine Earth Pressures
Active and Passive Earth Pressure Using Theory of Plasticity
Earth Pressure on Walls, Soil-Tension Effects, Rupture Zone
Reliability of Latera! Earth Pressures
Soil Properties and Latera! Earth Pressure
Earth-Pressure Theories in Retaining-Wall Problems
Graphical and Computer Solutions for Latera! Earth Pressure
Latera! Pressures by Theory of Elasticity for Surcharges
Other Causes of Latera! Pressure
Pressures in Si1os, Grain Elevators, and Coal Bunkers

295
295
295
304
309
312
320
326
330
339
341
344

12-16

Chapter 13
349
349
350
351
352
354
361
363
374
374
378
378
379
381
38 1
388
392
396
399
399
401
404
414
419
420

Retaining Walls
Introduction
Common Proportions of Retaining Walls
Soil Properties for Retaining Walls
Stability of Walls

12-5
12-6
12-7
12-8
12-9
12-10
12-11
12-12
12-1 3
12-14
12-15

431
431
433
436
438

13-1
13-2
13-3
13-4
13-5
13-6
13-7
13-8
13-9

Chapter 14
14-1
14-2
14-3
14-4
14-5
14-6
14-7
14-8
14-9

Chapter 15
15-1
15-2
15-3
15-4
15-5
15-6
15-7

Retaining-Wall Forces
AUowable Bearing Capacity
Settlements
Tilting
Design of Gravity and Semigravity Walls
Wall Joints
Drainage
.
.
Abutment Wing and Retaining Walls of Varymg He1ght
Design of a Cantilever Retaining W ali
Design of a Counterfort Retaining Wali
Basement or Foundation Walls; Walls for
Residential Construction
Reinforced -Earth Retaining Structures

Sheet-Pile Walls- Cantilevered

and Anchored
Introduction
Soil Properties for Sheet-Pile Walls
Types of Sheetpiling
Safety Factors for Sheet- Pile Walls
Cantilever Sheetpiling
Anchored Sheetpiling : Free-Earth Suppor!
Rowe's Moment Reduction Applied to the
Free-Earth-Support Method
Finite-Eiement Analysis of Sheet-Pile Walls __
Wales and Anchorages for Anchored Sheetpliing

440
448
449
450
453
457
458
459
460
466

468
469

474
474
475
477
479
481
489
495
499
506

Braced, Tieback, and

Slurry Walls for Excavations

516

Construction Excavations
Soil Pressures on Braced Sheeting or Cofferdams
Conventional Design of Single-W ali (Braced) Cofferdams
Estirnation of Ground Loss around Excavations
Finite-Element Ana lysis for Braced Excavation~
Instability Due to Heave of Bottom of Excavallon
Other Causes of Cofferdam Instability
Construction Dewatering
Slurry-Wall (or -Trench) Construction

516
519
522
527
530
536
539
540
544

Cellular Cofferdams

548
548
552
553
563
565
568
573

Cellular Cofferdams: Types and Uses

Celi Fili
Stability and Design of Cellular Cofferdams
.
Practical Consideratio ns in Cellular Cofferdam Deslgn
Design of Diaphragm Cofferdam Celi
Circular-Cofferdam Design
Cloverleaf-Cofferdam Design

CONTENTS xi

X CONTENTS

Single Piles- Static Capacity and

Latera! Loads; Pile/ Pole Buckling

Chapter 16
16-1
16-2
16-3
16-4
16-5
16-6
16-7
16-8
16-9
16-10
16-11
16-12
16-13
16-14
16-15

Chapter 17

Introduction
Timber Piles
Concrete Piles
Steel Piles
Corrosion of Steel Piles
Soil Properties for Static Pile Capacity
Static Pile Capacity
Ultimate Static Pile Point Capacity
Skin Resistance Capacity
Static Pile Capacity- Examples
Piles in Permafrost
Static Pile Capacity Using Load-Transfer Load-Test Data
Tension Piles- Piles for Resisting Uplift
Laterally Loaded Piles
Buckling of Fully and Partially Embedded Piles and Poles

Single Piles- Dynamic Analysis

17-1 Dynamic Analysis

17-2 Pile Driving
17-3 The Rational Pile Formula
17-4 Other Dynamic Formulas and Generai Considerations
17-5 Reliabi1ity of Dynamic Pile-Driving Formulas
17-6 The Wave Equation
17-7 Pile-Load Tests
17-8 Pile-Ori ving Stresses
17-9 Generai Comments on Pile Driving

Chapter 18
18- 1
18-2
18-3
18-4
18-5
18-6
18-7
18-8
18-9

Chapter 19

Pile Foundations- Groups

Single Piles versus Pile Groups
Pile-Group Considerations
Efficiency of Pile G roups
Stresses on Underlying Strata
Settlements of Pile Groups
Pile Caps
Batter Piles
Negative Skin Friction
Matrix Analysis for Pile Groups

Caissons Including D rilled Piers

19-1 Types of Caissons

19-2 . Open-End Caissons
19-3 Closed-End, or Box, Caissons
19-4 Pneumatic Caissons
19-5 Drilled Caissons

575
575
582
584

19-6
19-7
19-8
19-9

589

Chapter 20

592
592

20-1
20-2
20-3
20-4

593
598
602
610
616
620
622
623
632

20-5
20-6
20-7
20-8
20-9

Bearing Capacity and Settlements of Drilled Caissons

Design of Drilled Caissons
Laterally Loaded Caissons
Inspection of Drilled Caissons

720
725
729
730

Design of Foundations for Vibration Contro!

732

Introduction
Elementary Vibrations
Forced Vibrations fora Lumped Mass
Approximate Solution of Vibrating FoundationTheory of Elastic Half-Space
Lumped-Mass Solution of the Vibrating Foundation
Soil Properties-Elastic Constants
Coupled Vibrations
Effect of Piles to Reduce Foundation Vibrations
Other Considerations for Machinery Foundations

732
733
738
743
749
757
759
760
761

Appendixes
638
638
638
643
647
654
656
663
665
668
671
671
67 1
673
676
683
687
690
690
696
705
705
706
711
715
71 7

A Generai Pile-Harnmer and Pile Data Tables

A-1
A-2
A-3
A-4
A-5

B
B-1
B-2
B-3

765

H-Piles
Pile Hammers
Sheet Piles
Pipe Piles
Prestressed-Concrete Piles

765
766
769
771
773

Selected Computer Programs

774

Beam, Latera!- and Sheet-Pile Finite-Element Program

Mat Program
Three-Dimensional P ile-Group Program

775
781
787

References

788

Indexes

807

Name Index
S ubject Index

ASTM

REFERENCES

American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street Pb"J
.
Pa.
adelph 1a,
ASTM STP

AWPI
CGl
ENR
ICE
P/CE
ICSMFE

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Ollicials

American Concrete Jnstitute, Detroit, Michigan
lournal of American Concrere l nsrirure (monthly)
American Society of Civil .tngineers
lournal ofGeotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE (1974-0000)
_
1 ourna/ of Soil M echanics and F oundation Division, ASCE (1955-1973, mel.)
Proceedings of Soil M echanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, speciality
conferences as follows:
fst PSC = Shear Strength ofCohesive Soils, Boulder, Colo. (1960)
2d PSC = Design of Foundat ions for Contro! of Settlement, Northwestem
University, Evanston, 111. (1964)
3d PSC = Placement and lmprovement of Soil to Suppor! Structures,
Cambridge, Mass. (1968)
4th PSC = Latera! Stresses in the Ground and Design of Earth Retaining
Structures, Cornell University,lthaca, N.Y. (1970)
5th PSC = Performance of Earth and Earth Supported Structures, Purdue
.
_
University, Lafayette, Ind. (1972)
6th PSC = Ana lysis and Design in Geotechnical Engineering, Umversrty
Texas, Austin, Tex. (1974)
7th PSC = In Situ Measurements of Soil Properties, North Carolina State
University, Raleigh, N.C. (1975)
.
_
8th PSC = Rock Engineering for Foundations and Slo pes, Umversrty
Colorado, Boulder, Colo. (1976)
_
9th PSC = Geotechnical Practice for Disposal of Solid Waste Matenals,
University orMichigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. (1977)
JOth PSC = Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, Pasadena, Calif.
(1978)

or
or

lSD

<\SME
788

lourna/ ofSrructura/ Division, ASCE

American Society ror Mechanical Engineers

American Wood Preservers Institute, 2600 Virginia Avenue, Washington,

D.C.
Canadian Geotechnical lournal, Ottawa, Canada
Engineering News-Record, New York (weekly)
Institution of Ci vii Engineers (Lo ndon)
Proceedings of Institurion ofCivil Engineers
Proceedings of lnternarional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering
1st ICSMFE = Harvard University(l 936)
2d ICSMFE = Rotterdam, Holland (1948)
3d ICSMFE = Zurich, Switzerland (1953)
4th ICSMFE = London (1957)
5th JCSMFE = Paris (1961)
6th ICSMFE = Montreal (1965)
7th ICSMFE = Mex.ico City (1969)
8rh ICSMFE = Moscow (1973)
9th ICSMFE = Tokyo (1977)
lOth ICSMFE = Stockholm (1 981 )

T o simplify and condense the reference list, the following abbreviations are used :
AASHTO
ACI
l ACl
ASCE
lGED
lSMFD
PSC

American So~iety for Testing and Mareria/s Specia/ Technica/ Publicati

(wrth appropnate number)
on

SMFE

Soi/ Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Geotechnique is published by the Institution of Ci vii Engineers, London, England.

Highway Research Board, Highway Research Record, etc., published by National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.

AASHTO (1977), " Standard Specifications fo r Hghway Bridges," 12th ed., 496 pp.
ACI (1975), Recommended Practice for Design and Construction or Co ncrete Bins, Silos and Bunkers
for Storing Granular Materials, Report or ACI Committee 313,' l ACI, O ctober, pp. 529-565.
ACI Committee 336 (1972), Suggested Design and Construction Procedures for Pier Foundations,
l ACI, August, pp. 461-480.
ACI Committee 436 (1966), Suggested Design Procedures ror Combined Footings and Mats, l ACI,
October, pp. 1041-1057 (now committee 336).
AISC (1980), Stee/ Construction Manua /, 8th ed., American Institute of Steel Construction, 400 N .
Michigan, Ave., Chicago, Ili. 6061 L
AISI (1 975), Steel Pile Lcad T est Data, American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C., 84 pp.
Akinmusuru, J. O . (1978), Horizontally Loaded Vertical Plate Anchors in Sand, JGED, vol. 104, GT2,
February, pp. 283-286.
Aldrich, H. P . (1967), Precompression ror Support or Shallow Foundations, lSMFD, ASCE, vol. 91,
SM2, March, pp. 5-20.
Alizadeh, M., and M. T. Davisson (1970), Latera! Load Tests on Piles-Arkansas River Project,
lSMFD, ASCE, vol. 96, SM5, September, pp. 1583-1604.
Alpan, I. (1 967), The Empirica! Evaluation or the Coellicient K 0 and K , Soi/ and Founda tions,
01
To lcyo, vol. 7, no. l, January, pp. 31-40.
Andersland, O. B., and D. M. Anderson (1978), "Geotechnical Engineering ror Cold Regions,"
McGraw-Hill Book Co mpany, pp. 576.
Anderson, D . G., et al. (1 978), Estimating in Situ Shear Moduli at Competent Sites, lOth PSC, ASCE,
vol. l, pp. 181-197.

790 FOUK DAT IO:-i AKA LYSIS AND DESIGN

Arman, A., et al. (1975), Srudy of the Vane Shear. 7th PSC, ASC E. vol. l, pp. 93-120.
Amold, R. ., et al. (1955), Foroed Vibrations of a Body on an lnfin ire Elastic Solid, Journal of
Applied M echanics, vol. 77, no. 3, pp. 391-400.
Arthur, J. R., and B. K. Menzies (1972). l nheren l Anisorropy in Sand, Geotechnique, vol. 22, no. 1,
March, pp. 115- 128.
ASCE (1974), Design of Steel Transmission Pole Structures, JS D, ASCE, vol. 100, ST 12, December,
pp. 2449- 2518 (Committee Report).
ASC E (1 966), Revised Bibliogra phy on Chemical Grouring, JSMFD , ASCE, vol. 92, SM 6, November, pp. 39-66.
ASCE (1959), " Timber Piles and Construction Timbers," Manual of Practice no. 17, 48 pp.
ASCE (1946), " Pile Foundations and Pile Structures," Manual of Practice no. 27, 72 pp. (reprinted
1959).
ASCE (1941), Pile-driving Formulas, Proceedings ASCE, vol. 67, no. 5, May, pp. 853-866.
Aschenbrenner, R. (1967), Three Dimensionai Analysis of Pile Foundations, JSMFD, ASCE, vol. 93,
ST l, February, pp. 201- 219.
ASTM (1971), Underwater Soil Sampling, Testing and Construction Contro!, ASTM STP no. 501,
241 pp.
AWPI (1 981), AE Concepts in Wood Design (Piling Jssue), no. 34, vol. l, Januar y-February, 33 pp.
AWPI (1969), " Pile Foundations Know-How," 66 pp.
AWPI (1967), " Pressure T reated Timber Foundation Piles for Permanent Structures," 98 pp.
AWPI (1966), " Timber Foundation Pile Study," 46 pp.
Azzouz, A. S., et al. (1976).. Regression Analysis of Soil Compressibility, Soils and Foundations, Toyko,
vol. 16, no.2, pp. 19-29.

REFERENCES

791

Belz, C A. (1970), Cellular Structure Design Methods, Proceedings Conference: Design and Installauon of P1le Foundarwns and Cellular St ructures, Lehigh University, pp. 319-338.
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Berezantzev, V. G., et al. (1961), Load Bearing Capacity and Deformation of Piled Foundations 5th
ICSMFE, vol. 2, pp. 11-15.
'
Bhatacharya, R. K. (1968), " Stresses and Displacements in Cross-Anisotropie Layered, Elastic HalfSpace Due to Axt-Symmetric Loadings on the Top Surfaoe " Ph D Thesis u n
't f w
consin, Madison, 162 pp.
'

tverst Y o
tsBjerrum, L. (1972), Embankments on Soft Ground, 5th PSC, ASC E, vol. 2, pp. J-54.
BJerrum, L, and O. Etde (1956), Stability of Strutted Excavations in Clay Geotechnique voi 6 no 1
March, pp. 32-47.
'
'
' '
Bjerrum, 1., and R. Kirkedam (1958), Some Notes on Earth Pressures in Stiff F issured C lay Pro'
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'
'
Blaine, E. S. (1967), Practical Lessons in Caisson Sinking from the Baton Rouge Bridge ENR F b 6
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e
Blanchet, R., et al. (1980), Behavior or Friction Piles in Soft Sensitive Clays CGJ voi 17 0 2 M
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n ay,
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'
une, pp.

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.
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.
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