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ThisisMo va ngEmployeesThroughJobDesign,sec on6.2fromthebookAnIntroduc ontoOrganiza onalBehavior(v.1.1).Fordetailsonit

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6.2MovangEmployeesThroughJobDesign
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
1.Learnaboutthehistoryofjobdesignapproaches.
2.Consideralterna vestojobspecializa on.
3.Iden fyjobcharacteris csthatincreasemo va ngpoten al.
4.Learnhowtoempoweremployees.

ImportanceofJobDesign
Manyofusassumethemostimportantmotivatoratworkispay.Yet,studiespointtoadifferentfactor
asthemajorinfluenceoverworkermotivationjobdesign.Howajobisdesignedhasamajorimpact
onemployeemotivation,jobsatisfaction,commitmenttoanorganization,absenteeism,andturnover.

Thequestionofhowtoproperlydesignjobssothatemployeesaremoreproductiveandmoresatisfied
hasreceivedattentionfrommanagersandresearcherssincethebeginningofthe20thcentury.Wewill
reviewmajorapproachestojobdesignstartingfromitsearlyhistory.

SciencManagementandJobSpecializaon
Perhapstheearliestattempttodesignjobscameduringtheeraofscientificmanagement.Scientific
managementisaphilosophybasedontheideasofFrederickTayloraspresentedinhis1911book,
PrinciplesofScientificManagement.Taylorsbookisamongthemostinfluentialbooksofthe20th
centurytheideaspresentedhadamajorinfluenceoverhowworkwasorganizedinthefollowingyears.
Taylorwasamechanicalengineerinthemanufacturingindustry.Hesawworkbeingdonehaphazardly,
withonlyworkersincharge.Hesawtheinefficienciesinherentinemployeesproductionmethodsand
arguedthatamanagersjobwastocarefullyplantheworktobeperformedbyemployees.Healso
believedthatscientificmethodscouldbeusedtoincreaseproductivity.Asanexample,Taylorfound
thatinsteadofallowingworkerstousetheirownshovels,aswasthecustomatthetime,providing
speciallydesignedshovelsincreasedproductivity.Further,byprovidingtrainingandspecific
instructions,hewasabletodramaticallyreducethenumberoflaborersrequiredtohandleeach
job.Taylor,F.W.(1911).Principlesofscientificmanagement.AmericanMagazine,71,570581.
Wilson,F.M.(1999).Rationalizationandrationality1:Fromthefoundingfatherstoeugenics.
OrganizationalBehaviour:ACriticalIntroduction.Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress.

Scientificmanagementproposedanumberofideasthathavebeen
influentialinjobdesigninthefollowingyears.Animportantideawasto

Figure6.2

minimizewastebyidentifyingthemostefficientmethodtoperformthe
job.Usingtimemotionstudies,managementcoulddeterminehowmuch
timeeachtaskwouldrequireandplanthetaskssothatthejobcouldbe

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performedasefficientlyaspossible.Therefore,standardizedjob
performancemethodswereanimportantelementofscientificmanagement
techniques.Eachjobwouldbecarefullyplannedinadvance,andemployees
wouldbepaidtoperformthetasksinthewayspecifiedbymanagement.

Furthermore,jobspecializationwasoneofthemajoradvancesofthis
approach.Jobspecializationentailsbreakingdownjobsintotheir
simplestcomponentsandassigningthemtoemployeessothateachperson

ThisFordpanelassembly
lineinBerlin,Germany,
isanexampleof
specialization.Each

wouldperformaselectnumberoftasksinarepetitivemanner.Therearea

persononthelinehasa

numberofadvantagestojobspecialization.Breakingtasksintosimple

differentjob.

componentsandmakingthemrepetitivereducestheskillrequirementsof
thejobsanddecreasestheeffortandcostofstaffing.Trainingtimesfor

2010Jupiterimages

simple,repetitivejobstendtobeshorteraswell.Ontheotherhand,froma

Corporation

motivationalperspective,thesejobsareboringandrepetitiveandtherefore
associatedwithnegativeoutcomessuchasabsenteeism.Campion,M.A.,&
Thayer,P.W.(1987).Jobdesign:Approaches,outcomes,andtradeoffs.
OrganizationalDynamics,15,6678.Also,jobspecializationisineffectiveinrapidlychanging
environmentswhereemployeesmayneedtomodifytheirapproachaccordingtothedemandsofthe
situation.Wilson,F.M.(1999).Rationalizationandrationality1:Fromthefoundingfatherstoeugenics.
OrganizationalBehaviour:ACriticalIntroduction.Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress.

Today,Taylorismhasabadreputation,anditisoftenreferredtoasthedarkagesofmanagement
whenemployeessocialmotiveswereignored.Yet,itisimportanttorecognizethefundamentalchange
inmanagementmentalitybroughtaboutbyTaylorsideas.Forthefirsttime,managersrealizedtheir
roleininfluencingtheoutputlevelsofemployees.Theconceptofscientificmanagementhashada
lastingimpactonhowworkisorganized.Taylorsworkpavedthewaytoautomationand
standardizationthatisvirtuallyuniversalintodaysworkplace.Assemblylineswhereeachworker
performssimpletasksinarepetitivemannerareadirectresultofjobspecializationefforts.Job
specializationeventuallyfounditswaytotheserviceindustryaswell.Oneofthebiggestinnovationsof
thefamousMcDonaldbrothersfirstfastfoodrestaurantwastheapplicationofscientificmanagement
principlestotheiroperations.Theydividedupthetaskssothatonepersontooktheorderswhile
someoneelsemadetheburgers,anotherpersonappliedthecondiments,andyetanotherwrapped
them.Withthislevelofefficiency,customersgenerallyreceivedtheirorderwithin1minute.Spake,A.
(2001).HowMcNuggetschangedtheworld.U.S.News&WorldReport,130(3),54Businessheroes:
RayKroc.(2005,Winter).BusinessStrategyReview,16,4748.

Rotaon,JobEnlargement,andEnrichment
Oneoftheearlyalternativestojobspecializationwasjobrotation.Jobrotationinvolvesmoving
employeesfromjobtojobatregularintervals.Whenemployeesperiodicallymovetodifferentjobs,
themonotonousaspectsofjobspecializationcanberelieved.Forexample,MaidsInternationalInc.,a
companythatprovidescleaningservicestohouseholdsandbusinesses,utilizesjobrotationsothat
maidscleaningthekitcheninonehousewouldcleanthebedroominadifferentone.Denton,D.K.
(1994).Ihatethisjob.BusinessHorizons,37,4652.Usingthistechnique,amongothers,the
companyisabletoreduceitsturnoverlevel.Inasupermarketstudy,cashierswererotatedtoworkin
differentdepartments.Asaresultoftherotation,employeesstresslevelswerereduced,asmeasured
bytheirbloodpressure.Moreover,theyexperiencedlesspainintheirneckandshoulders.Rissen,D.,
Melin,B.,Sandsjo,L.,Dohns,I.,&Lundberg,U.(2002).Psychophysiologicalstressreactions,
trapeziusmuscleactivity,andneckandshoulderpainamongfemalecashiersbeforeandafter
introductionofjobrotation.Work&Stress,16,127137.

Jobrotationhasanumberofadvantagesfororganizations.Itisaneffectivewayforemployeesto
acquirenewskillsandinturnfororganizationstoincreasetheoverallskillleveloftheir
employees.Campion,M.A.,Cheraskin,L.,&Stevens,M.J.(1994).Careerrelatedantecedentsand
outcomesofjobrotation.AcademyofManagementJournal,37,15181542.Whenworkersmoveto
differentpositions,theyarecrosstrainedtoperformdifferenttasks,therebyincreasingtheflexibility
ofmanagerstoassignemployeestodifferentpartsoftheorganizationwhenneeded.Inaddition,job
rotationisawaytotransferknowledgebetweendepartments.Kane,A.A.,Argote,L.,&Levine,J.M.
(2005).Knowledgetransferbetweengroupsviapersonnelrotation:Effectsofsocialidentityand
knowledgequality.OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanDecisionProcesses,96,5671.Rotationmay

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alsohavethebenefitofreducingemployeeboredom,dependingonthenatureofthejobstheemployee
isperformingatagiventime.Fromtheemployeestandpoint,rotationisabenefit,becausethey
acquirenewskillsthatkeepthemmarketableinthelongrun.

Isrotationusedonlyatlowerlevelsofanorganization?Anecdotalevidencesuggeststhatcompanies
successfullyrotatehighlevelemployeestotrainmanagersandincreaseinnovationinthecompany.For
example,Nokiausesrotationatalllevels,suchasassigninglawyerstoactascountrymanagersor
movingnetworkengineerstohandsetdesign.Thisapproachisthoughttobringafreshperspectiveto
oldproblems.Wylie,I.(2003,May).Callingforarenewablefuture.FastCompany,70,4648.Wipro
Ltd.,Indiasinformationtechnologygiantthatemploysabout80,000workers,usesa3yearplanto
groomfutureleadersofthecompanybyrotatingthemthroughdifferentjobs.Ramamurti,R.(2001).
WiproschairmanAzimPremjionbuildingaworldclassIndiancompany.AcademyofManagement
Executive,15,1319.

Jobenlargementreferstoexpandingthetasksperformedbyemployeestoaddmorevariety.By
givingemployeesseveraldifferenttaskstobeperformed,asopposedtolimitingtheiractivitiestoa
smallnumberoftasks,organizationshopetoreduceboredomandmonotonyaswellasutilizehuman
resourcesmoreeffectively.Jobenlargementmayhavesimilarbenefitstojobrotation,becauseitmay
alsoinvolveteachingemployeesmultipletasks.Researchindicatesthatwhenjobsareenlarged,
employeesviewthemselvesasbeingcapableofperformingabroadersetoftasks.Parker,S.K.(1998).
Enhancingrolebreadthselfefficacy:Therolesofjobenrichmentandotherorganizational
interventions.JournalofAppliedPsychology,83,835852.Thereissomeevidencethatjob
enlargementisbeneficial,becauseitispositivelyrelatedtoemployeesatisfactionandhigherquality
customerservices,anditincreasesthechancesofcatchingmistakes.Campion,M.A.,&McClelland,C.
L.(1991).Interdisciplinaryexaminationofthecostsandbenefitsofenlargedjobs:Ajobdesignquasi
experiment.JournalofAppliedPsychology,76,186198.Atthesametime,theeffectsofjob
enlargementmaydependonthetypeofenlargement.Forexample,jobenlargementconsistingof
addingtasksthatareverysimpleinnaturehadnegativeconsequencesonemployeesatisfactionwith
thejobandresultedinfewererrorsbeingcaught.Alternatively,givingemployeesmoretasksthat
requirethemtobeknowledgeableindifferentareasseemedtohavemorepositiveeffects.Campion,M.
A.,&McClelland,C.L.(1993).Followupandextensionoftheinterdisciplinarycostsandbenefitsof
enlargedjobs.JournalofAppliedPsychology,78,339351.

Jobenrichmentisajobredesigntechniquethatallowsworkersmorecontroloverhowtheyperform
theirowntasks.Thisapproachallowsemployeestotakeonmoreresponsibility.Asanalternativeto
jobspecialization,companiesusingjobenrichmentmayexperiencepositiveoutcomes,suchasreduced
turnover,increasedproductivity,andreducedabsences.McEvoy,G.M.,&Cascio,W.F.(1985).
Strategiesforreducingemployeeturnover.JournalofAppliedPsychology,70,342353Locke,E.A.,
Sirota,D.,&Wolfson,A.D.(1976).Anexperimentalcasestudyofthesuccessesandfailuresofjob
enrichmentinagovernmentagency.JournalofAppliedPsychology,61,701711.Thismaybebecause
employeeswhohavetheauthorityandresponsibilityovertheirworkcanbemoreefficient,eliminate
unnecessarytasks,takeshortcuts,andincreasetheiroverallperformance.Atthesametime,thereis
evidencethatjobenrichmentmaysometimescausedissatisfactionamongcertainemployees.Locke,E.
A.,Sirota,D.,&Wolfson,A.D.(1976).Anexperimentalcasestudyofthesuccessesandfailuresofjob
enrichmentinagovernmentagency.JournalofAppliedPsychology,61,701711.Thereasonmaybe
thatemployeeswhoaregivenadditionalautonomyandresponsibilitymayexpectgreaterlevelsofpay
orothertypesofcompensation,andifthisexpectationisnotmettheymayfeelfrustrated.Onemore
thingtorememberisthatjobenrichmentisnotsuitableforeveryone.Cherrington,D.J.,&Lynn,E.J.
(1980).Thedesireforanenrichedjobasamoderatoroftheenrichmentsatisfactionrelationship.
OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanPerformance,25,139159Hulin,C.L.,&Blood,M.R.(1968).
Jobenlargement,individualdifferences,andworkerresponses.PsychologicalBulletin,69,4155.Not
allemployeesdesiretohavecontroloverhowtheywork,andiftheydonothavethisdesire,theymay
becomefrustratedwithanenrichedjob.

JobCharacteriscsModel
Thejobcharacteristicsmodelisoneofthemostinfluentialattemptstodesignjobswithincreased
motivationalproperties.Hackman,J.R.,&Oldham,G.R.(1975).Developmentofthejobdiagnostic
survey.JournalofAppliedPsychology,60,159170.ProposedbyHackmanandOldham,themodel

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describesfivecorejobdimensionsleadingtothreecriticalpsychologicalstates,resultinginwork
relatedoutcomes.

Figure6.3

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TheJobCharacteristicsModelhasfivecorejobdimensions.

Source:AdaptedfromHackman,J.R.,&Oldham,G.R.(1975).Developmentofthejobdiagnosticsurvey.
JournalofAppliedPsychology,60,159170.

Skillvarietyreferstotheextenttowhichthejobrequiresapersontoutilizemultiplehighlevelskills.
Acarwashemployeewhosejobconsistsofdirectingcustomersintotheautomatedcarwash
demonstrateslowlevelsofskillvariety,whereasacarwashemployeewhoactsasacashier,maintains
carwashequipment,andmanagestheinventoryofchemicalsdemonstrateshighskillvariety.

Taskidentityreferstothedegreetowhichapersonisinchargeofcompletinganidentifiablepieceof
workfromstarttofinish.AWebdesignerwhodesignspartsofaWebsitewillhavelowtaskidentity,
becausetheworkblendsinwithotherWebdesignersworkintheenditwillbehardforanyoneperson
toclaimresponsibilityforthefinaloutput.TheWebmasterwhodesignsanentireWebsitewillhave
hightaskidentity.

Tasksignificancereferstowhetherapersonsjobsubstantiallyaffectsotherpeopleswork,health,
orwellbeing.Ajanitorwhocleansthefloorsatanofficebuildingmayfindthejoblowinsignificance,
thinkingitisnotaveryimportantjob.However,janitorscleaningthefloorsatahospitalmayseetheir
roleasessentialinhelpingpatientsgetbetter.Whentheyfeelthattheirtasksaresignificant,employees
tendtofeelthattheyaremakinganimpactontheirenvironment,andtheirfeelingsofselfworthare
boosted.Grant,A.M.(2008).Thesignificanceoftasksignificance:Jobperformanceeffects,relational
mechanisms,andboundaryconditions.JournalofAppliedPsychology,93,108124.

Autonomyisthedegreetowhichapersonhasthefreedomtodecidehowtoperformhisorhertasks.
Asanexample,aninstructorwhoisrequiredtofollowapredeterminedtextbook,coveringagivenlist
oftopicsusingaspecifiedlistofclassroomactivities,haslowautonomy.Ontheotherhand,an
instructorwhoisfreetochoosethetextbook,designthecoursecontent,anduseanyrelevantmaterials
whendeliveringlectureshashigherlevelsofautonomy.Autonomyincreasesmotivationatwork,butit
alsohasotherbenefits.Givingemployeesautonomyatworkisakeytoindividualaswellascompany
success,becauseautonomousemployeesarefreetochoosehowtodotheirjobsandthereforecanbe
moreeffective.Theyarealsolesslikelytoadoptathisisnotmyjobapproachtotheirwork
environmentandinsteadbeproactive(dowhatneedstobedonewithoutwaitingtobetoldwhattodo)
andcreative.Morgeson,F.P.,DelaneyKlinger,K.,&Hemingway,M.A.(2005).Theimportanceofjob
autonomy,cognitiveability,andjobrelatedskillforpredictingrolebreadthandjobperformance.
JournalofAppliedPsychology,90,399406Parker,S.K.,Wall,T.D.,&Jackson,P.R.(1997).
Thatsnotmyjob:Developingflexibleemployeeworkorientations.AcademyofManagement
Journal,40,899929Parker,S.K.,Williams,H.M.,&Turner,N.(2006).Modelingtheantecedents
ofproactivebehavioratwork.JournalofAppliedPsychology,91,636652Zhou,J.(1998).Feedback
valence,feedbackstyle,taskautonomy,andachievementorientation:Interactiveeffectsoncreative
performance.JournalofAppliedPsychology,83,261276.Theconsequenceofthisresourcefulness
canbehighercompanyperformance.Forexample,aCornellUniversitystudyshowsthatsmall
businessesthatgaveemployeesautonomygrewfourtimesmorethanthosethatdidnot.Davermann,
M.(2006,July).HR=Higherrevenues?FSB:FortuneSmallBusiness,16,8081.Givingemployees
autonomyisalsoagreatwaytotrainthemonthejob.Forexample,GuccisCEORobertPoletpointsto
thelevelofautonomyhewasgivenwhileworkingatUnileverPLCasakeytohisdevelopmentof
leadershiptalents.Gumbel,P.(2008).GalvanizingGucci.Fortune,157(1),8088.Autonomycanarise
fromworkplacefeatures,suchastelecommuting,companystructure,organizationalclimate,and

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leadershipstyle.Gajendran,R.S.,&Harrison,D.A.(2007).Thegood,thebad,andtheunknownabout
telecommuting.Metaanalysisofpsychologicalmediatorsandindividualconsequences.Journalof
AppliedPsychology,92,15241541Garnier,G.H.(1982).Contextanddecisionmakingautonomyin
theforeignaffiliatesofU.S.multinationalcorporations.AcademyofManagementJournal,25,893
908Lyon,H.L.,&Ivancevich,J.M.(1974).Anexploratoryinvestigationoforganizationalclimateand
jobsatisfactioninahospital.AcademyofManagementJournal,17,635648Parker,S.K.(2003).
Longitudinaleffectsofleanproductiononemployeeoutcomesandthemediatingroleofwork
characteristics.JournalofAppliedPsychology,88,620634.
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Feedbackreferstothedegreetowhichpeoplelearnhoweffectivetheyarebeingatwork.Feedbackat
workmaycomefromotherpeople,suchassupervisors,peers,subordinates,andcustomers,oritmay
comefromthejobitself.Asalespersonwhogivespresentationstopotentialclientsbutisnotinformed
oftheclientsdecisions,haslowfeedbackatwork.Ifthispersonreceivesnotificationthatasalewas
madebasedonthepresentation,feedbackwillbehigh.

Therelationshipbetweenfeedbackandjobperformanceismorecontroversial.Inotherwords,the
merepresenceoffeedbackisnotsufficientforemployeestofeelmotivatedtoperformbetter.Infact,a
reviewofthisliteratureshowsthatinaboutonethirdofthecases,feedbackwasdetrimentalto
performance.Kluger,A.N.,&DeNisi,A.(1996).Theeffectsoffeedbackinterventionsonperformance:
Ahistoricalreview,ametaanalysis,andapreliminaryfeedbackinterventiontheory.Psychological
Bulletin,119,254284.Inadditiontowhetherfeedbackispresent,thesignoffeedback(positiveor
negative),whetherthepersonisreadytoreceivethefeedback,andthemannerinwhichfeedbackwas
givenwillalldeterminewhetheremployeesfeelmotivatedordemotivatedasaresultoffeedback.

Accordingtothejobcharacteristicsmodel,thepresenceofthesefivecorejobdimensionsleads
employeestoexperiencethreepsychologicalstates:Theyviewtheirworkasmeaningful,theyfeel
responsiblefortheoutcomes,andtheyacquireknowledgeofresults.Thesethreepsychologicalstates
inturnarerelatedtopositiveoutcomessuchasoveralljobsatisfaction,internalmotivation,higher
performance,andlowerabsenteeismandturnover.Brass,D.J.(1985).Technologyandthestructuring
ofjobs:Employeesatisfaction,performance,andinfluence.OrganizationalBehaviorandHuman
DecisionProcesses,35,216240Humphrey,S.E.,Nahrgang,J.D.,&Morgeson,F.P.(2007).
Integratingmotivational,social,andcontextualworkdesignfeatures:Ametaanalyticsummaryand
theoreticalextensionoftheworkdesignliterature.JournalofAppliedPsychology,92,13321356
Johns,G.,Xie,J.L.,&Fang,Y.(1992).Mediatingandmoderatingeffectsinjobdesign.Journalof
Management,18,657676Renn,R.W.,&Vandenberg,R.J.(1995),Thecriticalpsychologicalstates:
Anunderrepresentedcomponentinjobcharacteristicsmodelresearch.JournalofManagement,21,
279303.Researchshowsthatoutofthesethreepsychologicalstates,experiencedmeaningfulnessis
themostimportantforemployeeattitudesandbehaviors,anditisthekeymechanismthroughwhich
thefivecorejobdimensionsoperate.

Areallfivejobcharacteristicsequallyvaluableforemployees?HackmanandOldhamsmodelproposes
thatthefivecharacteristicswillnothaveuniformeffects.Instead,theyproposedthefollowingformula
tocalculatethemotivatingpotentialofagivenjob:BasedonHackman,J.R.,&Oldham,G.R.(1975).
Developmentofthejobdiagnosticsurvey.JournalofAppliedPsychology,60,159170.

Equation6.1

MPS=((SkillVariety+TaskIdenty+TaskSignicance)3)AutonomyFeedback
Accordingtothisformula,autonomyandfeedbackarethemoreimportantelementsindeciding
motivatingpotentialcomparedtoskillvariety,taskidentity,ortasksignificance.Moreover,notehow
thejobcharacteristicsinteractwitheachotherinthismodel.Ifsomeonesjobiscompletelylackingin
autonomy(orfeedback),regardlessoflevelsofvariety,identity,andsignificance,themotivating
potentialscorewillbeverylow.

Notethatthefivejobcharacteristicsarenotobjectivefeaturesofajob.Twoemployeesworkinginthe
samejobmayhaveverydifferentperceptionsregardinghowmuchskillvariety,taskidentity,task
significance,autonomy,orfeedbackthejobaffords.Inotherwords,motivatingpotentialisintheeye
ofthebeholder.Thisisbothgoodandbadnews.Thebadnewsisthateventhoughamanagermay
designajobthatissupposedtomotivateemployees,someemployeesmaynotfindthejobtobe
motivational.Thegoodnewsisthatsometimesitispossibletoincreaseemployeemotivationby

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helpingemployeeschangetheirperspectiveaboutthejob.Forexample,employeeslayingbricksata
constructionsitemayfeeltheirjobsarelowinsignificance,butbypointingoutthattheyarebuildinga
homeforothers,theirperceptionsabouttheirjobmaybechanged.

Doallemployeesexpecttohaveajobthathasahighmotivatingpotential?Researchhasshownthatthe
desireforthefivecorejobcharacteristicsisnotuniversal.Onefactorthataffectshowmuchofthese
characteristicspeoplewantorneedisgrowthneedstrength.Growthneedstrengthdescribesthe
degreetowhichapersonhashigherorderneeds,suchasselfesteemandselfactualization.Whenan
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employeesexpectationfromhisjobincludessuchhigherorderneeds,employeeswillhavehighgrowth
needstrength,whereasthosewhoexpecttheirjobtopaythebillsandsatisfymorebasicneedswillhave
lowgrowthneedstrength.Notsurprisingly,researchshowsthatthosewithhighgrowthneedstrength
respondmorefavorablytojobswithahighmotivatingpotential.Arnold,H.J.,&House,R.J.(1980).
Methodologicalandsubstantiveextensionstothejobcharacteristicsmodelofmotivation.
OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanPerformance,25,161183Hackman,J.R.,&Lawler,E.E.
(1971).Employeereactionstojobcharacteristics.JournalofAppliedPsychology,55,259286
Hackman,J.R.,&Oldham,G.R.(1975).Developmentofthejobdiagnosticsurvey.JournalofApplied
Psychology,60,159170Oldham,G.R.,Hackman,J.R.,&Pearce,J.L.(1976).Conditionsunder
whichemployeesrespondpositivelytoenrichedwork.JournalofAppliedPsychology,61,395403.It
alsoseemsthatanemployeescareerstageinfluenceshowimportantthefivedimensionsare.For
example,whenemployeesarenewtoanorganization,tasksignificanceisapositiveinfluenceoverjob
satisfaction,butautonomymaybeanegativeinfluence.Katz,R.(1978).Joblongevityasasituational
factorinjobsatisfaction.AdministrativeScienceQuarterly,23,204223.

OBToolbox:IncreasetheFeedbackYouReceive:SeekIt!
Ifyouarenotreceivingenoughfeedbackonthejob,itisbettertoseekitinsteadoftryingto
guesshowyouaredoing.Considerseekingregularfeedbackfromyourboss.Thisalsohasthe
addedbenefitofsignalingtothemanagerthatyoucareaboutyourperformanceandwanttobe
successful.
Begenuineinyourdesiretolearn.Whenseekingfeedback,youraimshouldbeimproving
yourselfasopposedtocreatingtheimpressionthatyouareamotivatedemployee.Ifyour
managerthinksthatyouaremanagingimpressionsratherthangenuinelytryingtoimprove
yourperformance,seekingfeedbackmayhurtyou.
Developagoodrelationshipwithyourmanager.Thishasthebenefitofgivingyoumore
feedbackinthefirstplace.Italsohastheupsideofmakingiteasiertoaskdirectquestions
aboutyourownperformance.
Considerfindingtrustworthypeerswhocanshareinformationwithyouregardingyour
performance.Yourmanagerisnottheonlyhelpfulsourceoffeedback.
Begraciouswhenyoureceivefeedback.Ifyouautomaticallygoonthedefensivethefirsttime
youreceivenegativefeedback,theremaynotbeanexttime.Remember,evenifreceiving
feedback,positiveornegative,feelsuncomfortable,itisagift.Youcanimproveyour
performanceusingfeedback,andpeoplegivingnegativefeedbackprobablyfeeltheyarerisking
yourgoodwillbybeinghonest.Bethankfulandappreciativewhenyoureceiveanyfeedback
anddonottrytoconvincethepersonthatitisinaccurate(unlesstherearefactualmistakes).

Sources:AdaptedfromideasinJackman,J.M.,&Strober,M.H.(2003,April).Fearoffeedback.
HarvardBusinessReview,81(4),101107Wing,L.,Xu,H.,Snape,E.(2007).Feedbackseeking
behaviorandleadermemberexchange:Dosupervisorattributedmotivesmatter?Academyof
ManagementJournal,50,348363Lee,H.E.,Park,H.S.,Lee,T.S.,&Lee,D.W.(2007).
RelationshipsbetweenLMXandsubordinates'feedbackseekingbehaviors.SocialBehavior&
Personality:AnInternationalJournal,35,659674.

Empowerment
Oneofthecontemporaryapproachestomotivatingemployeesthroughjobdesignisempowerment.
Theconceptofempowermentextendstheideaofautonomy.Empowermentmaybedefinedasthe
removalofconditionsthatmakeapersonpowerless.Conger,J.A.,&Kanungo,R.N.(1988).The
empowermentprocess:Integratingtheoryandpractice.AcademyofManagementReview,13,471

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482.Theideabehindempowermentisthatemployeeshavetheabilitytomakedecisionsandperform
theirjobseffectivelyifmanagementremovescertainbarriers.Thus,insteadofdictatingroles,
companiesshouldcreateanenvironmentwhereemployeesthrive,feelmotivated,andhavediscretion
tomakedecisionsaboutthecontentandcontextoftheirjobs.Employeeswhofeelempoweredbelieve
thattheirworkismeaningful.Theytendtofeelthattheyarecapableofperformingtheirjobs
effectively,havetheabilitytoinfluencehowthecompanyoperates,andcanperformtheirjobsinany
waytheyseefit,withoutclosesupervisionandotherinterference.Theselibertiesenableemployeesto
feelpowerful.Spreitzer,G.M.(1995).Psychologicalempowermentintheworkplace:Dimensions,
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measurement,andvalidation.AcademyofManagementJournal,38,14421465Thomas,K.W.,&
Velthouse,B.A.(1990).Cognitiveelementsofempowerment:Aninterpretivemodelofintrinsictask
motivation.AcademyofManagementReview,15,666681.Incasesofveryhighlevelsof
empowerment,employeesdecidewhattaskstoperformandhowtoperformthem,inasense
managingthemselves.

Researchhasdistinguishedbetweenstructuralelementsofempowermentandfeltempowerment.
Structuralempowermentreferstotheaspectsoftheworkenvironmentthatgiveemployees
discretion,autonomy,andtheabilitytodotheirjobseffectively.Theideaisthatthepresenceofcertain
structuralfactorshelpsempowerpeople,butintheendempowermentisaperception.Thefollowing
figuredemonstratestherelationshipbetweenstructuralandfeltempowerment.Forexample,at
HarleyDavidsonMotorCompany,employeeshavetheauthoritytostoptheproductionlineiftheysee
ablemishontheproduct.Lustgarten,A.(2004).HarleyDavidson.Fortune,149(1),76.Leadership
styleisanotherinfluenceoverexperiencedempowerment.Kark,R.,Shamir,B.,&Chen,G.(2003).The
twofacesoftransformationalleadership:Empowermentanddependency.JournalofApplied
Psychology,88,246255.Ifthemanageriscontrolling,micromanaging,andbossy,chancesarethat
empowermentwillnotbepossible.Acompanysstructurehasaroleindeterminingempowermentas
well.Factoriesorganizedaroundteams,suchastheSaturnplantofGeneralMotorsCorporation,can
stillempoweremployees,despitethepresenceofatraditionalhierarchy.Ford.R.C.,&Fottler,M.D.
(1995).Empowerment:Amatterofdegree.AcademyofManagementExecutive,9,2129.Accessto
informationisoftenmentionedasakeyfactorinempoweringemployees.Ifemployeesarenotgiven
informationtomakeaninformeddecision,empowermentattemptswillfail.Therefore,the
relationshipbetweenaccesstoinformationandempowermentiswellestablished.Finally,empowering
individualemployeescannotoccurinabubble,butinsteaddependsoncreatingaclimateof
empowermentthroughouttheentireorganization.Seibert,S.E.,Silver,S.R.,&Randolph,W.A.
(2004).Takingempowermenttothenextlevel:Amultiplelevelmodelofempowerment,
performance,andsatisfaction.AcademyofManagementJournal,47,332349.

Figure6.4

Theempowermentprocessstartswithstructurethatleadstofeltempowerment.

Source:BasedontheideasinSeibert,S.E.,Silver,S.R.,&Randolph,W.A.(2004).Takingempowermenttothe
nextlevel:Amultiplelevelmodelofempowerment,performance,andsatisfaction.AcademyofManagement
Journal,47,332349Spreitzer,G.M.(1995).Psychologicalempowermentintheworkplace:Dimensions,
measurement,andvalidation.AcademyofManagementJournal,38,14421465Spreitzer,G.M.(1996).Social
structuralcharacteristicsofpsychologicalempowerment.AcademyofManagementJournal,39,483504.

Empowermentofemployeestendstobebeneficialfororganizations,becauseitisrelatedtooutcomes
suchasemployeeinnovativeness,managerialeffectiveness,employeecommitmenttotheorganization,
customersatisfaction,jobperformance,andbehaviorsthatbenefitthecompanyandother
employees.Ahearne,M.,Mathieu,J.,&Rapp,A.(2005).Toempowerornottoempoweryoursales

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force?Anempiricalexaminationoftheinfluenceofleadershipempowermentbehavioroncustomer
satisfactionandperformance.JournalofAppliedPsychology,90,945955Alge,B.J.,Ballinger,G.
A.,Tangirala,S.,&Oakley,J.L.(2006).Informationprivacyinorganizations:Empoweringcreative
andextraroleperformance.JournalofAppliedPsychology,91,221232Chen,G.,Kirkman,B.L.,
Kanfer,R.,Allen,D.,&Rosen,B.(2007).Amultilevelstudyofleadership,empowerment,and
performanceinteams.JournalofAppliedPsychology,92,331346Liden,R.C.,Wayne,S.J.,&
Sparrowe,R.T.(2000).Anexaminationofthemediatingroleofpsychologicalempowermentonthe
relationsbetweenthejob,interpersonalrelationships,andworkoutcomes.JournalofApplied
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Psychology,85,407416Spreitzer,G.M.(1995).Psychologicalempowermentintheworkplace:
Dimensions,measurement,andvalidation.AcademyofManagementJournal,38,14421465.Atthe
sametime,empowermentmaynotnecessarilybesuitableforallemployees.Thoseindividualswithlow
growthstrengthorlowachievementneedmaynotbenefitasstronglyfromempowerment.Moreover,
theideaofempowermentisnotalwayseasytoimplement,becausesomemanagersmayfeel
threatenedwhensubordinatesareempowered.Ifemployeesdonotfeelreadyforempowerment,they
mayalsoworryabouttheincreasedresponsibilityandaccountability.Therefore,preparingemployees
forempowermentbycarefullyselectingandtrainingthemisimportanttothesuccessofempowerment
interventions.

OBToolbox:TipsforEmpoweringEmployees
Changethecompanystructuresothatemployeeshavemorepowerontheirjobs.Ifjobsare
stronglycontrolledbyorganizationalproceduresorifeverylittledecisionneedstobeapproved
byasuperior,employeesareunlikelytofeelempowered.Givethemdiscretionatwork.
Provideemployeeswithaccesstoinformationaboutthingsthataffecttheirwork.When
employeeshavetheinformationtheyneedtodotheirjobswellandunderstandcompanygoals,
priorities,andstrategy,theyareinabetterpositiontofeelempowered.
Makesurethatemployeesknowhowtoperformtheirjobs.Thisinvolvesselectingtheright
peopleaswellasinvestingincontinuedtraininganddevelopment.
Donottakeawayemployeepower.Ifsomeonemakesadecision,letitstandunlessit
threatenstheentirecompany.Ifmanagementundoesdecisionsmadebyemployeesona
regularbasis,employeeswillnotbelieveinthesincerityoftheempowermentinitiative.
Instillaclimateofempowermentinwhichmanagersdonotroutinelystepinandtakeover.
Instead,believeinthepowerofemployeestomakethemostaccuratedecisions,aslongasthey
areequippedwiththerelevantfactsandresources.

Sources:AdaptedfromideasinForrester,R.(2000).Empowerment:Rejuvenatingapotentidea.
AcademyofManagementExecutive,14,6779Spreitzer,G.M.(1996).Socialstructural
characteristicsofpsychologicalempowerment.AcademyofManagementJournal,39,483504.

K E Y TA K E AWAY
Jobspecializa onistheearliestapproachtojobdesign,originallydescribedbytheworkofFrederick
Taylor.Jobspecializa onisecientbutleadstoboredomandmonotony.Earlyalterna vestojob
specializa onincludejobrota on,jobenlargement,andjobenrichment.Researchshowsthatthere
arevejobcomponentsthatincreasethemo va ngpoten alofajob:Skillvariety,taskiden ty,task
signicance,autonomy,andfeedback.Finally,empowermentisacontemporarywayofmo va ng
employeesthroughjobdesign.Theseapproachesincreaseworkermo va onandhavethepoten al
toincreaseperformance.

EXERCISES
1.Isjobrota onprimarilysuitabletolowerlevelemployees,orisitpossibletouseitathigherlevels
intheorganiza on?
2.Whatisthedierencebetweenjobenlargementandjobenrichment?Whichoftheseapproaches
ismoreusefulindealingwiththeboredomandmonotonyofjobspecializa on?
3.Considerajobyouheldinthepast.Analyzethejobusingtheframeworkofthejobcharacteris cs
model.

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4.Doesajobwithahighmo va ngpoten almo vateallemployees?Underwhichcondi onsisthe
modellesssuccessfulinmo va ngemployees?
5.Howwouldyouincreasetheempowermentlevelsofemployees?

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