Chapter 19

Introduction to Reinforcing Steel

Topics
1.0.0

Reinforced Concrete

To hear audio, click on the box.

Overview
As a Steelworker, you must be able to cut, bend, place, and tie reinforcing steel in its
proper sequence and configurations. This chapter describes the purpose of reinforcing
steel in concrete construction, identifies the types and shapes of commonly used
reinforcing steel, and explains specific properties of rebar (reinforcing steel). This
chapter begins with a presentation of fundamental information about concrete to help
you understand rebar work fully.

Objectives
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1. Describe the different materials, purposes, and types of reinforcing steel.

Prerequisites
None

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This course map shows all of the chapters in Steelworker Basic. The suggested training
order begins at the bottom and proceeds up. Skill levels increase as you advance on
the course map.
Introduction to Reinforcing Steel
Introduction to Structural Steel

Pre-Engineered Structures:

Buildings, K-Spans, Towers and Antennas

Rigging
Wire rope
Fiber Line

E
L
W
O
R

Layout and Fabrication of Sheet metal and Fiberglass Duct

Welding Quality Control

Flux Cored Arc Welding-FCAW

Gas-Metal Arc Welding-GMAW
Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding-GTAW
Shielded Metal Arc Welding-SMAW

B
A
S
I
C

Plasma Arc Cutting Operations

Soldering, Brazing, Braze Welding, Wearfacing
Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
Introduction to Welding
Basic Heat Treatment
Introduction to Types and Identification of Metal

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1.0.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE

As a Steelworker you will be primarily concerned with reinforcing steel placement, but
you should to some extent be concerned with concrete as well. Concrete with
reinforcing steel added becomes reinforced concrete. Structures built of reinforced
concrete, such as retaining walls, buildings, bridges, highway surfaces, and numerous
other structures, are referred to as reinforced concrete structures or reinforced concrete
construction. The reinforcement can be as simple as a few continuous bars in a small
foundation (Figure 19-1) or as complex as a pier/footing combination for a bridge
(Figure 19-2).

Figure 19-1 Simple use of

reinforcement bars.

Figure 19-2 Complex use of reinforcement

bars.
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1.1.0 Concrete Materials

Concrete is a synthetic construction material made by mixing cement, fine aggregate
(usually sand), coarse aggregate (usually gravel or crushed stone), and water in proper
proportions (Figure 19-3). This mixture hardens into a rocklike mass as the result of a
chemical reaction between the cement and water called hydration. Concrete will
continue to harden and gain strength, in a chemical process known as curing, as long
as it is kept moist and warm. Durable, strong concrete is made by correctly
proportioning and mixing the various materials and additives, and by properly curing the
concrete following placement or the pour.
The correct proportioning of the
concrete ingredients (modern
concrete design may include
retardants, accelerators,
plasticizers, air entraining
agents, etc.) is often referred to
as the mix. The quality of the
concrete is largely determined by
the quality of the cement-water
paste that bonds the aggregates
together. The strength of
concrete will be reduced if this
paste has water added to it. The
proportion of water to cement is
referred as the water-cement
ratio. The water-cement ratio is
the number of gallons of water
per pounds of cement. High
quality concrete is produced by
using the lowest water-cement
mixture possible without
sacrificing workability.

Figure 19-3 Aggregate.

Because concrete is plastic when placed, forms are built to contain and form the
concrete until it has hardened. In short, forms and formwork are described as molds that
hold freshly placed concrete in the desired shape until it hardens. In some cases,
depending on the soil texture and stability, the soil banks of excavated areas act as the
formwork for footings and foundations.
All the ingredients of a mix are placed in a concrete mixer, and after a thorough mixing,
the concrete is transferred by numerous methods (as determined by the projects
conditions), such as bucket, wheelbarrow, chute, transit truck tailgate, pump, and so
forth, into the formwork in which the reinforcing steel has already been placed.
Under normal, moderate weather and temperature conditions, concrete reaches its
initial set in approximately 1 hour, and hardens to its final set (although not fully cured)
in approximately 6 to 12 hours. As the concrete is being placed, and before the initial
set, it must be vibrated in the formwork to ensure complete coverage of all reinforcing
bars, but not vibrated so much that the aggregate and cement separate to form rock
pockets.

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Finish operations, such as smooth troweled finishes, must be performed between initial
and final set. After the final set, concrete must be protected from shock, extreme
temperature changes, and premature drying until it cures to sufficient hardness.
Concrete will be self-supportive in a few days and will attain most of its potential
strength in 28 days of moist curing. For further information on concrete, refer to the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the American Concrete
Institute (ACI)-318.

1.2.0 Concrete Strength

As stated previously, the strength of concrete is determined by the water-cement ratio.
The strength of ready-mixed concrete ranges from 1,500 to about 5,000 pounds per
square inch (psi) and, with further attention paid to proportioning, it can go even higher.
Under usual construction processes, lower strength concrete will be used in footers and
walls, and higher strength in beams, columns, and floors. The required strength of
concrete on a given project can be found in the project plans and specifications for a
specific project.
NOTE: Quality control is important to ensure specific design requirements are met. If
the design specifications do not meet minimum standards, structural integrity is
compromised and the structure is considered unsafe. For this reason, the compressive
strength of concrete is checked
on all projects.
The strength of the concrete is
checked by the use of
cylindrical molds that are 6
inches in diameter and 12
inches in height. Concrete
samples must be taken on the
jobsite from the concrete that is
being placed. After being cured
for a period that ranges
between 7 to 28 days, the
cylinders are broken to failure
by a laboratory crushing
machine that measures the
force required for the concrete
to fail (Figure 19-4).
For further information on
concrete strength and testing,
refer to FM 5-472 Ch. 2
/NAVFAC MO 330/AFJMAN 321221(I), ASTM, and ACI 318.

Figure 19-4 Concrete testing machine.

1.3.0 Purposes and Types of Reinforcing Steel

Reinforced concrete was designed on the principle that steel and concrete act together
in resisting force.
Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension (Figure 19-5). The tensile
strength is generally rated about 10 percent of the compression strength. For this
reason, concrete works well for columns and posts that are compression members in a
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structure. But when it is used for tension members, such as beams, girders, foundation
walls, or floors, concrete must be reinforced to attain the necessary tension strength.
Steel is the best material for reinforcing concrete because the properties of expansion
for both steel and concrete are considered to be approximately the same, that is, under
normal conditions, they will expand and contract at an almost equal rate.
NOTE
At very high temperatures, steel expands more rapidly than concrete and the two
materials will separate.

Figure 19-5 Various concrete stresses.

Another reason steel works well as a reinforcement for concrete is that it bonds well
with concrete. This bond strength is proportional to the contact surface of the steel to
the concrete. In other words, the greater the surface of steel exposed to the adherence
of concrete, the stronger the bond. A deformed reinforcing bar adheres better than a
plain, round, or square one because it has a greater bearing surface. In fact, when plain
bars of the same diameter are used instead of deformed bars, approximately 40 percent
more bars must be used.
The rougher the surface of the steel, the better it adheres to concrete. Thus, steel with a
light, firm layer of rust is superior to clean steel; however, steel with loose or scaly rust
is inferior. Loose or scaly rust can be removed from the steel by rubbing the steel with
burlap or similar material. This action leaves only the firm layer of rust on the steel to
adhere to the concrete.
NOTE
Reinforcing steel must be strong in tension and, at the same time, be ductile enough to
be shaped or bent cold.
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Reinforcing steel can be used in the form of bars or rods that are either plain or
deformed or in the form of expanded metal, wire, wire fabric, or sheet metal. Each type
is useful for different purposes, and engineers design structures with those purposes in
mind.
Plain bars are round in cross section. They are used in concrete for special purposes,
such as dowels at expansion joints, where bars must slide in a metal or paper sleeve,
for contraction joints in roads and runways, and for column spirals. They are the least
used of the rod type of reinforcement because they offer only smooth, even surfaces for
bonding with concrete.
Deformed bars are like plain bars except that they have indentations, ridges, or both in
a regular pattern. Earlier versions of deformed rebar were available as square or with a
spiral twist, and workers may still encounter them during demolition or on remodeling
projects of older structures. Current rebar suppliers deform the bars at the mill with
patterns and markings unique to their mill and to the tensile strength of the material.
Figure 19-6 shows a few of the types of deformed bars available.
In the United States, deformed bars are used almost exclusively, while in Europe, both
deformed and plain bars are used.
There are 11 standard sizes of reinforcing bars (Figure 19-7). Bars No. 3 through No.
18, inclusive, are deformed bars. Bar numbers correspond to bar sizes to the nearest
1/8 in. (3. 175 mm) measured at the nominal diameter but not including any
deformations. At various sites overseas, rebar could be procured locally and could be
metric.
Note: At 13.6 pounds per foot, a #18 bar (#57 metric) of any functional length quickly
becomes too heavy for personnel handling and requires mechanical lifting equipment.

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Figure 19-6 Sample mill patterns and tensile strength markings.

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Figure 19-7 Reinforcing steel sizes and their tensile strength markings.
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1.3.1 Reinforcing Bars

Reinforcing bars are hot-rolled from a variety of steels in several different strength
grades. Generally, reinforcing steel bars are either carbon-steel (conforming to ASTM
A615) or low-alloy steel (conforming to ASTM A706). Most reinforcing bars are rolled
from new steel billets, but some are rolled from used railroad-car axles or railroad rails
that have been cut into rollable shapes. An assortment of strengths is available.
The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) has established a standard
branding for deformed reinforcing bars. There are a number of important ways to
identify reinforcing bar from the production mill to the fabrication shop to the job site.
This documentation and marking system helps provide a wealth of useful information
about the manufacturing and composition of each bar of reinforcing steel.
Each individual reinforcing bar is manufactured with a series of individual markings.
Refer again to Figure 19-6:

The top letter or symbol identifies the producing mill and deformation pattern.
The next marking is the bar size.
The third marking symbol designates the manufacturing material usually either
"S" for carbon-steel (ASTM A615) or "W" for low-alloy steel (ASTM A706).
Finally, there will be a grade marking (4 or 5, for 420 or 520) or the addition of
one line (420) or two lines (520) that must be at least five deformations long.

The lower strength reinforcing bars show only three marks: an initial representing the
producing mill, bar size, and type of steel.
High strength reinforcing bars use either the continuous line system or the number
system to show grade marks. In the line system, one continuous line is rolled into the
60,000 psi bars, and two continuous lines are rolled into the 75,000 psi bars. The lines
must run at least five deformation spaces, as shown in Figure 19-6.
Reinforcing bars typically come in two primary grades: Grade 60 (minimum yield
strength of 60,000 psi) and Grade 75 (minimum yield strength of 75,000 psi). The metric
equivalents for these are Grade 420 (equivalent yield strength of 420 MPa
(megapascals) and Grade 520 (equivalent yield strength of 520 MPa).
1.3.2 Tension in Steel
Steel bars are strong in tension. Structural grade is capable of safely carrying up to
18,000 psi and intermediate, hard, and rail steel, 20,000 psi. This is the safe or working
stress; the breaking stress is about triple this.
When a mild steel bar is pulled in a testing machine, it stretches a very small amount
with each increment of load. In the lighter loadings, this stretch is directly proportional to
the amount of load (Figure 19-8, View A). The amount is too small to be visible and can
be measured only with sensitive gauges.
At a point during the pull (known as the Yield Point), such as 33,000 psi for mild steel,
the bar begins to neck down (Figure 19-8, View B) and continues to stretch perceptibly
with no additional load.
Then, when it seems the bar will snap like a rubber band, it recovers strength (due to
work hardening). Additional pull is required (Figure 19-8, View C) to produce additional
stretch and final failure (known as the ultimate strength) at about 55,000 psi for mild
steel.
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Common specifications are ASTM A 615 for carbon steel rebar, ASTM A 706 for
seismic rebar, ASTM A 955 for stainless steel rebar, and ASTM A 996 for rail steel
rebar and axle steel rebar. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) Specifications M31M / M 31-02, Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel
Bars for Concrete Reinforcement contain more information on reinforcing bar tension
testing.

Figure 19-8 Tension in steel bars.

1.4.0 Additional Types of Reinforcing Steel

Not all concrete reinforcing needs heavy reinforcing bars; some projects require only
lightweight reinforcing. In these cases, expanded metal or welded wire fabric can be
used.
1.4.1 Expanded Metal
Expanded metal is made from
sheets of solid metal that are
uniformly slit and stretched to
create diamond-shaped
openings. As expanded metal is
made, each row of diamondshaped openings is offset from
the next (Figure 19-9). This
product is called standard
expanded metal. The sheet can
be rolled to produce flattened
expanded metal.
The lightweight properties and
open area percentages of
expanded metal allow it to be
easily formed for a variety of
energy-saving applications, such
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Figure 19-9 Expanded metal.

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as light diffusers, screens, grilles, and filters. Expanded metal is also manufactured in
heavy gauges for applications such as reinforcing concrete walkways, ramps, and
catwalks of all types.
1.4.2 Welded Wire Fabric
Welded wire fabric is fabricated from a series of wires arranged at right angles to each
other and electrically welded at all intersections. Welded wire fabric, referred to as WWF
within the NCF, has various uses in reinforced concrete construction. In building
construction, it is most often used for floor slabs on well compacted ground. Heavier
fabric, supplied mainly in flat sheets, is often used in walls and for the primary
reinforcement in structural floor slabs. Additional examples of its use include road and
runway pavements, box culverts, and small canal linings.
Welded wire fabric (WWF or wire mesh) is available in rolls of lighter gauge wire for light
building construction and in sheets of heavier gauge wire for highways and buildings
when roll gauge sizes will not give sufficient reinforcement (Figure 19-10). WWF is
available in square and rectangular patterns in a wide variety of wire gauges welded at
each intersection.

Figure 19-10 Welded wire.

When welded wire fabric in either the old or the new designations is ordered, the wire
spacing (in each direction) comes first followed by the wire gauge (in each direction).
The old designation used number (in inches) for spacing and number (in wire gauge) for
the size of the WWF. The new designation uses number (in inches) for spacing but a
letter and a number (in wire cross section) for size.
For example, in the old designation, 6x6 4x4 mesh would be 6-in. squares with 4gauge wire in each direction, whereas 4x4 6x6 mesh would be 4-in. squares with 6gauge wire in each direction. In the new designation, these would be 6x6 W4xW4,
and 4x4 W2.9xW2.9 respectively. Table 19-1 provides some typical WWF
designations used for structural concrete.
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When WWF is used, specifications and designs usually indicate the minimum lap. As a
practical matter, although a minimum lap of 2 in. may be sufficient for nonstructural
concrete, for placement purposes a 1-square lap, regardless of the mesh spacing, is
common to facilitate the installers ability to tie the laps together at intersections.
The unit weight of WWF is designated in pounds per one hundred square feet of fabric
Five feet, six feet, seven feet, and seven feet six inches are the standard widths
available for rolls, while the standard panel widths and lengths are seven feet by twenty
feet and seven feet six inches by twenty feet.
Table 19-1 Common Stock Sizes of Welded Wire Fabric.
Style Designation
Current Designation
(by W-Number)

Previous Designation
(by Steel Wire Gauge)

Weight Approximate
Pounds per 100 Square Feet

Panels/Sheets
6 x 6 W 1.4 x W 1.4

6 x 6 10 x 10

21

6 X 6 W 2.1 X W 2.1

6X68X8

29

6 X 6 W 2.9 X W 2.9

6x66x6

42

6 x 6 W 4.0 x W 4.0

6x64x4

58

4 x 4 W 1.4 x W 1.4

4 x 4 10 x 10

31

4 x 4 W 2.1 x W 2.1

4x48x8

43

4 x 4 W 2.9 x W 2.9

4x46x6

62

4 x 4 W 4.0 x W 4.0

4x44x4

86

Rolls
6 x 6 W 1.4 x W 1.4

6 x 6 10 x 10

21

6 x 6 W 2.9 x W 2.9

6x66x6

42

6 x 6 W 4.0 x W 4.0

6x64x4

58

6 x 6 W 5.5 x W 5.5

6x62x2

80

4 x 4 W 4.0 x W 4.0

4x44x4

86

1.4.3 Sheet-Metal Reinforcement

Sheet-metal reinforcement is used mainly in floor slabs and in stair and roof
construction. It consists of annealed sheet steel bent into grooves or corrugations about
one-sixteenth inch (1.59 mm) in depth with holes punched at regular intervals.

Summary
This chapter discussed the fundamental information about reinforced concrete and the
reasons why it is necessary to use reinforcement steel with concrete. Also discussed
were the different materials, purposes, and types of reinforcing steel. Specifically
discussed was the identification system used on the most common reinforcement bar
used by the Seabees. The mechanical properties of the steel and ASTM specifications
of the steel reinforcement bars were also discussed.
Always remember to follow the prescribed safety precautions and wear the proper
personal protective equipment.
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Review Questions (Select the Correct Response)

1.

What is the primary factor that determines the strength of concrete?

A.
B.
C.
D.

2.

(True or False) Concrete is strong in tension but weak in compression.

A.
B.

3.

C.
D.

On the round/square where there are no deformations

On the deformations where the diameter is greatest
On the diagonal of its widest section
On the diameter of the deformation plus the height of the deformation

What does the first letter or symbol identify on a reinforcement bar brand?
A.
B.
C.
D.

7.

Clean and smooth

Loose or scaly rust
Painted
Light, firm layer of rust

On what part of rebar are diameter measurements taken?

A.
B.
C.
D.

6.

Steel adds compressive strength.

The expansion properties of both steel and concrete are approximately the
same.
Steel is easily bent to fit all shapes of forms.
Steel adheres well to concrete.

What type of surface condition on rebar provides the best adherence with
concrete?
A.
B.
C.
D.

5.

True
False

Which factor makes steel the best material for reinforcing concrete?
A.
B.

4.

Dryness
Water-to-cement ratio
Age
Type of steel reinforcement

Producing mill
Bar size
Manufacturing material
Grade mark

What is the metric equivalent to a grade 60 reinforcement bar?

A.
B.
C.
D.

220
320
420
520

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8.

At what pounds per square inch will a steel bar begin to neck down?
A.
B.
C.
D.

9.

When the number designation 8x8x10x10 is used, what do these numbers

indicate about a roll of wire mesh?
A.
B.
C.
D.

10.

22,000
33,000
66,000
77,000

The wire gauge is 8 and the crosswise spacing is 10 inches.

The wire gauge is 10 and the crosswise and lengthwise spacing is 8
inches.
The wire gauge is 8 and the length spacing is 8 inches.
The crosswise spacing is 10 inches and the wire gauge is 10.

What is the common spacing, in square laps, on wire mesh fabric that facilitates
the installers ability to tie laps together?
A.
B.
C.
D.

1
2
3
4

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Trade Terms Introduced in this Chapter

Plasticizer

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An admixture for making mortar or concrete workable with

little water.

19-17

Additional Resources and References

This chapter is intended to present thorough resources for task training. The following
reference works are suggested for further study. This is optional material for continued
education rather than for task training.
Consolidated Cross-Reference, TA-13, Department of the Navy, Navy Facilities
Engineering Command, Alexandria, VA, 1989.
Concrete and Masonry, FM 5-428, Headquarters Department of the Army, Washington,
DC, 1998.
Concrete Construction Engineering, 2nd ed. Nawy, E.G. Boca Raton, FL, 2008
Construction Print Reading in the Field, TM 5-704, Headquarters Department of the
Army, Washington, DC, 1969.
Placing Reinforcing Bars, 8th ed, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Schaumburg, IL,
2005.

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