Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Butterworth Filters
Butterworth filters have a transfer function whose squared
1
2
magnitude has the form H a ( j ) =
2n .
1 + ( / c )
Butterworth Filters
The poles of a lowpass Butterworth filter lie on a semicircle of radius c in the
open left half-plane. The number of poles is n and the angular spacing between
the poles is always / n. For n odd there is one pole on the negative real axis
and all the others occur in complex conjugate pairs. For even n all the poles occur
in complex conjugate pairs. The form of the transfer function is
n
n
1
1
pk
Ha ( s) =
=
=
(1 s / p1 )(1 s / p2 )(1 s / pn ) k=1 1 s / pk k=1 pk s
Frequency Transformation
A normalized lowpass filter can be transformed into an un-normalized
lowpass filter or into a highpass, bandpass or bandstop filter by
frequency transformation.
Lowpass to lowpass s s / c
Lowpass to highpass s c / s
s 2 + L H
Lowpass to bandpass s
s ( H L )
Lowpass to bandstop s
s ( H L )
s 2 + L H
Frequency Transformation
Example
Design a first-order bandstop Butterworth filter with a cutoff frequencies
of 1 kHz and 2 kHz.
1
1
s 2 + L H
H norm ( s ) =
H BS ( s ) =
= 2
s ( H L )
s +1
s + s ( H L ) + L H
+1
2
s + L H
L = 2 1000 = 2000 , H = 4000
s 2 + 8 2 10 6
s 2 + 7.896 10 7
H BS ( s ) = 2
2
2
6
s + 2000 s + 8 10
s + 6283s + 7.896 10 7
Zeros at s = j8886 which correspond to = 8886 rad/s and f = 1414 Hz
Poles at s = 3142 j8886.
Frequency Transformation
Example
H ( j ) = fs
H ( j ( k ))
a
k=
L
where h a ( t )
Ha ( s ).
( )
H d e j = fs
H ( jf ( 2 k ))
a
k=
10
( )
H d e j = fs
H ( jf ( 2 k ))
k =
11
ze c Ts / 2 sin cTs / 2
z 2 2e c Ts /
cos cTs / 2 z + e2 c Ts /
and
( )
H d e j = 2A c
*
e j e c Ts / 2 sin cTs / 2
e j 2 2e c Ts /
cos cTs / 2 e j + e2 c Ts /
12
( )=
Hd e
2A c
e j e c Ts / 2 sin cTs / 2
e j 2 2e c Ts /
cos cTs / 2 e j + e2 c Ts /
( )
H ( jf ( 2 k )).
k =
Therefore
A c2
( )= f
jf ( 2 k )
Hd e
k =
= 2A c
2
+
j
2
k
+
(
)
c s
c
e j e c Ts / 2 sin cTs / 2
e j 2 2e c Ts /
cos cTs / 2 e j + e2 c Ts /
13
( )
Hd e
= 2000
k =
j2 ( 2 k ) + j2 2 ( 2 k ) + 1
2
and
( ) = 1000
Hd e
e j e1/2 2 sin 1 / 2 2
e j 2 2e1/2
cos 1 / 2 2 e j + e1/
At = 0,
1
= 1958.5
2 2
k = 1 16 k j4 2 k
H d (1) = 2000
and
H d (1) =
*
343.825
= 1958.5
1 1.31751 + 0.49306
M. J. Roberts - All Rights Reserved
14
15
16
17
A c
A c
A c
H a ( j2 f ) =
H a ( j ) =
.
s + c
j2 f + c
j + c
e
c
H d e j = fs
= A c j
e e c Ts
k = jf s ( 2 k ) + c
( )
( )
fs
k =
A c
50000
=
= 1020.7
jfs ( 2 k ) + c k = j200 k + 50
e j
1
A c j
= 500
= 1270.7
c Ts
1/2
e e
1 e
*
18
fs
k =
A c
50000
=
= 1020.7
jfs ( 2 k ) + c k = j200 k + 50
and
e j
1
A c j
=
500
= 1270.7
c Ts
1/2
e e
1 e
different by almost 25%? The difference comes from sampling h a ( t ) to form
( )
are now exactly equal. A c / 2 is the average of the two limits at the point of
discontinuity. This is consistent with Fourier transform theory which says that
the Fourier representation at a discontinuity is the average of the two limits.
*
19
20
21
22
23
s
1
z
z 1
Z ( h 1d [ n ]) =
Hd ( z) Hd ( z) =
Z ( h 1d [ n ])
z 1
z
9.87 10 4 s 2
Let H a ( s ) = 4
s + 444.3s 3 + 2.467 10 6 s 2 + 5.262 10 8 s + 1.403 1012
and let fs = 1000.
24
25
26
27
28
Finite-Difference Design
Finite-difference design is based on approximating continuous-time
1
derivatives by finite differences. The transfer function H a ( s ) =
s+a
d
implies the differential equation ( y a ( t )) + a y a ( t ) = x a ( t ) . The
dt
y d [ n + 1] y d [ n ]
d
derivative can be approximated by ( y a ( t ))
. Then
dt
Ts
y d [ n + 1] y d [ n ]
+ a y d [ n ] = x d [ n ] and the differential equation in
Ts
continuous time has become a difference equation in discrete time. Then
Yd ( z )
Ts
we can form the discrete-time transfer function H d ( z ) =
=
.
X d ( z ) z (1 aTs )
*
29
Finite-Difference Design
A derivative can be approximated by a forward difference
y d [ n + 1] y d [ n ] Z z 1
d
y a ( t ))
Yd ( z )
(
dt
Ts
Ts
a backward difference
y d [ n ] y d [ n 1] Z 1 z 1
d
z 1
y ( t ))
Yd ( z ) =
Yd ( z )
(
dt
Ts
Ts
zTs
or a central difference
y d [ n + 1] y d [ n 1] Z z z 1
d
z2 1
y a ( t ))
Yd ( z ) =
Yd ( z ) .
(
dt
2Ts
2Ts
2zTs
Since every multiplication by s represents a differentiation in time,
finite difference design can be done by simply replacing s with a
z-transform expression for a difference that approximates a derivative.
*
30
Finite-Difference Design
Using a forward difference,
1
1
1
Hd ( z) = Ha ( s) =
=
= Ts
1
z
1
z (1 aTs )
s + a s
+
a
Ts
Ts
Using a backward difference,
1
Ts
z
1
Hd ( z) = Ha ( s) =
=
=
1
1
z
1
1
+
aT
s + a s
s
+a
z
zTs
zTs
1 + aTs
Using a central difference,
1
z
1
Hd ( z) = Ha ( s) =
= 2
= 2Ts 2
2
z
1
z 1
z + 2aTs z 1
s + a s
+
a
2 zTs
2zTs
*
31
Finite-Difference Design
Using the finite-difference technique it is possible to approximate
a stable continuous-time filter by an unstable discrete-time filter.
1
In H a ( s ) =
the pole is at s = a. In the digital filter
s+a
1
H d ( z ) = Ts
the pole is at z = (1 aTs ) . If H a ( s ) is
z (1 aTs )
stable, a > 0 and 1 aTs is on the real axis of the z plane. If aTs 2
the digital filter is unstable. One way to stabilize the design is to
use a smaller value for Ts , which implies a higher sampling rate. This
design was based on using a forward difference.
32
Finite-Difference Design
If we use a backward difference instead of a forward difference
we get the digital filter
1
Hd ( z) = Ha ( s) =
s + a s z 1
zTs
Ts
z
.
1 + aTs z 1 / (1 + aTs )
33
Finite-Difference Design
9.87 10 4 s 2
Let H a ( s ) = 4
s + 444.3s 3 + 2.467 10 6 s 2 + 5.262 10 8 s + 1.403 1012
and design a digital filter using the finite-difference technique with
fs = 1000.
0.169z 2 ( z 1)
Hd ( z) = 4
z 1.848z 3 + 1.678z 2 0.7609z + 0.1712
2
34
Finite-Difference Design
35
Finite-Difference Design
36
e
replaces every factor of the form s a with the factor 1 eaTs z 1 or
and
z
the direct substitution method replaces it with the factor z eaTs . Zeros are mapped
in the same way.
s=a
*
z = eaTs
37
38
39
40
41
x
x
x
ex = 1 + x +
+ + =
2! 3!
k = 0 k!
42
43
In the mapping s
The axis of the s plane maps into the unit circle of the
z plane. If s = + j , < 0, the mapping is from the left
half of the s plane to the interior of the unit circle in the z
plane. If s = + j , > 0, the mapping is from the right
half of the s plane to the exterior of the unit circle in the z
plane.
44
45
9.87 10 4 s 2
Let H a ( s ) = 4
.
3
6 2
8
12
s + 444.3s + 2.467 10 s + 5.262 10 s + 1.403 10
Then H d ( z ) = 12.38
( z + 1)2 ( z 1)2
46
47
48
49
50
51
N 1
a [n m]
m=0
N 1
m
a
z
m .
m=0
52
( )
( ) ( )
The periodic convolution with W ( e ) changes the
H N e j = H d e j W e j .
j
53
54
55
56
57
Bartlett
Hamming
w[n] =
1
2 n
1
cos
, 0 n < N
2
N 1
N 1
2n
,
0
N 1
2
w[n] =
2 2n , N 1 n < N
N 1
2
2 n
w [ n ] = 0.54 0.46 cos
, 0n<N
N 1
2 n
4 n
Blackman w [ n ] = 0.42 0.5 cos
+
0.08
cos
, 0n<N
N 1
N 1
Kaiser
2
2
N 1
N 1
I0 a
n
2
2
w[n] =
N 1
I0 a
58
59
60
61
62
h
0
+
h
0
e
+
h
1
e
+
h
1
e
+
[
]
[
]
[
]
[
]
d
d
d
d
j
Hd e =
j ( N /2 1)
jN /2
+ h d [ N / 2 1] e
+ h d [ N / 2 1] e
( )
( )
H d e j = 2e
N 1
j
N 1
N 3
+ h d [1] cos
+
h d [ 0 ] cos
2
2
+ h [ N / 2 1] cos ( )
63
detailed description.)
64
65
66
67