ASSIGNMENTS - MBA - I SEMESTER

MB0022

SET 1

Management Process and Organization Behavior

1. “Today managers need to perform various functions.” Elaborate the

statement
Ans.

Management functions can be defined as the action of measuring a quantity

on a regular basis and adjusting some initial plan.

Management functions are as follows:

1. Planning
2. Organising
3. Commanding
4. Coordinating
5. Controlling

However in recent times, management functions have been regrouped into 4

categories. Since the managerial tasks have become highly challenging a fluid nature
of making distinctions redundant to a certain context.
1. Planning
2. Organising
3. Leading
4. Controlling

1. Planning:
It involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategies to achieve these
goals, and developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities. Effective planning
enables an organisation adapt the change by identifying opportunities and avoiding
problems. It provides direction to the other functions of management and for
effective team work. All levels of management engage in planning in their own way
for achieving their presser goals.

Planning in order to be useful must be linked with strategic intent of an organisation.

Strategic Planning:

Top level managers often engage in strategic planning or long term planning.
It is a process of developing and analysing the organisation’s mission, overall goals,
general strategies and allocation of resources.
The tasks in strategic planning include the following steps:
a. Define mission:
Planning begins with clearly defining the mission of the organisation. A mission
statement should be short and should be easily understood by every employee. It
guides employees to work independently yet collectively toward the realisation of
organisation’ potential
 b. Conduct SWOT analysis:
A situation or SWOT [Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats]
analysis is vital for the creation of any strategic plan. It begins with the scan of
external environment. Organisations need to need to examine their business
situation in order to map out the opportunities and threats present in their
environments. It provides assumptions and facts on which a plan will be based.
In general terms the best strategy is one that fits the organisations strengths to
opportunities. The SWOT analysis is used as a base line for future improvement,
as well as gap analysis.

Set goals and objectives:

Strategic goals and objectives are developed to fulfill the gap between current
capability and the mission. They are aligned with the mission and form basis for the
action plans. Objectives are also called performance goals.

Develop related strategies (Tactical and operational):

Tactical plans are based on organisations strategic plan. In turn, operational plans
are based on the organisations tactical plans. These are specific plans that are
needed for each task or supporting activity comprising the whole. All plans must be
accompanied by controls to ensure proper implementation.
Monitor the plan:
A systematic method of monitoring the environment must be adopted to
continuously improve the strategic planning process. Feedback is encouraged and
incorporated to determine if goals and objectives are feasible.

2. Organising:
It involves designing, structuring and coordinating the work components to
achieve Organisational goals. It is the process of determining what tasks are to be
done, who to do, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where
decisions is to be made. The purpose of this function is to make the best use of the
organisation’s resources to achieve Organisational goals.
The steps in organisation process include:
a. Review plans
b. List all tasks to accomplished
c. Divide the tasks into groups one person can accomplish-a job
d. Group related jobs together in a logical and efficient manner.
e. Assign work to individuals.
f. Delegate authority to establish relationships between jobs ans groups of jobs.

3. Leading:
An organisation has the greatest chance of being successful when all of the
employees work toward achieving its goals. Since leadership involves the exercise of
influence by one person over others, the quality of leadership exhibited bys
supervisors is critical demand of organisational success.

Leading involves the following functions:

a. Team Building:
Rigid department boundaries and fixed teams are giving way to ad hoc squads
whose membership changes with every project. Competitive arenas require quick
decisions by knowledgeable employees who work close to the source of problems.
Teams enable knowledge-based and innovative decision making. This
collaboration is a revolution in work place.
 b. Consensus Building:
Top performance demands the joint effort of many people working together
toward a common goal. Together, employees can do more than the collective
efforts of each individual working alone.
c. Selecting:
Selecting competent, high-performing employees capable of sustaining their
performance over the long run is a competitive advantage. The section process
consists of forecasting employment needs, recruiting candidates, interviewing
applicants and hiring employees.
d. Training:
After selecting employees, they enter an organisational program to be formally
introduced to their jobs. Orientation sets a tone for new employees work by
describing job-related expectations and reporting relationships.
Employees are informed about the benefits, policies and procedures. Specific
duties and responsibilities and performance evaluation are clarified. During
orientation, the supervisor has the opportunity to resolve any unrealistic
expectations held by employee. All new employees [current employee in new
jobs] must be trained. Cross training prepares employees for a job normally
handled by someone else.

4. Controlling:
It involves monitoring employee’s behaviour and organisational processes and takes
necessary actions to improve them.
There are 4 steps in control process:
i. Establish performance standards. Standards are created and objectives are
set during planning process.
ii. Measure actual performance. Supervisors collect data to measure actual
performance. Oral reports will allow for fast and extensive feedback.
Computers give supervisors direct access to real time, unaltered data, and
information.
iii. Compare measured performance against established standards. Establish the
acceptable variation. Deviations that exceed this range would alert the
supervisor to a problem.
iv. Take corrective action. If the performance is from a deflect in activity , then
the supervisor can take immediate corrective action and get performance
back on track.

Controls are effective when they are applied at key places. Supervisors can
implement control measures before the process begins [ Feed forward], during the
process [Concurrent], or after it ceases[ Feedback].

2. “Skills are the tools for performance” Explain Different management

skills.
Ans.

Management Skills

According to Katz (1974), management skills are as follows:

 1. Technical Skills

2. Human Skills

3. Conceptual Skills

1. Technical Skills:

The ability is to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs require

some specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the
job. Vocational and on-the-job training programs can be used to develop this type of
skill.

2. Human Skills:

This is the ability to work with, understand and motivate other people (both
individually and a group). This requires sensitivity towards other issues and
concerns. People, who are proficient in technical skill, but not with interpersonal
skills, may face difficult to manage their sub-ordinates,. To acquire the human skill,
it is pertinent to recognize the feelings and sentiments of others, ability to motivate
others even in adverse situation and communicate own feelings to others in a
positive and inspiring way.

3. Conceptual Skills:

This is an ability to critically analyse, diagnose a situation and forward a

feasible solution. It requires creative thinking, generating options and choosing the
best available option.

4.Personal Management Skills

There are two areas of personal management skills you must master to be
successful as a manager. These are self management and time management.

Self management

• Take Ownership of Your Job

Every job you do has your "signature" on it. Do it the best you can; do it the best
it can be done. That is how you succeed.
• Scruples Are a Good Thing
There is a reason for that little voice in your head. Listen to it. Don't just do things
right, but also do the right thing. You will do a better job as a manager if you
don't have to waste time remembering what lies you told to whom.
• Pareto's Principle - The 80-20 Rule
It is important that as a manager you focus on what is truly important, not just
what appears urgent. The 80-20 Rule can help you do that.
• Ten Things To Do Today To Be A Better Manager
Here are ten areas you can focus on to improve as a manager.
Time Management

• A To Do List That Works

You can't do everything so use a To Do list to keep you focused on the important
ones. It can be simple or complicated, but develop one that works for you - or use
mine.
• Don't Multi-task When You Can Use Chunking
Human beings can't really multi-task . We can do different tasks in rapid
succession, but not at the same time. Chunking lets you spend less time in
"restarting" and more time getting things done. It takes practice to make it work,
but it is well worth the effort.
• Meeting Management
Managers spend a lot of time in meetings and a lot of time running meetings. You
have less control over meetings you attend than over the one you set up. Make
sure you get the most out of your meetings by following a few simple tips.
• Managing Projects: Time and Schedule
Time management also is a critically important skill for any successful project
manager. Project Managers who succeed in meeting their project schedule have a
good chance of staying within their project budget.

3. What is negotiation? Explain the process of negotiation.

Ans.

Negotiation:
Negotiation is the process in which two or more parties exchange goods or
services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them. There are two
general approaches to negotiation

- Distributive bargaining:
One’s tactics focus on trying to get one’s opponent to agree to one’s specific
target point or to get as close to it as possible.

 Hard distributive bargaining / negotiation:

This takes place when each party holds out to get its own way. This leads to
win-lose outcome.

 Soft distributive bargaining / negotiation:

This takes place when one party is willing to make concessions to the other
to get things over with.

- Integrative bargaining:
This strategy is adopted to create win-win solution. Following conditions are
necessary for this type of negotiation:
a. Parties who are open with information and candid about their concerns.
b. Sensitivity by both parties to the other’s needs.
c. The ability to trust one another.
d. Willingness by both parties to maintain flexibility.

The Negotiation Process:

Preparation and Planning:

• At this stage, homework needs to be done in regard to the nature, history,

concerned parties of the conflict. Based upon the information, a strategy is
developed. Both the parties Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement
(BATNA) needs to be determine. BATNA determines the lowest value
acceptable to you for a negotiated agreement for both the parties.

Definitions of Ground rules:

• At this stage, the venue, the negotiators, time will be decided.

Clarification & Justification:

• When initial positions have been exchanged, the original demands of both the
parties need to be explained and justified. Proper documentation is required
at this stage to support each of the parties position.

Bargaining & Problem Solving:

• The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give and take in trying to
hash out an agreement; concessions will undoubtedly need to be made by
both parties.

Closure and Implementation:

• This is the final step, where the agreement is formalised and procedures to
implement the agreement will be developed.

Issues in Negotiation:

a. Overall assessments of the personality – negotiation relationship finds that

personality trait have no significant direct effect on either the bargaining
process or negotiation outcomes.
b. Men and women do not negotiate differently. The belief that women are
“nicer” is probably due to confusing gender and the lack of power typically
held by women.

4. Explain Classical Conditioning Theory?

Ans.

Classical Conditioning is the type of learning made famous by Pavlov's

experiments with dogs.

Classical conditioning was accidentally discovered around the beginning of the

20th century by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov [1927]. Pavlov was studying
digestive process in dogs when he discovered that the dogs salivated before they
received their food. In fact, after repeated pairing of the lab attendant and the
food, the dogs started to salivate at the sight of the lab assistants. Pavlov coined
this phenomenon “psychic secretions." He noted that dogs were not only
responding to a biological need (hunger), but also a need developed by learning.
Pavlov spent the rest of life researching why this associate learning occurred, which
is now called classical conditioning.

To experiment on classical conditioning, Pavlov utilized a tuning fork and

meat powder. He hit the tuning fork and followed the sound with the meat powder.
Pavlov presented the sound (tuning fork) with the meat powder at the exact same
time increments. In the beginning, the dog salivated only to the meat powder, but
after this was repeated, salivated at the sound of the tuning fork. Even when Pavlov
took away the meat powder, the dog continued to salivate at the sound of the tuning
fork.

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

In classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another.
The organism learns that the first stimulus is a cue for the second stimulus. In
Pavlov’s experiment above, the tuning fork(Bell) cued the dogs that food might be
coming. Following is an example of classical conditioning.

KEY CONCEPTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning

• Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Automatic response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A neutral stimulus that when paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
elicits a similar response

• Conditioned Response (CR)

A response that is learned by pairing the originally neutral conditioned
stimulus (CS) with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

• Acquisition:
The acquisition phase is the consistent parings of the CS (bell) and the UCS
(food) that produces a CR (salivation). In the example above, this phase
occurs when the dog begins to salivate at the sound of the bell. Conditioning
occurs more rapidly when the food follows the bell by a half a second.

• Extinction
the extinction phase is when the conditioned response no longer occurs after
repeated pairings without the unconditioned stimulus. The dog’s response to
the bell can be extinguished by repeatedly presenting the bell (CS) without
the food (UCS). The dog has not completely forgotten the association
between the bell and the food. If the experimenter waits a day, the dog may
have a spontaneous recovery of the conditioned response and salivate again
to the bell.

• Generalization
Occurs when there is a small difference in the presented stimulus and the
 original conditioned stimulus. If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell of a similar tone,
the dog would still salivate.

• Discrimination

The opposite of generalization, discrimination happens when a conditioned

response does not occur when there is a difference between the presented stimulus
and the original conditioned stimulus. If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell with a different
tone and was not awarded the unconditioned stimulus (food), the dog would learn
not to salivate to the second tone.

Classical conditioning is used by trainers for two purposes: To condition (train)

autonomic responses, such as the drooling, producing adrenaline, or reducing
adrenaline (calming) without using the stimuli that would naturally create such a
response; and, to create an association between a stimulus that normally would not
have any effect on the animal and a stimulus that would.

5.How are culture and society responsible to built value system?

Ans.

Values represent basic convictions that ‘a specific mode of conduct or end

state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse
mode of conduct or end-state of existence. When the values are ranked in terms of
their intensity, it is called value system. Types of values include social values and
aesthetic values. Values have both content and intensity attributes.

- The content attribute specifies that a mode of conduct or end-state of

existence is important.
- The intensity attribute specifies how important it is.
- Ranking an individual’s values in terms of their intensity equals that persons
value system.
Values shape relationships, behaviour and choices. The more positive our values
more positive are our actions.

Culture, Society and Values:

According to Hofstede’s Research, the following points can be noted:

Power distance-
This dimension measures the social equality in families, institutions and
organisations. Inequality of power in organisations is generally manifested in
hierarchical superior-subordinate relationships.

Uncertainty avoidance-
This is representation of a society tolerance for uncertain situations. It measures to
what extent a society manages those situations by providing specific and
conventional rules, regulations and norms; by rejecting aberrant ideas or behaviour;
by accepting the possibility of absolute truths ans the accomplishments of expertise.

Individualism Vs Collectivism-
Individualism gauges to what extent individuals in a country consider themselves as
distinct entities rather than members of cohesive groups. Collectivism, on the other
hand, emphasizes on social ties or bonds between individuals. Individualistic society
considers self interest as more important that the group goal.

Masculinity Vs Femininity-
This dimension refers to what extent dominant values in a society emphasizes
masculine social values like a work ethic expressed in terms of money, achievement
and recognition as opposed to feminine social role will show more concern for people
and quality of life.

Long term orientation-

Measures employee’s devotion to work ethic and their respect for tradition. The Asian
countries are strong in work ethic and respect for tradition.

He also states that each person carries several layers of cultural programming. It
starts when a child learns basic values, what is right and wrong, good and bad,
logical and illogical, beautiful and ugly. Culture is about your fundamental
assumptions of what is to be a person and how you should interact with other
persons. The first level of culture is deepest and difficult to change. Other layers in
the culture are learned or programmed in the course of education through
professional or craft training and in organisation life.

According to GLOBE, there are 9 cultural dimensions.

• Uncertainty avoidance: the extent to which a society or an organisation tries
to avoid uncertainty by depending heavily on prevalent norms, rituals and
bureaucratic practices.
• Power Distance: it is the degree to which power unequally shared in a society
and organisation.
• Collectivism –I [Social collectivism]: it is the degree to which society and an
organisation encourage and recognises collective performance.
• Collectivism-II [In-group Collectivism]: it is the degree to which individuals
take pride, loyalty and cohesiveness in their organisations and families.
• Gender egalitarianism: this is an extent to which a society or an organisation
minimizes gender differences.
• Assertiveness: it is the degree to which individuals, both in organisational and
social context are, assertive and confrontational.
• Future orientation: it is the degree to which individuals are encouraged in
long term future oriented behaviour.
• Performance orientation: this encourages and rewards persons on
performance improvement.
• Human orientation: it is the degree to which organisations or society
encourages or reward for being fair, altruistic, friendly and caring.

Work behaviours across cultures:

In every culture, there are different sets if attitudes and values which affect
behaviour. Mangers portray trust and respect in their employees in different ways in
different cultures. This is a function of their own cultural background. For example
managers from specific cultures tend to focus only on the behaviour that takes place
at work, in contrast to managers from diffused cultures who focus on wider range of
behaviour including employee’s private and professional lives. Most managers from
diffused cultures believed that company should provide such facility where are
managers from specific cultures agreed on the same.
Task and relationship:
In response to the statement which states that, the main reason of hierarchal
structure was to communicate the authority relationship, most of US managers
disagreed where most Asian and Latin American managers are agreed. It was clear
that US managers have extremely task oriented culture, believe more in flatter
organisational structure to become more effective. The second set of managers was
from relationship oriented cultures where the concept of authority is more important.
Managers as experts or problem solvers:
Manager from various cultures were asked whether it was important for them to
have at hand, precise answers to most questions their subordinates might raise
about their work. French managers believed that they should give raise to precise
answers to the questions in order to maintain their credibility and retain their
subordinate’s sense of security. On contrary, US mangers believed that a managers’
role should be to act as a mentor who would facilitate employees to solve the
problem. They also believe that providing direct answers to a problem actually
discourages subordinates initiatives and creativity and ultimately hampers
performance.

6. Write short notes on

• Locus of Control
• Machiavellianism
Ans.

Locus of Control:

A person’s perception of the source of his/ her fate is termed as Locus of

Control. Locus of control was formulated within the frame work of Rotter’s {1954}
Social Learning Theory of Personality. Rotter {1975} pointed out that the internality
and externality are the two ends of a continuum, not an either/or topology.

External Locus of Control Internal Locus of Control

Individual believes that his/her behaviour is Individual believes that his/her
guided by fate, luck, or other external behaviour is guided by his/her
circumstances personal decisions and efforts.

Internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own control.

Externals attribute outcome of events to external circumstances.

For example, college students with a strong internal locus of control may
believe that their grades were achieved through their own abilities and efforts.
Whereas, those with strong external locus of control may believe that their grades
are the result of good / bad luck, or to a professor who designs bad tests or grades
capriciously; hence they are less likely to expect that their own efforts will result in
success and are therefore less likely to work hard for higher grades.

Individuals who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, have
higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from work wetting and are less
involved on their jobs than are internals. Internals believe that health is substantially
under their own control, and hence, of absenteeism, are lower.
 Internals generally perform better on their jobs, but one needs to consider
differences in jobs. Internals search more actively for information before making a
decision, are more motivated to achieve, and make a greater attempt to control their
environment, and hence, internals do well on sophisticated tasks, internals are more
suited to jobs that require initiative and independence of action and want autonomy
and independence in their jobs. Externals are more compliant and are willing to
follow directions and be led, and do well on the jobs that are well structured and
routine and in which success depends heavily on complying with the direction of
others.

Machiavellianism:

Machiavellianism is the term that some social and personality psychologists

use to describe a person’s tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal
gain. The concept is named after Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolo
Machiavelli, who wrote II Principe [The prince]. Christie and Geis [1970]
developed a test for measuring a person’s level of Machiavellianism. This eventually
became the MACH IV test, a 20 statement personality survey that is now standard
self assessment tool for Machiavellianism.

Mach IV, the Machiavelli (Mach) scale measures an individual's willingness to

put self-interest and his or her preferences above the interests of the group, and an
individual's ability to influence and manipulate others for personal gain (Jaffe et al,
1989). Individuals with a high score on the scale are comfortable using various
means to achieve their personal goals. A high Mach has a cynical view of human
nature, few scruples, and is willing to step outside the bounds of formal authority
(Rayburn and Rayburn, 1996). Grams and Rogers (1990) found that people who
were high in Machiavellianism used indirect, non-rational tactics like deceit, but also
appealed to emotions to try to plant their ideas to influence their colleagues.

High Mach scorers manipulate more, win more, are persuaded and persuade
others more. High mach outcomes are moderated by situational factors and flourish
when they interact face to face with others rather than indirectly, and when the
situation has minimum number of rules and regulations, thus allowing room for
improvisation. High machs makes good employees in jobs that require bargaining
skills or that offer substantial rewards for winning.

Literature review

Several hundred studies have examined Machiavellianism, including several

that have researched the degree of Machiavellianism among current and future
business executives (Hegarty and Sims, 1978; Chonko, 1982; Singhapakdi and
Vitell, 1990). However, no previous studies have attempted to examine the extent of
Machiavellianism among Egyptian students.

Robinson and Shaver (1973) reviewed various studies on Machiavellianism.

The authors found different degrees of Machiavellianism between generations, which
indicate that people are becoming more manipulative and impersonal. Also reviewed,
field studies at medical schools reveal that psychiatrists are most Machiavellian and
surgeons are least Machiavellian. The explanation offered is that psychiatrists' role
involves manipulation per se vs. the surgeon who has as little personal contact with
patient as possible.

Miesing and Preble (1985) compared the different business ideologies, including
Machiavellianism, and tested them with 487 MBA students. This survey revealed that
postgraduates and those with work experience were less Machiavellian in approach,
compared to undergraduates and those without work experience. In addition, women
compared to men, and those with some religious convictions were found to be less
Machiavellian in their dealings.

Gemmill and Heisler (1972) investigated the relationship between Machiavellian

orientation and several job-related correlates among 150 managers in a large
manufacturing firm in the US. The findings indicate that Machiavellian orientation is
positively associated with job strain and perceived opportunity for formal control,
and negatively associated with job satisfaction. Machiavellian orientation was not
significantly associated with upward mobility.

Siegel (1973) examined the extent to which managers, MBA students, and faculty
members exhibit the Machiavellian, manipulative interpersonal behaviour and
leadership using the Mach scale and theory X/Theory Y leadership scale. The study
found the following ranking of Machiavellian orientation: managers (lowest),
students, faculty (highest). They found Machiavellianism relates negatively to
participative leadership attitudes for both students and managers.
 ASSIGNMENTS - MBA - I SEMESTER

MB0022

SET 2

Management Process and Organization Behavior

1.“Halo effect and selective perception are the shortcuts in judging others”
Explain
Ans.

The Halo effect refers to a cognitive bias whereby the perception of a particular trait
is influenced by the perception of the former traits in a sequence of interpretations.

Edward L. Thorndike was the first to support the halo effect with empirical research.
In a psychology study published in 1920, Thorndike asked commanding officers to
rate their soldiers; Thorndike found high cross-correlation between all positive and
all negative traits. People seem not to think of other individuals in mixed terms;
instead we seem to see each person as roughly good or roughly bad across all
categories of measurement.

A study by Solomon Asch suggests that attractiveness is a central trait, so we

presume all the other traits of an attractive person are just as attractive and sought
after.

The halo effect is involved in Harold Kelley's implicit personality theory, where the
first traits we recognize in other people influence our interpretation and perception of
later ones because of our expectations. Attractive people are often judged as having
a more desirable personality and more skills than someone of average appearance.
Thus, we see that celebrities are used to endorse products that they have no actual
expertise in evaluating, and with which they may not even have any prior affiliation.

The term is commonly used in human resources recruitment. It refers to the risk of
an interviewer noticing a positive trait in an interviewee and as a result, paying less
attention to their negative traits (or vice versa).

The social psychologist Richard Nisbett demonstrated that even if we were told that
our judgments have been affected by the halo effect, we may still have no clue when
the halo effect influences us.[5]

Selective perception may refer to any number of cognitive biases in psychology

related to the way expectations affect perception.

For instance, several studies have shown that students who were told they were
consuming alcoholic beverages (which in fact were non-alcoholic) perceived
themselves as being "drunk", exhibited fewer physiological symptoms of social
stress, and drove a simulated car similarly to other subjects who had actually
consumed alcohol. The result is somewhat similar to the placebo effect.

In one classic study on this subject related to the hostile media effect (which is itself
an excellent example of selective perception), viewers watched a filmstrip of a
particularly violent Princeton-Dartmouth American football game. Princeton viewers
reported seeing nearly twice as many rule infractions committed by the Dartmouth
team than did Dartmouth viewers. One Dartmouth alumnus did not see any
infractions committed by the Dartmouth side and erroneously assumed he had been
sent only part of the film, sending word requesting the rest.

Selective perception is also an issue for advertisers, as consumers may engage with
some ads and not others based on their pre-existing beliefs about the brand.

Seymour Smith, a prominent advertising researcher, found evidence for selective

perception in advertising research in the early 1960s, and he defined it to be “a
procedure by which people let in, or screen out, advertising material they have an
opportunity to see or hear. They do so because of their attitudes, beliefs, usage
preferences and habits, conditioning, etc.” People who like, buy, or are considering
buying a brand are more likely to notice advertising than are those who are neutral
toward the brand. This fact has repercussions within the field of advertising research
because any post-advertising analysis that examines the differences in attitudes or
buying behavior among those aware versus those unaware of advertising is flawed
unless pre-existing differences are controlled for. Advertising research methods that
utilize a longitudinal design are arguably better equipped to control for selective
perception.

The halo effect has to do with judging or evaluating a person, place, or event by a
single trait or experience. This overall impression can be good or bad but will
prejudice our further involvement with the stimulus. Each of us can remember
making a snap judgment about someone based on a first impression. Often we try to
perceive further interaction with the individual based on this first impression,
regardless of whether it was positive or negative. If this impression is incorrect, it
often takes considerable pressure to concede this fact and break the halo effect.
Examples are plentiful in business. A plush office convinces us someone is an
important person in the organization and must be taken seriously. A sloppily typed
letter by our new secretary proves to us the individual is going to be an
unsatisfactory employee. The halo effect often shows up most conspicuously on
performance appraisals where our overall good or bad opinion of the workers
interferes with our ability to evaluate weaknesses or strengths accurately on
individual job functions.

Selective perception is the personal filtering of what we see and hear so as to suit
our own needs. Much of this process is psychological and often unconscious. Have
you ever been accused of only hearing what you want to hear. In fact, that is quite
true. We simply are bombarded with too much stimuli every day to pay equal
attention to everything so we pick and choose according to our own needs.
2. Explain “Emotional Intelligence”.
Ans.

Emotional Intelligence (EI) describes the ability, capacity, skill or, in the case of
the trait EI model, a self-perceived ability, to identify, assess, and manage the
emotions of one's self, of others, and of groups. Different models have been
proposed for the definition of EI and disagreement exists as to how the term should
be used. Despite these disagreements, which are often highly technical, the ability EI
and trait EI models (but not the mixed models) enjoy support in the literature and
have successful applications in different domains.

Substantial disagreement exists regarding the definition of EI, with respect to both
terminology and operationalizations. There has been much confusion regarding the
exact meaning of this construct. The definitions are so varied, and the field is
growing so rapidly, that researchers are constantly amending even their own
definitions of the construct. At the present time, there are three main models of EI:

• Ability EI models
• Mixed models of EI
• Trait EI model

Measurement of the Emotional Competencies (Goleman) model

Two measurement tools are based on the Goleman model:

1) The Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI), which was created in 1999 and the
Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI), which was created in 2007.

2) The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal, which was created in 2001 and which can be
taken as a self-report or 360-degree assessment

Similarly, Locke (2005) claims that the concept of EI is in itself a misinterpretation of

the intelligence construct, and he offers an alternative interpretation: it is not
another form or type of intelligence, but intelligence—the ability to grasp
abstractions--applied to a particular life domain: emotions. He suggests the concept
should be re-labeled and referred to as a skill.

The essence of this criticism is that scientific inquiry depends on valid and consistent
construct utilization, and that in advance of the introduction of the term EI,
psychologists had established theoretical distinctions between factors such as
abilities and achievements, skills and habits, attitudes and values, and personality
traits and emotional states. The term EI is viewed by some as having merged and
conflated accepted concepts and definitions.

The model introduced by Daniel Goleman focuses on EI as a wide array of

competencies and skills that drive leadership performance. Goleman's model outlines
four main EI constructs:
 1. Self-awareness — the ability to read one's emotions and recognize their
impact while using gut feelings to guide decisions.
2. Self-management — involves controlling one's emotions and impulses and
adapting to changing circumstances.
3. Social awareness — the ability to sense, understand, and react to others'
emotions while comprehending social networks.
4. Relationship management — the ability to inspire, influence, and develop
others while managing conflict.

Research of EI and job performance show mixed results: a positive relation has
been found in some of the studies, in others there was no relation or an inconsistent
one. This led researchers Cote and Miners (2006) to offer a compensatory model
between EI and IQ, that posits that the association between EI and job performance
becomes more positive as cognitive intelligence decreases, an idea first proposed in
the context of academic performance (Petrides, Frederickson, & Furnham, 2004).
The results of the former study supported the compensatory model: employees with
low IQ get higher task performance and organizational citizenship behavior directed
at the organization, the higher their EI(Emotional Intelligence).

EI is compared and contrasted with a measure of abstract intelligence but not

with a personality measure, or with a personality measure but not with a measure of
academic intelligence.

3. “A group formation passes through various stages”: Explain the various

stages of group formation.
Ans.

Group Formation
Well functioning groups do not just form out of the blue. It takes time for a
group to develop to a point where it can be effective and where all members feel
connected to it. Bruce Tuckman has identified four stages that characterize the
development of groups. Understanding these stages can help determine what is
happening with a group and how to manage what is occurring. These four group
development stages are known as forming, storming, norming, and performing as
described below and the skills needed to successfully guide a group through these
stages are described by clicking here.

The various stages of group formation can be divided as:

Forming
This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to
develop their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them. This
is the stage when team building begins and trust starts to develop. Group members
will start establishing limits on acceptable behavior through experimentation. Other
members’ reactions will determine if a behavior will be repeated. This is also the time
when the tasks of the group and the members will be decided.

Storming
During this stage of group development, interpersonal conflicts arise and
differences of opinion about the group and its goals will surface. If the group is
unable to clearly state its purposes and goals or if it cannot agree on shared goals,
the group may collapse at this point. It is important to work through the conflict at
this time and to establish clear goals. It is necessary for there to be discussion so
everyone feels heard and can come to an agreement on the direction the group is to
move in.

Norming
Once the group resolves its conflicts, it can now establish patterns of how to
get its work done. Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted
by members of the group. Formal and informal procedures are established in
delegating tasks, responding to questions, and in the process by which the group
functions. Members of the group come to understand how the group as a whole
operates.

Performing
During this final stage of development, issues related to roles, expectations,
and norms are no longer of major importance. The group is now focused on its task,
working intentionally and effectively to accomplish its goals. The group will find that
it can celebrate its accomplishments and that members will be learning new skills
and sharing roles.
After a group enters the performing stage, it is unrealistic to expect it to
remain there permanently. When new members join or some people leave, there will
be a new process of forming, storming, and norming engaged as everyone learns
about one another. External events may lead to conflicts within the group. To remain
healthy, groups will go through all of these processes in a continuous loop.
When conflict arises in a group, do not try to silence the conflict or to run
from it. Let the conflict come out into the open so people can discuss it. If the
conflict is kept under the surface, members will not be able to build trusting
relationships and this could harm the group’s effectiveness. If handled properly, the
group will come out of the conflict with a stronger sense of cohesiveness then before.

Adjourning and transforming

Tuckman later added a fifth phase, adjourning, that involves completing the
task and breaking up the team. Others call it the phase for mourning.

A team that lasts may transcend to a transforming phase of achievement.

Transformational management can produce major changes in performance through
synergy and is considered to be more far-reaching than transactional management.
4. “Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual
wants, either by self or by the subordinates. The essence of power is to
control over the behavior of others”: Explain what are the various bases of
Power?
Ans.

Bases of Power: Simply put, power is the capacity to influence the thought and
behavior of other people. Just as there are many forms of energy used in our daily
lives, there are several forms, sources or bases of power you can draw upon to
influence the motivation, behavior and thoughts of others.

These bases are as follows:

1. Legitimate Power is the formal “legal” authority that is embodied in your

position and/or title. You have the “right to manage” and to expect compliance
because of your place in the organization. With Legitimate Power there is little need
for a personal relationship between you and others. Others respect the authority
carried in the position regardless of who occupies the position. The higher your rank,
the more Legitimate Power you have.

2. Reward Power is based on your capacity to provide things that others desire.
You make positive outcomes such as pay increases, recognition, interesting job
assignments and promotions, among other things, contingent on desired behavior.
To be effective, this power base requires that others value the incentives offered and
that they believe that you can and will provide them.

3. Coercive Power could be considered the flip side of Reward Power. This power is
based on your capacity and willingness to produce conditions that the others want to
avoid, or find unpleasant. Coercive Power relies on the contingent use of
punishments such as criticism, poor performance appraisals, reprimands, undesirable
work assignments, or dismissal. Coercive Power is most effective when its application
is both immediate, certain and consistent.

4. Connection Power is the power you derive from relationships with other
influential, important or competent people. In today’s language, it is your “network”.
Because you have a network of connections with other “powerful people”, you can
use these relationships to influence the behavior of others who also want to be seen
favorably by these other influential people. Of course, be careful you do not over use
this and become seen as a “name dropper”.

5. Information Power is based on you having access to information that others are
not privy to, do not know about and which they believe is important. Others comply
because they believe that what you want them to do is based on some special and/or
maybe even inside information that you have.

6. Expert Power is based on your skill, knowledge, accomplishments or reputation.

Others are willing to do what you want because they trust that your superior
expertise will produce the desired results. Your Expert Power also instills confidence
in others even when the solution and/or way forward may not be clearly understood.
This base of power requires that the subordinates trust your expertise and believe it
applies to the issue at hand. Please the leader, have the leader like them and/or
want to become like the leader themselves. This attraction gives the leader power to
influence the behavior of others.

7. Referent Power is based on personal feelings of attraction, or admiration, that

others have for you. Referent Power is truly in the “eye of the beholder” where
others see something special in you allowing you to take the lead, to be in the lead
or be given the lead. This “something special” is called charisma where others are
willing to do what the leader wants because they want to please the leader, have the
leader like them and/or want to become like the leader themselves. This attraction
gives the leader power to influence the behavior of others.

8.Position & Personal Power: The seven bases of power reviewed above can be
classified as either Position Power or Personal Power. The Position Power bases are
Legitimate, Reward and Coercive. These bases are related more to the position of
authority you hold in the organization and are most effective with your direct
reports. Rarely can you overtly use these to influence the behavior or your boss or
colleagues.

Once you accrue Position Power, it is certainly warranted to use these power
bases at times. It is called asserting your right to manage. It is, however, best not to
flaunt it. Overuse of these bases by constantly reminding people of your title, how
you can reward them for doing what you want or what you will do to punish them
may actually erode your influence in time. Having these power bases and using them
sparingly works best. Maybe this is what was meant with having an iron fist in a
velvet glove.

The Personal Power bases are Connection, Information, Expert and Referent.
These are personal bases of power because they are embodied in you and not so
much your job role, or position. Cultivating these bases of power gives you the
capacity to influence the behavior of everyone — bosses, colleagues and direct
reports. Having these means that when you speak, others listen.
Whereas use of the Position Power bases may need to be minimized by you
and the use of rewards and punishment controlled by the organization, the Personal
Power bases of Information, Connection, Expert and Referent are yours to totally
expand upon. It makes good sense to enhance your influence by knowing what is
going on in your work unit and other areas of the business (Information); building
your network within and outside of the organization (Connection); expanding your
skills and competencies (Expert); and taking the time to cultivate your image, sense
of confidence and capacity to communicate (Referent).

Finally, unlike the bases of Position Power, having and using the Personal Power
bases does not require that you be a manager. If you have the capacity to influence
the behavior of others through these power bases and have at least one follower,
you are a leader. You might say that the Position Power bases allow you to assert
your right to manage and the bases of Personal Power allow you to be seen as a
leader. The goal is to make sure you have and use all seven bases of power well

5 Explain “Organizational Development” process

Ans. Organization development (OD) is often defined as a planned, top-down,
organization-wide effort to increase the organization's effectiveness and health.
According to Warren Bennis, OD is a complex strategy intended to change the
beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of organizations so that they can better
adapt to new technologies, markets, and challenges. OD is neither "anything done to
better an organization" nor is it "the training function of the organization"; it is a
particular kind of change process designed to bring about a particular kind of end
result. OD can involve interventions in the organization's "processes," using
behavioural science knowledge as well as organizational reflection, system
improvement, planning, and self-analysis.

Kurt Lewin (1898 - 1947) is widely recognized as the founding father of OD, although
he died before the concept became current in the mid-1950s

The OD Process is based on the action research model which begins with an
identified problem or need for change. The process proceeds through assessment,
planning of an intervention, implementing the intervention, gathering data to
evaluate the intervention, and determining if satisfactory progress has been made or
if there is need for further intervention. The process is cyclical and ends when the
desired developmental result is obtained.

The OD process begins when an organization recognizes that a problem exists which
impacts the mission or health of the organization and change is desired. It can also
begin when leadership has a vision of a better way and wants to improve the
organization. An organization does not always have to be in trouble to implement
organization development activities.
Once the decision is made to change the situation, the next step is to assess the
situation to fully understand it. This assessment can be conducted in many ways
including documentation review, organizational sensing, focus groups, interviewing,
or surveying. The assessment could be conducted by outside experts or by members
of the organization.

After the situation is assessed, defined, and understood, the next step is to plan an
intervention. The type of change desired would determine the nature of the
intervention. Interventions could include training and development, team
interventions such as teambuilding for management or employees or the
establishment of change teams, structural interventions, or individual interventions.
Once the intervention is planned, it is implemented.

During and after the implementation of the intervention, relevant data is gathered.
The data gathered would be determined by the change goals. For example, if the
intervention were training and development for individual employees or for work
groups, data to be gathered would measure changes in knowledge and
competencies.

This data is used to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. It is reported to

the organization’s decision-makers. The decision-makers determine if the
intervention met its goals. If the intervention met its goals, the process can end,
which is depicted by the raising of the development bar. If it did not, the decision is
made whether to continue the cycle and to plan and carry out another intervention
or to end it.

6. Write short note on “Stress Management”

Ans.

During the course of our life, we encounter stress, some in high levels, some in low.
Stress is the result of placing undue expectations or desire on ourselves, creating
images of our self and trying to live up to the image that has been created by others.

When we compare the image of ourselves to the reality of ourselves, opposing forces
are created, and our mind tries to match the created image with the current
situation.

Stress can be made worse by other peoples expectations, and being human we
always care what others think of us - even though we tell ourselves that we do not.
We try to change ourselves so that we can be accepted by other people, regardless
of whether or not they care.

Negative thoughts about our self image also add to the stress. We remember
everything that we have done in life, but more so the negative ones. We re-live
those negative moments over and over again in our minds, lowering our self esteem.

The first thing we have to learn is that what has happened in the past cannot be
changed, or erased. All we can do is take the lesson we learnt, and learn not to do it
again. What happens in the past is exactly that, passed, and we must learn to live
for now.
Stress Management
High or low levels of stress sustained over long periods of time, can lead to reduced
employee performance and, thus, require action by management.

1. Individual approaches:

• Effective individual strategies include implementing time management

techniques, increasing physical exercise, relaxation training, and
expanding the social support network.

• Practicing time management principles also leaves as an important

element in managing stress, such as:

a. Making daily lists of activities to be accomplished.

b. Prioritizing activities by importance and urgency

c. Scheduling activities according to the priorities set.

d. Knowing your daily cycle and handling the most demanding parts
of your job during the high part of your cycle when you are most
alert and productive.

• Non – competitive physical exercise has long been recommended as a

way to deal with excessive stress levels.

• Individuals can teach themselves to reduce tension through relaxation

techniques, such as, meditation, hypnosis, and biofeedback.

• Having friends, family, or work colleagues to talk to provides an outlet

for excessive stress.

2. Organizational approaches

• Strategies that management might want to consider include:

a. Improved personnel selection and job placement leading to right

person – job – fit thereby reducing chances of non - performance
and stress level.

b. Use of realistic goal setting, redesigning of jobs can help in aligning

the individuals and job effectively and reduce stress.

c. Training in stress management techniques can be helpful.

d. Increased employee involvement improves motivation, morale,

commitment, and leads to better role integration and reduction in
stress.

e. Improved organizational communication helps in creating

transparency in organizations and reduces confusion, thereby
decreasing stress level at work.
f. Establishment of corporate wellness programs is an important
component in managing stress among organizational members by
rejuvenating and refreshing them from time to time leading to
increased productivity with renewed energy.