Bicol University College of Engineering

Legaspi, Albay
Group 6: Photovoltaic System

BSME 5B

Francisco R. Asejo III

Julius Brando Balcueva
Sherwin Jay Clarino
John Harvey Millena

Photovoltaics (PV) covers the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting
materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics, photochemistry,
and electrochemistry.
A typical photovoltaic system employs solar panels, each comprising a number of solar cells, which
generate electrical power. The first step is the photoelectric effect followed by
an electrochemical process where crystallized atoms, ionized in a series, generate an electric
current. PV Installations may be ground-mounted, rooftop mounted or wall mounted.
Solar PV generates no pollution. The direct conversion of sunlight to electricity occurs without any
moving parts. Photovoltaic systems have been used for fifty years in specialized applications,
standalone and grid-connected PV systemshave been in use for more than twenty years.[3] They
were first mass-produced in 2000, when German environmentalists and the Eurosolar organization
got government funding for a ten thousand roof program.
On the other hand, grid-connected PV systems have the major disadvantage that the power output
is dependent on direct sunlight, so about 10-25% is lost if a tracking system is not used, since the
cell wil not be directly facing the sun at all times. Power output is also adversely affected by weather
conditions, especially cloud cover. This means that, in the national grid for example, this power has to
be made up by other power sources: hydrocarbon, nuclear, hydroelectric or wind energy. To some,
solar installations also have a negative aesthetic impact on an area.
Advances in technology and increased manufacturing scale have reduced the cost, increased the
reliability, and increased the efficiency of photovoltaic instalations and the levelised cost of
electricity from PV is competitive, on a kilowatt/ hour basis, with conventional electricity sources in
an expanding list of geographic regions. Solar PV regularly costs USD 0.05-0.10 per kilowatt-hour
(kWh) in Europe, China, India, South Africa and the United States. In 2015, record low prices were

set in the United Arab Emirates (5.84 cents/kWh), Peru (4.8 cents/kWh) and Mexico (4.8 cents/kWh).
In May 2016, a solar PV auction in Dubai attracted a bid of 3 cents/kWh.
Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated
electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries. More than 100 countries now use
solar PV. After hydro and wind power, PV is the third renewable energy source in terms of globally
capacity. In 2014, worldwide installed PV capacity increased to 177 gigawatts(GW), which is two
percent of global electricity demand. China, followed by Japan and the United States, is the fastest
growing market, while Germany remains the world's largest producer (both in per capita and
absolute terms), with solar PV providing seven percent of annual domestic electricity consumption. [11]
With current technology (as of 2013), photovoltaics recoups the energy needed to manufacture them
in 1.5 years in Southern Europe and 2.5 years in Northern Europe

All photovoltaic (PV) cells consist of two or more thin layers of semiconducting material, most commonly silicon. When the semiconductor is
exposed to light, electrical charges are generated and this can be conducted
away by metal contacts as direct current (DC). The electrical output from a
single cell is small, so multiple cells are connected together to form a 'string',
which produces a direct current.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems directly convert sunlight into electricity. The PV
effect is the process from which light (photons) is converted into electric
current. Different PV technologies have different efficiencies. There are 3
main classes of photovoltaic semiconductor technologies:

Crystalline
silicon
cells Crystalline Silicon
semiconductors
dominate
the
world
PV
market,
accounting for nearly 90
percent in 2013. Although
single
crystalline
cells
account for the majority of
PV panels, there are a few
types
of
silicon
PV
technologies on the market
today single
crystalline
silicon (c-Si), multicrystalline (mc-Si), and silicon heterostructures.

Crystalline silicon photovoltaics is the most widely used

photovoltaic technology. Crystalline silicon photovoltaics are modules
built using crystalline silicon solar cells (c-Si), developed from the
microelectronics technology industry.
Crystalline silicon solar cells have high efficiency, making
crystalline silicon photovoltaics an interesting technology where space
is at a premium
There are two types of crystalline silicon solar cells used in
crystalline silicon photovoltaics

Mono-crystalline silicon, produced by slicing

wafers from a high-purity single crystal ingot
Multi-crystalline silicon, made by sawing a cast
block of silicon first into bars and then into wafers
Mono-crystalline silicon solar cells have higher efficiencies than
multi-crystalline silicon solar cells.
In crystalline silicon photovoltaics, solar cells are generally
connected together and then laminated under toughened, high
transmittance glass to produce reliable, weather resistant photovoltaic
modules.

Thin film technologies Thin film technologies are

characterized by one or more thin layers of photovoltaic material (at
least 10 times thinner than crystalline silicon technologies) deposited
onto glass, plastic, metal, or other surface. As a result, thin film cells
are more flexible and weigh less. They can be integrated into buildings,
including as photovoltaic material laminated onto windows. Thin film
solar panels within panes of glass are used in some of the largest PV
power plants. Some thin film cell technologies include:
o amorphous silicon (a-Si) and other thin film (TF-Si)
o cadmium telluride (CdTe);
o copper indium gallium deselenide (CIS or CIGS);
o dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC); and
o single crystalline gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Multijunction cells Multijunction cells utilize light at different

wavelengths more efficiently than crystalline silicon cells through multiple
stacked layers of semiconductors. Although more efficient at converting
sunlight into electricity, they are currently less efficient economically due to
their complexity and resulting manufacturing costs. This price premium has
limited their application mainly to the aerospace industry, which is uniquely
willing to pay more for their higher efficiencies.

Photovoltaic (Solar Electric)

Photovoltaic (PV) devices generate electricity directly from sunlight via an
electronic process that occurs naturally in certain types of material, called
semiconductors. Electrons in these materials are freed by solar energy and
can be induced to travel through an electrical circuit, powering electrical
devices or sending electricity to the grid.

PV devices can be used to power anything from small electronics such as

calculators and road signs up to homes and large commercial businesses.
How does PV technology work?
Photons strike and ionize semiconductor material on the solar panel, causing
outer electrons to break free of their atomic bonds. Due to the
semiconductor structure, the electrons are forced in one direction creating a
flow of electrical current. Solar cells are not 100% efficient in Diagram of a
typical crystalline silicon solar cell. Solar cells are not 100% efficient in part
because some of the light spectrum is reflected, some is too weak to create
electricity (infrared) and some (ultraviolet) creates heat energy instead of
electricity.

Diagram of a typical crystalline silicon solar cell. To make this type of cell,
wafers of high-purity silicon are doped with various impurities and fused
together. The resulting structure creates a pathway for electrical current
within and between the solar cells.

Other Types of Photovoltaic Technology

In addition to crystalline silicon (c-Si), there are two other main types of PV
technology:

Thin-film PV is a fast-growing but small part of the commercial solar

market. Many thin-film firms are start-ups developing experimental
technologies. They are generally less efficient but often cheaper than c-Si
modules.

In the United States, concentrating PV arrays are found primarily in

the desert Southwest. They use lenses and mirrors to reflect concentrated
solar energy onto high-efficiency cells. They require direct sunlight and
tracking systems to be most effective.

History of Photovoltaic Technology

The PV effect was observed as early as 1839 by Alexandre Edmund

Becquerel, and was the subject of scientific inquiry through the early
twentieth century. In 1954, Bell Labs in the U.S. introduced the first solar PV
device that produced a useable amount of electricity, and by 1958, solar
cells were being used in a variety of small-scale scientific and commercial
applications.

PV panels installed on a private home in Brooklyn Heights, New York (Photo courtesy of Alan
Blake)

The energy crisis of the 1970s saw the beginning of major interest in using
solar cells to produce electricity in homes and businesses, but prohibitive
prices (nearly 30 times higher than the current price) made large-scale
applications impractical.
Industry developments and research in the following years made PV devices
more feasible and a cycle of increasing production and decreasing costs
began which continues even today.

Other Parts of PV system

Mounting

Modules are assembled into arrays on some kind of mounting system, which
may be classified as ground mount, roof mount or pole mount.

For solar parks a large rack is mounted on the ground, and the modules
mounted on the rack.

For buildings, many different racks have been devised for pitched roofs. For
flat roofs, racks, bins and building integrated solutions are used.

Solar panel racks mounted on top of poles can be stationary or moving, see
Trackers below. Side-of-pole mounts are suitable for situations where a pole
has something else mounted at its top, such as a light fixture or an antenna.

Pole mounting raises what would otherwise be a ground mounted array above
weed shadows and livestock, and may satisfy electrical code requirements
regarding inaccessibility of exposed wiring. Pole mounted panels are open to
more cooling air on their underside, which increases performance. A
multiplicity of pole top racks can be formed into a parking carport or other
shade structure. A rack which does not follow the sun from left to right may
allow seasonal adjustment up or down.

Cabling
Due to their outdoor usage, solar cables are specifically designed to be resistant
against UV radiation and extremely high temperature fluctuations and are generally
unaffected by the weather.
A number of standards specify the usage of electrical wiring in PV systems, such as
the IEC 60364 by the International Electrotechnical Commission, in section
712 "Solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems", the British Standard BS 7671,
incorporating regulations relating to micro generation and photovoltaic systems,
and the USUL4703 standard, in subject 4703 "Photovoltaic Wire".

Solar Panel

Conventional c-Si solar cells, normally wired in series, are encapsulated in a

solar module to protect them from the weather.

The module consists of a tempered glass as cover, a soft and

flexible encapsulant, a rear backsheet made of a weathering and fireresistant material and an aluminium frame around the outer edge. Electrically

connected and mounted on a supporting structure, solar modules build a

string of modules, often called solar panel.

Other Applications of PV cells

Solar Aircon

Solar air conditioning refers to any air conditioning (cooling) system that
uses solar power. This can be done through passive solar, solar thermal
energy conversion and photovoltaic conversion (sunlight to electricity).

Solar Balloon

Solar balloon is a balloon that gains buoyancy when the air inside is heated
by solar radiation, usually with the help of black or dark balloon material. The
heated air inside the solar balloon expands and has lower density than the
surrounding air. As such, a solar balloon is similar to a hot air balloon. Usage
of solar balloons is predominantly in the toy market, although it has been
proposed that they be used in the investigation of planet Mars, and some
solar balloons are large enough for human flight. A vent at the top can be
opened to release hot air for descent and deflation

Solar Cars

Solar cars only run on solar power from the sun. They are very stable and
can come in different sizes. To keep the car running smoothly, the driver must
keep an eye on these gauges to spot possible problems. Cars without gauges
almost always feature wireless telemetry, which allows the driver's team to
monitor the car's energy consumption, solar energy capture and other
parameters and thereby freeing the driver to concentrate on driving.

Solar-powered refrigerator

A solar-powered refrigerator is a refrigerator which runs on energy directly

provided by sun, and may include photovoltaicor solar thermal energy.Solarpowered refrigerators are able to keep perishable goods such as meat and dairy
cool in hot climates, and are used to keep much needed vaccines at their
appropriate temperature to avoid spoilage.Solar-powered refrigerators may be most
commonly used in the developing world to help mitigate poverty and climate
change

Solar Cooker

A solar cooker is a device which uses the energy of direct sunlight to heat,
cook or pasteurize food or drink. Many solar cookers currently in use are
relatively inexpensive, low-tech devices, although some are as powerful or as
expensive as traditional stoves, and advanced, large-scale solar cookers can
cook for hundreds of people. Because they use no fuel and cost nothing to
operate, many nonprofit organizations are promoting their use worldwide in
order to help reduce fuel costs (especially where monetary reciprocity is low)
and air pollution, and to slow down
the deforestation and desertificationcaused by gathering firewood for
cooking. Solar cooking is a form of outdoor cooking and is often used in
situations where minimal fuel consumption is important, or the danger of
accidental fires is high, and the health and environmental consequences of
alternatives are severe. Many types of solar cookers exist, including curved
concentrator solar cookers, solar ovens, and panel cookers, among others.

Solar Compressive Trash Can

BigBelly is a solar powered, rubbish-compacting bin, manufactured by U.S.

company BigBelly Solar for use in public spaces such as parks, beaches,
amusement parks, and universities. The bin was designed and originally
manufactured in Needham, Massachusetts by Seahorse Power, a company
set up in 2003 with the aim of reducing fossil fuel consumption.The Bigbelly
smart waste and recycling system is comprised of modular components that
enable to deploy waste, recycling, and even compost stations that meet the
needs of each station locations.

Solar Panels Installation Cost

Grid-tie solar installations are connected to the utility companys power

lines. If the home or business needs more electricity than it can produce it
draws energy from the grid and if it is producing excess electricity, it injects it
into the electrical grid. Electricity added to the grid is credited to the
homeowner or business electricity bill. When power is drawn from the grid,
this electricity credit is reduced. This process is called net-metering and is
accomplished with a bi-directional or smart meter.

There are also grid-tied installations that reserve power in a battery backup
that is used during power outages. They charge the batteries so that
continuous power is available, even if the utility grid is down. When the
outage is fixed, net-metering resumes.

Off-grid systems are usually implemented in locations that are too remote
to receive service from a utility. These systems can generate AC power that
can run regular appliances and electric devices. They store power in batteries
that are used to supply power when sunlight is not available. Those that
generate DC power are used to power remote telecommunications gear,
appliances used in boats and recreational vehicles as well as farm equipment.
DC is less expensive than AC because it does not require an inverter. AC
systems can power common home appliances.

Net Metering

Net metering allows residential and commercial customers who generate

their own electricity from solar power to feed electricity they do not use back
into the grid. Many states have passed net metering laws. In other states,
utilities may offer net metering programs voluntarily or as a result of
regulatory decisions. Differences between states' legislation and
implementation mean that the benefits of net metering can vary widely for
solar customers in different areas of the country.

What Is Net Metering in PV System?

Net metering is a billing mechanism that credits solar energy system owners
for the electricity they add to the grid. For example, if a residential customer
has a PV system on the home's rooftop, it may generate more electricity than
the home uses during daylight hours. If the home is net-metered, the
electricity meter will run backwards to provide a credit against what
electricity is consumed at night or other periods where the home's electricity
use exceeds the system's output. Customers are only billed for their "net"
energy use. On average, only 20-40% of a solar energy systems output ever
goes into the grid. Exported solar electricity serves nearby customers loads.

This digital meter runs in both directions to accommodate electricity generated at

this customers home.
A 4 kilowatt PV system on a home in this area would offset around 4911 kilowatt
hours
of electricity each calendar year, saving the homeowner over $380 on their utility
bill.

Batteries used in PV System

Lead Acid

THE COMMON AUTOMOBILE BATTERIES IN WHICH THE ELECTRODES ARE

GRIDS OF METALLIC LEAD CONTAINING LEAD OXIDES THAT CHANGE IN
COMPOSITION DURING CHARGING AND DISCHARGING. THE ELECTROLYTE IS
DILUTE SULFURIC ACID.

EVEN AFTER OVER 100 YEARS, THE LEAD-ACID BATTERY IS STILL THE
BATTERY OF CHOICE FOR 99% OF SOLAR AND BACKUP POWER SYSTEMS.
WITH THE BETTER AVAILABILITY DURING THE LAST FEW YEARS OF THE NEW
AGM BATTERIES AND THE TRUE DEEP-CYCLE BATTERIES, WE FEEL THAT
THERE IS LITTLE REASON TO USE ANY OTHER TYPE. INDUSTRIAL TYPE
BATTERIES CAN LAST AS LONG AS 20 YEARS WITH MODERATE CARE, AND
EVEN STANDARD DEEP CYCLE BATTERIES, SUCH AS THE GOLF CAR TYPE,
SHOULD LAST 3-5 YEARS. INTERMEDIATE BATTERIES, SUCH AS THE S460 AND
OTHER BATTERIES MADE BY SURRETTE SHOULD LAST 7 TO 12 YEARS.

NICAD ( Nickel Cadmium)

ALKALINE STORAGE BATTERIES IN WHICH THE POSITIVE ACTIVE MATERIAL IS

NICKEL OXIDE AND THE NEGATIVE CONTAINS CADMIUM.

Downsides:

Very expensive

Very expensive to dispose of - Cadmium is considered VERY hazardous.

Low efficiency (65-80%)

Non-standard voltage and charging curves may make it difficult to use some
equipment, such as standard inverters and chargers.

NIFE ( Nickel Iron)

Energy storage density = 55 watts per kilogram

ALKALINE-TYPE ELECTRIC CELLS USING POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE AS THE

ELECTROLYTE AND ANODES OF STEEL WOOL SUBSTRATE WITH ACTIVE IRON
MATERIAL AND CATHODES OF NICKEL PLATED STEEL WOOL SUBSTRATE WITH
ACTIVE NICKEL MATERIAL. THIS IS THE ORIGINAL "EDISON CELL". VERY LONG
LIFE.

Downsides:

Low efficiency - may be as low as 50%, typically 60-65%. very high rate of
self-discharge

high gassing/water consumption

high internal resistance means you can get large voltage drops across series
cells.

high specific weight/volume

can reduce the overall efficiency of the solar system as much as 25%

Solar Panel Inovation

Thin Film Solar

Harvesting solar energy doesnt have to mean using hugesolar

panels anymore, thanks to innovations in solar thin filmtechnology. These
solar films can be printed in rolls, which greatly reduces both the cost and
the installation, as well as opening up more opportunities for placement of
these solar power producers (such as being integrated into the roofing
materials of buildings).

Solar Windows

Windows which have been treated with a new electricitygenerating coating

remain see-through, yet have the ability to convert sunshine to energy. The
coating of these solar windows produces the worlds smallest functional solar
cells, (measure less than the size of a grain of rice!) and can be applied at
room temperature, with no need for specialized production facilities.

Solar Balloons

This solar balloon isnt a hot air balloon powered by the sun its a way to
use existing technology to harvest solar power on arrays of silvery
balloons. Big plastic balloons concentrate and direct solar energy ontosolar
cells using readily available (and relatively low-cost) components.

Hairy Solar Panels

No, this solar power innovation isnt in need of a good shave. Its actually a
product of nanotechnology, using light-absorbing nanowires on carbonnanotube fabric. These nanowires can absorb more energy from the sun than
silicon can, which may allow for more efficient energy harvesting (as well as
giving us a fun new term, "hairy solar."

Microinverters

One of the pieces of the residential solar power puzzle is the inverter the
device which takes the DC power produced by solar panels and transforms it
into AC power (which is what our homes are wired to use). The price of an
inverter to handle the power you could produce on your rooftop used to be
quite high (as well as being inefficient), but with the advent ofmicroinverters,
its possible to have just one panel (and one inverter) to start your solar
power generating station.

Infrared spectrum solar panels

The solar energy harvested by current solar panels comes entirely from the
visible spectrum, which leaves quite a bit of the light spectrum untapped.

But research into adding new materials (vanadium and titanium) to solar
semiconductors could mean that in the future, our solar panels will also be
able to capture some of the infrared spectrum and turn it intoelectricity.

Percentage of electricity PV system can generate in a country

Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their
electrical grids to supplement or provide an alternative toconventional
energy sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned
to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels. Long distance
transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel
consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies:

Photovoltaic (PV) systems use solar panels, either on rooftops or in groundmounted solar farms, converting sunlight directly into electric power.

Concentrated solar power (CSP, also known as "concentrated solar thermal")

plants use solar thermal energy to make steam, that is thereafter converted
into electricity by a turbine.

Worldwide growth of photovoltaics is extremely dynamic and varies strongly

by country. By the end of 2014, cumulative photovoltaic capacity increased
by more than 40 gigawatt (GW) and reached at least 178 GW, sufficient to
supply 1 percent of the world's total electricity consumption of currently
18,400 TWh. As in the year before, the top installers of 2014 were China,
followed by Japan and the United States, while the United Kingdom emerged
as new European leader ahead of Germany and France. Germany remains for
one more year the world's largest producer of solar power with an overall
installed capacity of 38.2 GW. The newcomers of the year
were Chile and South Africa, which entered straight into the world's Top 10
ranking of added capacity. There are now 20 countries around the world with
a cumulative PV capacity of more than one gigawatt. Thailand,
the Netherlands, and Switzerland, all crossed the one gigawatt-mark in 2014.
The available solar PV capacity in Italy, Germany and Greece is now sufficient
to supply between 7% and 8% of their respective domestic electricity
consumption

In 2012, the Philippines generated a modest 1,320 MWh of solar energy

INCENTIVES

Fiscal Incentives

Income Tax Holiday (ITH) for 7 years

Duty-Free Importation of RE Machinery, Equipment and Materials

Special Realty Tax Rates on Equipment and Machinery.

Net Operating Loss Carry-Over (NOLCO)

Corporate Tax Rate of 10% on net taxable income after 7 years of ITH

Accelerated Depreciation

Zero Percent Value-Added Tax Rate

Tax Exemption on Carbon Credits

Tax Credit on Domestic Capital Equipment and Services - value-added

tax and custom duties

Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics#Economics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics#Forecast
http://solarcellcentral.com/cost_page.html
http://www.seia.org/policy/solar-technology/photovoltaic-solar-electric

http://solar.gwu.edu/q-a/what-types-solar-photovoltaic-technologies-existtoday-and-how-do-they-work
http://www.pilkington.com/products/bp/bybenefit/solarenergy/applications/crystallin
e+silicon+photovoltaics.htm
http://www.nef.org.uk/knowledge-hub/solar-energy/types-of-photovoltaic-pv-cells