ANNAMALAI

UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

III SEM B.E

MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

INSTRUCTION MANUAL CUM OBSERVATION NOTEBOOK

NAME

: ___________________________

ROLL No

: ____________________________

SUBJECT

: ____________________________

ANNAMALAI

UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

III Sem. BE Manufacturing Engineering 2016-2017.
MECHANICAL ENGG. LABORATORY

A. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES LAB

1. Study and Performance on Kaeser Air compressor Test rig.

06

2. Load test on Kirloskar AV I engine. (Single arm type)

18

3. Load test on PSG 5HP engine.

28

4. Study and valve timing on Field marshal 8 HP engine.

38

5. Study and Port timing on Petter 3 HP engine

44

GIVEN
Calorific value of Diesel
Specific Gravity of Diesel
Density of water

: 42,000 kJ/kg.
: 0.835
: 1000 kg/m3

REFERENCE
Extrapolation (or) Willans line method
The general shape of characteristics curve

26
27

B. DYNAMICS LAB [VENUE: I C Engines Laboratory Annex (New building)]

1. Determination of characteristics curves of Watt governor and Hartnell governor.

47

2. Determination of mass moment of inertia of fly wheel.

53

3. Determination of mass moment of inertia of connecting rod.

58

4. Experimental verification of natural frequency of Torsional vibration of a

single rotor shaft system.
5. Study and experiments on cam and follower mechanism.

62
64

Instructions to the students

1.

Be regular and be punctual to classes

2.

Come in proper uniform stipulated

3.

Ensure safety to your body organs and laboratory equipment

SAFETY FIRST DUTY NEXT

4.

Read in advance the contents of the instruction manual pertaining to the experiment
due and come prepared. Understand the related basic principles.

5.

Maintain separate observation and record note books for each laboratory portion of
the course wherever justified.

6.

Though you work in a batch to conduct experiment, equip yourself to do

independently. This will benefit you at the time of tests and university examinations.

7.

Independently do the calculations and sketching. If there is difficulty, consult your

batch mate, classmate, teacher(s) and Laboratory in-charge.
Do not attempt to simply copy down from others. You may fulfill the formalities but
you stand to loose learning and understanding

8.

Obtain the signature of teacher (s) in the laboratory observation note book and record
note book then and there during class hours (with in a week subsequent to
experimentation).This will relieve the teacher (s) from giving reminder.

9.

Help to maintain neatness in the laboratory.

10.

Students are advised to retain the bonafide record notebook till they successfully
complete the laboratory course.

CONTENTS
Sl No

Date

Name of the Experiment

Staff Signature

CONTENTS
Sl No

Date

Name of the Experiment

Staff Signature

Expt.No :

STUDY AND PERFORMANCE TEST ON KAESER AIR COMPRESSOR

Date :

(A)Study on Kaeser Air compressor

Introduction:Air Compressors are used to raise the pressure of air with the minimum expenditure of
energy. An air-compressor sucks the air from the atmosphere, compresses it and delivers the
same under high pressure to a storage tank.
Since the compression of air requires some work to be done on it, some form of prime
mover must drive a compressor.
The compressed air is used for many purposes such as for operating pneumatic drills,
rivets, road drills, paint spraying, air motors and in starting and supercharging of I.C. Engines
etc. It is also utilized in the operation of lifts, rams, pumps and a variety of other devices. In
heavy vehicle automobile, compressed air is also used for power brakes.
Air Compressors are classified into:
a) Reciprocating air compressors
b) Rotary air compressors.
Classification of Reciprocating Air Compressor:
(i) Single acting compressor,
(ii) Double acting compressor,
(iii) Single stage compressor,
(iv) Multi stage compressor
Single acting reciprocating compressor: In single acting compressor the air is compressed in
the cylinder on one side of the piston.
Double acting compressor: In double acting compressor the air is compressed on both sides
of the piston.
Single stage compressor: In single stage compressor, the air is compressed in a only one
cylinder.
Multi stage compressor: In multistage compressor, the air is compressed in two or more
cylinders. Multi stage compression is done to achieve high pressure ratio. In a compressor
when compression ratio exceeds 5, generally multistage compression is adopted.
The
following arrangements are generally in practice for reciprocating compressors.
No. of stages
Delivery press
One
up to 5 bars
Two
5 to 35 bar
Three
35 to 85 bar
Four
above 85 bars

According to pressure range the compressors are also classified as:

Fans
: Pressure ratio is 1 to 1.1
Blowers
: Pressure ratio is 1.1 to 4.0
Compressors : Pressure ratio is above 4
In this experiment the compressor given for study is Keaser air compressor, which is a single
acting, two stage, air cooled reciprocating air compressor .The specifications of the
compressor is also given below.
Some Important parts and their functions
Low pressure cylinder: Air is compressed from atmospheric pressure to intermediate
pressure in L.P. Cylinder.
High Pressure Cylinder: Air is compressed from intermediate pressure to delivery pressure in
H.P Cylinder.
Inter Cooler: Air is cooled in between the two compression stages at constant pressure.
After Cooler: Air is cooled after the compression is over to accommodate more air in the
receiver tank.
Air Filter: It filters dust particles from the air. Otherwise the dust particles will adhere the
inner surface of the cylinder and thereby increases the friction between the cylinder and
piston. Due to this more power loss, wear and tear will be taking place.
Orifice Meter: It is used to measure the actual flow of air for compression by measuring
pressure difference across the orifice using manometer.
Air Stabilizing Tank: During suction stroke, the air from atmosphere is sent into the LP
cylinder. During compression, air is sent to HP cylinder through inter cooler. The flow of air in
the pipe line from atmosphere to the LP cylinder is not uniform (i.e. intermittent) due to the
suction of the air taking place in the alternative strokes. To measure the flow rate of air, the
flow must be uniform across the orifice. Otherwise the manometer reading will fluctuate.
Hence an air stabilizing tank is introduced between orifice meter and LP cylinder. This
stabilizes the flow of air between the air filter and stabilizing tank. While connecting the pipe
line and the stabilisingtank,see, that these are connected in diametrically opposite. However,
air stabilizing tank, is fitted only in the experimental air compressors to measure the flow rate
of air.
Safety Valves: It releases the air when the pressure of air exceeds the desired limit.
Pressure Cut off Switch: It is a device used to disconnect the electrical circuit, when the
pressure of air in the receiver tank reaches the desired pressure. This disconnects the circuit
of no volt coil in the Star-Delta Starter; thereby it switches off the motor.

Prime mover and Dynamometer:The prime mover used for the compressor is a trunnion type
electrical motor. This motor itself is acts as dynamometer to measure the input power of the
compressor.
Work done on P-V diagram of compressor:
D

Fig.2 P-V diagram for Single stage air compressor.

The P-V diagram of a single stage reciprocating air compressor with zero clearance is shown
in Fig.2 The air is sucked in from the atmosphere during the suction stroke AB at pressure
Pa(i.e. at atmospheric pressure). At the end of suction stroke the air is compressed
polytropically during the part of its return stroke (process BC). During compression
stroke the pressure and temperature of air increases and volume decreases. This happens
until the pressure P d (delivery pressure) in the cylinder is sufficient to force open the
delivery valve at C after which no more compression takes place. The delivery occurs during
the remainder of the return stroke CD. The work done on the air per stage is area ABCDA. In
the case of air compressors, the inlet and outlet valves are operated by pressure difference
only. Not by any external means.

Fig.3 P-V diagram for two stage air compressor with inter cooling.
The air is sucked in LP cylinder during the suction stroke at intake pressure Pa
and Temperature Ta. After compression in the first stage from B to E it is delivered to the
intercooler, at a constant pressure Pi. The air is cooled in an intercooler, at a constant
pressure Pi before passing it to second stage. The process of inter cooling is represented by
the line EF. The air from the intercooler is then directed to the second stage ofcompression
FG to the delivery pressure P d . Then the air delivered to the receiver tank at constant
pressure P d . This process is represented by GD in the P-V diagram. The shaded area CEFGC
shows the amount of work saved due to two stage compression with intercooling per cycle.
9

(B)Performance test
Aim: To determine the volumetric efficiency of the low pressure cylinder of Keaser Air
Compressor at NTP condition, and to draw the performance characteristics curve of a
compressor .
Specifications:
Type

Speed

Type of cooling

Bore
L.P. cylinder

H.P. cylinder

Stroke

Maximum pressure :
Motor output

Free air delivered :

Precautions:
1. Before starting the experiment, the air which is already compressed if any in the
reservoir is released out so that initial gauge pressure in compressor reservoir is
zero/atmospheric.
2. The initial load on the motor while starting should be avoided by opening the valves
provided at the top of the L.P. and H.P. cylinders.
3. The pin is inserted on the torque arm hole to prevent jerk while starting.
4. After starting the motor the pin is removed to get the correct load on the motor.
Procedure:
1. The motor is started using the automatic star-delta starter by pressing the green
colour button.
2. The valves provided at the top of the LP and HP cylinders, water drain cock and
the air outlet valves are closed after the motor has gained its speed and attains 960 rpm. The
increase in pressure of air in the receiver tank is indicated by the pressure gauge.
3. The pressure of air is maintained constant to the desired value (say 2 kgf /cm2) by
adjusting at the opening of the compressed air outlet valve in the reservoir manually.

10

4. The following observations are to be taken by keeping reservoir pressure constant.

Say (2 kg f / cm2)
a) Speed (N)
b) Manometer reading ()(Pressure difference across orifice)
c) Temperature of air entry to LP cylinder [T 1 ]
d) Temperature of air entry to HP cylinder [T 2 ] afterattaining the steady state
condition.
e) Load on the motor in kgf. [Tm 1 -Tm 2 ]
5. The same procedure of observations are to be made for the other reservoir
pressures [4,6,8,10,12 Kgf / cm2]
6. Then the motor is switched off by pressing the red color ( or off) button of the starter
after removing the load on the motor. This can be done by opening the valves provided at the
top of LP and HP cylinders.
.
Note : The load on the motor[Tm 1 -Tm 2 ] has to be taken by keeping the torque arm
horizontal and this position can be verified by inserting the pin into the torque arm hole.
Observations:
Orifice dia. [d o ] : _____mm.
Room Temperature [T a ] :_________oC

Sl.
No

Receiver pressure
(P 3 )
kg f /cm2
(gauge)

Bar
(abs.)

Speed
N
Rpm

Entry temp
LPC
1

HPC
2 1

Manometer reading(h w )
in mm
L
(left
arm)

R
(right
arm)

L+R

Load on
motor
(1 2 )

Note :1 kg f / cm2 (gauge) = (1 x 0.981) + 1.013 bar [Absolute] Bar

11

kg/cm2)

Specimen calculations: (For gauge pressure =

1. Density of air ( a ) 3 =
Where

1.013 x 10 5

= 287 (273+

P a = Atmospheric pressure, 1.013 x 105N/m2

R a = Universal Gas constant, 287 J/kgK

T a = Room Temperature in Kelvin

2. Pressure head in terms of air (h a ), m

a h a = w hw
=

where

1000

w = density of water = 1000 kg/m3

h w = head of water in m=(
103 m)

3. Velocity of air through orifice, (V a ), m/sec. = 2

4. Area of orifice, (m2) = (A o ) =

0 2

where d o = dia of orifice= 18 mm = 0.018 m

3.14 (0.018)2
4

= 2.54 104 (Const)

12

5. Volume flow rate of air at inlet condition (Q a ), (m3/sec) =

Where C d = Coefficient of discharge of orifice = 0.6

6. Vol.of air compressed at NTP (Normal Temp. and Press.),( m3/sec.)

Q a at NTP =

273

7. Theoretical Volume of air, m3 /sec Q th = 4

where

60

L = Stroke length of LP cylinder = 0.076m

N = Speed in rpm
D = Diameter of LP Cylinder = 0.110 m

8. Volumetric efficiency of the L.P. Cylinder, % =

x100

13

9. Input power , (kW) =

2 x x R x N x (T m 1 T m 2 )
60x1000

where, R = Torque arm length = Half the distance between the spring balance centers.
(1 2 ) ; = = 960

10. Mass flow rate of air [M a ], kg/sec. =

11.Isothermal power ,(kW) =

M a xR a xT 1
1000

x 3
P
1

Where P 3 = Receiver pressure in bar

P 1 = atmospheric pressure = 1.01325bar
R a = 287 J/kgk
T 1 = Atmospheric temperature in K

12. Isothermal efficiency =

Isothermal power
Inputpower

x 100

14

13. Adiabatic power in kW =

M a x Ra

Where = 1.4 [Ratio of Specific heats]

1 , 2 1 are in Kelvin
R

1000

x T1 +

T2

P3

P
!

1
2

14. Adiabatic efficiency,(%) =

Adiabatic power
Input power

m3

15. Free air delivered,kW S = Input

Qa

power

16. Heat rejected in inter cooler,( kJ/sec). = 2 2 1

Where T 2 = Temperature of air entry to intercooler
P2

ie T 2 = T1 x P
1

n 1
n

15

Where n = 1.35
T 1 = Atmospheric temperature in k.
Where P 2 = Intermediate pressure assuming perfect intercooling, P 1 = Atmospheric pressure.
P 2 = P1 xP3 bar.
C p of air = 1.005

Draw the following performance characteristic curves graphs:

Receiver Pressure (P 3 )
Volumetric efficiency.
Isothermal efficiency.
Adiabatic efficiency.
FAD.
Heat lost in the intercooler.

RESULT
The performance test on Keaser air compressor was conducted and the
volumetric efficiency of L.P cylinder at NTP condition was determined at various
receiver pressure , and the various performance characteristic curves of the were also
drawn

16

Result Tabulation:
Sl.No

Reci. Press.
P 3 , (bar)
(abs.)

Vol.
%

I.P
kW

Adiabatic
Power
kW

Isothermal
in
%

Power
kW

in
%

Heat rejected
/

FAD

FAD Free Air Delivered.(The FAD is actual volume delivered at the stated pressure reduced to intake temperature and pressure and is
expressed in cubic meter per min).

17

Expt.No:

Aim:

Date:

LOAD TEST ON KIRLOSKAR AV-I (Single arm) ENGINE

To conduct a load test on Kirloskar AV-I(Single arm) engine by running the engine at
different loads at 1500 rpm and to find the economic load. Also determine the load
characteristics of the engine and generator.
Instruments required:
Swing field [DC] generator type dynamometer,
Bank of electrical resistances to apply load,
Stop-watch to note the time for a definite volume of fuel consumption.
Tachometer to measure the speed of the engine.
Specifications:
Type

No. of strokes per cycle

Type of cooling

Fuel used

Speed

Power

Bore

Stroke

Preliminary calculations:
While conducting load test the speed is retained constant and the load is varied (viz,
no load, min load, medium load & full load). Normally six equi-distributed loads are chosen in
the range from no load to full load. Preliminary calculations are made to determine the
tension T or a tangential force (W) needed at the dynamometer to effect the desired power
output (Load).
In this test setup the engine is coupled to a swing field DC generator type
dynamometer. There are provisions to measure the electrical output of the generator .
When the electrical resistances are included in the output circuit, the generator and
hence the engine gets loaded. The generator swings about the trunnion and force required to
keep the torque arm horizontal is the measure of engine output.

18

The tension T corresponding to the rated power output is calculated using the
expression for brake power. Then the values of net tension for other part load outputs
(0%,20%,40%,60%,80%) are calculated and tabulated in the observation table.
We know that
Brake power

(BP) = Torque x Angular Velocity

BP

Where,

2 N

BP

= Load or net tensions in Newton

= Speed of the engine in rpm

Re

= Torque arm length

60

= Brake Power in kilowatts

{Torque arm length = Distance between the center lines of the spring balance to generator shaft. }

Hence R e =________ cm = ________ m

The equation to find BP is: BP in kW =

2 R e N(T)

Hence

B.P x 60 x 1000

(T)

60 x 1000

2 Re N

in Newton

The value for B.P and N are to be taken from the specifications of the engine.
Substitute the value of R e in Meters
The value obtained for (T) from the above equation is the full load of the engine in
Newton.

(T) = ---------------------------------------------- =
(T) =

(T)=

in N

N
()
9.81

in kg f

19

Procedure:
1. After evaluating the loads to be applied on the engine, check the fuel level in fuel tank, flow
of cooling water to the engine, switches on the panel board are in off position, level of lubricant
in the sump as indicated by the dipstick and no-load on the engine as indicated by the loading
device etc.
The DC machine coupled to the engine is run as a generator and the applied load is varied by
altering the load resistances.

Engine

Generator

Load

2. After observing all the precautions, the engine has to be started.

Starting Procedure:i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

The decompression lever located at the rocker box is turned to the vertical upward
position. [Decompression On]
The starting handle is inserted on the cam shaft
The cam shaft is manually rotated faster in clockwise direction.
After the engine shaft has gained sufficient momentum, the decompression lever is
brought to the horizontal position [Decompression Off]. Then the engine gets started.

3. Allow the engine to run for 5 to 10 minutes to attain steady condition at its rated speed of
1500 rpm.
4. Now, load the engine approximately to 20 % of full-load by switching on the load mains and
suitable electrical resistances (Trial and error method).
5. The speed of the engine is to be maintained at 1500 rpm by adjusting speed governor.
6. The actual spring balance readings are noted after the generator torque arm to its horizontal
position by adjusting the hand wheels located above the spring balance
7. Note the time for 10 cc of fuel consumption twice at this load and average the values.
8. In the same way, maintain the speed at rated value and note the time for 10cc of fuel
consumption at 40 %, 60 %, 80 % of full load, full load and at no load.
9. After taking all the readings, the engine is switched off at no load by pulling the control rod of
the fuel injection pump.
20

Observations:-

Sl.
No.

Speed to be maintained: 1500 rpm

Cal. load
(T)

App. load
(T)

Time taken for 10 cc

of fuel consumption
in sec.
1
R

2
R

Note: At the beginning of the experiment, the conditions of viscous friction will be more than that at steady
running. Hence observation at no load if made at the beginning will result in arriving of incorrect higher fuel
consumption value. In order to overcome this error observations at no load are to be made at the end of the
experiment

Specimen calculations: (For % of load)

1. Fuel Consumption [FC], kg/hr
= Vol. flow rate, cc/s x density of fuel, kg/cc x 3600 s/hr.

FC

10
=
t ave

x Sp. gravity of diesel x density of water in kg/cc x 3600

10

2. Brake Power [BP], (kW) =

x 0.835 x 1000 x 106 x 3600 = _____________kg/hr

2 R e N(T)

() "N"

60 x 1000

21

BP =

x 1500 (

2x

)
=

60 x 1000

3. Specific Fuel Consumption [SFC], (kg/kW-hr) =

SFC = --------------- =

FC

BP

kg/kW-hr

4. Frictional Power [Fr. P], kW

To be obtained from the graph of BP Vs FC by extrapolation method. Frictional power is assumed to be constant at all loads.

F r .P

5. Indicated Power [IP], (kW) = BP+ Fr.P

IP

6. Mechanical Efficiency
Mech

Brake power

= Indicated
=

power

x 100 %

22

7. Fuel Power [Fu.p] (or) Heat Input, (kW)

FC ,

Fu P =

8. Brake Thermal Efficiency = fuel

Bth

BP

power

9. Indicated Thermal Efficiency = Fuel

Ith =

kg
kJ
xC .V,( )
hr
kg

3600

kJ

[C.V of Diesel 42,000(kg )]

x100 %

IP

power

x100 %

10.Brake Mean Effective Pressure [BMEP],(bar) =

=

BPx 10 3 x60

10 5 x L x A x N x n
BP x 60

100 L A N n

in bar

N = Number of power strokes per minute.

For 4 stroke engine N' = ;

A = Area of bore(m2)=

2
4

For 2 stroke engine N' = N; n = Number of cylinders

(d = Dia of bore in m)= .m2;

L = Length of stroke,m

BMEP =
23

11. Indicated Mean Effective Pressure [IMEP] (bar) =

IMEP =

IPx 60

100LA N n

12. Torque, Nm = (T) x R e

Torque =

Draw the following Graphs:

1.

BP Vs SFC,
B.Th. efficiency,
I.Th.efficiency,
Mech. efficiency,
IMEP,
BMEP ,
Torque .

24

RESULT TABULATION
l.
No.

B.P

F.C
/

SFC
/.

Fu.P

I.P

I.Th.

B.Th.

Mech.

BMEP

IMEP

Torque

Result:
The Load test on KIRLOSKAR AV I(Single arm type) Engine was conducted at different load condition, the economic load of
engine was found at ___________rpm is ________kW , and the corresponding performance characteristic curve were also drawn.

25

Extrapolation (or) Willans line method:

This is a method of determining the friction power and hence the indicated power of C.I
engine. It is based on the fact that at part loads the combustion is completed within the
engine cylinder. Hence at a given speed the rate of fuel consumption bears a linear relationship
with power output/torque.
A plot therefore of rate of fuel consumption versus power output/torque at a
particular speed will be a straight line in the light load region. This straight line is Willans line.
The amount of negative power output/torque obtained by extrapolation of the plot at zero rate
of fuel consumption represents the frictional power (power required to over come friction) of
the engine at the specified speed.
BP Vs. FC

(Extrapolation Method)

2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-1.5

-1

-0.5

Friction Power

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

BP in kW

The rapid increase in the slope of Willans line at high load denotes a reduction in
combustion efficiency as more and more fuel is pumped in to the given volume of air.
Since petrol engine is throttled to maintain a high fuel/air ratio with load,
combustion is not complete with in the cylinder. In this case a plot of power output versus rate
fuel consumption does not yield a straight line. Hence extrapolation is difficult and not suitable
for use with petrol engines.
Note: Finding friction power in this method directly depends on the flow rate of fuel consumed. It has to be noted
that any fuel leak in the fuel line will result in incorrect frictional power.

26

The general shape of characteristics curve are shown For reference

ECONOMIC LOAD CURVE

27

Expt.No :
Aim:

Date:

LOAD TEST ON PSG 5 HP ENGINE

To conduct a load test on PSG 5 HP engine by running the engine at different loads at
610 rpm and to find the economic load. Also to determine the load characteristics of the
engine.
Instruments required:
Friction brake to indicate the load,
Digital tachometer to measure the speed of the engine,
Stop-watch to note the time for a definite volume of fuel consumption.
Specifications:
Type

No. of strokes per cycle

Type of cooling

Fuel used

Speed

Power

Bore

Stroke

Procedure:
1. After evaluating the full-load of the engine in kg f with the help of specifications given, check
the fuel level in fuel tank, flow of cooling water to the engine, level of lubricant in the sump as
indicated by the dipstick, and no-load on the engine as indicated by the loading device etc.,
before starting the engine.
2. Start the engine by cranking and allow it to run for 5 to 10 minutes to attain steady condition
at its speed of 610 rpm. Allow the cooling water for the brake drum in order to cool it while
applying loads.
3. Now, load the engine to 20 % of full-load. Then check for its speed and note down the actual
load on the engine.
4. Note the time for 10 cc of fuel consumption twice at this load and average the values.
5. In the same way, maintain the speed at its rated value and note the time for 10cc of fuel
consumption at 40 %, 60 %, 80 % of full load, full load and at no load. After taking no load
reading the engine is stopped by engaging the fuel cut off lever.

28

Preliminary calculations:
The loading device attached to this Engine is Mechanical Brake drum type.
We know that ,
Brake power (BP)
BP
Where,

BP
(T 1 - T 2 )
N

= Torque x Angular Velocity

=(T 1 T 2 ) R e

2 N
60

= Brake Power in kilowatts

= Load or net tensions in Newton
= Speed of the engine in rpm
t

R e = Effective radius of brake drum in meters = (R +2 )

(Where R is the radius of the brake drum , obtained from its circumference and
t is the thickness of the belt = 8 mm = 0.008 m)

Circumference of the brake drum, 2R =

(To be obtained from Engine brake drum)
R=
Hence R e =
The equation to find BP is: BP in kW =
Hence (T 1 - T 2 ) =

2 R e N(T 1 T 2 )
60 x 1000

B.P x 60 x 1000
2 Re N

in Newton's

The value for B.P and N are to be taken from the specifications of the engine.
The value obtained for (T 1 - T 2 ) from the above equation is the full load of the engine in
Newton.

(T 1 - T 2 ) =
(T 1 - T 2 )=

(1 2 )
9.81

in kg f

29

Observations:-

Sl.
No

%of
load

Speed to be maintained :__________ rpm

Calculated load
(T 1 -T 2 )
N
kg f

Applied load
(T 1 -T 2 )
kg f
N

Time taken for 10cc of fuel

consumption in sec
t1
t2
t ave

Note: At the beginning of the experiment, the conditions of viscous friction will be more from that at steady
running. Hence observation at no load if made at the beginning will result in arriving of incorrect higher fuel
consumption value. In order to overcome this error observations at no load are to be made at the end of the
experiments.

Specimen Calculations: (For % of load)

1. Fuel Consumption [FC], kg/hr
= Vol. flow rate, cc/s x density of fuel, kg/cc x 3600 s/hr.
10
=
t ave

FC =

x Sp. gravity of diesel x density of water in kg/cc x 3600

10

x 0.835 x 1000 x 106 x 3600 = ________________ kg/hr

2. Brake Power [BP], (kW) =

2 R e N(T 1 T 2 )
60 x 1000

(1 2 ) ""Newton" "

BP =

2x

x 610 (

60 x 1000

30

3. Specific Fuel Consumption [SFC], (kg/kW-hr) =

FC

BP

SFC =
4. Frictional Power [Fr. P], kW
To be obtained from the graph of BP Vs FC by extrapolation method. Frictional power is assumed to be constant at all loads.

F r .P

5. Indicated Power [IP], (kW) = BP+ Fr.P

IP

Brake power

6. Mechanical Efficiency = Indicated

Mech =

power

x 100

7. Fuel Power [Fu.p] (or) Heat Input, (kW)

FC ,

Fu P =

8. Brake Thermal Efficiency = fuel

Bth

BP

power

9. Indicated Thermal Efficiency = Fuel

Ith =

IP

kg
kJ
xC .V,( )
hr
kg

3600

kJ

[C.V of Diesel 42,000(kg )]

x100

power

x100
31

10.Brake Mean Effective Pressure [BMEP],(bar) =

=

BPx 10 3 x60

10 5 x L x A x N x n
BP x 60

100 L A N n

in bar

N = Number of power strokes per minute.

For 4 stroke engine N' = ;

A = Area of bore(m2)=

2
4

For 2 stroke engine N' = N; n = Number of cylinders

(d = Dia of bore in m)= .m2;

L = Length of stroke,m

BMEP =

11. Indicated Mean Effective Pressure [IMEP] (bar) =

IMEP =

IPx 60

100LA N n

12. Torque, Nm = (T 1 - T 2 ) x R e
Torque =

Draw the following Graphs:

1.

BP Vs SFC,
B.Th. efficiency,

2.

BP Vs I.Th.efficiency,
Mech. efficiency,
IMEP,
BMEP and
Torque .
32

RESULT TABULATION

Sl no

Appl.load

BP

FC

SFC

Fu.P

IP

kW

Kg/hr

Kg/kW-hr

kW

kW

``%

BMEP

IMEP

Torque

bar

bar

Nm

3
4
5

Result :
The Load test on PSG 5 HP Engine was conducted at different load condition, the economic load of engine was found at ___________rpm is
________kW and the corresponding performance characteristic curve were also drawn.
33

STUDY AND VALVE TIMING ON FOUR STROKE IC ENGINES

Aim:To determine the valve timings/settings of a four stroke IC engine and to draw the
valve timing diagram.

Valve timing Diagram:Valve timing diagram is the graphical form of representing the timings (instants) in terms
of the corresponding crank positions at which the inlet and exhaust valves open and close.
The crank positions and the sequences are described with reference to the nearest dead center.

Purpose:At the time of every overhauling and repairing, the engine parts are dismantled and
reassembled. After such reassembling, the valve timings are to be verified with the
manufacturers recommendations, i.e, the original settings, and adjusted using the valve tappet
if required. The valve timings are also to be periodically verified with original settings because
of the wear and tear of the elements of the valve mechanism.

Procedure:Identification of valves:The engine cylinder head cover is removed to facilitate the observation of valves, valve
mechanisms and their workings in case of multi cylinder engine. Incase of single cylinder engine
the rocker arm box cover is removed. The engine crank shaft is manually turned in the correct
direction (clockwise from the cranking end) and the functioning of valves is noted. Both inlet
and exhaust valves will be in simultaneous operation at a particular period. This period
represents the overlapping between two cycles (the suction process of later cycle overlapping
with the exhaust process of the current cycle.) The valve which closes during this period is the
exhaust valve while that opens is the inlet valve.

Rotating member for markings:A circular member (flywheel /pulley/brake drum) mounted on the crankshaft is used
for making the markings related to the various events (IVO,IVC,EVO & EVC) with reference
to the nearest dead center IDC/ODC for horizontal engine or TDC/BDC for vertical engine. The
circumference of the circular member used will be useful in determining the various crank
angles.
A pointer or an indicator fixed on the engine frame serves as the reference against which
all the markings are made on the rim of the circular member.

34

Dead Centers:When the engine runs, the piston reciprocates between two extremities of the stroke. These
extreme positions are called as dead centers, the velocity of reciprocation being zero at these
instants. The crank positions corresponding to the dead center positions of the piston are termed
TDC/ BDC or IDC /ODC positions.
The crank is turned manually and the marking is made on the rim of the circular member
when the piston is at a definite position (piston bottom coincides with the bottom of the cylinder)
during its downward journey. On further rotation of the crank, the piston moves down, reaches
the BDC position and reverses its direction to move up. During the upward journey the piston
will reach the same definite position at which a marking was done earlier on the rim of the
circular member. Now another marking is done on the rim of the circular member. Mid point of
the two markings (on the shorter arc length) is the BDC marking on the rim. TDC marking is
made diametrically opposite to the BDC marking.
At the commencement of valve just moving away from its seat due to the actuation by cam
through push rod, the valve is said to have opened. When the valve has completed the
movement against its seat by spring action, it is said to have closed.
When the crank is turned, the instant at which a piece of paper inserted in-between the valve
stem and tappet/rocker arm is just gripped is the valve opening. IVO and EVO markings are
made on the circular member corresponding to the openings of the inlet and exhaust valves.
Similarly the instant at which the paper just looses the grip in between the valve stem and
tappet/rocker arm is the valve closing. IVC and EVC markings are made on the circular member.
The distances of the IVO,IVC,EVO & EVC markings on the circular member, from the
nearest dead center are measured.[Fuel injection timing can also be noted by noting down the
starting and ending of fuel injection through nozzle( i.e., fuel injector)]
The observed diagram is drawn using the dimension details of markings on the circular
member and the direction of rotation of the flywheel. The circle, drawn of any convenient radius,
represents the circular member (flywheel/pulley/brake drum).
Inferring from the observed diagram, the events, their sequences and timings in relation to
the nearest dead center are tabulated as shown. The arc lengths are expressed as crank angles in
the last column of the table.
The valve timing diagram is drawn using the details (event, sequence and crank angle) in the
table.

35

Model

OBSERVED DIAGRAM

X4

X1

X3

X2

Observation tabulation:Sl.
No.

Events

IVO

IVC

EVO

EVC

Sequence of
Operation

Circumference of flywheel = ............cm.

Distance from the nearest dead Crank angle
in degrees
center x in cms

360

Crank angle, = / /
36

Procedure for drawing V.T.D.

Draw a vertical line to represent the line of stroke.
Mark a point 1 on it. Draw a semi-circle of any convenient
radius taking point 1 as center to its RHS of the vertical line
from a to b. Then mark another point 2 little above the
point 1 on the vertical line (say 5 to 10 mm). Then
draw another semi-circle from b to c taking 2 as center
on the LHS of the vertical line. Similarly draw semi-circles
from c to d on the RHS taking 1 as center and from d
to e on the LHS taking 2 as center. Then extend the arcs
to the desired length from a as well as from e.

e
c
a
2
1
b

Then locate all the events on the circular arcs as per

d
the tabulation . Join these points with the center of the circle
(Take point 1 as center) by radial lines. This radial line represents the crank positions
corresponding to the events.
Model

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

1 4

S Suction
C Compression
P Power
E Exhaust

Result:
The angle through which the inlet valve remains open
:
The angle through which the Exhaust valve remains open :
The angle of overlap
:

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Note: In the place of 1 , 2 , 3 & 4 , the actual values of the crank angles in degrees are to be substituted

37

Expt.No :

Date:

STUDY AND VALVE TIMING ON FIELD MARSHAL 8 HP ENGINE

Aim:To study and determine the valve timings/settings on field marshal 8 HP engine and to draw
the valve timing diagram.
Requirements: Measuring tape
A circular member attached to crank shaft
A reference point
Specifications:Type

Fuel used

Power

Speed

Bore

Stroke

Type of Cooling

Valve mechanism

:
OBSERVED DIAGRAM

38

Observation tabulation:Circumference of flywheel =

Sl.
No.

Events

IVO

IVC

EVO

EVC

Sequence of
Operation

Distance from the nearest dead

centre x in cms

cm.

Crank angle
in degrees

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:

1 =

2 =

3 =

4 =

Circumference

Circumference

Circumference

Circumference

of the flywheel / pulley / brake drum

of the flywheel / pulley / brake drum

of the flywheel / pulley / brake drum

of the flywheel / pulley / brake drum

39

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

RESULT:

The experiment was conducted and the Valve Timing Diagram for field marshal 8 HP
engine was drawn. From the valve timing diagram the following values are obtained
Crank angle for which the Inlet Valve remains open( 1 +180+ 2 )

Crank angle for which the Exhaust valve remains open( 3 +180+ 4 )

Angle of over lap ( 1 + 4 )

=
40

General Instruction and procedure for

STUDY AND PORT TIMING ON TWO STROKE IC ENGINES

Aim :
To determine the port timings of Two stroke IC engines and to draw the port timing
diagram.
Ports:
The ports in a two stroke engine are small openings in the cylinder walls diametrically
opposite to each other. The piston reciprocating inside the cylinder uncovers (opens) and covers
(closes) the ports, thus performing the function of valves in 4 - stroke engines. The exhaust port
lies slightly above the inlet (transfer) port. Hence during the ascending of the piston in a vertical
engine, the closing of exhaust port precedes the closing of transfer port. Similarly in the
descending of the piston, the exhaust port is uncovered first and then the inlet (transfer) port.
The above said facts help in identifying the inlet and exhaust ports.

Procedure:
Dead centers:
On removal of the cylinder head, the piston top can be visualized.
flywheel

makes

the

piston reciprocate.

Rotation of the

Make a mark on the flywheel against the fixed

pointer corresponding to a specific position of the piston in its upward stroke.

On further

rotation of the flywheel piston reaches the TDC position (maximum height) and reverses
its direction of motion down wards. The position at which a mark was made earlier during
upward stroke will be reached again during the downward stroke. Now make a mark on the
flywheel. The mid point of the markings is the TDC point on the flywheel. As the direct
location of TDC point requires visual judgment and is difficult, the procedure mentioned is
suggested. The BDC point is marked in the flywheel diametrically opposite to TDC point. A
port is said to open when the piston just starts uncovering it. It is said to close only when piston
has totally covered it
After marking the dead center positions on the flywheel, markings are made
corresponding to the opening and closing of the inlet and exhaust ports.

41

Observed diagram:
A circle of any convenient radius is drawn to represent the flywheel. The markings made on
the flywheel are also shown in the circle and the distance of them from the nearest dead center
are marked. When the sense of rotation of the flywheel is added, the observed diagram becomes
complete.
The details of the observed diagram ie. the crank positions (angle and sequence) in
relation to the nearest dead center, corresponding to the opening and closing of the inlet and
exhaust valves are tabulated. The respective crank angles are calculated from the arc lengths in
observed diagram.
Model

OBSERVED DIAGRAM
TDC

EPC

EPO
IPO

IPC

X1

X2

X3

X4
BDC

Observation tabulation:Sl.
No.

Events

1
2
3
4

IPO
IPC
EPO
EPC

Crank angle, =

Sequence of
Operation

Circumference

Circumference of flywheel = ............cm.

Distance from the nearest dead Crank angle
in degrees
centre x in cms

of the flywheel / pulley / brake drum

42

Port Timing Diagram:

The port timing diagram is drawn using the inferences from the table. The crank angles,
the sequences in relation to the nearest dead center position of the crank and the required
direction of travel of the observer along the circular diagram are furnished in the port timing
diagram.
Model

PORT TIMING DIAGRAM

2
4

1
3

Result:
The angle through which the inlet port remains open
The angle through which the Exhaust port remains open

:
:

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Note: In the place of 1 , 2 , 3 & 4 , the actual values of the crank angles in degrees are to be substituted

43

Expt. No :

Date:

STUDY AND PORT TIMING ON PETTER 3 HP ENGINE

Aim :
To study and determine the port timings of Petter 3 HP engine and to draw the port
timing diagram.
Requirements: Measuring tape
A circular member attached to crank shaft
A reference point
Specifications:Type

Fuel used

Power

Speed

Bore

Stroke

Type of Cooling

:
OBSERVED DIAGRAM

44

Observation tabulation:Sl.
No.

Events

IPO

IPC

EPO

EPC

Sequence of
Operation

Circumference of flywheel =
cm.
Distance from the nearest dead Crank angle
in degrees
centre x in cms

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS

1 =

2 =

3 =

4 =

Circumference

of the flywheel / pulley / brake drum

Circumference

of the flywheel / pulley / brake drum

Circumference

Circumference

of the flywheel / pulley / brake drum

of the flywheel / pulley / brake drum

45

PORT TIMING DIAGRAM

RESULT:
The experiment was conducted and the Port Timing Diagram for the Petter 3 HP engine
was drawn
Crank angle for which the Inlet port remains open ( 1 + 2 )
Crank angle for which the Exhaust port remains open ( 3 + 4 )

=
=

46

DYNAMICS LABORATORY
Expt. No.

Date:

DETERMINATION OF CHARACTERISTICS CURVES OF

WATT GOVERNOR AND HARTNELL GOVERNOR
Watt Governor
Aim:

To determine the characteristic curves of Watt governor.

Introduction:
The function of a governor is to maintain the mean speed of a machine/prime mover, by
regulating the input to the machine/prime mover automatically, when the variation of speed
occurs due to fluctuation in the load.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Length of each link l
Initial height of governor (ho)
Mass of each ball (m)

= 125 mm
= 95 mm
= 0.306 kg

Description:
The drive unit consists of a small electric motor connected through the belt and pulley
arrangement. A DC variac effects precise speed control and an extension of the spindle shaft
allows the use of hand held tachometer to find the speed of the governor spindle. A graduated
scale is fixed to the sleeve and guided in vertical direction.
Procedure:
Mount the watt governor mechanism on the drive unit of the governor apparatus. Vary
the governor spindle speed by adjusting the variac. The speed can be determined by the hand
tachometer.
Increase the speed of the governor spindle gradually by adjusting the variac and note
down the speed at which the sleeve just begins to move up. Take four or five sets of readings by
increasing the governor speed in steps and note down the corresponding sleeve displacement
within the range of the governor and tabulate the observations.
Observation table:
Sl.No.

Speed (N) in
rpm

Sleeve displacement x in
cm
m

1
2
3
4
5
47

Specimen Calculation: (for .reading)

Height of the governor h = [ho - (x/2)]
=
From the figure we can write
Cos = h / l
= Cos-1 (h / l )
=
The controlling force Fc = m 2 r
Where
m = mass of fly ball in kg =0.306kg.
= Angular velocity of spindle in rad/sec
= 2 N / 60
=
r = radius of rotation of the balls.
`r' = l Sin + 50 mm
=
The controlling force Fc = m 2 r
FC =
Result tabulation:
Sl.No.

Speed (N) in rpm

Radius of rotation (r) in

meter.

Controlling force Fc in N

1
2
3
4
5
Graph:

Draw

Speed Vs
Radius Vs

Displacement
Controlling force

Result:

48

Spindle
Link

Flyball

Drive
Motor
Unit

Sleeve
Scale

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP OF WATT GOVERNOR

ho=95

100

l=125

100

All dimensions are in mm

WATT GOVERNOR CONFIGURATION

49

Hartnell Governor
Aim: To determine the characteristic curves of the given Hartnell Governor.
Introduction:
This governor comes under the spring loaded type centrifugal governors. The control of
the speed is affected either wholly or in part by means of springs. The centrifugal governors are
based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls by an equal and opposite radial
force, known as the controlling force. It consists of two balls of equal mass, which are attached
to the arms as shown in fig. These balls are known as governor balls or fly balls. The balls
revolve with a spindle, which is driven by the engine through bevel gears. The upper ends of the
arms are pivoted to the spindle, so that the balls may rise up or fall down as they revolve about
the vertical axis. The arms are connected by the links to a sleeve, which is keyed to the spindle.
This sleeve revolves with the spindle but can slide up & down. The balls and the sleeve rises
when the spindle speed increases and falls when the speed decreases. The sleeve is connected by
a bell crank lever to a throttle valve. The supply of the working fluid decreases when the sleeve
rises and increases when it falls.
Description:
The drive unit of the governor consists of a small electric motor connected through a belt
and pulley arrangement. A D.C. Variac affects precise speed control. A photoelectric pick up is
used to find speed of the governor spindle. The set up is designed to produce pulses proportional
to r.p.m of shaft using phototransistor as the sensing element. A graduated scale is fixed to the
sleeve and guided in vertical direction.
Procedure:
Mount the Hartnell governor mechanism on the drive unit of the governor apparatus.
Vary the governor spindle speed by adjusting the variac. Increase the speed of the governor
spindle gradually by adjusting the variac and note down the speed at which the sleeve just begins
to move up. Take four or five sets of readings by increasing the governor speed gradually in
steps and note down the corresponding sleeve movement within the range of the governor.
Specifications:
Mass of the fly ball
Length of ball arm (a)
Length of sleeve arm (b)
Initial radius r o

= 0.700 kg
= 75 mm
= 115.5 mm
= 165 mm

Observation table:
Speed(N)
Sl. No.
in rpm

Sleeve displacement
x in
cm
m

1
2
3
4
5
50

Specimen calculation:
2
The controlling force Fc = m r
Where

m = mass of fly ball in kg

= Angular velocity of spindle in rad/sec
= 2 N / 60
=

Radius of rotation (r)

= ro + (a / b) x

=
2

The controlling force Fc = m r

FC =

Result tabulation:
Sl.
No.
1

Speed (N) in rpm

Radius of rotation
(r) in meter.

Controlling force
(Fc) in N

2
3
4
5
Graph:

Draw

Speed Vs
Radius Vs

Displacement
Controlling force

Result:

51

Nut
Frame
Locknut
Spring
Flyball
Bell Crank Lever
Drive
Motor
Unit

Scale

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP OF HARTNELL GOVERNOR

Spring

G
a

80
300

HARTNELL GOVERNOR CONFIGURATION

52

Expt. No. :

Date :

DETERMINATION OF MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA OF FLY WHEEL

Aim:
Experimentally determine the mass moment of inertia of the flywheel along with the shaft and
verify the same theoretically.
Theory:
Let the mass descend under the force of gravity starting from rest with uniform
acceleration. As per Newton's second law of motion of the falling mass
mg - T = ma
..
(1)
Where m = Mass of the falling body
T = tension in the string
a = acceleration of the falling mass
therefore
T = m g - m a
= m (g - a)
..
(2)
Considering the motion of the flywheel the equation of motion is
Tq = I
But net torque, T q = Torque due to tension T - Frictional torque
= (T.r) - ( F f . r )
= ( T - Ff ) r
Where F f is Frictional force in Newton
Therefore ( T - Ff ) r = I.
.. ..
(3)
Substituting the value of T in equation (3)
[m (g - a) - Ff] r = I.
But = a / r
Therefore [m (g - a) - Ff] r = I (a/r)
2
..
(4)
or I = (r / a) [ m(g - a ) - Ff ]
To find ` a':
Let `t is the time taken by the falling mass to travel the distance `h"
u = 0; S = h ; t = t
We know that

2
1
a t
2
2
h = 0 + 1a t
2
Therefore a = 22h
t

S = u t +

Moment of inertia of the flywheel I can be found by substituting the value of a in eqn. (4)

53

Procedure:
First of all find out the force needed to overcome the friction present on the bearings
when it just begins to rotate by gradually adding the weight to the weight pan which is attached
to the one end of the string.
Then some more known weight is added and allow the mass to fall under the force of
gravity. Note down the time for first 10 revolutions of the flywheel starting from rest. Conduct
the experiment two or three times with the same mass and take the average time value. Repeat
the experiment with different masses and tabulate the observations.
Observations:
Frictional force F f

mf g

=
=

(Where m f = mass added to overcome the friction)

Mass of falling body (m)

in
grams

Time for 10 revolutions in seconds

kg.

t1

t2

t3

t average

Specimen Calculations:
m - mass added
r - radius of the shaft in mtrs.
h - distance travelled for 10 revolutions
h
h
a

=
=
=
=

10 d

in meter

Where d is diameter of the shaft

2h
t2

..

m/s2

Therefore

r2
I=
m( g a ) F f
a

kgm 2

Iept. =
54

Mass Moment of Inertia of Flywheel (Theoretical )

CALCULATIONS:
Mass Density of the material () of the flywheel and shaft = 6840 kg/m3
Radius of gyration k:
k2 for solid cylinder of diameter. `d'
k2 for hollow cylinder

= d2 / 8
= (do2 + di2) / 8

1) Moment of Inertia of shaft:

Dia. of the shaft (d)
=
Length of the shaft
=
Area of cross section
= (/4)d2
=
Volume of the shaft

= Area of cross section x Length of the shaft

=

Mass of the shaft (m)

= Volume x mass density

=

(Radius of gyration)2 = k2

= d2 / 8

I shaft = m. k2

2) Moment of Inertia of Hub:

Outer dia. of the hub, d o =
Inner dia. of the hub, d i =
Width of the hub
=
Area of cross section

= (/4) (do2 - di2)

=

Volume of the Hub

= Area of cross section x width of the Hub

=

Mass of the Hub(m)

= Volume x mass density

=
55

(Radius of gyration)2 = k2

= (do2 + di2) / 8
=

I Hub = m. k2

3) Moment of Inertia of Disk:

Outer dia. of the disk, d o =
Inner dia. of the disk, d i =
Width of the disk
=
Area of cross section

= (/4) (do2 - di2)

=

Volume of the Disk

= Area of cross section x width of the Disk

=

Mass of the Disk (m)

= Volume x mass density

=

(Radius of gyration)2 = k2

= (do2 + di2) / 8
=

I shaft = m. k2

4) Moment of Inertia of Rim:

Outer dia. of the rim, d o =
Inner dia. of the rim, d i =
Width of the rim
=
Area of cross section

= (/4) (do2 - di2)

=

Volume of the Rim

= Area of cross section x width of the Rim

=

Mass of the rim (m)

= Volume x mass density

=

56

(Radius of gyration)2 = k2

= (do2 + di2) / 8

I rim = m. k2 =
The mass moment of inertia of flywheel , I = I SHAFT + I HUB +I DISC + IRIM
(Theoretical )
=
Result:
Mass moment of inertia of flywheel :
Theoretical =
Experimental =

Rim

Disc
Hub
Bearing

Shaft
25

44

194

252

18
55
68
245

All Dimensions are in mm

SECTIONAL FRONT VIEW OF FLYWHEEL

57

Expt. No.:

Date

DETERMINATION OF MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA OF CONNECTING ROD

Aim:
To determine the mass moment of inertia of the given connecting rod about an axis
through the centre of gravity perpendicular to the plane of oscillation.
Materials required:
Connecting rod, stop clock, scale, weighing balance
Theory:
The mass moment of inertia of a connecting rod is the product of the mass of the
connecting rod and the square of the radius of gyration. In this experiment the connecting rod is
assumed as a compound pendulum and the relationship established between the length of simple
pendulum and the frequency of oscillation. This relationship is used to find the radius of gyration
and hence the moment of inertia of the connecting rod.
Procedure:
First of all, find the mass of the given connecting rod using weighing balance. Then allow
oscillating the connecting rod as a compound pendulum gently on a knife edged pivot about its
small end as shown in fig. Note down the time for 20 oscillations. Repeat this for two or three
times and take the average time.
Similarly repeat the same procedure with big end of the connecting rod and note down
the timings. Measure the distance between the points of suspension of small and big end with the
pivot. This distance represents the length of the connecting rod. Tabulate all the observations.
Observations :
Connecting rod No.
Length of the connecting rod (l)
Mass of the connecting rod(m)

Connecting
Rod No.

Point of
suspension

:
:
:
Time for 20 oscillations in
sec

t1

t2

t3

t mean

Time for one

oscillation t p
in sec

Frequency
f n = 1/t p
in H z

Small
end

f n1 =

Big end

f n2 =

58

CONNECTING ROD
h 1 , h 2 = distance of centre of gravity from the point of suspension
of small end and big end respectively
l
= length of connecting rod
G
= centre of gravity

Theory & Calculations:

(Assume connecting rod as a Compound pendulum)
We know that the frequency of oscillation of a compound pendulum
fn =

2 + 2

This equation can be written as

59

fn =

where l eq =

2 + 2

`h is the distance of centre of gravity from the point of suspension.

k g is the radius of gyration about its centre of gravity.
Let
leq 1 = length of equivalent simple pendulum when suspended from the small end
leq 2 = length of equivalent simple pendulum when suspended from the big end
h 1 , h 2 = distance of centre of gravity from the point of suspension of small end and big
end respectively
f n1 =

Squaring both sides

f n12 =
l eq1 =

4 2 1

2
4 2 1

4 2

Similarly we can write

l eq2 =

But

2
4 2 2

l eq1 =

h 1 leq 1
kg

2 + 12
1

= kg + h 1

9.81

4 2

9.81

)2

)2

= h 1 ( leq 1 - h 1 ) .(1)

Similarly we can write

2
kg = h 2 ( leq 2 - h 2 ) ..(2)
Equating (1) & (2)
h 1 (leq 1 - h 1 ) = h 2 ( leq 2 - h 2 ) ..(3)
Also we know that
h1 + h2 = l

.(4)

Where l is the actual length of the connecting rod between the points of suspension.
Solving the equation (3) and (4) we can get h 1 and h 2
Then substituting the value of h 1 or h 2 in equation (1) or (2) we can get k g
60

Then Moment of Inertia of the connecting rod

Where m is the mass of the connecting rod.
I

= m kg

I = m kg

Result:
The mass moment of inertia of the connecting rod = .. kg.m2

61

Expt. No.:
Date
:
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF NATURAL FREQUENCY OF TORSIONAL
VIBRATION OF SINGLE ROTOR SHAFT SYSTEM
Aim:
To study the Torsional vibration of single rotor- shaft system
Description:
Figure shows the general arrangement for carrying out the experiments.
One end of the shaft is gripped in the chuck and heavy rotor free to rotate in ball bearing
is fixed at the other end of the shaft.
The bracket with fixed end of shaft can be clamped at any convenient position along
lower beam. Thus length of the shaft can be varied during the experiments. Specially designed
chucks are used for clamping the ends of the shaft. The ball bearing support to the rotor provides
negligible damping during experiment. The bearing housing is fixed to side member of
mainframe.
Procedure:
1. Fix the bracket at convenient position along the lower beam
2. Grip one end of the shaft at the bracket by chuck.
3. Fix the rotor on the other end of the shaft.
4. Twist the rotor through some angle and release.
5. Note down the time required for 20 oscillations
6. Repeat the procedure for different lengths of shaft
7. Make the following observations in the table:
a. Shaft diameter d
= 4.6 mm
b. Diameter of rotor D = 225 mm
c. Mass of rotor m
= 3.088 kg
d. Modulus of rigidity for shaft material (MS) G = 8 1010
Observation table:
Effective Length of
Shaft (L)

Time for 20 oscillations in

seconds

N/m2

Periodic time
(t p ) in seconds

Frequency f n expt =
1/t p
Hz

cm

t1

t2

t3

t ave

Theoretical Calculations:

Torsional stiffness of the shaft : kt =
Where
G
L

= Modulus of rigidity for shaft : G = 8 x1010 N/m2

= Effective length of shaft
62

Ip
d

= Polar moment of inertia of shaft =

= Diameter of the shaft in m

4
32

in m4

Frame
Rotor

L
Shaft
Chuck

d
Bracket

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR TORSIONAL VIBRATION OF SINGLE ROTOR - SHAFT

SYSTEM
Torsional stiffness of the shaft : kt =

= . N.m

= 2

We know that
Where

Hz

kt

= Torsional stiffness of the shaft

= mass moment of inertia of the rotor = m k2

= radius of gyration = 8

fn theo =

Result tabulation:
Length of shaft in m.

f expt . (Hz)

f theo (Hz)

63

Expt. No.

Date:

STUDY AND EXPERIMENTS ON CAM AND FOLLOWER MECHANISM

Aim: To study various types of cams & followers and to draw displacement diagram of the
follower for the given four cam profiles.
Description:
The cam is a reciprocating, oscillating or rotating body, which imparts reciprocating or
oscillating motion to a second body called the follower with which it is in contact.
The cam mechanisms are commonly used in printing machinery, in automatic machines,
machine tools, internal combustion engines, control mechanisms etc.,
There are at least three members in a cam mechanism
1. The cam, which has a contact surface either curved or straight.
2. The follower whose motion is produced by contact with the cam surface.
3. The frame which supports and guides the follower and cam
The cam rotates usually at constant angular velocity and drives the follower whose
motion depends upon the shape of the cam.
The apparatus consists of roller follower and provision for mounting disc cams. The
different cams are mounted one after another and rotated through the handle. The translator
motion of the follower can be determined by the arm attached to the follower.
The displacement of the follower at various angular position of the cam is determined by
attaching a paper over the plate. (On which the projecting arm moves). Using this observation
the displacement diagram of the follower for the given cam can be drawn.

Procedure:
Mount one of the cam profiles (say A) on the apparatus. Fix a white paper on the plate
(on which the projecting arm moves). Rotate the cam using the handle through a known angular
displacement (i.e., coinciding the follower with the division made on the cam). Now the position
of the projecting arm on the paper can be marked. Similarly subsequent positions of the follower
at other known angular positions can be determined for one full rotation of the cam. The same
procedure has to be repeated for other cams. Tabulate the observations.

64

Observation table:
Angular
displacement of
cams in degree

Linear displacement of the follower of the cam

A

30
60
90
120
150
180
188

210
240
270
285

300
315
330
345
360

Graph: To draw angular displacements of the cam Vs the linear displacements of the follower
Result:

65

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5

Circular Arc Cam

Offset Cam

1.5
1
0.5
0
0

100

200

300

400

Graphical Method
5
4
3
2
1

Offset Cam

Circular Arc Cam

Polar Chart

66