Hydrogen vehicle

1 Vehicles

The 2015 Toyota Mirai is one of the rst hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to be sold commercially. The Mirai is based on the Toyota
FCV concept car (shown).[1]

Honda FCX Clarity, a hydrogen fuel cell demonstration vehicle

introduced in 2008

Further information: Fuel cell vehicle

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen
as its onboard fuel for motive power. Hydrogen vehicles include hydrogen fueled space rockets, as well as
automobiles and other transportation vehicles. The power
plants of such vehicles convert the chemical energy of
hydrogen to mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal combustion engine, or by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to run electric motors.
Widespread use of hydrogen for fueling transportation is
a key element of a proposed hydrogen economy.[2]

Buses, trains, PHB bicycles, canal boats, cargo bikes,

golf carts, motorcycles, wheelchairs, ships, airplanes,
submarines, and rockets can already run on hydrogen, in
various forms. NASA used hydrogen to launch Space
Shuttles into space. A working toy model car runs on
solar power, using a regenerative fuel cell to store energy
in the form of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can then convert the fuel back into water to release the solar energy.[8]
Since the advent of hydraulic fracturing the key concern
for environmentalists with hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is
consumer and public policy confusion that could result
adoption of natural gas powered hydrogen vehicles with
heavy hidden emissions to the detriment of environmentally friendly transportation.[7]

Hydrogen fuel does not occur naturally on Earth and thus

is not an energy source; rather it is an energy carrier. As
of 2014, 95% of hydrogen is made from methane. It can
be produced using renewable sources, but that is an expensive process.[3] Integrated wind-to-hydrogen (power
to gas) plants, using electrolysis of water, are exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with traditional energy
sources.[4]

The current land speed record for a hydrogen-powered

vehicle is 286.476 miles per hour (461.038 km/h) set
by Ohio State University's Buckeye Bullet 2, which
achieved a ying-mile speed of 280.007 miles per hour
(450.628 km/h) at the Bonneville Salt Flats in August
2008. For production-style vehicles, the current record
for a hydrogen-powered vehicle is 207.297 miles per hour
(333.612 km/h) set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car at Bonneville Salt Flats in
Wendover, Utah in August 2007. It was accompanied by
a large compressed oxygen tank to increase power.[9]

Many companies are working to develop technologies

that might eciently exploit the potential of hydrogen
energy for use in motor vehicles. As of November 2013
there are demonstration eets of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles undergoing eld testing including the Chevrolet
Equinox Fuel Cell, Honda FCX Clarity, Hyundai ix35
FCEV and Mercedes-Benz B-Class F-Cell.[5] The drawbacks of hydrogen use are high carbon emissions intensity when produced from natural gas, capital cost burden,
low energy content per unit volume, low performance of 1.1 Automobiles
fuel cell vehicles compared with gasoline vehicles, production and compression of hydrogen, and the large in- Main articles: List of fuel cell vehicles and List of
vestment in infrastructure that would be required to fuel hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles
vehicles.[5][6][7]
1

VEHICLES

Toyota launched its rst production fuel cell vehicle, the

Toyota Mirai, in Japan at the end of 2014 and plans to
begin sales in California, mainly the Los Angeles area, in
2015.[10] The car is expected to have a range of 300 mi
(480 km) and to take about ve minutes to rell its hydrogen tank. The sale price in Japan is about 7 million
yen ($69,000).[11] Former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimates that Toyota will initially lose about
$100,000 on each Mirai sold.[12]

Toyota FCHV-BUS at the Expo 2005.

testing collaboration.
Hydrogen was rst stored in roof mounted tanks, although models are now incorporating onboard tanks.
Some double deck models use between oor tanks.

The Chevrolet Sequel hydrogen fuel cell-powered concept SUV

vehicle

Many automobile companies have been researching the

feasibility of commercially producing hydrogen cars, and
some have introduced demonstration models in limited
numbers (see list of fuel cell vehicles).[13] Since 1980,
car companies have made numerous predictions about
the commercialization of FC vehicles.[10][14][15] At the
2012 World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Daimler AG,
Honda, Hyundai and Toyota all conrmed plans to produce hydrogen fuel cell vehicles for sale by 2015.[16]
Charles Freese, GMs executive director of global powertrain engineering, stated that the company believes that
both fuel-cell vehicles and battery electric vehicles are
needed for reduction of greenhouse gases and reliance on
oil.[17]
In 2012, Lux Research, Inc. issued a report that stated:
The dream of a hydrogen economy ... is no nearer. It
concluded that Capital cost, not hydrogen supply, will
limit adoption to a mere 5.9 GW by 2030, providing a
nearly insurmountable barrier to adoption, except in niche
applications. Luxs analysis concluded that by 2030, the
PEM stationary market will reach $1 billion, while the
vehicle market, including automobiles and forklifts, will
reach a total of $2 billion.[18]

Tata Motors and ISRO have already developed a hydrogen bus which is being tested in India. The bus is expected to get on road in 2015.

1.3 Trams
In March 2015, China South Rail Corporation (CSR)
demonstrated the worlds rst hydrogen fuel cell-powered
tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao. The chief engineer of the CSR subsidiary CSR Sifang Co Ltd., Liang
Jianying, said that the company is studying how to reduce
the running costs of the tram.[19] A total of 83 miles of
tracks for the new vehicle have been built in seven Chinese cities. China plans to spend 200 billion yuan ($32
billion) over the next ve years to increase tram tracks to
more than 1,200 miles.[20]

1.4 Bicycles
Main article: PHB (bicycle)
Pearl Hydrogen Power Sources of Shanghai, China, unveiled a hydrogen bicycle at the 9th China International
Exhibition on Gas Technology, Equipment and Applications in 2007.

1.5 Motorcycles and scooters

ENV develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including the Crosscage and Biplane.
Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydroMain article: fuel cell bus
gen scooters.[21] Finally, hydrogen fuel cell-electric hyFuel cell buses (as opposed to hydrogen fueled buses) brid scooters are being made such as the Suzuki Burgman
are being trialed by several manufacturers in dierent lo- Fuel cell scooter.[22] and the FHybrid.[23] The Burgman
cations. The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global fuel cell bus received whole vehicle type approval in the EU.[24]

1.2

Buses

1.8

Fork trucks

3
In July 2010 Boeing unveiled its hydrogen powered
Phantom Eye UAV, powered by two Ford internal combustion engines that have been converted to run on
hydrogen.[30]
In Britain, the Reaction Engines A2 has been proposed to
use the thermodynamic properties of liquid hydrogen to
achieve very high speed, long distance (antipodal) ight
by burning it in a precooled jet engine.

1.8 Fork trucks

A HICE forklift or HICE lift truck is a hydrogen fueled,
internal combustion engine-powered industrial forklift
Hydrogen bicycle
truck used for lifting and transporting materials. The
rst production HICE forklift truck based on the Linde
The Taiwanese company APFCT conducted a live street X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in Hannover
test with 80 fuel cell scooters for Taiwans Bureau of on May 27, 2008. It used a 2.0 litre, 43 kW (58 hp)
diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hyEnergy.[25]
drogen as a fuel with the use of a compressor and direct
injection.[31][32]

1.6

Quads and tractors

A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck or a

fuel cell forklift) is a fuel cell powered industrial forklift
Autostudi S.r.l's H-Due[26] is a hydrogen-powered quad, truck. In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts
capable of transporting 1-3 passengers. A concept for a used in material handling in the US.[33] Only 500 of these
hydrogen powered tractor has been proposed.[27]
received funding from DOE in 2012.[34][35] The global
market is 1 million fork lifts per year.[36] As of 2013, fuel
cell eets are being operated by several of companies, including Sysco Foods, FedEx Freight, GENCO (at Weg1.7 Airplanes
mans, Coca-Cola, Kimberly Clark, and Whole Foods),
and H-E-B Grocers.[37] A total of 30 fuel cell forklifts
For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen planes.
Companies such as Boeing, Lange Aviation, and the with Hylift were demonstrated in Europe and extended
it with HyLIFT-EUROPE to 200 units.[38] With other
projects in France[39][40] and Austria.[41] Pike Research
stated in 2011 that fuel-cell-powered forklifts will be the
largest driver of hydrogen fuel demand by 2020.[42]

The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel

cell

German Aerospace Center pursue hydrogen as fuel for

manned and unmanned airplanes. In February 2008 Boeing tested a manned ight of a small aircraft powered by
a hydrogen fuel cell. Unmanned hydrogen planes have
also been tested.[28] For large passenger airplanes however, The Times reported that Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large
passenger jet airplanes but could be used as backup or
auxiliary power units onboard.[29]

Most companies in Europe and the US do not use

petroleum powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use
electric forklifts.[36][43] Fuel-cell-powered forklifts can
provide benets over battery powered forklifts as they can
work for a full 8-hour shift on a single tank of hydrogen
and can be refueled in 3 minutes. Fuel cell-powered forklifts can be used in refrigerated warehouses, as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The FC
units are often designed as drop-in replacements.[44][45]

1.9 Rockets
Many large rockets use liquid hydrogen as fuel, with
liquid oxygen as an oxidizer. An advantage of hydrogen
rocket fuel is the high eective exhaust velocity compared
to kerosene/LOX or UDMH/NTO engines. According
to the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, a rocket with higher
exhaust velocity needs less propellant mass to achieve a
given change of speed. Before combustion, the hydro-

FUEL CELL

gen runs through cooling pipes around the exhaust noz- converted diesel internal combustion engines with direct
zle to protect the nozzle from damage by the hot exhaust injection.[32]
gases.[46]
A disadvantage of LH2/LOX engines are the low density
and low temperature of liquid hydrogen, which means 3 Fuel cell
bigger and insulated and thus heavier fuel tanks are
needed. This increases the rockets structural mass which For more details on this topic, see Fuel cell.
reduces its delta-v signicantly. Another disadvantage is
the poor storability of LH2/LOX-powered rockets: Due
to the constant hydrogen boil-o, the rocket can only be
fueled shortly before launch, which makes cryogenic en- 3.1 Fuel cell cost
gines unsuitable for ICBMs and other rocket applications
with the need for short launch preparations.
Hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce,
Overall, the delta-v of a hydrogen stage is typically not as their designs require rare substances such as platinum
[51]
much dierent from that of a dense fuelled stage, how- as a catalyst. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
ever, the weight of a hydrogen stage is much less, which estimated in 2002 that the cost of a fuel cell for an automakes it particularly eective for upper stages, since they mobile (assuming high-volume manufacturing) was apare carried by the lower stages. For rst stages, dense fu- proximately $275/kW, which translated into each vehi[52]
elled rockets in studies may show a small advantage, due cle costing an estimated 100,000 dollars. However, by
[47]
2010, DOE estimated the cost had fallen 80% and that auto the smaller vehicle size and lower air drag.
tomobile fuel cells might be manufactured for $51/kW,
Liquid hydrogen and oxygen were also used in the Space
assuming high-volume manufacturing cost savings.[53]
Shuttle to run the fuel cells that power the electrical
systems.[48] The byproduct of the fuel cell is water, which The projected cost, assuming a manufacturing volume
is used for drinking and other applications that require of 500,000 units/year, using 2012 technology, was estimated by the DOE to be $47/kW for an 80 kW PEM
water in space.
fuel cell. Assuming a manufacturing volume of 10,000
units/year, however, the cost was projected to be $84/kW
using 2012 technology.[54] The Department of Energy
2 Internal combustion vehicle
wrote: Hydrogen fuel cells for cars have never been
manufactured at large scale, in part because of the proMain articles: Hydrogen internal combustion engine hibitive price tag. But the DOE estimates that the cost of
vehicle and List of hydrogen internal combustion engine producing fuel cells is falling fast.[55]
vehicles
In 2014, Toyota said it would sell its Toyota Mirai in
Japan for less than $70,000 by April 2015[11] and that it
Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are dierent has brought the cost of the fuel cell system down to 5 perfrom hydrogen fuel cell cars. The hydrogen internal com- cent of the fuel cell prototypes of the last decade.[56] Forbustion car is a slightly modied version of the traditional mer European Parliament President Pat Cox estimates
gasoline internal combustion engine car. These hydro- that Toyota will initially lose about $100,000 on each Migen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline rai sold.[12]
engines do; the main dierence is the exhaust product.
Gasoline combustion results in carbon dioxide and water
vapour, while the only exhaust product of hydrogen com- 3.2 Freezing conditions
bustion is water vapour.
The problems in early fuel cell designs at low temperatures concerning range and cold start capabilities have
been addressed so that they cannot be seen as showstoppers anymore.[57] Users in 2014 said that their fuel
cell vehicles perform awlessly in temperatures below
zero, even with the heaters blasting, without signicantly
Mazda has developed Wankel engines burning hydrogen.
reducing range.[58]
The advantage of using ICE (internal combustion engine)
like Wankel and piston engines is the cost of retooling
for production is much lower. Existing-technology ICE 3.3 Service life
can still be applied for solving those problems where fuel
cells are not a viable solution insofar, for example in cold- The service life of fuel cells is comparable to that of other
weather applications.
vehicles.[59] PEM service life is 7,300 hours under cycling
In 1807 Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed the rst
hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine.[49] In 1970
Paul Dieges patented a modication to internal combustion engines which allowed a gasoline-powered engine to
run on hydrogen US 3844262.

HICE forklift trucks have been demonstrated[50] based on conditions.[60]

4.2

Storage

Hydrogen

Hydrogen does not come as a pre-existing source of

energy like fossil fuels, but is rst produced and then
stored as a carrier, much like a battery. A suggested
benet of large-scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles
is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse gases and ozone precursors.[61] However, as of
2014, 95% of hydrogen is made from methane. It can be
produced using renewable sources, but that is an expensive process.[3][62] Integrated wind-to-hydrogen (power to
gas) plants, using electrolysis of water, are exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great
enough, to compete with traditional energy sources.[63]
According to Ford Motor Company, when FCVs are run
on hydrogen reformed from natural gas using this process, they do not provide signicant environmental benets on a well-to-wheels basis (due to GHG emissions from
the natural gas reformation process).[64] While methods
of hydrogen production that do not use fossil fuel would
be more sustainable,[65] currently renewable energy represents only a small percentage of energy generated, and
power produced from renewable sources can be used in
electric vehicles and for non-vehicle applications.[66]

5
also result from the on-board reforming of methanol
into hydrogen.[67] Analyses comparing the environmental consequences of hydrogen production and use in fuelcell vehicles to the rening of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile engines do not agree on
whether a net reduction of ozone and greenhouse gases
would result.[7][61] Hydrogen production using renewable
energy resources would not create such emissions or, in
the case of biomass, would create near-zero net emissions
assuming new biomass is grown in place of that converted
to hydrogen. However the same land could be used to
create Biodiesel, usable with (at most) minor alterations
to existing well developed and relatively ecient diesel
engines. In either case, the scale of renewable energy
production today is small and would need to be greatly
expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs.[74] As of December
2008, less than 3 percent of U.S. electricity was produced
from renewable sources, not including dams.[75] In a few
countries, renewable sources are being used more widely
to produce energy and hydrogen. For example, Iceland
is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen,[76] and
Denmark is using wind.[77]

4.2 Storage

The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles

include production, storage, transport and distribution.
For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen storage.
The well-to-wheel eciency for hydrogen is less than
Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density
[7][67][68][69]
25%.
A study sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy said in 2004 that the well-to-wheel efciency of gasoline or diesel powered vehicles is even
less.[70]

4.1

Production

For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen production.

The molecular hydrogen needed as an on-board fuel for
hydrogen vehicles can be obtained through many thermochemical methods utilizing natural gas, coal (by a
process known as coal gasication), liqueed petroleum
gas, biomass (biomass gasication), by a process called
thermolysis, or as a microbial waste product called
biohydrogen or Biological hydrogen production. 95% of
hydrogen is produced using natural gas,[71] and 85% of
hydrogen produced is used to remove sulfur from gasoline. Hydrogen can also be produced from water by
electrolysis or by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or aluminum.[72] Current technologies for manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totaling
between 25 and 50 percent of the higher heating value of
the hydrogen fuel, used to produce, compress or liquefy,
and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck.[73]

Compressed hydrogen storage mark

at ambient conditions, equal to about one-third that of

methane. Even when the fuel is stored as liquid hydrogen
in a cryogenic tank or in a compressed hydrogen storage
tank, the volumetric energy density (megajoules per liter)
is small relative to that of gasoline.[51] Hydrogen has a
three times higher specic energy by mass compared to
gasoline (143 MJ/kg versus 46.9 MJ/kg). Some research
has been done into using special crystalline materials to
store hydrogen at greater densities and at lower pressures.
Environmental consequences of the production of hy- A recent study by Dutch researcher Robin Gremaud has
drogen from fossil energy resources include the emis- shown that metal hydride hydrogen tanks are actually 40
sion of greenhouse gases, a consequence that would to 60-percent lighter than an equivalent energy battery

6
pack on an electric vehicle permitting greater range for
H2 cars.[78] In 2011, scientists at Los Alamos National
Laboratory and University of Alabama, working with the
U.S. Department of Energy, found a new single-stage
method for recharging ammonia borane, a hydrogen storage compound.[79][80]

OFFICIAL SUPPORT

For more details on this topic, see Hydrogen highway.

The hydrogen infrastructure consists mainly of industrial hydrogen pipeline transport and hydrogen-equipped
lling stations like those found on a hydrogen highway.
Hydrogen stations which are not situated near a hyHydrogen storage is a key area for the advancement of hy- drogen pipeline can obtain supply via hydrogen tanks,
drogen and fuel cell power. An article discussing the issue compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen tank
of storage states, Alternatives to large storage tanks may trucks or dedicated onsite production.
be found in hydrides, materials that can absorb, store, and Hydrogen use would require the alteration of industry and
release large quantities of hydrogen gas. More work and transport on a scale never seen before in history. For
development needs to be performed with hydrides be- example, according to GM, 70% of the U.S. population
fore they are of practical use. Some other options avail- lives near a hydrogen-generating facility but has little acable for hydrogen fuel cells storage include: High pres- cess to hydrogen, despite its wide availability for commersure tanks and cryogenic tanks. Both of which strive to cial use.[83] The distribution of hydrogen fuel for vehicles
improve volumetric capacity, conformability, and cost of throughout the U.S. would require new hydrogen stations
storage. The DOEs eorts on this matter have focused that would cost, by some estimates approximately 20 bilon on-board vehicular hydrogen storage systems that will lion dollars[84] and 4.6 billion in the EU.[85] Other estiallow for a driving range of 300+ miles while meeting mates place the cost as high as half trillion dollars in the
all requirements in order to stay competitive with current United States alone.[7][86]
means of transportation.[81][82]
The California Hydrogen Highway is an initiative to build
a series of hydrogen refueling stations along California
4.3 Infrastructure
state highways. As of 2013, 10 publicly accessible hydrogen lling stations were in operation in the U.S., eight of
which were in Southern California, one in the San Francisco bay area, and one in South Carolina.[5]

4.4 Codes and standards

Hydrogen car fueling

Hydrogen codes and standards, as well as codes and technical standards for hydrogen safety and the storage of
hydrogen, have been identied as an institutional barrier to deploying hydrogen technologies and developing a
hydrogen economy. To enable the commercialization of
hydrogen in consumer products, new codes and standards
must be developed and adopted by federal, state and local
governments.[87]

5 Ocial support
In January 2003, George W. Bush announced an initiative
to promote hydrogen powered vehicles.[88]
President Obama has shown much support for the progression of fuel cell energy. In January 2014 the Obama
administration announced they want to speed up production and development of hydrogen powered vehicles. The
press release states that, by partnering with a private sector, the Obama administration thinks that it can create
success stories and help speed up the process. The Department of Energy is spreading a $7.2 million investHydrogen fueling
ment to the states of Georgia, Kansas, Pennsylvania, and
Tennessee to support projects that fuel vehicles and supFor more details on this topic, see Hydrogen infrastruc- port power systems. Big companies like The Center for
ture.
Transportation and The Environment, Fed Ex Express,

7
Air Products and Chemicals, and Sprint are invested in
the development of these fuel cells. Fuel cells could also
be used in handling equipment such as forklifts as well as
telecommunications infrastructure.[89]

ways to reduce greenhouse gases. Asked when hydrogen cars will be broadly available, Romm replied: Not
in our lifetime, and very possibly never.[95] The Los Angeles Times wrote, in February 2009, Hydrogen fuel-cell
you look at
Senator Byron L. Dorgan spoke out about The Energy and technology won't work in cars. ... Any way
[96]
it,
hydrogen
is
a
lousy
way
to
move
cars.
Water Appropriations bill earlier this year. He stated,
The Energy and Water Appropriations bill makes in- The Economist magazine, in September 2008, quoted
vestments in our nations eorts to develop safe, home- Robert Zubrin, the author of Energy Victory, as saygrown energy sources that will reduce our reliance on ing: Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle
foreign oil. And, because ongoing research and devel- fuel'".[97] The magazine noted the withdrawal of Califoropment is necessary to develop game-changing technolo- nia from earlier goals: In March [2008] the California
gies, this bill also restores funding for Hydrogen energy Air Resources Board, an agency of Californias state govresearch. Much work has been done in developing these ernment and a bellwether for state governments across
fuel cell cars. The U.S. Department of Energy supports America, changed its requirement for the number of zeronext generation fuel cell systems and they are the nations emission vehicles (ZEVs) to be built and sold in Califorlead innovative clean energy technologies. In June 2013 nia between 2012 and 2014. The revised mandate allows
the DOE gave 9 million dollars in grants to speed up the manufacturers to comply with the rules by building more
technology and another 4.5 million for advanced fuel cell battery-electric cars instead of fuel-cell vehicles.[97] The
membranes. Minnesota based 3M will receive 3 million magazine also noted that most hydrogen is produced
and the Colorado School of Mines will receive 1.5 mil- through steam reformation, which creates at least as much
lion as well. Minnesota and Colorado are working to- emission of carbon per mile as some of todays gasoline
ward these developments. Minnesota is focusing on in- cars. On the other hand, if the hydrogen could be pronovative membranes with improved durability and per- duced using renewable energy, it would surely be easier
formance. Colorado is focusing on fuel cell membranes, simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of allmaking them simpler and more aordable. Last year $54 electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles.[97]
million was given by the government to the SECA Pro- The Washington Post asked in November 2009, But why
gram as congress recognized and embraced the role hy- would you want to store energy in the form of hydrodrogen fuel cells and their fuels play in the portfolio of gen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity
energy technologies for the 21st centuries. The Energy for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to
and Security program was passed to boost hydrogen enbe sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in
vironmental cleanup programs and fossil fuel programs. auto batteries"?.[71] A December 2009 study at UC Davis,
The overall goals of these eorts are to improve eciency
published in the Journal of Power Sources, found that,
and lower costs of fuel cells.[90][91]
over their lifetimes, hydrogen vehicles will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles.[98] This agrees with a 2014
analysis.[7] The Motley Fool stated in 2013 that there
6 Criticism
are still cost-prohibitive obstacles [for hydrogen cars] relating to transportation, storage, and, most importantly,
[99]
Critics claim the time frame for overcoming the techni- production.
cal and economic challenges to implementing wide-scale Volkswagens Rudolf Krebs said in 2013 that no matter
use of hydrogen cars is likely to last for at least sev- how excellent you make the cars themselves, the laws of
eral decades, and hydrogen vehicles may never become physics hinder their overall eciency. The most ecient
broadly available.[66][92] They claim that the focus on the way to convert energy to mobility is electricity. He elabuse of the hydrogen car is a dangerous detour from more orated: Hydrogen mobility only makes sense if you use
readily available solutions to reducing the use of fossil green energy, but ... you need to convert it rst into hyfuels in vehicles.[93] In May 2008, Wired News reported drogen with low eciencies where you lose about 40
that experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydro- percent of the initial energy. You then must compress
gen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption the hydrogen and store it under high pressure in tanks,
or global warming, and we can't aord to wait that long. which uses more energy. And then you have to convert
In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources from the hydrogen back to electricity in a fuel cell with another
more immediate solutions.[94]
eciency loss. Krebs continued: in the end, from your
of electric energy, you end up with
K. G. Duleep commented that a strong case exists for original 100 percent
[100]
The Business Insider commented:
30
to
40
percent.
continuing fuel-eciency improvements from conventional technology at relatively low cost.[95] Critiques of
hydrogen vehicles are presented in the 2006 documentary, Who Killed the Electric Car?. According to former
U.S. Department of Energy ocial Joseph Romm, A
hydrogen car is one of the least ecient, most expensive

Pure hydrogen can be industrially derived,

but it takes energy. If that energy does not
come from renewable sources, then fuel-cell
cars are not as clean as they seem. ... Another

7 COMPARISON WITH OTHER TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE FUEL VEHICLE

challenge is the lack of infrastructure. Gas stations need to invest in the ability to refuel hydrogen tanks before FCEVs become practical,
and its unlikely many will do that while there
are so few customers on the road today. ...
Compounding the lack of infrastructure is the
high cost of the technology. Fuel cells are still
very, very expensive.[101]

In 2014, Joseph Romm devoted three articles to updating his critiques of hydrogen vehicles. He states that
FCVs still have not overcome the following issues: high
cost of the vehicles, high fueling cost, and a lack of fueldelivery infrastructure. It would take several miracles
to overcome all of those problems simultaneously in the
coming decades.[102] Most importantly, he says, FCVs
aren't green because of escaping methane during natural gas extraction and when hydrogen is produced, as
95% of it is, using the steam reforming process. He
concludes that renewable energy cannot economically be
used to make hydrogen for an FCV eet either now or
in the future.[103] GreenTech Media's analyst reached
similar conclusions in 2014.[104] In 2015, Clean Technica listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel
cell vehicles.[105]

Comparison with other types of

alternative fuel vehicle

As of 2009, the total well-to-wheels eciency with

which a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle might utilize renewable
electricity is roughly 20% (although that number could
rise to 25% or a little higher with the kind of multiple
technology breakthroughs required to enable a hydrogen
economy). The well-to-wheels eciency of charging an
onboard battery and then discharging it to run an electric motor in a PHEV or EV, however, is 80% (and could
be higher in the future)four times more ecient than
current hydrogen fuel cell vehicle pathways.[69] A 2006
article in Scientic American argued that PHEVs, rather
than hydrogen vehicles, would become standard in the
automobile industry.[111][112] A December 2009 study at
UC Davis found that, over their lifetimes, PHEVs will
emit less carbon than current vehicles, while hydrogen
cars will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles.[98]

7.2 Natural gas

Main article: Natural gas vehicle
ICE-based CNG, HCNG or LNG vehicles (Natural gas
vehicles or NGVs) use methane (Natural gas or Biogas)
directly as a fuel source. Natural gas has a higher energy
density than hydrogen gas. NGVs using biogas are nearly
carbon neutral.[113] Unlike hydrogen vehicles, CNG vehicles have been available for many years, and there is
sucient infrastructure to provide both commercial and
home refueling stations. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles by the end of 2011.[114]

Hydrogen vehicles compete with various proposed alternatives to the modern fossil fuel powered vehicle
infrastructure.[51]
7.3

7.1

Plug-in hybrids

Main article: Plug-in hybrid

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, or PHEVs, are hybrid vehicles that can be plugged into the electric grid and contain an electric motor and also an internal combustion
engine. The PHEV concept augments standard hybrid
electric vehicles with the ability to recharge their batteries from an external source, enabling increased use
of the vehicles electric motors while reducing their reliance on internal combustion engines. The infrastructure required to charge PHEVs is already in place,[106]
and transmission of power from grid to car is about 93%
ecient.[107] This, however, is not the only energy loss
in transferring power from grid to wheels. AC/DC conversion must take place from the grids AC supply to the
PHEVs DC. This is roughly 98% ecient.[108] The battery then must be charged. As of 2007, the Lithium
iron phosphate battery was between 80-90% ecient in
charging/discharging.[109] The battery needs to be cooled;
the GM Volts battery has 4 coolers and two radiators.[110]

All-electric vehicles

Main article: electric car

A 2008 Technology Review article stated, Electric cars
and plug-in hybrid carshave an enormous advantage
over hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles in utilizing low-carbon
electricity. That is because of the inherent ineciency
of the entire hydrogen fueling process, from generating
the hydrogen with that electricity to transporting this diffuse gas long distances, getting the hydrogen in the car,
and then running it through a fuel cellall for the purpose of converting the hydrogen back into electricity to
drive the same exact electric motor you'll nd in an electric car.[115] Thermodynamically, each additional step in
the conversion process decreases the overall eciency of
the process.[116][117]
A 2013 comparison of hydrogen and battery electric vehicles agreed with the 25% gure from Ulf Bossel in 2006
and stated that the cost of an electric vehicle battery is
rapidly coming down, and the gap will widen further,
while there is little existing infrastructure to transport,
store and deliver hydrogen to vehicles and would cost
billions of dollars to put into place, everyones house-

9
hold power sockets are electric vehicle refueling station and the cost of electricity (depending on the source)
is at least 75% cheaper than hydrogen.[118] In 2013 the
National Academy of Sciences[119] and DOE stated that
even under optimistic conditions by 2030 the price for
the battery is not expected to go below $17,000 ($200
$250/kWh) on 300 miles of range.[120] In 2013 Matthew
Mench, from the University of Tennessee stated If we
are sitting around waiting for a battery breakthrough that
will give us four times the range than we have now, we
are going to be waiting for a long time.[121] Navigant Research, (formerly Pike research), on the other hand, forecasts that lithium-ion costs, which are tipping the scales
at about $500 per kilowatt hour now, could fall to $300 by
2015 and to $180 by 2020.[122] In 2013 Takeshi Uchiyamada, a designer of the Toyota Prius stated: Because of
its shortcomings driving range, cost and recharging time
the electric vehicle is not a viable replacement for most
conventional cars.[123]
Many electric car designs oer limited driving range
causing range anxiety. For example, the 2013 Nissan
Leaf has a range of 75 mi (121 km),[124] the 2014
Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive has an estimated
range of 115 mi (185 km)[125] and the Tesla Model S has
a range of up to 265 mi (426 km).[126] However, most
US commutes are 3040 miles (4864 km) miles per day
round trip[127] and in Europe most commutes are around
20 kilometres (12 mi) round-trip[128]
In 2013, The New York Times stated that there are only 10
publicly accessible hydrogen lling stations in the U.S.,
eight of which are in Southern California, and that BEVs
cost-per-mile expense in 2013 is one-third as much as
hydrogen cars, when comparing electricity from the grid
and hydrogen at a lling station. The Times commented:
By the time Toyota sells its rst fuel-cell sedan, there will
be about a half-million plug-in vehicles on the road in the
United States and tens of thousands of E.V. charging
stations.[5] In 2013 John Swanton of the California Air
Resources Board, who sees them as complementary technologies, stated that EVs have the jump on fuel-cell autos,
which are like electric vehicles were 10 years ago. EVs
are for real consumers, no strings attached. With EVs
you have a lot of infrastructure in place.[129] The Business
Insider, in 2013 commented that if the energy to produce
hydrogen does not come from renewable sources, then
fuel-cell cars are not as clean as they seem. ... Gas stations need to invest in the ability to refuel hydrogen tanks
before FCEVs become practical, and its unlikely many
will do that while there are so few customers on the road
today. ... Compounding the lack of infrastructure is the
high cost of the technology. Fuel cells are still very, very
expensive, even compared to battery-powered EVs.[101]

8 See also
9 References
[1] Toyota Unveils 2015 Fuel Cell Sedan, Will Retail in
Japan For Around 7 Million. transportevolved.com.
2014-06-25. Retrieved 2014-06-26.
[2] A portfolio of power-trains for Europe: a fact-based analysis
[3] Romm, Joseph. Tesla Trumps Toyota: Why Hydrogen Cars Cant Compete With Pure Electric Cars,
ThinkProgress, August 5, 2014.
[4] Wind-to-Hydrogen Project. Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
Research. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy. September 2009.
Retrieved 7 January 2010.. See also Energy Department
Launches Public-Private Partnership to Deploy Hydrogen
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15, 2014
[5] Berman, Bradley (2013-11-22). Fuel Cells at Center
Stage. The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-11-26.
[6] Davies, Alex (2013-11-22). Honda Is Working On Hydrogen Technology That Will Generate Power Inside Your
Car. The Business Insider. Retrieved 2013-11-26.
[7] Cox, Julian. Time To Come Clean About Hydrogen Fuel
Cell Vehicles, CleanTechnica.com, June 4, 2014
[8] Thames & Kosmos kit, Other educational materials, and
many more demonstration car kits.
[9] New Hydrogen-Powered Land Speed Record from
Ford. Motorsportsjournal.com. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
[10] Voelcker, John. Decades Of Promises: 'Dude, Wheres
My Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Car?'", Yahoo.com, March 31,
2015
[11] Toyota to Oer $69,000 Car After Musk Pans Fool
Cells". 2014-06-25. Retrieved 2014-06-27.
[12] Ayre, James. Toyota To Lose $100,000 On Every Hydrogen FCV Sold?", CleanTechnica.com, November 19,
2014; and Blanco, Sebastian. Bibendum 2014: Former
EU President says Toyota could lose 100,000 euros per
hydrogen FCV sedan, GreenAutoblog.com, November
12, 2014
[13] Whoriskey, Peter. The Hydrogen Car Gets Its Fuel
Back, Washington Post, October 17, 2009
[14] Hyundai Debuts All New, Hyundai Australia, July 2011
[15] Bloomberg News (24 August 2009). Hydrogen-powered
vehicles on horizon. Washington Times. Retrieved 5
September 2009.
[16] Hydrogen fuel cells to hit showrooms by 2013, Collision
Repair Magazine, 7 June 2012
[17] Alan Ohnsman. GM to Maintain Hydrogen Push as PlugIn Volt Readied for Sale. BusinessWeek, March 17, 2010

10

[18] Brian Warshay, Brian. The Great Compression: the Future of the Hydrogen Economy, Lux Research, Inc. January 2013

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EXTERNAL LINKS

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tricity'", AutoblogGreen, November 20, 2013
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vs. Teslas Batteries: Which Car Will Win?". Retrieved
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nology That Will Generate Power Inside Your Car, The
Business Insider, November 22, 2013
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2014
[125] Jablansky, Jerey. First ride: 2014 Mercedes-Benz BClass Electric Drive will beat Nissan Leaf in range, boasts
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Tesla-built battery, New York Daily News, October 29,
Support, But Why?", Clean Technica, June 26, 2015
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California Fuel Cell Partnership homepage

[111] Romm, Joseph and Prof. Andrew A. Frank. Hybrid Vehicles Gain Traction, Scientic American (April 2006)

Fuel Cell Today - Market-based intelligence on the

fuel cell industry

[112] Plug-in Hybrid Advocacy Group. Pluginpartners.org.

Retrieved 2011-01-31.

Clean Energy Partnership

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May 2015.

C-Net Hydrogen: More Polluting than Petroleum?

Cnet news 2007
U.S. Dept. of Energy hydrogen pages

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2012-04-24.

Toronto Star article on hydrogen trains dated October 21, 2007

[115] The Last Car You Would Ever Buy Literally: Why we
shouldn't get excited by the latest hydrogen cars, Technology Review, June 18, 2008

NOVA Video on Fuel Cell Cars (aired on PBS,

July 26, 2005)

[116] Eciency of Hydrogen PEFC, Diesel-SOFC-Hybrid and

Battery Electric Vehicles (PDF). 15 July 2003. Retrieved
January 7, 2009.
[117] Information from. cta.ornl.gov. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
[118] Dansie, Mark. Hydrogen vs Electric, revolutiongreen.com, July 4, 2013

Sandia Corporation Hydrogen internal combustion

engine description
Inside worlds rst hydrogen-powered production
car BBC News, 14 September 2010

13

11
11.1

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Text

Hydrogen vehicle Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle?oldid=680085831 Contributors: Timo Honkasalo, SimonP,

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Alan Liefting, Christopher Parham, Wolfkeeper, Everyking, Waltpohl, Rick Block, Leonard G., Bobblewik, Old Nol, Utcursch, Zeimusu,
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