Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF
by Octavio Perez-Beato
The contents of this work including, but not limited to, the accuracy of events, people, and places depicted;
opinions expressed; permission to use previously published materials included; and any advice given or
actions advocated are solely the responsibility of the author, who assumes all liability for said work and
indemnifies the publisher against any claims stemming from publication of the work.
ACKNOWLEGMENTS
I want to express my love and gratitude to my wife and my daughter for all the remarkable effort
designing the pictures and illustrations; without their help this book would not be possible. My
son, whose encouragement and support is invaluable. To the loving memory of my father; he
taught me so many things about birds.
Special thanks to all those canary fanciers that I have met during times of my life, and from
whom I have learned so much. I am especially indebted to Antonio Sanchez Bermudez, friend
and colleague. He passed away long ago; a great lost for all those who learned so much from his
wise advises. Alfredo Rovere generously provided valuable information in the 70s, when specialized canary magazines were not affordable for me. Dr. Lidia Bermudez has been a tremendous support in the completion of this book. Silvio del Valle and Maria Elena Rodriguez were
the pioneers in the first attempts to get canary pictures for my book. Karelia Llanes was of a
great help in computer assistance.
My former teachers in all courses of Genetics and Animal Genetics at the University of Havana,
Faculty of Biology, implanted in me the unbreakable decision to go deeply in knowledge, no
matter how hard it might seem to be at first.
iii
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Chapter 1: Basic Concepts on Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 2: Mating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Chapter 3: Pigments and Feathers in the Canary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Chapter 4: The Dominant White and the Recessive White Canary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter 5: The Yellow and the Lemon-Yellow Canary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chapter 6: The Red Factor Canary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Chapter 7: The Green and the Brown Canary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Chapter 8: The Dilution Factor: the Agate and the Isabelle Canary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Chapter 9: The Pastel Canary: the super dilution factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Chapter 10: The Opal Canary: the extra dilution factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Chapter 11: The Ivory Factor: dilute lipochromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Chapter 12: The Pied Canary Genetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Chapter 13: New Mutations. The Incredible Eighties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Chapter 14: Genetic Possibilities of a True Black Canary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Chapter 15: Obtaining Varieties through Simple Pairing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Chapter 16: Concomitant Factors in Color Canaries: other mutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Chapter 17: The Nomenclature of Color Canaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Chapter 18: Quantitative Canary Breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
INTRODUCTION
Canary breeding has been historically one of the oldest hobbies in the world, taking into account
that the wild canary bird was introduced in Europe, particularly in Spain, as far as the 15th or
16th century. At that time, that melodious little bird created a very special predilection among
European aristocrats. The canary rapidly spread all over Europe, and consequently variations
soon appear in its genome. It seems that at the end of the 17th century two important mutations
took place, dominant white and yellow. Surprising avalanches of mutations have occurred ever
since. Nowadays, we can enjoy a lot of different colors, hues, and shades probably inconceivable
for those forerunner canary breeders of the 17th century.
Today, in our highly technological world canary breeding has not been left behind. As a rule, that
sophisticated beehive of color variations due to mutations, special breeding combinations, and a
very accurately selection can only be achieved properly, with technical and basic scientific knowledge. Is each and every canary breeder in such position and possibility? Im afraid not.
Unfortunately, many fanciers obtain good birds after struggling through several breeding seasons;
trial and error has been the only tool available in the absence of better knowledge. If good
results could be obtain in three breeding seasons applying technical and basic genetic knowledge,
it shall probably take six or more to obtain the same results, if we ignore such methods.
I have been reading books about canary breeding, as well as many articles available on the internet. What I have found as my own conclusion is that, no possible flawless application could be
achieved if the reader is not prepared in basic genetics, animal breeding techniques, and a proper control of what he/she is doing during the breeding season, no matter what the complexity
of the color variety is, fanciers need to know how things are going; they are drifting, otherwise.
Of course, I know for certain that there is a kind of breeder that rather spend a good amount of
money buying excellent birds, avoiding basic genetic knowledge, breeding techniques, and a
proper technical control on each breeding season. Here, a logical question arises: Is it worthwhile? Furthermore: Is it the merit of the buyer obtaining good and excellent birds next season,
or is it the merit of the seller who bred the parental strain? The answer is simple: the seller is.
In my own opinion, it is better for any fancier to apply as much knowledge as possible, since this
is the core of canary breeding. Better birds based on better knowledge. If you have only regular birds, and you apply technical knowledge properly, it is possible to obtain outstanding birds
vii
in two or three breeding seasons. Youll be proud to say: those are my very own birds, I made
them myself. You will be satisfied without spending a lot of money, and those birds being better than their parents, are exclusively obtained by your personal effort as a canary breeder; a
technically true canary breeder.
This is exactly the purpose of this little book, to give canary fanciers that basic knowledge (and
a little bit more) to accomplish canary breeding in a modern, technical, and methodological
way. There are not special secrets in obtaining excellent birds. Applying knowledge properly is
the answer. Canary breeding is only a particular specialty in animal breeding. High performance results are based on this. Hence, specific procedures might be taken into account.
Some simple suggestions are mandatory to those readers that take this book having in mind to
thoroughly learn and apply its content. First of all, it is a must to understand the content of the
first chapter, sine qua non, it is impossible to go further. Besides, it is important that every single chapter be analyzed carefully, in order to master its content in full. I do not advise reading
a chapter if the previous one has not been thoroughly understood. These remarks cannot represent a discouragement at all; on the contrary, smart precautions that guarantee the proper
development of your knowledge.
The author
viii
CHAPTER 1
Basic Concepts on Genetics
The first approach in Genetics is the cell, as it is the biological unit that encloses and guards the
nucleus, in which genetic material is included. Only basic structures of the cell will be considered, not beyond the concerns of basic Genetics.
Every single tissue, in any animal or plant, is built by microscopic structural and functional
units called cells. They show different sizes and shapes, depending on the function accomplished. As an example we can mention the kidney cells which are completely different from the
brain cells, as they perform a very different function. In general terms we may say that a cell is
basically formed by a nucleus, nucleus membrane, cytoplasm, and cell membrane, as it is shown
on Fig. 1.
Octavio Perez-Beato
The nucleus is the true reproduction center of the cell. Inside it chromosomes are found, and
depending on the cell stage, they appear as very thin filament structures, like microscopic
threads in a complex hank. The size, number and shape of chromosomes are different in every
animal species. The number of chromosomes in the cell nucleus is constant in every species. In
the chromosomes genes are located, which are the functional units bearers of the genetic traits
in all individuals. Between 1910 and 1928 well conducted investigations documented the linearity of genes in the chromosomes; it is, genes are placed in chromosomes as beads in a necklace: one after the other.
Cell Division
The production of somatic cells (cells of the body; from soma: body) is accomplished by a
process of cell division called mitosis (from the Greek mitos: thread). Each single cell is divided in two identical cells, and at the end of two divisions there are four cells as it is shown in Fig.
2. In the process of mitosis different phases are considered: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase; each one corresponding to important stages in cell division. Next, those steps
will be roughly explained.
Octavio Perez-Beato
Meiosis
During the normal reproductive animal cycle, testis and ovaries play an outstanding role forming reproductive-oriented cells. First, they create a special kind of cells, which bear in their nuclei
a diploid number, the same amount of chromosomes as in any regular somatic cell. When these
special cells are transformed in a very particular way to create spermatozoids and egg-cells male
and female gametes- then, meiosis starts. It ends when spermatozoids and egg-cells are completed, depending if the process is performed in a male or in a female. The so called special cells
bear the same amount of chromosomes as in any somatic cell; the biological process starts as in
the mitosis that was explained before; but there is a big difference. During the mitosis, in the step
known as metaphase all chromosomes are located one next to the other, on an individual basis,
but in the meiotic metaphase chromosomes are located in two different groups, and in each particular group only one chromosome from each pair, is found. Remember that chromosomes exist
in pairs. Fig. 4 shows the difference between metaphase in mitosis, and the one in meiosis. Once
they are located in such positions, the first division is accomplished which in fact is oriented to
totally separate both groups of chromosomes, which in turn will create two cells, being each one
loaded with only one single group of chromosomes. Nevertheless, we may observe that these
chromosomes are longitudinally differentiated in two chromatids. Fig. 5 shows the first and second meiotic division. In the last one each chromatid is separated from the other, and in turn
becomes an individual true chromosome, in each of the four cells originated at the end of the
second division. From here on these cells are in fact egg-cells or spermatozoids, accordingly.
Fig. 4 In (a) chromosomes are one next to the other. In (b) there is one single chromosome of
each pair in each group; typical meiotic metaphase.
All this biological process has been explained in a very simple and schematic way on behave of
simplicity and easy understanding, but the biological reality is so much more complex.
As you may see in Fig. 5, not four egg-cells are produced at the end of the second meiotic division, only one egg, instead. The other three cells undergo a degenerative process and stop
development. On the other hand, it is not the case regarding the four spermatozoids since they
really complete full development, from each cell that reaches meiotic metaphase. It is also
4
Fig. 6 The approach of a spermatozoid to an egg-cell is depicted, together with the inclusion of
the spermatozoid inside the egg mass.
5
Octavio Perez-Beato
The contribution in terms of chromosomes from both gametes readily creates the zygote. Soon,
the zygote will start mitotic division, and a new living thing is formed here on. This new individual has inherited traits from its parents, loaded in the chromosomes located in each and
every one of its cells, which are nothing but replications of the original chromosomes from the
spermatozoid and egg-cell, from which the zygote was originated.
Fig. 7 Graphic representation of a single locus (H) for a theoretical gene with two alleles.
Octavio Perez-Beato
Proportion of Genotypes Expected in a Particular Mating
It is of the most importance for any fancier to precisely predict the genotypes of descendants,
considering the genotypes of the selected parents. Obviously, fanciers in general are only interested on one, two or three traits in the breeding accomplished. Hence, all efforts are oriented
on the calculation to accurately predict the descendants genotypes. Let us assume that a mating is accomplished between an AA genotype male canary and an Aa genotype female canary.
The purpose of the fancier is to ascertain which genotypes will be found in the offspring, and
what the proportion of such genotypes shall be. This is accomplished by making a simple chart
widely used in genetics, known as the Punnett squares.
Fig. 8 Example of a Punnett squares. Depicted are four groups of descendants one in each
cell- for a theoretical locus with two alleles.
Fig. 8 shows such chart where columns are depicting the female canary gametes one allele per
gamete-and then rows represent the male canary gametes. Each cell represents the allele input,
one from the male and one from the female. Now we have two cells with the genotype AA, and
two cells with the genotype Aa. If we obtained two cells with the genotype AA, out of four, then
2/4 = o.5o, which means that 50% of the offspring will bear genotype AA. This is a simple hypothetic example where a single gene with only two alleles has been taken into account. If we need
to consider two genes with two alleles each, this could be this way: male canarys genotype Aa
BB; female canarys genotype Aa Bb. Then again, the Punnet squares is shown in Fig. 9.
CHAPTER 2
Mating Systems
There are two basic mating systems: inbreeding system, in which related birds are bred, and out
breeding system in which not related birds are used in breeding. Besides, the relation might be
a close one, or a collateral one, depending on the purpose of the fancier, and the breeding possibilities based on the available stock. Below, the scheme for such mating is offered as a guide
for the fancier to accommodate the objectives of breeding procedures. First, it is important to
establish some simple definitions to better understand what is printed in the scheme below.
Line-breeding: mating in the
direct line of descent. In linebreeding, what is usually
obtained is a discrete homozygosis for selected traits.
Lineage: group of individuals belonging to a specific
breed (in our context: color
anaries) which are homozygous for certain traits.
Breed: a specific group of
individuals which bear a relative homozygosis for specific traits, but that homozygosis condition is more discrete than in the lineage.
Sometimes, it is difficult to
establish a definition between
lineal or lineage condition,
since lineal relation is a genet10
Octavio Perez-Beato
Finally, the best birds from group (8) will mate the best from group (9), to obtain group (10) offspring, which is similar to the first offspring (group 3) from male (1), and female (2). Besides, if
group (10) mates to group (8) and (9), then we will obtain groups (11) and (12), which turn to
be quite similar to groups (4) and (5) from previous years, since group (4) and (5) represent
24/32 of female (2) and male (1) genotype, respectively, and then groups (12) and (11) represent
23/32 from female (2), and 9/32 from male(1), respectively.
We may continue mating groups in analogous form, taking into account that birds from group
(8) are very similar to female (2), and birds from group (9) are very similar to male (1). Keep on
breeding in a similar way to obtain groups similar to (6) and (7), and (8) and (9), accordingly.
I have explained in full details Fig. 10, since it is the basis to understand Figs. 11 and 12; both
are also based in linebreeding procedures; interpretation rests on similar considerations.
It is of the most importance to start with birds carefully selected, and if possible of known pedigree, no matter what the linebreeding scheme is applied, remember that inbreeding itself is a
tool to surface faults, and then again culling might go to great length if the mating starting-line
is not attempted with good quality birds.
12
13
CHAPTER 3
Pigments and Feathers in the Canary
The plumage color in the canary is biologically conditioned by means of two pigments: the
melanins and the lipochromes. The combination of these two substances in the feathers of the
canary, give birth to all combinations that we admire today in our beloved feathery pet. Besides,
melanins and lipochromes are genetically affected by other factors, which will be the topic of
upcoming chapters. These substances are fully studied by the science of Biochemistry, which is
in charge of the research and study of all the chemical processes in living things.
The Melanins
The canary bird possesses two types of melanins, though some authors state that are more than
two. For the simplicity of explanations, and better understanding of basic concepts on this
topic, I will consider only two melanin types throughout the book. These melanins are: eumelanin or black melanin, readily seen in Green, Bronze, and Blue intensive canaries. The
pheomelanin (brown melanin) is a pigment very well seen in Yellow Brown and White Brown
canaries, among others. These melanins are biochemical elaborated by the canary itself, based
on the genetic information of the bird. It is not enough that a canary could elaborate its own
melanins, it is mandatory that very special and specific substances have to be present in this
biochemical process. These substances are known as oxidative enzymes oxidases-, which act
on the melanin, and then developing the appearance of each type of pigment. If this enzyme
would not be present to carry on the oxidative action, it will be impossible to see eumelanin and
pheomelanin in the plumage of our canary.
The Lipochromes
It is necessary to explain the etymology of the word lipochrome. Lipo means oily, and chrome
means color, it is a colored substance prone to be dissolved in oil, or oil chemical-affinity substance.
14
Octavio Perez-Beato
in genotype II birds. This homozygous dominant is a bird with long fingers and nails, extremely nervous, and cases have been reported of birds suffering from seizures. These characteristics
are seen only if the bird reaches full grown stage, since it is frequently observed that they die
during the embryonic process; sudden death in the nest. If it survives, definitely will be a degenerated biotype. Besides all previous characteristics, its plumage is short and poor, absence of
feathers around the eye circles, and its general appearance is ragged. Based on all of the above
is certainly stated that allele I in homozygous condition is sub-lethal. There is something else,
allele I shows an incomplete dominance, and variable expressivity since birds with genotype Ii
ranges from a true and harmonic intensive appearance up to birds with a very mild frost. These
might be excellent breeders but not recommended as show quality birds.
On the other hand, if two frost birds are mated, the offspring will be composed of excessively
feathered animals, rather lazy, and not really good in rearing their chicks. On the average, there
will be no problems regarding sub-lethal effects, but they do not match with any standard.
Fig. 13 Mating frost and intensive will yield an offspring comprising frosts and intensives
in the same proportion.
According to what was explained in the previous paragraphs regarding frost and intensive
feathers, mating has to be carried between frost and intensive, and results will be in accordance
with what is shown on Fig. 13. Theoretically, 50% of the offspring will be intensive, and the
other 50% will be frost. The balance is perfect.
16
CHAPTER 4
The Dominant White and the Recessive White Canary
The dominant white is the most common white canary, is the one that is seen in any aviary, fully
represented in any bird show, as a rule. Its color is really white, but a lipochromic tint (yellow,
orange or red) is apparent in the primary wing feathers, and sometimes extended to the coverts.
It is believed that this canary appeared at the end of the XVII century. It was a mutation. These
birds are white color just because they are unable to deposit lipochromes in its feathers, which
is determined by a gene F that, in heterozygous condition (Ff) produces a dominant white phenotype; if it appears in homozygous condition FF, the bird bearing such combination will die
during the embryonic stage. That is why it is said that, the gene that determines the dominant
white is lethal in homozygous condition. As a result, any dominant white canary is heterozygous
for that specific trait. This is a dominant autosomic gene. Nevertheless, there are other loci
where important genes involved in different metabolic steps regarding lipochromes, are located. I will explain in detail the theory that supports this genetic event.
Locus K
The dominant allele K allows the normal assimilation of carotenoids. The recessive allele k does
not allow the normal assimilation of these substances. All birds with genotypes KK or Kk will
assimilate the carotenoids on a normal basis. Unfortunately, the genotype Kk does not get
enough carotenoids to be lately transformed into yellow pigment. This aspect will be discussed
in the next chapter.
Locus G
The dominant allele G allows the conversion of carotenoids into yellow pigments.
On the other hand, the recessive allele g does not allow such conversion. All canaries with genotype Gg will readily transform the carotenoids into yellow pigment, though they are bearing the
recessive allele g. This allele g is just a convenience, and the theoretical homozygous gg is called
Recessive German white, never obtained as a biological reality, and only accepted nowadays as
17
Octavio Perez-Beato
a plausible theory. In fact, the Recessive German white is a potential mutation. It has never
shown up, unfortunately.
Locus F
The recessive allele f is responsible to elaborate an enzyme that transfers the lipochromes into the
feather structures, no matter what if they are red or yellow substances. The dominant allele F inhibits
the deposition of the lipochromes in the feathers. This is exactly the allele that carries the dominant
white canary, which genotype is Ff responsible for not allowing the deposition of lipochromes in the
feathers, except in the primary wing feathers and upper coverts, as mention somewhere before.
Genetic Characteristics
Based on all that has been discussed regarding the dominant white and the recessive white
canaries, now we are able to discuss the genetic formulas that characterized these birds.
The dominant white canary does not deposit lipochrome pigments in its feather structures,
except on the areas already discussed in previous paragraphs. But certainly does assimilate the
carotenoids, and also transforms them into lipochrome pigments. Then, according to the function of the previously explained loci in this chapter, now we have that a dominant white canary
18
Fig. 14 The offspring group (1) is homozygous for allele F, which is detrimental to the
embryonic development. The offspring group (3) are yellow canaries, which genetic formulas
will be used and explained in the next chapter.
Using the Punnett reticulum it is possible to check that 25% of the offspring will be homozygous
regarding allele F. Next chart shows the results:
CHAPTER 5
The Yellow and the Lemon-Yellow Canary
The yellow canary appeared as a mutation between 1680 and 1713, as a descendant of canaries
from the Canary Islands, introduced in Europe in the XVI century.
In a previous chapter has been explained the biochemical action of carotenoids in the canary
plumage. Besides, in chapter 4 the genetic formulas of the white canaries have been established.
Now again, the yellow canary as a counterpart of the white recessive canary, fully assimilate the
carotenoids, in particular those pigments that will be transformed into yellow lipochrome.
In Chapter 4 the genetic function of alleles located at K, G, and F loci have been stated.
Consequently, we should advice the reader to go over that chapter again. In it, the genetic formula of the yellow canary (KKGGff) was established as the result of mating two dominant white
pair. See Fig. 15 as a reference. As the allele K is dominant over allele k , it is possible to say
from a genetic point of view- that a yellow canary may also bear, theoretically, the genetic formula KkGGff, which will not affect the normal assimilation of carotenoids. This heterozygous
canary regarding locus K will show a poor yellow lipochrome in its plumage, since the dominance of allele K is incomplete then producing a partial assimilation of carotenoids.
This could be a first hand explanation for those poor colored yellow canaries, though they have
been properly fed with carotenoids. Now it is mandatory to consider a special point about locus
K. If we take a closer look to the previous formula KkGGff though it is obviously characteristic
of a poor yellow color plumage, it is also indicating a white recessive split bird, since it is heterozygous Kk. At this point of the analysis I particularly do not think it is the genetic explanation for the poor yellow color in the plumage. Nonetheless, it could be the genetic formula that
bore the parents of the white recessive birds that appeared in different times in the past, which
pointed to the possibility that the white recessive trait is a recurrent mutation, as was stated in
Chapter 4.
20
Octavio Perez-Beato
From the mating of a lemon-yellow bird to a non-lemon-yellow, the offspring will be as shown
on Fig 16.
Fig. 16 Mid-lemon proportion offspring -100%- from a yellow and lemon yellow mating.
As readily seen in the previous chart, the whole offspring will bear the optic factor, and then
they will be mid-lemon birds. If the conducted mating is mid-lemon and lemon yellow, the offspring will be : 50% mid-lemon , and 50% lemon yellow. See Fig. 17
22
CHAPTER 6
The Red Factor Canary
It was in 1926 that the first attempts to create a red canary were made. I may say, and I think I
am certain that it was Dr. Duncker the first to be interested about genetics in the canary.
Nevertheless, by means of Dr. Duncker himself it was known that the first canary breeder that
carried experimental mating with the red siskin (Spinus cucullatus) and the female canary was
named Mr. Adams, but the methodology to get the hybrids was stated by Dr. Duncker.
I also have to mention B. Matern and F. M. Durham,that made important contributions regarding the Red Siskin and the canary hybridization process. A doubtless top contribution was the
book New Coloured Canaries by A. K. Gill offering in its time full information regarding all concerns about the red canary.
I think it is necessary to make a review, though it might be simple, about theories regarding the
red canary genetics. According to Dr. Duncker theory the yellow lipochrome was absent in the
red siskin. Then in the mating of a red siskin and a yellow female canary, the hybrid will get the
red factor from the red siskin, and the yellow color from the female canary, being this combination responsible for the copper color shown in F1. Next it follows a back-cross F1 male with
a yellow female canary; the offspring came to be: copper color, pied-oranges, pied-yellows, light
oranges, and light yellows. The males were fertile, but not the females. Strikingly, dissections
made by Dr. Duncker on these F1 females, demonstrated and absent of reproductive organs.
In his book Mr. Gill provides a very interesting information from his own experience about the
F1 cross to female canaries; the figures are as follow:
Total mates
Total eggs laid
Infertile eggs
Dead in the shell
Total chicks hatched
Total chicks reared
52
215
171
4
40
30 (22 males, 8 females)
23
Octavio Perez-Beato
From this information it is possible to conclude that fertility was really low, hatching level is
also low, as well as surviving chicks, under the standards of canary breeding. Nonetheless,
though all these figures were really low we have to take into account that, it was an attempt to
hybridize two different species, in which the reproductive results are usually very low.
On the other hand, we may observe that the number of eggs per nest is on the average expected for a regular brood in the canary. This reproductive trait seems not to be affected in this
cross, which is certainly logical since it is the female canary and not a hybrid female.
Let us keep on discussing about the crossing schedule run by Dr. Duncker, to know exactly what
was the conclusion he arrived to. The crossing red siskin x yellow female canary yielded the so
called copper color, which in turn when backcrossed to yellow canary nothing better than light
oranges were obtained in the offspring. At this point Dr. Duncker stated that the main problem
to obtain the red canary was precisely the yellow color contribution from the yellow female
canary. Then, he accomplished the red siskin x dominant white female canary cross, expecting
that the white dominant gene shall be an obstacle for the yellow to show up, but not for the red
factor which would be fully expressed in the F1 plumage. Unfortunately, it was not that way
either. The F1 offspring were copper and ash grey color, in both sexes. So, it was confirmed that
introducing the dominant white did not do any better in obtaining a good red, and not a copper
color. From this last experiment it was obvious that the dominant white gene inhibit the expression of the red color as it does with the yellow color.
Dr. Dunckers opinion suddenly changed course; then he stated that it was mandatory to
accomplish the cross red siskin x recessive white female canaries, since these females has no
gene for yellow color. According to his new theory it was expected a 100 % red offspring. This
theory was fully stated in 1929. In 1933 Mr. Gill accomplished this cross, then obtaining all
males copper color after molting, and all females were grey. Not even one single red F1 was
obtained; besides, all copper color males were exactly the same as those obtained during the
crosses red siskin x yellow or dominant white female canary. These F1 copper color from red
siskin x recessive white, when in turn backcrossed to recessive white female canaries, yielded an
offspring (R1) comprising oranges, yellows, and recessive whites.
Then again, all theories were facing a true practical reality that turned them into a doubtful
ground. If the recessive white and the red siskin were yellow free genotypes and according to
Dr. Duncker the copper color was a by-product of red-yellow combinationwhere the yellow
factor came from to yield copper color in F1 offspring, from red siskin x white recessive
female canary?
In fact, Dr. Dunkers suppositions as the red siskin and the recessive white were yellow free
birds, and that the yellow factors mixed with red factor yielded a copper color F1, both were
wrong. This has been evidenced by the practical experience, which has fully enriched the knowledge that we have today about the red factor canary.
Today we know that the red siskin possesses yellow lipochrome. Besides, this lipochrome is not an
obstacle to fully express the red color. It is well known to fanciers that many red plumage birds in
captivity turn to yellow, including the red siskin. This is the result of environmental factors, conclusively nutrition quality. From a genetic basis the parents only provide the offspring with genes
responsible for the proper assimilation of certain pigments, the transformation of those plant pig24
25
Octavio Perez-Beato
Today, canary breeders all over the world use red female canaries to hybridize with the red
siskin in all crossbred levels, according to the previous diagram. Nonetheless, a deeper red color
has not been accomplished, at least from a genetic point of view. Nowadays we enjoy beautiful
red canaries based on special diets where beta-carotenes are present in a very concentrated
formula, together with a very easy assimilation process, which outcome is an excellent red color
compare with canaries fifty years ago. Many specialists hold the opinion that the red canary has
rendered its full potential, and nothing else on a genetic basis, could be expected.
Next paragraphs will be devoted to explain the most popular theories on the red factor canary,
according to its theoretical genetic formula. A portion of this formula has been previously
explained in the chapter dealing with white canaries and in the chapter about yellow canaries,
all these genes are also common in the red factor canary.
The red factor canary genetically needs to bear the K gene to normally assimilate the carotenoid
substances, plus the G gene in order to transform these substances into yellow pigments. If the
red factor canary would bear the recessive g gene in heterozygosis condition, a proportion of the
brood would be homozygote for that allele, and this is only possible in theory, since the recessive german white canary has never been obtained; it is only and exclusively a theoretical possibility, as has been explained somewhere before in this book. Besides, the red factor canary
possesses the f gene in homozygosis (ff), since the heterozygote condition (Ff) pertains to a
dominant white canary, in which case its red color shall be fairly hidden. Based on all of the
above, we may arrive to the conclusion that the genetic formula for the red factor canary could
be KKGGff. Unfortunately, with these genes we only can obtain a yellow canary. Obviously, we
need to add something else to obtain a red factor canary.
In modern genetics we assume that the most plausible issue is the existence of a locus R with
two alleles, R and r. The R allele is responsible to elaborate a specific enzyme that transforms
the carotenoids into red pigment inherited from the red siskin. On the other hand, the r
allele genetically means, the impossibility to transform carotenoid into red pigment. Then
again, the genetic formula for a red factor canary could be theoretically: KKGGffRR. Besides,
crossbreeding experiments point to a variable expressivity of the trait, since from parents with
excellent red factor expression on the plumage, part of the brood are not so good.
Now, as a by-product, we can better complete the genetic formula of the yellow canary, based
on what was previously discussed: KKGGffrr since the yellow canary is unable to transform
carotenoids into red pigment, as does the red factor canary.
I would like to mention other simple experiment as well. In the cross-breeding of a red factor
canary x yellow canary the brood obtained runs from light orange to properly red factor
expression, as long as you supply carotenoids in the diet. These results point to the aforementioned condition of variable expressivity in the red factor gene.
If mating two red factor birds bearing the genetic formula KKGGffRR, only a brood of red factor
descendants will be obtained with the same genetic formula. Besides, based on all of the above, the
previous formula is also applicable to the red siskin, but the red factor canary has never achieved
the extremely pure red color of its red siskin ancestor. Then, if that genetic formula is convenient,
to determine and explain, what must be expected to some extent in breeding the red factor canary,
it is just that, a formula to solve a practical need, but for me it is incomplete from a biological point
26
Octavio Perez-Beato
Before their first molt, the male canaries that bear this mosaic trait are not different from any
common lipochrome bird, as discussed in a previous paragraph concerning the mosaic female.
When they complete their first molt and the new growth show up, an increased red color is
apparent almost all over the plumage, turning into a pure white the rest of them, at the same
time that the critical areas, as in the females, are of a deeper red color. After the molt process
has been completed, the male mosaic canary seems very much like any other red canary, but a
closer look will demonstrate that certain areas are uncommonly white, not seen in any frost red
male canary. Those areas are: upper part of the neck, around the vent, and the head. These are
technical visual marks that differentiate the mosaic male canaries, from the common red frost
canary.
28
and
KK GG Rr ff ii Hh (b)
We are only interested in the F1 offspring (b), since they are mosaic for they bear the genotype
Hh which is typical of a heterozygous mosaic canary. These F1(b) descendants have to be backcrossed to a yellow frost male. We have selected a mosaic female from F1(b) group since they
are easily recognized. Besides, all F1(b) males have to be back-crossed to yellow frost females,
and if any mosaic bird from this brood is obtained, it is a proof that the F1 male is for certain a
mosaic canary.
The selected female from the F1(b) group is back-crossed to a frost yellow male as stated in the
previous paragraph, and then:
Yellow frost male
KK GG rr ff ii hh
29
Octavio Perez-Beato
The R1 offspring will comprise the following:
KK GG Rr ff ii hh
KK GG Rr ff ii Hh
KK GG rr ff ii hh
KK GG rr ff ii Hh
From group (d) we obtain male and females yellow mosaic heterozygous canaries, and then
again, phenotypically they are true mosaic canaries. Consequently, we can introduce the mosaic factor in melanin canaries; in short, we will be handling the mosaic factor in both, lipochrome
and melanin lines at the same time.
I think it is convenient to demonstrate that, if the original mosaic female that yielded the F1 offspring, was homozygous for the mosaic factor, instead, the whole F1 brood would be heterozygous for the mosaic trait, and then phenotypically mosaic birds:
Yellow frost male
x
Red mosaic female
KK GG rr ff ii hh
KK GG RR ff ii HH
The F1 offspring is:
KK GG Rr ff ii Hh (mosaic males and females)
31
CHAPTER 7
The Green and the Brown Canary
The green canary is the variety that closely resemble the appearance of the wild canary; that little bird from the Fringillidae family, introduced in Europe about 500 hundred years ago, which
popularity gained the favor of ornithologists and amateurs, as well.
The green canary, according to many specialists, is typically a rustic bird, hence is the variety
that less problems may introduce in breeding and raising procedures. From this green canary,
many mutations have been developed, being the origin of whites, yellows, agate, etc.
In this very chapter, for the first time, we face a melanic canary: the green canary. This bird possesses the two melanins present in the species, it is, pheomelanin and eumelanin; the ground
color is yellow lipochrome; these three pigments make the combination for the green color, as
it is in the wild canary, and inherited by our domestic bird.
Though it is a biological fact, the presence of pheomelanin must not be visible in a good green
canary, which back streaks, wing feathers, and tail feathers, must be black (eumelanin), with no
trace of brown color (pheomelanin).
It is mandatory to say that melanins in the canary are sex link genetic factors, and they follow the
inheritance pattern of such genes. Then, if we call B the gene that is responsible for the brown
melanin, and N the gene that is responsible for the black melanin, we may approach basically an
important part of the melanic inheritance in the canary. To be completely manifested these
melanins on the plumage, it is necessary the action of an oxidative enzyme, that I will call O.
Fig 18 graphically shows the genetic formulas and the locations for genes in sex chromosomes,
from a green male and female. Observe that the Y chromosome is empty, not bearing any gene
of our concern.
32
Fig. 18 Sex chromosomes carrying the genes for melanin and the oxidative enzyme,
typical of green male and female canaries.
33
Octavio Perez-Beato
Genetic Characteristics
To approach the genetic formula of the brown canary, let us call n the allele that denotes the
absence of eumelanin; then we may face the structure of the genetic formula corresponding to
a brown canary, as shown in Fig. 19. The interpretation is exactly like the one on Fig. 18, but
somehow simplified to have it easier.
Fig. 22 Results from a brown male and a green female mating. All males are green carrying
the brown factor. All females are brown.
35
Octavio Perez-Beato
In this mating we have obtained all green males carrying the brown factor, as we obtained
before in the previous mating (Fig. 21), but in the present mating all females are brown, not
green as in the previous one.
We can see that females always receive the chromosome X from their father; then again, they
will be pure for the trait included in their fathers X chromosome.
We will continue with another mating: green male carrying brown factor and brown female.
Results are shown in Fig. 23.
Here we have four different offspring types: green males carrying brown as their father,
brown males, green females, and brown females. As the father possesses two types of chromosome X, one carrying the brown factor, and the other carrying the green factor, the female
offspring are composed of brown and green females, depending on what chromosome they
will received, (1) or (2).
Fig. 23 Results from a green male carrying brown factor and a brown female.
Males are green carrying brown factor and brown.
Females are green and brown.
The reader might recall that, the combined effect of melanin and lipochromes was mentioned
in the chapter devoted to such pigments. Precisely, now is the opportunity to talk about the
results of lipochromes, as a ground color for green and brown canaries. Again, these ground
colors could be yellow, white, and red. Besides, keep in mind that regarding the yellow
lipochrome, if carried together with the allele s, the phenotypic effect is lemon yellow, though
in some countries the shows put together all yellow canaries, without distinction. But as I said
before, the allele s is a genetic reality, not a mere speculation. It does exist, and then creates
the lemon yellow.
36
Green
Brown
Yellow
Lemon Yellow (allele s)
White (absent lipochrome)
White (plus allele s)
Red
Green (common)
Green (lime green)
Grey
Blue
Bronze
Yellow Brown
Lemon Y. Brown
White Brown
White Brown
Red Brown
In fact, the so called Blue is nothing but the Green with white ground color plus the allele s;
the canary will look as a poor grey color, otherwise. By no means can we call it blue. If we
accept this as a fact why not to accept the lemon yellow as a ground color? Then again, we
are not dealing with a subjective criteria, the optic factor expressed by means of the allele s, is
a genetic reality.
Not accepting the presence of the lemon yellow canary is detrimental to the list of varieties
that really exist, and the allele s contributes to the so called blue canary as it does to the lemon
yellow.
37
CHAPTER 8
The Dilution Factor: the Agate and the Isabelle Canary
In the previous chapter it was explained the need for an oxidative enzyme for the complete and
full expression of melanins in the green and brown phenotypes, which are both oxidized
melanic forms.
In this chapter, the diluted melanic forms will be the topic. These forms are yielded by an inherited factor that produces an incomplete oxidative process on the melanins, turning them into
diluted forms.
If in the previous chapter the oxidative factor was called O, in the present chapter the dilute factor, or incomplete oxidation will be called o. In this simple way, we are inside the genetics of the
dilute canaries: the Agate and the Isabelle.
Agate female
XBNo
Y
Now compare these formulas to the green canarys from the previous chapter. It is readily seen
that the green canary differs from the agate just because the green carries the oxidative factor
O, and the agate the non-oxidative factor o.
39
Octavio Perez-Beato
Fig. 24 Steps in the process of a crossing-over, ending-up with two new chromosomes that will
give the offspring new characteristics.
Two chromosomes of Brown canary carrying Agate genes, at a precise moment during meiosis,
exchange genetic material, creating two new chromosomes. In (a) it is observed a pair of homologous chromosomes of a Green phenotype canary carrying Agate genes. In (b), the crossingover is depicted, showing the exchange of the lower ends of the chromosomes involved, where
alleles O and o, are located. In step (c), the chromosomes are getting apart after exchanging
their segments. In step (d) the chromosomes are set apart already, having each one a new segment in their lower portions. Chromosome 1 is carrying Isabelle genes, since the allele B is present, which determines brown melanin (pheomelanin), plus the allele n which indicates absence
of black melanin, finally the allele o, dilute factor. Consequently, this chromosome will be
responsible for a dilute brown canary, which is nothing but an Isabelle. Chromosome 2 is typical for a green canary. Each one of these two chromosomes will go to a different gamete, leading to an offspring of Isabelle and Green females, besides Brown and Agate females, as well.
These last two phenotypes originate from those original chromosomes not having a crossingover process. Now, it is very clear how an Isabelle female originates from Green male carrying
Agate genes, due to the crossing- over process. Furthermore, it is convenient to recall that, a
canary showing a Green phenotype, could be genetically Brown, carrying Agate genes. This kind
of canaries is highly valuable, since according to what was previously demonstrated, they produce four different kinds of gametes, which generate the four classical melanic canaries: Green,
Brown, Agate and Isabelle. In France, they usually call pass-partout(crow bar) this kind of
canary, since it opens the possibility to obtain four different types of melanic birds.
41
CHAPTER 9
The Pastel Canary: the super dilution factor
In 1960, a mutation appeared affecting melanins, and mainly the pheomelanins, since the
eumelanin did not suffered any substantial change. More than fifty years had passed without a
mutation affecting the dilute condition in the canary plumage. This new mutation affected the
Isabelle, diluting the tint of the already diluted brown color in these canaries, but brown
melanin was apparent in wing feathers, tail, back, and head. On the back, the lipochromic
ground color was remarkable, different from the common Isabelle.
In the Brown canary, this new mutation became particularly different, in such a way that provided the name to this new mutation in the canary. The ground lipochrome color is delicately
blended with the pheomelanin, just like as it is in a pastel painting, therefore, the name pastel.
The lines or streaks on the back and flanks are almost imperceptible, and the canary shows that
same blending of lipochrome and melanin, all over the plumage.
If we can talk about the Brown Pastel and the Isabelle Pastel, something somehow different
occurs regarding the Green Pastel, Blue Pastel, Bronze Pastel, and Agate Pastel, since the Pastel
Factor does not dilute the black melanin (eumelanin), only the brown melanin (pheomelanin)
is affected. It has been a controversial issue, regarding the existence of true pastel tones in the
aforementioned eumelanic types, ever since. Besides, it is not a simple task to determine if a
Bronze, a Green or a Blue canary are carrying the Pastel Factor or not. Then again, this issue
has been based on the fact that, a true Pastel phenotype cannot be assigned to Bronze, Green,
Blue and Agate, though at international shows these have been registered and still shall be.
In the same way that the Agate mutation occurred, the Pastel factor is a recessive and sex link
gene, too. At this point, we may consider the genetic formula for the Pastel factor, taking into
account that it is a mutation able to partially inhibit the production of brown melanin, through
a different biochemical reaction step that the one responsible for the appearance of the Agate
canary. Therefore, the non-pastel canaries are considered the normal morph, represented by an
allele P, and then, the Pastel trait might be defined by the allele p, as it is a recessive one. Based
on all of the above, the genetic formula for the Brown Pastel is:
42
It is apparent that adding the genes for lipochrome colors to the previous genetic formulas, the
classic Pastels will be obtained. What follow are the genetic formulas for those classic Pastel
canaries, most commonly obtained in regular breeding procedures.
Yellow Brown Pastel intensive
X BnOp
KKGGffIi
One important aspect to get the best is the optic factor on the white ground color.
White Isabelle Pastel intensive
X Bnop
X Bnop
KKGGFfssIi
Note that in all white varieties the alleles ss have been included, since they determine the optic
factor on the white color (either dominant or recessive). In fact, if the optic factor is not present
on the white ground color, it turns to a dull and lack of appealing condition. It is something that
some fanciers do not know, being very concerned why their birds do not get good marks in bird
shows
As in any other sex link factor, the pastel factor carried by a male, will be inherited by its daughters. A straight inference leads to the conclusion that, a heterozygous male for the pastel factor,
will transfer it to half of its daughters, and they will be Pastel. It is now apparent that if a male
carrying the Pastel factor mates any melanic female canary, we will obtain Pastel females, by
means of which we may set up a complete line of this type.
Now the reader is almost ready to conduct the necessary breeding to get Pastel canaries, comprising different varieties.
43
CHAPTER 10
The Opal Canary: the extra dilution factor
Chapter 8 was devoted to a type of canary which recalls the name of a gem: the Agate. The present chapter will deal with another gem name: the Opal. According to certain records, this mutation appeared in 1949 in Germany, probably not well understood at that time. Through the
fifties, it took a long journey, and is exactly during the sixties that became well known and popular, all over the world. It appears that, with the first Opal canary fanciers thought it was merely, and nothing but a more dilute Agate. Then, the exact recognition of a new mutation was not
a simple decision.
Between the Agate and the Opal, we may establish a comparison. The dilute factor that made
possible the Agate type, affected both, the pheomelanin and the eumelanin. The same is true for
the Opal, in which an extreme dilution is accomplished to affect both kinds of melanins, much
more than occurred in the Agate phenotype. The Opal feather is darker on the inferior vane portion; it stands as one remarkable characteristic of the Opal phenotype. Besides, it is stiff, somehow fracturable, and not flexible, mainly in the Green, Blue, and Agate. It is precisely a drawback in the Opal type, poor plumage quality, on the average.
Why that name Opal? In fact, the back of this canary shows certain iridescences when red
lipochrome is present, and in melanic types, if of good quality, bluish shades could be seen.
These unusual changes of color and shades, are typical of the gem we call Opal.
44
2 + 3 = 1 + 3 (already explained)
2 + 4 = 1 + 4 (already explained)
45
Octavio Perez-Beato
Now, a simple conclusion is: from this mating we may obtain males and females, as follow: nonOpal, carrier of the Opal factor, and pure Opal canaries. It is important to stress that, as the
Opal factor is not a sex-link gene, it segregates independently of the sex chromosomes, then it
is possible to obtain the previously discussed offspring.
46
CHAPTER 11
The Ivory Factor: dilute lipochromes
During the fifties, the date is not very exact though some records point to the year 1950, for the
first time in the history of canary breeding a mutation showed-up that affected the lipochromes,
not the melanins. This new mutation appeared from a couple of yellow Hartzer Roller, from
which all the female offspring showed the new color, as a delicate cream, which enriched a little bit more the already up going genetic background of our feathered little friend, and so opening new possibilities to create color combinations not imaginable, just a short time before.
Ivory, as a color, is well known from the teeth of mammals, mainly from the elephant tusks,
which have been used in works of art for centuries. There are good reasons to name the new
color mutation as Ivory. To better approach this new color in the canary plumage, it is necessary to recall that in the yellow canary, the wing and tail feathers, are not completely colored
with yellow lipochrome, and then some white areas are commonly seen. On the contrary, in the
Ivory canary the creamy color is extended to wing and tail feathers, completely.
In fact, the Ivory factor acts on the lipochromes as a dilute gene, besides extending the pigment
to wing and tail feathers.
The fact that the first two Ivory canaries were females, pointed to the certainty that it was a sex
link factor, as it was confirmed lately, besides being a recessive gene.
In this mutation, there is something new added to all of the above. It was almost a rule that the
former mutations affecting the melanins in the canary also inhibited the trait to some extent.
That is why some authors assessed that the mutation which created the Brown canary, is such
just because inhibited the eumelanin expression in the canary plumage. In addition, the appearance of the Agate is possible just because that particular mutation is able to inhibit the total oxidation process on the melanins. Furthermore, the Isabelle reached on the stage, simply because
of the convergence of two former inhibitory processes: the one that created the Brown canary,
and the incomplete oxidation process that originated the Agate variety.
47
Octavio Perez-Beato
Now, let us examine the Ivory factor at the light of the inhibitory records that, characterized the
mutations on melanins before the appearance of the Ivory mutation. First, we may say yes, this
mutation diluted the lipochrome pigments not allowing deep colors, but at the same time the
wing and tail feathers are now fully lipochromed, not seen before in the canary breeding history. These feathers are so well pigmented in the Ivory, as any other feather all over the body of
the bird. It is evident that now we have two faces of the same phenomena: dilution of the
lipochrome (inhibitory effect), and extension of the color to wing and tail feathers (antiinhibitory effect). This apparent opposite effects produced by the same mutation, is recorded
for the first time in the canary breeding history.
Advanced canary breeders went beyond the Yellow Ivory. The Red Factor lovers wanted to
experiment on the red canary. Eventually, the efforts ended with the appearance of the Red
Ivory (Rose), a new outstanding color not seen before in the canary plumage. It is a very delicate pink color, evenly extended on all feathers.
In English language it was not a problem to name these two new colors, but in Spanish speaking countries, canary breeders deliberated about a fair nomenclature for both new colors. It was
then agreed that, the Ivory plus yellow lipochrome became Marfil-Crema (Ivory-Cream) according to the exact look of the plumage as a whole. For the red factor Ivory, it was named MarfilRosa (Ivory-Rose) in remembrance of the delicate color of the rose flower. Nowadays, Spanish
nomenclature matches with English equivalent, for a better international understanding of the
always growing color listing, in our modern canaries.
X BNOa
X BNOa
KKGGffrrii
X BNOa
X BNOa
KKGGffRRii
It is evident now, how complex the genetic formulas might be, describing colors in the canary.
Nevertheless, they are necessary by all means to a dedicated canary breeder, who wishes to
completely master in all details, the color genetics on this little bird.
The reader, at this point, must be in good shape to fully interpret the mating procedures that
follow. They will be useful to have a full view of the genetic features of the Ivory factor.
48
3 X BNOa
4Y
Offspring:
Green Ivory male
1 + 3 = X BNOa
X BNOa
Green female
2 + 4 = X BNOA
Y
Offspring:
Green Ivory carrying Brown factor male
1 + 3 = X BNOa
X BnOa
Green female
2 + 4 = X BNOA
Y
The reader surely realized that allele A represents the non-Ivory factor, which is the dominant
original allele. The last mating, depicted in the previous diagram, is the key to understand the
combinations Ivory-Melanin phenotypes, which many canary fanciers believe are somehow
complex to obtain. In fact, it is not. It is just a matter of applying correctly the knowledge
obtained about, dominant and recessive genes, autosomic and sex link, together with the corresponding domain of lipochromes.
49
CHAPTER 12
The Pied Canary Genetics
In this chapter, not only the genetics of pied individuals will be considered, also the eye color
will be included, since eye color and pied condition are tightly related, for both are produced by
melanin pigments. Ultimately, the eye color in the canary can provide an extremely important
information regarding melanin present in the genotype, and not shown in the phenotype. What
is needed is to closely look at the eyes of our birds, with the help of light reflection. In this way,
chances are that we may succeed in detecting that important information, needed in the genetics of the pied canary.
Locus P bears two alleles: P and p. The dominant allele P allows the development of melanin in
the plumage, while the recessive allele p inhibits such development. The melanic canary has the
genetic formula PP, a pied canary has the genetic formula Pp. Finally, a lipochrome canary has
the formula pp.
Nonetheless, the spot and shape of melanin patches on the plumage depend upon other genes.
Gene P only allows the melanin to show up on the plumage, nothing else. Now, a question arises: Is there a complete lack of melanin in lipochrome canaries, just because their sex chromosomes do not carry genes for the synthesis of those pigments? The answer is, NO. The
lipochrome canaries do carry melanic traits; their sex chromosomes have the information for
such inheritance. The issue is that a lipochrome canary cannot develop melanic color in its
plumage, since its genotype is pp, which precisely inhibits the development of melanin. A common lipochrome canary may be carrying Green, Brown, Agate or Isabelle. How do we know? It
is not always simple. As an example, a Green, Bronze or Blue canary will show black eyes, since
eumelanin and pheomelanin are deposited in the eyes, as they might be on the plumage. An
Agate, has dark eyes, but not exactly black. In fact, it is not an easy task to establish a difference
between a Green and an Agate, based on the eye color.
On the other hand, a Brown canary has reddish eyes, seen on light reflection; Isabelle eyes are
rather pink, also seen on light reflection. When I say rather pink I do not mean albino or lutino, it is not the case. The Isabelle eye color is pink, just in the pupil; albino, lutino and rubino
canarys eyes, are as red as in an albino mouses eyes.
50
mated to:
Green female
XBNO
KKGGffPP
Y
What is important here is the outcome of the Yellow-Brown pied females, not seen in the parents. The breeder in this example was keenly interested in obtaining birds to start a line of
Brown canaries. The male parent with reddish eyes was unequivocally a Brown carrier, but lacking the allele P to express the melanin in its plumage.
It was then necessary a specific female to provide the offspring with such allele. The chosen
Green female provided the P allele, ending up with an offspring of Yellow-Brown pied females.
From these females, now it is possible to develop a whole line of Brown canaries. To accomplish
this is simple, just selecting the best of the Yellow-Brown pied females and make a back-cross
using its father (inbreeding):
Yellow male with reddish eyes
X BnO
KKGGffpp
X BnO
mated to:
Offspring:
Yellow-Brown pied male (A)
X BnO
KKGGffPp
X BnO
51
Octavio Perez-Beato
Yellow female (E)
X BnO
KKGGffpp
Y
From this entire offspring is now possible to choose from three groups of males, and three of
females. Our choices increased, and then our possibilities to focus on the creation of a Brown
genetic line from the initial mating. It is a good choice to select males from group (C), and
females from group (F) since both groups show homozygote birds for the Brown factor. From
these males and females, it is possible to successfully develop a whole lineage of Brown
canaries. At this point it is advisable to use inbreeding methods. By all means,
there is not a better choice to create lineages as the one discussed in this chapter. The reader
has been provided with inbreeding methods in a previous chapter.
Now, is the time to go directly to the practice of inbreeding methods, together with a strict selection of the best, to ensure a good quality lineage to begin with.
As the reader may see, the most important action is to start with the chosen melanin hidden in
a lipochrome phenotype, focused on the point that the offspring could get the allele P, in order
to express the melanin on the plumage, this allele has been obtained from the non-lipochrome
parent, and introduce in the offspring by means of the right mating system.
In this very chapter only the example of a Yellow carrying the Brown factor, has been discussed,
but it is easily projected to lipochrome canaries carrying Green, Isabelle, etc. depending on the
decision of the canary fancier. The ultimate goal is to obtain birds with phenotype PP, to fully
express the melanin on the plumage.
52
53
Octavio Perez-Beato
As a general rule, it is recommended to use inbreeding procedures in case we detect an individual with acceptable characteristics of symmetrical variegation. Only using inbreeding techniques, it is possible to achieve certain results in terms of the offspring showing the desired
symmetrical patterns. Then again, this is not an easy task to get along with.
54
CHAPTER 13
New Mutations. The Incredible Eighties
From 1981 to 1985 three new colors appeared on the stage of canary breeding. In just have a
decade, the emergence of three new varieties broke all the records known before. Besides, the
new colors are based on the same inheritance pattern: autosomic recessive. They are really new,
so much a new that they are not seen in many bird shows around the world, yet. Perhaps,
Europe is the top of the line leader in modern colors. Nothing new, Europe has ever been. Is it
just because the wild canary was first introduced in the old continent, and their amounts have
been large enough to develop a generous genetic variability? I have no answer, but chances are
that the amount counts, since probability is a matter of large numbers.
The Eumo
In 1981 the Eumo was born, reported from Holland. The new canary eye color is red, though it
gets a little darker with age in Greens, Blues, and Bronzes. Pheomelanin is almost gone. There
is something that seems to be characteristic: the darker the streaks on head, back and flanks,
the darker the red eye color. Melanin runs along next to both sides of the quill, exclusively; the
rest of the vane is washed-off.
In general terms, the Eumo mutation diminish the amount of melanin; both, in length and
width regarding the streaks. The overall design is somehow streaky, and the non-melanic portion among the streaks is remarkable sparkling, and shows a neat lipochrome color.
The Brown, Isabelle, and Agate Eumo keep their eyes really red, and brightly. The eumelanin is
shown as a very peculiar grey color, including the duvet, but not black. Beak, legs, and nails are
pink.
Eumo is an autosomic recessive mutation. There are some few problems with Eumo phenotype;
if it has too oxidized melanin, the eyes of a non-well trained observer, may judge the Eumo as
a very dilute Topaz.
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Octavio Perez-Beato
The Onyx
Another autosomic recessive mutation. It showed-up in Spain between 1983 and 1984. This
mutation is in fact an allele of the Opal gene; now the Opal gene has two alleles. Onyx is not
a standardized genotype, yet. It is co-dominant to the Opal allele, each one located in homologous chromosomes, on the same locus. Then, the Opal is a multi-allelic gene.
The history of the Onyx canary is by no means the same as for the rest of alleles affecting the
melanin. All began more than twenty years ago, when a South American bird of the genus
Spinus hybridized with a Green Opal female canary in captivity. In fact, it is not very clear if it
was a Green or a Bronze Opal female canary; a Blue Opal could be another possibility.
According to what is known today, some hybrid males were fertile. The back-cross to female
canaries, during a certain period of time, came up with the first Onyx canary. As the reader may
see, it is not a mutation at all, but the direct result of hybridization with a species of the same
genus (Spinus) of the red siskin. Records do not specify what the species was. Just for the reader to have a rough idea about what numbers are involved in the genus Spinus, let us say that at
present twenty-one species are recognized with 36 sub-species as well. You may imagine that it
is really difficult to guess what the species involved was.
Years later, the Onyx breeding enthusiasm took place in the city of Valencia, Spain. More individuals were obtained, and obviously, an improvement in the stabilization of the Onyx phenotype, was achieved.
In fact, the Onyx is the opposite of a dilution. The Onyx plumage is very dark, somehow a blend
of black and brown melanins, with some ash-grey color in the lighter areas. When young, they
look as classic melanin canaries. The appearance of melanin is somehow delayed, but finally
spreads all over the plumage, in a non-evenly distribution. The tail and wing feathers do not
show an even allocation of melanin, on the contrary, it looks like a dash-line design, on a transverse fashion. There is an evident concentration of eumelanin on the head, from neck up, but
this eumelanin does not look exactly pure black. The rest of the plumage shows a disperse
melanin color, more than in any other phenotype known today. Onyx is not a black canary, as
its name may suggest; lipochrome is seen among the streaks, though somehow darker due to
the spread of melanin. The pheomelanin is really scarce; the eyes are black as well as the duvet.
Beak, legs, and nails are dark to black.
From a genetic point of view, it seems reasonable that as the hybridization went on, a crossingover took place; exchange of genetic material between both species the canary and the South
American Spinus-was consummated. Then, a new allele from the Spinus species was added to
the Opal locus. Now, the Opal and the Onyx are co-dominant alleles.
Some examples will help to fully understand how this allelic relation works. Let L, be the normal dominant, non-opal allele; then l is the recessive allele responsible for the Opal phenotype,
and l the recessive allele that yields the Onyx phenotype. According to all of the above, there
are three alleles in the Opal locus: the normal dominant alleleL, the recessive l responsible for
the Opal, and finally the recessive allele l responsible for the Onyx. Do not forget they are all
autosomic, and l and l are co-dominant.
56
As seen in the Punnett squares, 50 % of the offspring will be Opal, and the other 50% will be
Opal-Onyx, it is, an intermediate phenotype between both, since the allele l and the allele l are
co-dominant.
Now, the mating of a male carrying the Onyx factor, with a normal female, will be:
Then again, the Punnett squares show that 50% of the offspring will be normal (not carrying
Onyx factor). The other 50% will be phenotypically normal carrying the Onyx factor. Now, from
the 50% carrying the Onyx factor, select the best females to be back-crossed to the original
male, then:
Twenty-five percent of the offspring will be homozygous Onyx (ll). Now, it is very clear you
would obtain Onyx phenotype canaries, in a term of two breeding seasons though you would
only have a male carrying the Onyx factor, if you follow the previous procedures.
The Topaz
According to reliable records, in 1985 a new mutation came into sight, again in Europe. This
time the genetic factor was called Topaz, in accordance to another precious gem. The main fea57
Octavio Perez-Beato
ture of the Topaz is an apparent modification of the eumelanin, which is concentrated bordering the quill, and leaving a wide pearl color contour all around tail, wing and covert feathers.
The pheomelanin is also reduced, but beak, legs and nails exhibit a light brown color, depending on the variety. At present, only Green, Blue, Bronze, and Agate are standardized as Topaz.
The design in the first three types shows a brown color on the head, back, and flank streaks,
which are long and symmetrical, neat and well delineated. Eyes are reddish when very young,
and darker when adult. The gene responsible for Topaz mutation is autosomic recessive, as it
was the case in the Eumo and Onyx phenotypes, previously discussed.
The Topaz was the last new color in the eighties, but surprisingly it was not the last in the row.
Next, it will be discussed briefly, the newest color of all.
The Kobalt
Once again, another autosomic recessive mutation on the melanins came into view. It was
around the year 1994, in Germany. In a tight period of thirteen years, four new expressions of
color were in the hands of the fanciers. As in the Onyx, the Kobalt shows an extension and darkening process of melanins. It is apparent that, those areas where lipochromes are seen through
a light cover of melanins (throat, chest and abdomen), as is the case of the classic Greens, Blues,
and Bronzes, in the Kobalt it is not a light cover of melanin, it is a more dense dark patina that
completely changes the appearance of the bird, besides a well streaked throat, chest, and
abdomen are apparent. The beak, legs, and nails are very dark. In general, the streaks are cut,
somehow fragmented in the areas mentioned before, and on the flanks and head. In well selected birds these short streaks look like an irregular dashed-design.
This mutation has been officially accepted during 2006, and in my opinion it may be improved
in the years to come. Now, at the sight of four new colors under the autosomic recessive condition, all affecting the melanin expression and design, a very simple question arises: Are these
four last mutations autosomic recessive just because, the possibilities of another sex link mutation affecting melanins is extremely restricted nowadays, and nothing might be expected in that
direction? The answer is not a simple one. If we just carefully observe what the events have been
so far, it is possible to conclude, with a certain degree of uncertainty, that perhaps gene provision on the sex chromosomes is not enough to enter a new mutational process affecting
melanins, as happened before with Agate and Opal.
The Kobalt is in fact, a dark canary, but it is not Black. On the next chapter, a discussion on the
possibility of a true black canary is developed, up to the point that is possible at this time.
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CHAPTER 14
Genetic Possibilities of a True Black Canary
At present, we already know about the so called Onyx color variation in the canary. Oddly
enough, the gem known by this name, is completely black, no doubt about it. In Mexico, is common to find rings and other jewelry with onyx on it. But our Onyx canary is not that black. In the
present chapter, the possibility of a true black canary will be discussed to the best of my
knowledge. Some historical facts have been recorded since decades ago, but the surfacing possibilities in those occasions in the past, have not been successfully achieved in the stabilization of
a black canary, despite of the occurrences the phenotype appeared, recurrently, in former times.
Unfortunately, the story of the red canary has not been projected in obtaining the black canary.
Not enough breeding leaders devoted to pursue the goal of the black canary, has ever appeared on
the stage of genetic experimental efforts, with a real commitment, and decided to go to great
lengths, no matter how difficult the task might be. Recently, some attempts in hybridizing
Carduelis atrata (Negrito de Bolivia or Black Siskin), also classified as Spinus atratus with the
female canary, have been performed to some extent. Besides, on the same scene is also another
bird, the Yellow Bellied Siskin (Spinus xanthogaster). Crossing between the Black siskin and the
Yellow Bellied Siskin have created hybrids as well. Those hybrids are all black, except on the
throat, chest and belly which are completely white. These hybrids have been back-crossed to an
Onyx female canary. What seems certain is that fertility is not so good in those attempts, besides
the problem with white color on throat, chest and belly, which seem to be stubborn to disappear
from the phenotype. Nevertheless, keep on working is necessary. Hybridization is not an easy task,
many random genetic factors act on those crossings. The more attempts, the higher the possibility in obtaining the black canary. Sharing experiences among all fanciers involved in this goal, is a
must. We probably need emulous of Hans Duncker and Karl Reich teaming to accomplish on the
project of the Black Canary, as they did many years ago in the project of the Red Canary.
Of course, for many a simple and genuine question may arise: is it really possible a true black
canary? Up to present, colors on the plumage of the canary have been a mutational surprise, except
the Red Canary, which was, no doubt about it, the first genetically engineered animal, conceived,
performed, and brought into reality thank to the extraordinary effort of dedicated, well informed,
and scientifically stubborn ongoing fanciers, during several decades of extolling efforts.
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Octavio Perez-Beato
I will try to answer the question from the preceding paragraph. First, I may say that two possible
ways may be taken into account, but we need to know first certain historical facts, and then draw
your own conclusion. Second, technically we assume the genetic possibility of a black canary,
based on the knowledge of melanin inheritance learned in previous chapters, not beyond.
What has happened in the history of color canaries in the past is exactly the basic to understand
what the future may bring, regarding new colors. The same is true for a real black canary. It
may show up from hybridization, or from a mutation. What is the most plausible one? At this
point, we need to know what the history is about black canaries in the past. In many instances,
the facts in the past may be the answer to the present. Let us roll the historical facts, and then,
you may draw your very own conclusions. Perhaps, at least a dim light on the possible achievement of a black canary may come true.
According to certain records it appears that, at the time the fever of the Red Canary was at a
peak (1930), others focused on the possibility of a Black Canary. And then again, the Red and
the Black, one hundred years before (1830), it was the title of the outstanding novel written by
Stendhal; what a coincidence!
That was the way that between the twenties and the thirties, canary breeders from different
countries were immersed in hybridizing the canary and the Black Siskin. This species belongs
to the same family of the canary (Fringillidae). Negrito de Bolivia or Black Siskin is of a deep
black color, with yellow belly and lower tail coverts, with two wing bars of the same color. Its
behavior as a cage bird, is not easy to handle, since it shows sometimes itself as a very nervous
bird, very sensible to aviary or cage conditions and management. Finally, most of them do not
survive in captivity, according to certain fanciers.
From all of the hybridizing attempts, nothing was clearly obtained. Nevertheless, the general
opinion is that the Black Siskin x female canarys hybrid, is fertile, but in a very low proportion.
Around 1930, a canary breeder from Argentina succeeded in obtaining several fertile hybrids
from the aforementioned crossing. It is said, not confirmed, that in the first bird show in that
country, that canary breeder showed the first true black canary, together with several Black
Siskins x female canarys hybrids. After that bird show, no other records have been available.
In 1954, at the Turin Bird Show, Italy, a black canary was registered. Unfortunately, very few
facts were known about the bird only that it sang like a common Roller. The owner declared that
it was the product of hybridization.
In 1955, at the National Exhibition of Cage Birds and Aquaria, in England, the judges carefully
watched an individual registered as a black canary. They finally declared the bird as a true black
canary. When the owner of that outstanding bird was asked about the way he obtained such a
color, he openly declared that it was not his intention to obtain such a color, he was trying to
obtain green canaries from a couple of Borders, the male being dark green pied, and the female
white with black eyes. That canary was completely black, except the tail and a small patch on
the neck, both being white color; besides, some few brown wing feathers.
Also a mutation gave birth to a black canary; the bird was registered at the Chelmsford Bird
Show. The owner A. J. Spooner declared that he made nothing to obtain such a bird, which
came out of a brood from a green female. As a fledging it was not so dark, but after the first molt
it turned to be black.
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Octavio Perez-Beato
recorded before in canary breeding history. It is a fairly good genetic approach, and then the
expected gene structure in sex chromosomes shall be:
Male:
X bNO
X bNO
Female:
X bNO
Y
It is clearly seen that eumelanin is completely oxidized with no presence of pheomelanin. But
this is not enough. It is necessary for the eumelanin to be extended all over the plumage, to really create a black feathered canary. We all know that a good Green canary shows wing and tail
feathers completely black; unfortunately, this spread pigment does not cover the rest of the
bird, just tail and wing feathers.
Now we need another magic touch to completely fulfill the dream of a Black Canary. As I said
in the previous paragraphs, the black color (eumelanin) needs to be spread all over the plumage.
Let us assume that the allele responsible to deposit eumelanin in canary feathers, as we know it
today, is the autosomic dominant allele D. Then, the mutant allele to cover the whole plumage
with eumelanin is d, being an autosomic recessive allele. According to all of the above, two
mutations are necessary to produce a Black canary, which is not very feasible, since a single
mutation is a very sporadic event in genetic history; it is too much to consider two mutations in
a row to produce the black phenotype.
The second approach or theory is: if we refer to the Black Canary registered in England
(1955), we may recall that brown feathers were visible in that individual; this may indicate that
it is not completely necessary to inhibit the Brown allele to produce a Black canary, but a larger amount of eumelanin, instead. If it is correct, then only one single mutation is necessary,
allele d, and nothing else.
As I said before, let D be the regular gene responsible to deposit eumelanin in the regular canary
plumage, then d is the mutant recessive allele which is able to deposit enough eumelanin in all
feathers, to create a Black Canary. Then again, a possible genetic formula for the black canary
might be:
X BNO
dd
X BNO
As the allele d is recessive, this means that a Black canary must be homozygous for that allele.
Besides this allele is not sex link, on the contrary, it is autosomic.
According to historical facts already discussed somewhere in this book, the emergence of black
canaries seems to be associated with a recurrent mutation, since it has been repeated over a certain period of time, as recurrent mutations do. Nonetheless, the outcome of a Black Canary
needs the concomitant occurrence of male and female carrying the recessive autosomic allele d,
if this theory is correct. The expected outcome of such mating shall be 25% black canaries,
either males or females, or a combination of both.
Time and effort will solve the problem of the waited so long bird; time and effort go together
in most of mankind goals, and the Black Canary cannot be different.
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CHAPTER 15
Obtaining Varieties through Simple Pairing
Taking into account that new color canaries are somehow difficult to obtain, since they are not
widely available, it is the purpose of this chapter to present to the reader some simple pairing
procedures and schemes, that lead step by step in obtaining the desire varieties having only one
individual of the kind.
It is necessary for the reader to be in complete knowledge of the preceding chapters, in order to
apply it and reach the goal in obtaining the varieties he/she is looking for.
To fully develop the examples in the following pairings, genetic symbols will be created for the
new varieties to make possible a true understanding of different genetic combinations, according to what each variety represents. Besides, only basic procedures will be shown as a guideline,
which can be extended to other pairings as necessary.
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Octavio Perez-Beato
Agate male carrying
the Eumo factor
1 X BNo
Ee
2 X BNo
Agate female
3 X BNo EE
4Y
1 + 3 = X BNo EE
X BNo
Agate non-Eumo male
or
1 + 3 = X BNo Ee
X BNo
Agate carrying Eumo male
1 + 4 = X BNo EE
Y
Agate non-Eumo female
or
1 + 4 = X BNo Ee
Y
Agate carrying Eumo female
Offspring:
Offspring:
1 + 3 = X BNo EE
X BNo
Agate non-Eumo male
or
1 + 3 = X BNo Ee
or
X BNo
Agate carrying Eumo male
1 + 3 = X BNo ee
X BNo
Agate Eumo male
2 + 4 = X BNo Ee
or
Y
Agate carrying Eumo female
2 + 4 = X BNo ee
Y
Agate Eumo female
It is evident that on the second breeding season, Agate Eumo males and females are both
obtained. From now on, the fancier may establish a whole lineage of Agate Eumo canaries,
always using a line breeding procedure to ensure the purity of descendants and of course, selection ought to be applied, rigorously.
This example is valid for any autosomic recessive inheritance as is the case of the Onyx
(already explained) and the Topaz birds. Next, an example using an autosomic dominant
allele will be discussed. A good choice could be the mosaic canary, which is an autosomic dominant gene.
64
The offspring is composed exclusively of heterozygous birds (Hh), which is logically expected
from this kind of mating. Then again, nobody can tell they are heterozygous, since their phenotypes are typically mosaic.
Example 2:
The offspring is composed 50 % heterozygous mosaic birds, which look like common mosaic
canaries, and 50 % normal non-mosaic birds. These normal non-mosaic birds in the offspring
show themselves as an irrefutable proof that the parental female is a heterozygous bird, for the
mosaic factor.
Now, the last example is devoted to a sex-link recessive factor to complete a genetic trilogy,
which encompasses the three main categories of genes in the color genetics of canaries. Our
model factor in this example is the Brown canary.
If you want to obtain a lineage of Brown canaries and only possess a male Green canary carrying Brown factor, you may pair this canary to a Green female, which are readily available almost
anywhere; the procedure is as follow:
Green male carrying Brown factor
1 X BNO
2 X BnO
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mated to:
Green female
3 X BNO
4Y
Octavio Perez-Beato
Offspring:
1 + 3 = X BNO
X BNO
Green male
1 + 4 = X BNO
Y
Green female
2 + 3 = X BnO
X BNO
Green male carrying Brown factor
2 + 4 = X BnO
Y
Brown female
For the next breeding season, a Brown female is already available to be back-crossed to the original Green male carrying Brown factor.
The results are as follow:
Original Green male carrying Brown factor
1 X BNO
2 X BnO
mated to:
Brown female
3 X BnO
4Y
Offspring:
1 + 3 = X BNO
X BnO
Green carrying Brown factor
1 + 4 = X BNO
Y
Green female
2 + 3 = X BnO
X BnO
2 + 4 = X BnO
Y
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67
CHAPTER 16
Concomitant Factors in the Color Canary: other mutations
69
CHAPTER 17
The Nomenclature of Color Canaries
Along the whole book, all aspects have been treated from a genetic point of view, naming in some
cases the specific color according to the accepted nomenclature. Now, in the present chapter the
classification of color canaries will be dealt with, stressing the principles in which are based all
the terms used in the so called nomenclature. It is of extreme importance, since the newcomer
breeders might themselves be lost in a jargon that seems quite difficult, if not well explained.
What is explained hereof is just a guideline for those who, for the first time, are entering the hassle of so many new terms used in color canaries nomenclature. To be a canary breeder means to
handle all aspects of this activity, and naming the birds in the right way is really important, since
it is the language to establish an unambiguous communication among canary breeders. It is of
supreme importance when taking part in a bird show, to deeply understand how and why the
birds are prized. Without knowing the nomenclature such an approach is almost impossible.
Nomenclature itself is not a hard issue; on the contrary, it clarifies every single detail and subtle features, nowadays so common in color canary breeding. In every science or in any branch
of technology, it is necessary to establish a precise nomenclature that makes communication
run smoothly, to express concepts and technical aspects understandable worldwide. Canary
breeding is not an exception.
Internationally accepted, nomenclature of color canaries is a must, not only involving domestic
bird shows, but all around the world these shows are feasible just because an international way
of naming is respected and accepted, based on technical phenotype characteristics, as well as on
organization ethics.
Type
Brown
Isabelle
Agate
Green
Green Opal
Category
mosaic
intensive
frost
intensive
intensive
frost
frost
Variety
Yellow
White
Yellow
White
Rose
Type
Bronze
Brown Opal
Isabelle Pastel
Brown Pastel
Agate Opal
Bronze Opal
Category
mosaic
intensive
mosaic
intensive
frost
intensive
It is apparent that some individuals are lacking the Variety and others are lacking the Type, but
all bear the Category. The previous examples can be taken as a pattern to classify other colors
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Octavio Perez-Beato
of our canary. If you take a closer look at the previous examples, you will find that under the
Type component those names with two words description, the first name is always the oldest
mutation and the second, the newest one.
Next, some Varieties and Types will be described for the reader, mainly for the new comers to
this activity, to get acquaintance of the peculiarities of the most common color canaries. What
follow is not a comprehensive list, it is just a guide, a grosso modo approach to learn some few
details about the most commonly seen color canaries.
Dilute Melanin
White Agate Intensive
In these canaries the presence of the optic factor adds a very delicate silvery shade, which
enhances the beauty of the bird. Streaks on the back and flanks show a lead shade, and are nicely delineated on the whitish ground typical of this variety. The minute design on the crown and
whisker, are readily seen, all of which is superimposed on a very light grey color. The coverts
show the Agate typical design, which is basically formed as an almond-like contour on each of
these feathers. This drawing is precisely known as the Agate Almond Design. Beak, legs, and
nails are pink.
In those intensive high quality birds, the set of plumage, flanks and back resemble a tiger-like
design.
Yellow Agate Intensive
In these birds, the yellow lipochrome is the ground color for the dilute melanin. All the streaks
on back, flanks and head must be neat and clean cut. Any trace of pheomelanin is a true demerit, since only dilute eumelanin must be seen, which shows itself as a lead color design. In this
particular variety, the tiger-like appearance is exceedingly shown.
72
Extra-Dilute Melanin
Green Opal
The Green canary, with the genetic addition of the Opal factor, still keeps the beak, legs and
nails well pigmented. The same is true for the Bronze and Blue varieties. Pheomelanin is almost
gone, and eumelanin is severely reduced. Iridescent reflections are seen on the plumage, and
the general appearance is that of a lipochrome individual.
Bronze Opal
On these birds, the typical iridescent reflection of the Opal canary is highly enriched, due to the
red ground color. Regarding melanin dilution, the effect and appearance are the same as
described for the Green Opal.
The description of the aforementioned birds is just an approach, for the reader to have an idea
of the phenotype details that have to be considered, when breeding these common varieties. It
is not recommended to start breeding any variety without knowing exactly what details and features should be considered in those birds. Objectives have to be very clear from the start; undesirable characteristic may show up, otherwise.
In many countries, the nomenclature does not consider the presence of the optic factor. This
means, for them no matter if the white or yellow ground is combined with the optic factor, or
not. In fact, the optic factor has been very controversial in the classification of color canaries;
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Octavio Perez-Beato
nonetheless, as it was expressed in a previous chapter, the optic factor is a genetic reality independent of any classificatory criteria, or any checklist convenience.
Nowadays, the amount of mutations already seen in our feathery friend, make possible an
incredible number of color combinations in Type and Variety that show themselves as really
complex. At the same time, all these combinations confer an outstanding genetic value to those
birds bearing them. It is possible to bring into being birds that combine in their genotypes four,
perhaps five of all available mutations known today, together with factors inherited from the
Red Siskin, such as the red color, and the mosaic factor. Just to mention a few of these possible
genotypes, as examples of real possibilities, let us take a look at this: Rose Isabelle Opal Mosaic,
Rose Brown Pastel Mosaic, Rose Bronze Opal Frost, Yellow Agate Ivory Frost, and Yellow Ivory
Satine Intensive.
It is evident that the aforementioned canaries are beautiful masterpieces of genetics, obtained
through a very careful and technical breeding, not commonly seen in bird shows; they are rather
scarce. The more genetic factors put together in just one individual, the more accurate breeding
and selection procedures have to be accomplished, simply because the combination of multiple
factors might create a conflict in the phenotype expression for each individual factor, and for a
whole harmonious phenotype, as well. Today, canary breeding is not just an attractive hobby; it
turned out to be a genuine branch of zoo technology, with its own methods and principles, due
to the particular aspects of canary genetics, being comparable to any other domestic animal
breeding, at a world wide level. I would like to encourage all fanciers involved in color canary
breeding to make a try in obtaining those types and varieties seldom seen around, just because
those birds are beautiful. It is not a secret that many fanciers do not attempt breeding the complex genotypes, due to lack of enough knowledge, mainly on genetics ground. I really hope that
every topic included in all previous chapters, could be a real encouragement to every color
canary breeder, up in the way to better birds at each breeding season.
74
CHAPTER 18
Quantitative Canary Breeding
As it was stated in the previous chapter, canary breeding should be considered at present, a true
specialty in the domestic animals breeding activity. Nonetheless, though outstanding advancements have been achieved in practical management procedures, and reproductive aspects of
canary breeding, just fewprobably very few fanciers all over the world, have been involved in
a numerical evaluation of their breeding results. Honestly, this is the impression I have after
checking published texts, and lots of references and articles in the internet. Most of that information, not to say all, is based on individual practical experiences, which may differ from one
breeder to another. Then a question arises: What are the quantitative results of all these practical advises? To answer this question is dedicated all of the following.
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Octavio Perez-Beato
Quantitative Information
The so called quantitative information is usually envisioned in two basic forms:
1.- Relative figures (usually percents)
2.- Absolute figures
Relative figures are a very popular manner to offer results, being comprehensible for everybody,
since in modern times it is a common issue that TV programs offer a lot of information and
results of advertised products, based on percentages.
Let us not forget that a percent is telling us what proportion has been considered, from a base total.
On the other hand, absolute figures offer concrete information, such as: chicks hatched, number
of mating pairs, etc. or a combination of such figures, which are also a target for this chapter.
Definitions
Total females used in breeding: it is the number of female canaries that took part in the breeding season, constructing their nests, laying eggs (from 3 to 5 eggs per nest; as an exception 6
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Octavio Perez-Beato
Ch Values Considering from One to Four Broods in a Single Breeding Season
SURVIVORSHIP (S):
S = [total chicks full-fledge / total chicks hatched] x 100
The output value from this formula is a percent. The information obtained is understood
straightforward: how many full-fledged chicks were obtained from the total chicks hatched. In
other words, it is the percent that represent full-fledged chicks of the total hatched. This simple
formula directly points to certain possible problems in the aviary. A low S value may indicate
some problems in every day routine handling, such as:
inadequate feeding procedures
health problems in the breeding stock
inefficient hygiene
parasitism
genetic problems (possible mishandled inbreeding)
Next, rational value intervals for S are offered, intended for the breeder to have an idea of the
way results might be interpreted.
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Octavio Perez-Beato
It is convenient to say that one of the major problems that could negatively affect Survivorship
(S), are misguided inbreeding procedures. Inbreeding itself is not a wrong method; on the contrary, breeds of any imaginable animal species have been obtained by rational and well directed inbreeding procedures. What is unsafe is to apply it mistakenly. Chick mortality during the
first days after hatching could be the result of improperly managed inbreeding procedures.
FERTILITY (F):
F = [chicks hatched / total eggs laid] x 100
F value is also a percent, and tells us what proportion of all the eggs laid in the breeding season,
were bearing chicks able to hatch. The value of F gives information about the breeding stock,
males and females as well. If a relatively low number of chicks hatch, compare with the amount
of eggs laid, this means that some kind of fertility problem is arising in our breeding stock. But
not only fertility is involved, among other problems that decrease the hatching level, the following could be mentioned:
female canaries not properly incubating
sudden temperature changes
certain toxicity levels in the food supply
male canaries disturbing and bothering the females, not allowing them to be
properly devoted to incubation
After discussing all of the above, it is apparent that the F value is just and indicator connected
to the incubation and hatching issues, that set an alert flag about possible problems that really
exist in the aviary.
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As it was stated before, the Development Potential is a global indicator, offering a general view
of how efficiency shows up in the aviary, as a whole. A clear evidence of this statement is that
Pd includes the Fertility (F) and the Survivorship (S), as structural elements of the formula.
Octavio Perez-Beato
Let us suppose that there are three canary breeders A, B and C. The results they obtained during the breeding season are as follow:
The interpretation for the Rf values as shown in the table above, are as follow:
For canary breeder A, the value of 5.2 means that on the average, every 5 days a
chick will hatch, taking into account that for his/her aviary the breeding season
comprised 78 days, measured from the first to the last egg laid.
For canary breeder B, every third day a chick hatched, for a laying range of 95
days. Then, for canary breeder C, on the average, every second day a chick
hatched. It is obvious that the best Reproductive Frequency performance was
achieved by canary breeder C.
It is not an uncommon issue that, for highly developed aviaries the hatching frequency would
be just a few hours, on the average. This means that the values for Rf are in the order of decimal figures, just like Rf = 0.83, and less.
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The year where our records start is called base year. This base year will be the time reference
to compare all years to come, from which a very important information will be obtained about
the progress or retreat, for every single indicator on the table. This information is obtained
through the so called index numbers, which are nothing but quotients obtained in a successive
fashion using as the unique divisor the base year, mentioned before. Then, the GENERAL FORMULA to obtain index numbers is as follow:
Index = [target year / base year] x 100
As an example, the index numbers for Development Potential (Pd), will be expressed:
Ipd = [target year / base year] x 100
Based on this example, any convenient notation could be used for index numbers applied to any
specific indicator. All index numbers are expressed as percent values. What follows is a good
example using Ipd (Index for Development Potential) in a hypothetical time series:
Years
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Pd
94.3
94.8
96.4
98.3
92.5
The year 2003 is considered the base year, according to what was discussed in a previous paragraph. Then, applying the formula for Ipd, the results are as follow:
Ipd = [94.8 /94.3] x 100 = 100.5 for the year 2004. In a similar way Ipd values are calculated
for the rest of the years, always using 2003 as the base year, since it was the first recorded year
for the analysis. Next, are shown the Ipd values according to the applied formula for each year
on the previous table:
Year
2004
2005
Ipd
100.5
102.2
Year
2006
2007
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Ipd
104.2
98.1
Octavio Perez-Beato
It is evident that years 2004, 2005 and 2006 were better than the base year (2003), since the
Ipd values are larger than 100%. On the other hand, the year 2007 shows a decline for Ipd value.
Something happened that year in the aviary, since the trend was increasing in the previous
years, this meant progress. In cases like this, the breeder must carefully analyze what really happened, in order to take smart actions to benefit from.
All of what comprises this chapter, put numerical tools of tremendous practical value in the
breeders hands, as guide lines in the management of the breeding activity, year by year and on
a time series basis, as well. The success of this special task depends on the enthusiasm and
endeavor of the breeder, regarding the numerical aspects in managing his/her canaries. Those
who feel themselves prone to enjoy the simple math aspects in applying these controls,
undoubtly will adjoin another appealing aspect to canary breeding wonderful hobby; besides,
the helping addition of a better control on the breeding doings, and technical tools that are well
effective. From now on, not only will you enjoy CANARY BREEDING, you will expand your
technical knowledge doing QUANTITATIVE CANARY BREEDING.
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