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Atlas

THE COMMON SIGHTS IN

THE HEAVENS,
AND HOAV TO SEE AND KXOW THEM,

CAPTAIN

A.

W.^^DRAYSOX, E.A,

}^^^

LONDON:
CHAPMAN AND HALL,
1862.

193

PICCADILLY.

LOKDON

PRINTED BT WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STRKET.

PEEFACE.

In the following pages

will

he found a simple

description of the various sights

which can be

viewed in the heavens during the day and

night.

When

possible the pencil has

aid the description given

been used to

by the pen.

This book merely pretends to give an account of those objects which

a

common

eye.

may

telescope^ or even

be seen with

by the unaided

All scientific terms have been as

avoided

as possible

much

and although in some

instances diagrams which look suspicious^ and

appear to tend towards geometry, have been

inserted,
trust,

still

a moment's examination

will,

we

prove their innocence, and show that

PEEFACEo

IV

they are quite intelligible even to the most

unmathematical mincL

Under these circumstances

all

feel

readers

an

may

it

is

hoped that

be able to understand and to

interest in those subjects

lightly touched upon.

which are here

COMMON SiaHTS IN THE

HEAVENS.

CHAPTEE
Every

person

who

I.

possesses sight

is

provided

with the means of perceiving a whole host of

interesting

and beautiful

the same individual

minutes during the

is

celestial objects.

If

disposed to spare a few

many

clear nights in the

year, to the examination of the various hea-

venly bodies, he will shortly become possessed

of such

an amount of information that a new

sphere of investigation will be introduced to

him.

he

is

in

If,

addition

to

these natural

gifts,

fortunate enough to be provided with a

comm^on

telescope,

pounds of

or

possesses

s]3are cash, so as to

about three

provide himself

COMMON SIGHTS

^
with one,

means

he

is

to enable

then armed with

him

to

sufficient

examine closely the

chief characteristics of those vast floating bodies

which,

around

night

night,

after

this world,

and reveal

move

apparently

their wonders to

the gaze of the inquirer.

It

is

a common, but at the same time a very

mistaken idea, that

celestial

bodies,

and positions
plicated

all

their

which appertains

to the

movements, condition,

at various times, is of such a

com-

and puzzling nature, that very few

minds are capable of comprehending even the

elements of the science which treats of this
subject.

Hence very few

individuals are dis-

posed, or can afford, to devote several year^ of

exhausting study to acquire a knowledge of

mathematics, geometry, G-reek, and the

many

other sciences which they believe are requisite

to be known, before they can

the

common

interesting

comprehend even

portion of that vast

page, which extends from the horizon to the

point above us in the heavens.

To comprehend the

science of astronomy (as

it

IN
is

THE HEAVENS.

taught) requires of course a considerable pre-

paration

but to be able to enjoy the fruit of

this science

telescopCj

requires little

more than

and a few minutes'

eyes, a

attention.

There are several other subjects ^Yhich

may

be said to really occupy nearly the same position as that

assumed

for

for instance, is a very healthy

pation.

If,

ho^Yever,

Walking,

astronomy.

and useful occu-

no person was allowed

to

walk, or believed that he could not do so until

he knew exactly what muscles, nerves, and

joints

he called into

action,

could explain how

the will, by a mysterious agency, acted upon

the matter composing the body and legs,

much

air

body, &c.,

people

becile,

how

was displaced by the motion of the

we might

all

become very

scientific

but probably should soon become imalthough we might possibly look with

contempt upon the healthy countryman who

walked

ably, but

who knew not the

science of

that which he was doing.

Thus

to be able to understand the peculiar

beauties of the most interesting objects in the

COMMON SIGHTS

4
heavens,

is

within the grasp of certainly ninety-

nine out of every hundred individuals, althougli

they

may be

entirely unacquainted with science,

common

but possess merely

There are

observation.

in the heavens a variety of beauti-

During the day there

ful objects.

is

the glow-

ing sun, w^hose heat and light are essential to

the production and continuation of animal and
vegetable

life,

whose rays gladden and enliven

the earth, and whose daily advent calls forth

an harmonious song of praise from a myriad

feathered songsters.

With a calm, subdued

shaped moon

may

also

light the

crescent-

be seen in the day-time,

perhaps half her illuminated surface being then

turned towards the earth.

When
course,

the mighty orb of day has run his

and has retired from that part of the

heavens which appears arched above

us,

then

thousands of less gorgeous objects timidly peep

forth from their concealment, and, perceiving

the
their

earth in
pale,

shadow, they hasten to display

brilliant

fires,

until

at

last

the

IN

THE HEAVENS.

heaveiis appear studded with thousands

thousands of sparklmg

lights, which,

upon

although

smaller, are scarcely less bright than the mid-

day

sun.

The evening and

the night are the periods

when the heavens

field

for

most abundantly a

yield

amusement, and

it

then that the

is

wonders revealed therein can be most calmly

contemplated.

The

lover

of

whose

natm-e,

thoughts are given to the examination of terrestrial

wonders only,

is

not able to roam during the

darkness of night, and perceive those beauties

for

which he

may

be in search

neither can he,

during the somewhat long periods of darkness in

winter, find
objects

many

of those interesting natural

Yet

which abound in summer.

it

is

in

these very seasons and times that the heavens

amusement, and

offer us so fruitful a source of

reveal to our gaze so

many

subjects

we may employ our thoughts and

Our

upon which

researches.

interest in the celestial bodies

increased

when we know

that

are worlds like that on which

many

we

live,

is

much

of these

and that

COMMON SIGHTS

(J

they

differ

minor

apparently from

merely

it

tliis

some

the presence or absence of

details, or in

certain conditions, which will be, or

been, those of

in

may have

globe in the coming ages of

the future, or in the no less vast and mysterious

epochs of the past.

To the most

su23erficial observer,

there appear

to be merely three descriptions of bodies in the

heavens,

viz.,

the sun, the moon, and the

The

latter appear to vary

size

and brightness as well as

unless

some

slight

stars.

from each other

in colour

attention be

them, they seem to present very

in

but

directed to

little variety.

Observation, however, has shown that the socalled stars

the

first

must be divided

into

two classes

comprises those bodies which always

maintain the same position with regard to each

other,

and which are

at

an immense distance

from our world, and wliich shine by means of

themselves.

The

second class consists of those so-called

stars

some property inherent

which
which,

in

move amongst the other

it is

stars,

and

found, are at certain calculable dis-

IX

THE HEAVENS.

tances from our earth, and which only shine or

appear bright because the sun shines upon them.

Those of the
stars,''

class

are

called

''fixed

those of the second " -planets ^ *

found that

It is

the sun
it is

first

all

the planets

move around

that they all spin round, or rotate, as

termed, and that thev are

all

somewhat

of

the shape of an orange.

Many

of the planets are attended

bodies termed

them

satellites,

just as the planets

which move around

move round

these attendants are called "

or " secondaries ;" our

by certain

satellites,''

moon being

the sun
" moons,"

satellite

or secondary to the earth.

The

sun, the planets

and their

or moons, are termed the

satellites

solar system,

which

which move round him,

is

thus like one family

the

sun the apparent father, or head, the various

planets the children, whilst the satellites are

the grandchildren.

The sun and

of the

same

full

moon appear

size,

whilst

* Fi'om

2^^cinetes,

to us nearly

the various
wanderers.

planets

COMMON SIGHTS

differ considerably in their visible dimensions.

Appearances are proverbially

deceitful,

and the

proverb holds good most effectually when ap-

The proportional

plied to the celestial bodies.

difference

moon,
'

between the

Great Eastern

toy -boat

size of the

sun and the

about that which exists between the

is

steam-ship and a

'

boy's

little

the simiUtude in their apparent size

being due to the difference in distance from the

earth between the two.

prehend the

We

can easily com-

effect of distance in altering the

apparent size

of

objects if

we look through

our window, where the pane of glass close to us

looks larger than a church at a distance.

The

various planets differ in their size, al-

though not so much as the moon and the sun.

Still

there are

some which would cause our

earth to look a very insignificant object

two were placed

side

by

side,

if

the

and examined

from a distance.

The accompanying
tive diameter of the

table will

show the

rela-

sun and the eight primary

planets, of wiiich the solar system consists.

IN

THE HEAYEXS.
Miles.

Sun

about 888,646

Jupiter

;,

89,000

Satui^n

if

76,000

Xeptune
Uranus
Eartli

Venus

There

J?

37,500

?-

35,000

??

7,912

7,800

Mars

?5

4,189

Mercury

?J

3,140

are, besides, a

number

of small planets

which revolve round the sun, and are really

primaries: these, however, are not considered
to

rank amongst the eight leading planets in

the system

they are very small, and present

peculiarities ^vhich distinguish

members,

principal

and

them from the

they

are,

besides,

scarcely visible unless with the aid of a telescope.

Five of

Mercury, Yenus,

can be

Uranus

the principal planets,

is

and Saturn,

Mars, Jupiter,

plainly seen with the

viz.,

unaided eye,

also visible, as a rather

dim

object

but, with the aid of a large telescope, reveals a

circular

and planetary form.

COMMON SIGHTS

10

These planets

move round

all

at different distances

each

is

the sun, and

the relative position of

shown below.

different scale

is

now used

to

show the

distant planets, Jupiter's distance being giA'en.

THE

PL2.

SU]S^

Solax Spots

fe-eni

^ooki

Changes in a Solar Spot passing across Suns disc.

indi.

IN THE HEAVENS.

CHAPTEK
THE

Every
is

11

II.

SUN.

person must have observed that the sun

summer

higher in the heavens at midday in

than in winter, and that

the horizon in

it

remains longer above

summer than

If the

in winter.

sun be observed during twelve months,

it

will

be found that about the 22nd of December, at

midday,

it

will

be lower down than at any other

time in the year

will

and about June the 21st

it

be higher up than at any other time.

we could make two marks

If

in the sky to

show the two places where the sun reached

at

midday, on the 21st of June and 21st of Deceinber,

we should

find that about the

March and the 22nd

just

midway between

If

of

20th of

September the sun was

these marks.

we measured TOth an instrument

the dailv

COMMON SIGHTS

12

height of the sun, which

always greatest at

is

midday, we should find that, early in January,

the sun increased

day

to day,

very

little

Then
until

it

its

height yeiy slowly from

and that during a week

more than

its

own

it

yaried a

diameter.

would go on increasing more quickly

March the

20th, when, durir^g one day,

there would be an increase in height equal to

nearly the sun's diameter.

After this date there would be a gradual decrease in the rate until June, although

still

daily increase in height.

AATien, then,

we haye passed the

we do not observe any very

shortest day,

great difference in

the length of sunlight during a few days

there

is

ference

a slow and steady increase, the

then
dif-

being greatest during the month of

March, when the days increase rapidly in lengi:h

after this date there is still a gradual increase,

but the rate

is

not so

2:reat.

In

fact, durinsf

the thirty days in March, as great a change

occurs in the sun's

midday height

as there

is

during the ten days of December, the thirty-

IN

THE HEAVENS.

13

one days of January, and the eleven days of

February.
there

So that

as great a

is

in thirty

days of March

change as during the

two days from the 21st of December on

fifty-

to the

11th of February.
After the 21st

June the daily greatest

of

height of the sun begins to decrease, and in a

manner exactly
creased,

viz.,

similar to that in

slowly at

about midw^ay in

its

in September, there
just as in

March

first,

which

in-

and quickest when

Thus,

course of descent.
is

it

a very rapid decrease,

there was an increase in the

daily height of the sun

then the rate of de-

crease becomes less, until the 21st of

Decem-

ber.

These changes occur year

regularity,

after

year with

no difference being observed unless

the most accurate instruments are employed.

The
the

cause of the sun's variation in height

movement

in a sort of
call the
half,

is

of the earth round the sun, and

up-and-down manner.

Thus,

if w^e

northern half of the world the upper

and the southern half the

loiver^

then we

COMMON SIGHTS

14

may

say that on the 21st of December ^Ye are

above the smi considerably

from

this elate to

the 21st of June the earth moves downwards,

and round a
the sun.

On

the centre of which

is

the 21st of March the earth

is

circle, in

level with the sun.

From

the 21st June to

the 21st December the earth moves upwards,

and

is

again level with the sun on the 21st of

September.

By means of a common hoop, we may see

why the sun rises and falls each day, more
quickly, in

March and September, than

at other

times of the vear.

3-^,.^

4.'--^,.

3";

Thus, suppose

DMJ

S a hoop

resting on a

IN

and propped up

table J,

15

THE HEAVENS.
at

and suppose C the centre

moved anything from

above the

of this hoop.

1) to 1.

it

hoop

is

moved from

1 to 2,

much

wards

it

this

would have moved down-

1 to 2

were equal

would be a more

body would be level with C,

below

This

is

From

at

At

above

X the
it.

it.

being the December,

M the

March, J the June, and S the September

;

The

and

just the eom\se that the earth pursues

round the sim

tion

rajfid fall, whilst

from 3 to 4 a more gradual descent.

at J

this part

same thing

more, although the distances from

and from

to 1

to 3 there

As

nearly level.

we

If

would not have

moved doivnwards very much, because

of the

t<tl:'le,

posi-

being the position oi the sim.

earth

is

distant

from the smi about

ninety-five million miles, a distance

which would

occupy an express train about two hundred years

to travel.

In consequence of the earth movinj^-

round the sim, our annual journey amounts

nearly six hundred millie^n
of our lives

we

travel

to

miks thus each day

:

more than

a million and

COMMON SIGHTS

16

a half miles through space, or a distance equal

to about sixty times

If

we stand

at

round the earth.

some railway crossing and

an express train rush

see

past, the iron horse snort-

ing and wdiistling, the dust flying, the wind

almost knocking us

do^\Ti,

and then observe the

passengers reclining calmly in the carriages, or

talking to each other,

we cannot

well

fail

to

ponder upon the singular anomaly thus presented

to us.

There

to be jolting
tion, at

is

a mass of carriages which appears

and crashing onwards

the rate of nearly

fifty

to destruc-

miles an hour,

and yet the most timid of the occupants of the

carriage appears to suffer no alarm.
tainly a grand sight, although
to

it,

and therefore are but

we are

This

is

cer-

familiarized

slightly impressed

with the indication of power thus manifested.

If,
is

however, an express train dashing past us

at all a source of admiration,

impressed we

should

be,

how much more

were we

able

to

observe from space, a vast world which would

come rushing and spinning

locity

past us, with a ve-

of sixty-eiglit thousand miles

an hour

IX

THE HEAYEXS.

Every human being,

veller,

although he

from day

may repose

to day.

to the

our world

is

planet

is

a great tra-

in his arm-chaii'

The cannon-ball that moves

too quickly to be seen

compared

therefore,

17

is

merely a slow coach

world upon which we

slow

when compared

live,

and

to the little

3Iercury, whose rate is nearly double

that of the earth.

At noon

the sun will be south of

The sun appears

in England.

to

the earth in twenty-four hours;

six

hours

earth,

it

all localities

move round
therefore, in

moves round one fourth

and consequently

of the

be found near the

will

Avest at six o'clock in the evening,

east at six o'clock in the morning.

and near the

we know

If

we

the time, therefore, and can see the sim,

can always

tell

where the cardinal points of

the compass are situated

for as the

sun

is

south at noon, and near the east at 6 a.m..

it

would be nearly south-east

south-east and south

at 9 A.ir.,

at half-past 10

between

A.:yi.,

and

so on.
If the time

of sunrise be

added

to that of

COMMON SIGHTS

18

sum

sunset, the

amount
8 A.M.,

it

will set
it

two

Thus,

to twelve.

at 5 A.M.,

know

of the

will nearly

the sun rise at

if

about 4 p.m.

will set about

the time of sunrise

always

and

7 p.m.

if it rise

thus, if

we may obtain

of sunset, or vice versa, because the

sum

we

that

of the

two should amount to twelve.

We

will first call attention to those interest-

may

ing facts which

eye,

some
see

before

Among

refer

v'e

artificial

them

be seen by the unaided

means

to those which require

to

enable

a person to

distinctly.

the most singular

phenomena con-

nected with the sun, the midnight sun to an

in-

habitant from the central portions of the globe

must appear

we

at first

very curious.

In England

are accustomed to have twilight from about

the 21st of

May

until the 21st of July, during

which period the nights are nearly as light as

many

of our

November

days.

This, however,

is

very different from seeing the sun above the

horizon at midnight, and shining as brightly as

he does in England towards the afternoon of

THE HEAVENS.

IN

19

To view the midnight sun we

an autumn day.

to within about twenty-three

and a

half degrees from the north or south poles

that

must trayel

travel to about sixty-six

and a half

degrees of north or south latitude.

In Spitz-

is,

we must

bergen, the north of

Norway, in
midnight

The

Baffin's

the north of

Iceland,

Bay and Greenland,

during

sun will be visible

the

June.

we go from England,

farther north that

the lighter will be the nights during the sum-

mer.

When
torial

w^e are at

the central

latitudes of the

earth,

i. e,,

we have the sun

directly overhead

dming midday

September, and

a very

little

same point during midday

the equa-

in

in

March and

way from the

June and De-

cember.

The

nights

Erebus.

If the

at

the

moon

equator

are

dark as

does not shine, and

if

there be a few clouds to cause the stars to look

dim, then an English winter's night

compared

At

to the

summer night

is

twilight

at the equator.

sunset, also, the sun, instead of passing

COMMON SIGHTS

20

obliquely below the horizon, descends perpendicularly

has scarcely any

so that twilight

existence at or near the equator.

In England, and in
half of the world,

localities in the northern

customary to talk about

it is

turning a screw, or dealing at whist, &c., with

the

sun

that

is,

from

left

When, however, we have

hand

to

right.

crossed the equator,

and have travelled some sixteen hundred miles

on the other

side,

incorrect, for the

these

become

directions

sun there appears to

the right hand and to set on the

rise

left,

from

and

pass at all times of the year from right to

to

left,

instead of from left to right.

Exactly the same change in right and

movement would occur

if

left

a weight were to be

swung backwards and forwards between two

people

who were

standing face to face.

Each

time the weight moved to the right of the one

person

and

it

would move

to the left of the other,

vice versa.

This change in the apparent

the sun having been observed

is

movement

of

a rather con-

IN

THE HEAVENS.

21

vincing proof that the Phoenicians rounded the

Cape

Good Hope

of

as long

ago as 400

B.C.

upwards of U\o thousand two hundred

that

is,

and

sixty years ago

there were

some

Eed Sea and

for

Herodotus states that

travellers

who

sailed

down the

returned by Gibraltar, and stated

a thing which he could not believe, though

others might

viz.,

that during their journey

they observed the sun

hand and

set

upon

their

rise

from their right

left.

This fact was not likely to be guessed at by

sailors

had they not seen

age when
to

it

it,

especially in

was thought unscientific and

an

foolish

beheve that the earth was spherical instead

of a plane,

and when scarcely a single traveller

had crossed the equator, or even

ventured

within the tropics.

The sun sometimes, when

rising or setting,

appears of a blood-red colour, and of a very

large

size.

If

this period the

another time

must be some

measured with an instrument at

sun
it

is

really not larger than at

therefore follows that there

effect

produced upon the eye,

22

COMMON SIGHTS
not a real enlargement in the actual

which,

is

size of

the sun, or in

These

measured

its

considerations

size.

induced

the

earlier

astronomers to believe that the large size was a

delusion caused by the

sun being compared

when he was near the

with terrestrial objects

when he was eleyated

horizon, whilst

in the

heavens there were no objects with which to

compare him.

veiy

little

shown that
tion of the

consideration would soon have

this could not

phenomenon

be the true explanafor in

consequence of

the sun setting every evening, and rising every

morning, the same

observed, whereas

effects

it is

only two or

each year that this singular

From

another

this explanation
viz.,

fact, also,

and no

thi^ee

times

effect is seen.

the inefficiency of

would have been manifest

that the large red sun

frequently at sea,
lake,

ought always to be

is

when the ocean

terrestrial

or

observed very
is

other

calm

as a

objects are

within a hundi^ed miles.

It is

far

more probable that the enlarged

THE HEAYEXS.

IX

appearance

due

is

23

a peculiar state of the

to

atmosphere, a condition probably analogous to

that which enables us at times to perceive quite
distant

objects,

which then appear

larger than usual.

When

this condition exists,

distinctly

the

shortly

and

prophecy

^'weather-wise"

change

and usually consider that rain

w^eather,

fall.

register of the weather before

appearance of the suu

after this singular

might enable us

When

of
will

to collect

some

useful facts.

just close to the horizon

he

appears usually to be egg-shaped, instead

of

circular,

the sun

is

being parallel to

his longest portion

the horizon.

This effect

called refraction.
to indicate the

is

Eefraction

due to what
is

is

the term used

bending of the rays of

light as

they pass thi^ough the atmosphere or through

The nearer any

water.

it

become bent

part of the sun

upper

body may be

horizon the more would a ray of light

to the

from

celestial

part,

is

and

thus, as the lower

nearer the horizon than the

then the light from the lower part

becomes the more bent, whereas no difference

COMMON SIGHTS

24
is

produced upon the horizontal width of the

sun.

The following sketch shows the appear-

ance referred

The sun

to.

resting on the horizon,

from a

circle to

is

and

an oval.

there shown just

its

shape altered

Accordino- to the

;#

,-

"^^^W^^fe^
state of the

atmosphere

apparent distortion

this

increases or diminishes, but

considerable.

with

it

is

horizon, as

The most

that

when

it

is

usually very

singular fact connected

just visible

above the

shown in the sketch, the sun

actually below the horizon,

and

is

is

brought into

view by refraction.

very rare and singular appearance

called parhelion

near

the

sun.

is

that

Sometimes

IN

more suns are

or

three,

two,

THE HEAVENS.

appearance

regions

not uncommon, but in lower

men-

Aristotle

rarely witnessed.

is

it

is

in the

visible

In high latitudes

heavens at the same time.

this

25

an instance of two mock suns having been

tions

seen the

Pliny

whole day on the Bosphorus

tells of

a triple sun having been seen by

him during the reign

of Claudius.

an astronomer of celebrity
that seven

and

Hevelius,

at Dantzic, relates

mock suns were once

noticed

by

These mock suns usually appear on each

him.

side of the real sun, or above

and below

thus rest upon the circumference

it,

of a

and
halo

which surrounds the sun.

When examined by

the unaided eye the

sun appears a brilliant luminous body, without

a speck.
to him,

If,

and

however, a telescope be directed

if

the eye be protected by means

of a piece of dark glass, the sun then presents

a sort of mottled surface, which

is

by no means

perfectly clear, but which appears at all times

to

be covered by a series of dark and irregular

lines

and

at uncertain periods black spots of

COMMON SIGHTS

26
large

size

upon

appear

his

The

surface.

smaller streaks visible on the sun do not seem

to

change in any way, nor do they

peculiarities

offer

which can serve as guides

The

constitution.

large

spots,

any

to their

however, are

usually undergoing changes, and these present

phenomena which

are well suited for the foun-

dation of speculation.

The

spots

upon the sun serve

to

make

us

acquainted with one or two facts of interest.

They show us

that the sun turns upon

just as does the earth

in the system.

They

axis

and the principal planets

indicate

tor of the sun is situated,

to find the length of

its

where the equa-

and they enable us

time occupied during his

rotation.

It not unfrequently

happens that a person

possessing good sight can see with the naked

eye some one or two spots upon the sun, provided that a piece of coloured glass be used as
a means to subdue his brilliancy.

When taking

altitudes with Hadley's sextant,

and without a

telescope, I have usually distinguished a spot

THE HEATEXS.

IX

upon the sun

and green

27

the combined effect of the red

glasses being the

most favourable

for

such an examination, as the sim then appears

to be a pale yellow, whilst the spot
It

is

black.

has been considered remarkable that some

have known of the

of the ancients should

exist-

ence of spots on the sun, before the telescope

was invented

amine the

but

smface each day by the aid of

sun's

pieces of yellow
glass, or

and

even look

pail of water,

it

any person carefully ex-

if

or red and

red,

green

at the sun's reflection in a

will

appear singular how any

observer could have omitted to notice the spots,

as they

can be easily seen with the naked eye.

During a London
visible, I

fog,

when

the sun

is

have seen the spots very

To watch the changes which take

only just
distinctly.

place,

and to

see clearly the peculiarities which appertain to

the spots, a telescope with a moderately powerful

magnifying power should be used, and a

dark eye-piece
telescope.

fitted

To

on

to the

observe

any

eye end of the

celestial

body

thoroughly, the telescope should be arranged

COMMON SIGHTS

28

upon some kind of

When

the wind.

power

stand,

and protected from

even a telescope of average

thus protected, the

is

changes in the

may be observed, and a register

maximum and minimum quantity,

spots on the sun

kept of the

from which

some

might

valuable facts

be

adduced.

To
of

a person unacquainted with the simplicity

some astronomical problems,

a very
pole

difficult

matter to

and how

star,

his

tell

which

equator

to

which

To

is

Suppose

that

spots,

made

its

we

and then stand at

to turn round.

axis pointed, for

the spots traced straight

know

how-

upon a common globe

If

around the globe, we could soon

direction

approxiis,

accomplished

a distance and watch these spots

is

the sun's

arrange several black

globe

appear

arranged

both these data

ever, a very easy matter,

as follows

is
is

relatively to that of the earth.

mate very closely

may

it

lines,

when

the

we walked

tell in

which

when we found

we should then

that the axis was at right

angles to

IN
these Knes, and

THE HEAVENS.

we should consequently know

in which direction

the

spots

it

pointed.

So

is

it

mth

on the sun, which are found to

trace straight lines during

ber,

29

June and Decem-

and curved

lines at all other times of the

Thus,

from day to day we were to

year.

mark on

if

a circle the position of the spots,

we

should find that a line joining these various

positions

would appear,

as

shown below,

at the

various periods indicated.

December.

March.

June.

During June and December the

straight lines,

September.

spots trace

which make an angle of about

seven degrees with a horizontal line on the earth

at midday.

During March and September the

spots trace curved lines.

we can look upon

Thus from the earth

the north pole of the sun

during September, and upon the south pole of

the sun during March.

COMMON SIGHTS

30

any particular spot be observed,

found to move from the

The motion

of th.e sun.

would occur

and

ball,

left across to

if

it

is

is

the right

exactly that which

the spots were fixed to a rotatory

only reasonable

therefore

is

conclude that the sun turns upon an

If

it

any one spot be watched,

it

axis.

is

found to

return to the same position in a j)eriod a

the

during that time,

movement

it is

of

the

earth

found that the sun turns

round in about twenty-five days and a

The probable

object

little

Making the proper

over twenty-seyen days.

allowance for

to

half.

of this rotation will be

considered at a future page.

A
is

spot

examined with a large telescope

if

observed to undergo changes in size and

shape, but rarely,

When

the spot

first

of the Sim, there

portion,
cast

as

sun,

then

is

to alter its position.

appears upon the

left side

usually a dark and a light

though some reflected light were

upon the

the spot

if ever,

is
it

side of a hollow cylinder.

^^Tien

seen at the central portions of the

is

all

black, but

usually with a

THE HEAYEXS.

IN

When

lighter fringe.

sun,

it

is

lighted

on the right side of the

lighted in the

upon the opposite

same manner, only

side to that

when it became

31

visible

The sketches on Plate 2

^vill

upon which

upon the

it

was

left side.

show the apparent

changes which usually take place in a spot as

is

it

carried across the face of the sun.

Many

speculations have been

made

as to the

nature of the solar spots, but up to the present

time very Kttle

be

many

is

kno^Ti about them.

years before

we

whether they produce any

mate, or upon the earth at
bable that until

It

may

ascertain for certain

effect
all

upon our

and

it

is

cli-

pro-

we have some other means

than mere conjecture

for arriving at truths con-

nected with remote objects, the spots on the

sun will

From

still

continue to be mysteries.

observations carried on within the last

thirty years,

there

appears some probability

that the spots are in the greatest profusion at

intervals of about ten years, wliilst in the inter-

mediate periods the least number have been

observed.

In the vear 1828 there were, ac-

COMMOiT SIGHTS

32

cording to the observations of M. Schwabe, 225

groups of spots observed:

In

groups.

tiie

in

only 33

1833,

1837 there were 333

year

groups seen; whilst six years afterwards,

were only

in 1843, there

Again

34.

Thus

there were 330 groups seen.

of nearly ten years the
spots
It

in

viz.,

1848

at intervals

maximum number

of

have been observed.

is

little

singular,

and

may

it

be con-

sidered rather beyond the range of chance, that

on earth are

the greatest magnetic changes

found to correspond with the periods when the

maximum and minimum number

observed on the sun.
bable that there

is

Thus

of spots are

is

it

highly pro-

a connection between these

two phenomena which may either be both the

effects of
is

some other great natural

more probable, that

connected

mth

sun's

spots

is,

magnetism

terrestrial

is

the sun's condition.

The most popularly

luminous

cause, or, as

received idea about the

that they are

atmosphere

openings in

by which

rounded, and that consequently

it

he
is

is

sur-

the dark

IN

THE HEAVENS.

body of the sun that

spot.

There

is

is

seen, in the shape of a

a great difficulty about this

hypothesis, inasmuch as

sume some

33

requires us to as-

it

curious laws to be acting in connec-

On

tion TOth the sun's atmosphere.

impossible
water,

and

it is

produce a permanent hole in

to
it

earth

is

equally as

hole in the atmosphere.

difficult to

form a

Unless, therefore,

assume that the sun's atmosphere

sohd,

is

we

it is

doubtful whether a permanent hole could be

produced in

And

it.

thus

we have

to assume

an atmosphere of a particular nature before

can imagine any holes to be made in

Dming

the evenings of

we

it.

March and

April,

and before smirise in October, there appears

sometimes a faint luminous cone of light near
the sun, which in appearance
tail

of a comet.

In these latitudes this phe-

nomenon, called the zodiacal

often seen as

it

is

light,

is

not so

in equatorial regions.

has been remarked, that

when the sun

from spots the zodiacal light

when

not unlike the

is

is

is

It
free

rarely seen, but

the opposite condition prevails, then the

COMMON SIGHTS

34
light

is

usually of

a rose-pink, and

according to the

tensity

The

frequently observed.
it

state

colour

varies

in

is

in-

of the atmo-

sphere.
It

is

impossible to avoid feeling grateful to

the great Euler of the universe,

when we

realize

the vast enlightenment which has taken place

in the

human mind

man.

We

since the earliest ages of

can scarcely bring before us any

example which

so completely

exempHfies this

fact as that connected with the present

know-

ledge of the movements of the heavenly bodies.

In the olden times, centuries before England

was anything greater than the residence of barbarians, the

movements

had occupied the

but in too

sages;

of the celestial bodies

attention

many

to wield an influence

it

the

Eastern

instances the

knowledge which they did

sured merely because

of

possess,

slight

was trea-

enabled the possessors

over the ignorant and

bigoted.

An

eclipse of the

sun,

which can now be

predicted years in advance, and wdthin a minute

IX

THE HEAYEXS.

35

of the time of its occurrence, was in the olden

time a cause of fear and dread, and was made

use of as an excuse for sacrificing victims to
superstitious

bigotry,

or

for

the

purpose of

extorting obedience from an alarmed and ignorant public.

Those who have studied the history of even

modern

progress,

paratively

and have seen how in a com-

enlightened age innovations have

been scouted, and great truths rejected and

abused for years, or until the facts became too
powerful to be denied, can imagine what must

have been the fmy and astonishment of those

antiquated savants

nomy and

who had long taught

astrology,

nounced that a

when

solar eclipse

it

was

astro-

first

an-

was caused by the

intervention of the dark body of the

moon.

This assertion was so utterly at variance with

that which was in the earliest ages called real

orthodox science, that

it

merely excited the

anger or ridicule of the hearers.

There appears
to show, that the

to

be tolerably good evidence

Chaldeans were able to foretell

COMMON SIGHTS

36

with some certainty both eclipses of the moon

and of the sun

when Anaxagoras the

yet

Greek announced that

was the moon which

it

caused a solar eclipse, his assertion brought

upon him the censure of

he was banished as an

his

countrymen, and

infidel.

To most modern minds

the explanation of an

eclipse appears so simple, that

any other cause could

accepted.

for a

we wonder how

moment have been

Yet when the mind has from

hood been taught that certain

such and such causes,

it

is

effects are

very

child-

due to

difficult to

up-

root this teaching, though to the unprejudiced

it

may
It

appear absurd and unnatural.

must have indeed been a hard

the advanced

men of the

patiently thought

trial for

early ages, who, having

and carefully observed,

at

length wished to explain the cause of eclipses.

The hearers were

audience, that
if

so different

from a modern

we can only imagine

their state

we have witnessed the unreasonable pro-

ceedings
logic,

of

some

half-savages,

argument, demonstration, or

upon whom
facts

would

IN

THE HEAVENS.

produce no more

effect

upon a herd of

swine.

37

than the same weapons

Yet what must have

been the inward feeling of those few leading

minds who had read aright the page of nature ?

Observing in some solitary tower, the astro-

nomer must have

felt

himself almost in an-

other world as he found his reasoning true, and

his calculations connected with the

an

eclipse verified

cases, a price

knowledge

facts.

must be paid
and

by

this

in

all

for the possession of

solitary student

to

of the

and

lonely,

felt

thirsted for a few kindred

panded minds with which

for the

as

Still,

heavens must at times have

must have

period of

and ex-

exchange ideas

more elevated become our thoughts the

more do we contract the

circle of

our boon

companions.

An

eclipse of the sun

phenomenon

is

a sufficiently rare

To

to excite universal attention.

astronomers an eclipse becomes interesting in

consequence of
they

may

its

correct

being the means whereby

any

errors

which

exist in tlie

calculated positions of the sun and

moon

for

COMMON SIGHTS

38

although the principal moyements of these two

bodies are

now

well known,

still

there are some

minor changes which occur, and which from

time to time require that corrections should be

made.

The

first

object observed in a solar eclipse

that the sun has lost

its

is

and

circular form,

appears to have a chip taken out of his western

side.

This chip becomes larger and larger,

and as

it

does so the sunlight becomes dim, and

the landscape

is

seen by means of an unnatural

pale-yellow light.
or

partial

According as the eclipse

is

and according as the moon

total,

passes across the upper or lower portion of the

sun, so will the

commencement

of the ecKpse

produce a variety of appearances.

eclipse

is

at its

entirely obscured,
light,

maximum the
or may appear

When
sun

may

the

be

as a ring of

according as the echpse occurs when the

moon

is

at the least or greatest distance

from

the earth.
It is

when the sun

is

almost entirely obscured

that some singular appearances have been ob-

IN"

THE HEAVENS.

39

served at the extremities of the moon.

first

of these

tuberances,

consists

of a

prominences,

or

number

of

The
pro-

become

which

on various parts of the extremities of

visible

the moon.

These are sometimes of a lake-red

sometimes bright red, and at other

colour,

times nearly white.

The

sketch, Plate 3, shows

the general appearance of these protuberances.

Several theories have been invented to ac-

count for the observed

all is as

facts, but, like

the spots,

Some

observers

yet mere speculation.

have supposed that the red flames have been

seen just where there was a large spot on the

sun;

but

often happens that where no

as

it

From
which have been made

spots exist there the flames are visible.

careful

observations

since 1842, it
results

is

probable that the appearance

from some condition existing on the sun,

and

is

the

moon

not due to anything on the surface of

:

thus probably they are

.

merely

material objects, perhaps similar to clouds in

our atmosphere.

The moon

is

surrounded during a solar eclipse

COMMON SIGHTS

40

with a luminous ring, which gives to

beautiful appearance.

Some

a very

Dr. Halley, speaking of

reference to an eclipse in 1715

this, says, in

"

it

seconds before the

sun was entirely

hidden there appeared a luminous ring around

the

moon, in breadth equal to a

twelfth, or

perhaps even a tenth of the moon's diameter.

Its tint

was a pale white, or we

pearly white

it

appeared to

me

tinted with iridescent colours."

still

phenomena worthy

We will

consider

of the earth

may

this appear-

both these

consider

of observation.

more fully

and moon

when we speak

is

During future

ance as well as the former.

amateurs

say a

Speculation

busy in assigning a cause for

eclipses,

may

to be slightly

those

movements

which cause

eclipses

of the moon.

Eclipses have happened at various remarkable periods,

and consequently

amongst

an

ignorant and superstitious race they have been

regarded as objects of

fear.

During

my

resi-

dence on the south-eastern coast of Africa an

eclipse of the sun happened,

and which I had

P1.3.

Partial and Total Eclipses of

tlie

Sim

TinDsnt BxookiiJi

The Ted flaraes during Eclipses.

THE HEAVENS.

IN

announced

some

to

my

of

41

Ka6r companions.

They were very incredulous that

would be

until they

ill/'

when they were

decrease,

inquiries

Theii*

saw

were

''the

sun

light begin to

its

greatly astonished.

and amusing

original

some of the men asking why the sun was not

well, others wishing to
tired,

the

and thought

When

hills.

and were told that

l>e

and that

seen,

it

know whether

time to

lie

it

was

down behind

they received an explanation,

in a few days the
it

moon would

was her passing before the

sun that caused the eclipse, they mostly com-

prehended the cause at once

added

in

line of

shadow

and one

man

explanation to his hearers that the

luas

cuiwed like the moon.

Thucydides states that there was an ecKpse

of the sun during the

first

Peloponnesian war

and Plutarch informs us that Pericles had some

difficulty

on board

in

persuading the

his galley to

men who were

accompany him,

as they

feared that the sun becoming dark was an evil

omen.

The

o'reat battle of

Arbela was

fou2:ht

eleven days after an eclipse, and thus the date

COMMON SIGHTS

42
of the battle

becomes known by a reference

the lunar and solar tables.

The following

to

are

the lyrincipal eclipses of the sun which will

be visible in England
years

during the next forty

1865

October 19th.... 4 p.m.

1867

March 6th

1870

December 22nd

1874

October 10th. ... 9 a.m.

1887

August 19th

3 a.m.

1900

May

3 p.m.

There

will

8 a.m.
.

11 a.m.

28th

be other

merely very partial ones.

eclipses

visible,

but

IJJ

THE HEAVEXS.

CHAPTER
"What

43

III.

song the Syrens sung, and what name Achilles

assumed when he hid himself among women, although

puzzling questions, are not beyond

From

the region of facts

conjectare,

and we

will

all

conjecture."

we pass

now

to that of

consider the pro-

bable condition of our central orb.

It

is

frequently considered a sign of mental

weakness to deal with speculations, whilst to

collect

facts

is

a proof of sound sense.

To

speculate

when we have no grounds upon which

to build

is

certainly injudicious; but to

pare probabilities, and

to

reflect

upon

comthe

evidence, or upon the condition of the unknown,

is

a proceeding not unlikely to lead to the dis-

covery of truth.

Sometimes we
been

designated

find

that individuals

speculators,

have

simply because

COMMON SIGHTS

44

they differed from the speculations of those

who had preceded them, and who imagined

must

their theory or speculation

Thus we usually

controvertible facts.

the sound,

by

men

certain

whereas

reality belonged to

positions secure

The

upon

in-

find that

close reasoners of the early ages

w^ere designated

speculators,

rest

that

these
those

visionaries

characteristics

who

and
in

believed their

and immutable.

men

earliest scientific

the form of the earth

speculated upon

they agreed that

it

was

flat,

and that

who

at a later period disagreed with this hy-

pothesis,

it

rested

upon water.

and believed that the sphere was the

more true form, were regarded

and

Those

visionaries, with

whom

it

as speculators

was useless

to

reason.

In quite modern times the geologist was

looked upon as a visionary, and
Galileo,

Scripture.

are

who, like

was accused of an attempt to disprove

Now, however, when men's minds

more enlightened,

it

is

found that these

very facts revealed by geology prove

more

IN

THE HEAVENS.

45

than ever that an all-powerful Creator, whose

wisdom

unbounded, must have made the

is

earth and

all

it

contains upon a prearranged

system.
It is almost impossible to

upon

wliich there have not

subject

been some opinions

when, therefore, we speculate upon

formed:

these subjects, and

clusion

name any

come

to

a different con-

that previously arrived

to

merely one idea opposed

must then consider the

to

at,

another,

it

is

and we

probabilities affecting

each.

Thus a speculation upon the unknown should

not be widely or gratuitously condemned, more
especially
as true,

when

certain notions are

accepted

and which are in themselves merely

speculations.

The cause

of the sun's heat

is

subject w^hich

must possess considerable interest,

but which

one coming within the bounds of

is

speculation only.

We

have therefore

to con-

sider the probabilities connected with the cause

of this heat
reflect

and

as a preliminary step

we may

upon some of the various methods

at

COMMON SIGHTS

46

present known, and by means of which heat

is

produced.
First

means

we have
of

the

common method

viz.,

some

It is here necessary that

fire.

we

description of fuel should be supplied, and

means by which a great

are not aware of any

fire

by

can be maintained except by the aid of

fuel.

Secondly. Heat

may

be produced by means

and according to the conditions

of friction,

under which this

heat evolved

is

friction takes

Great heat

Thirdly.

when a

substances

is

produced in

current

passed through them

of

employed

electricity

is

is

contained,

become very hot v*hen they are

as conductors.

Fourthly.
great heat

many

thus platinum, silver,

and substances in which sulphur

will usually

place, so the

great or otherwise.

is

During many chemical changes

produced and evolved by certain

combinations in various substances.

These are
heat

all

simple methods of producing

how many more ways

there

may

be

it is

IN

THE HEAVENS.

impossible to say, although

there are

we have

many

just

more, for

now reached

47
probable that

it is

it is

not likely that

the end of discovery

connected with heat.

We

may

next consider the various facts con-

nected with the heat of the sun

others

we

vertical

we

find that
feel

the horizon

may be

these two facts

the sun

is

when the sun

nearly

is

more heat than when he

that

of lofty mountains

the sun

and amongst

if

we

we ascend

to the

near

obtain less heat, although

Even from

directly overhead.

we

is

summit

are taught that the heat of

dependent in a great measure upon

the state of the atmosphere through which the

rays pass, and upon the angle which these rays

make with
There

is

the earth's surface.

no evidence which should induce us

to think that the sun

is

in itself

particles of

is

a great

any hotter than

which the sun

charged with, or they

is

fire,

or that

our earth.

it

The

composed may be

may be

quantities of a subtle force

electricity.

is

producing great

somewhat

This force, or power,

similar to

may produce

COMMON SIGHTS

48
no

on space, but when

effect

sphere

We

it

may

know

that a

electricity,

copper

thu^ty

may

light.

be at the distance

miles from the

and

battery.
so

the

is

electricity.

this subtle current traverses a

platinum

becomes red

it

which conducts the

When, however,
of

and

by means of

fired

itself is quite cool,

wire

piece

gun may be

although

of twenty or

The battery

enters an atmo-

it

at once produce heat

hot,

the

wire,

wire

and the gun can be

instantly
If

fired.

a person w^ere ignorant of the law that the heat

induced in any substance by the transmission

of

an

electric

current was

dependent on the

conducting power of the substance, he might

imagine that the battery

itself

must be

at a

fearful heat in consequence of the wire twenty

miles distant becoming red hot.

Hence

it

central orb

is

not improbable that our great

may be

a cool

summer residence,

possessed of a power which

is

not

but

(at least yet)

manifested by the various planets in the system.

It

is

not improbable that according to the

atmospheric or other condition of a planet, so

IX

may

it

THE HEAYEXS.

be able to gain great or

49
heat from

little

a certain quantity of the sun's rays.

It is

absurd to build any theories upon the

supposition that because a planet

at a great

is

distance from the sun, that therefore

very cold, and

it

We may be

vice versa.

must be

sure that

the architect of the universe

made some

rangements

to us,

to

overcome

this,

ar-

apparent

difficulty.

The planet Jupiter

far brighter

is

and appears

even better hghted than does the planet 3Iars

and yet the former

the latter

is

not so near to us as

by about three hundred and

million miles,
that

is

number

and Jupiter

rather

is

of miles farther

is

forty

more than

from the sun than

Mars.
It

would be indeed singular

if

om-

little

earth

were the only orb in the system with a climate

suitable

to

what we

When, however, we
rived from the sun

know

of

organic

consider that the heat de-

may

be dependent upon the

condition of a planet's atmosphere,

difficulties in

life.

we

our way.

see no

COMMON SIGHTS

50

Another singular

which

fact

that the sun rotates upon

To
not

assert that

made

for

this rotation

interestmg

purpose

definite

is

for a purpose

what that

may be is a subject for conjecture.

Upon observing the different members
solar

system

w^e find that

they

the sun and in the same

itself rotating in

revolye.

round their

the same

orbits,

all

of the

move round

direction, the

Thus the yarious

is

very like

Surely, then,

libel creation.

must be

is

its axis.

any great work of nature

some

an endeayour to

is

way

sun

as the planets

^^lanets

seem

to roll

and in the same dh^ection

The

that the sun itself rotates.

rotation of the

sun appearing to carry the planets onwards in

then- course.

That which

is

yery remarkable

is,

that just as the sun appears to turn the yarious

planets around him, so do the yarious planets

turn their satellites around them.

If

now we

consider the improbability of eight

primary planets, about sixty smaller planets,

and upwards of a dozen

satellites all follow-

ing this rule ly chance^ we at once perceiye

IN

51

THE HEAYEXS.

movements must be obedient

that these

to a

law.

The following diagram

movement

of the sun

show a curious

fact

will explain the joint

and a planet, and

will also

connected with the earth's

movement and the

distance of the moon.

represents the

sun,

which turns round

to B.

is

from

the earth's direction of

movement.
If

now we suppose

the earth, about which

COMMON SIGHTS

52
a circle

is

described with a radius of about two

hundred and

forty-five

thousand miles, and then

cause this circle to roll like a wheel around

N, then the earth would turn round

just as often as
its
is

annual course

nearly the

it

does every year, to perform

the radius of the small cu'cle

mean distance of

centre of the earth.

Thus

if

the

moon from

the

we considered the

earth the nave, and the moon's orbit the tire of

a wheel, then this wheel would

roll

around the

sun at their present distances, in as nearly as

possible

From
it

365 days.
the experiments of various philosophers

has been shown that,

to rotate

upon

stances near

it,

when a magnet

its axis, it will

cause

is

made

many

sub-

as well as gases, to rotate also.

It is not necessary that the substances should

be themselves perceptibly magnetic; for clay

and wood have been

fluenced.

rotation

May

it

of the sun

found to be thus

in-

not be possible that the

causes in some

rotation of the various planets ? and

not have become acquainted with an

way the

may we

effect only.

IX

when we speak
gravity

The

THE HEAYEXS.
of grayity. and the

haws of

who observed the

mdiyidiial

might possibly

of an electro-magnet,,

effect

53

at

overlook the fact that the battery was the

fii'st

instrnment as well worthy of study as the piece

of iron which attr-acted the various metals placed

near

it

other

effects,

The Sim
axis,

is

is,

trace effects to

we must be

the nearer

to causes.

and rotates upon an

spherical,

and thus bears

planets.

here

more we can

for the

a strong likeness to the

Cjuestion

which

whether the sun

is

naturally

as regards its source of heat-giving

is

connected by some

it

another orb?

the

sun

other

subtle

the sun,

Is

some other sun

to

planets,

and
but

arises

entirely independent

is

the

in

power

or

means vith

fact,

planet

our eaith, and are

satellites

of

our

Vre have seen that there

is

good reason to

beheve that the spots on the sim produce some

effects

of a

magnetic and

upon our earth

electric

and we are by

character

this fact pre-

pared to believe that there are agencies at

COMMON SIGHTS

54

work

in the universe of a subtlety

and power

beyond our present knowledge or experience.

Thus the sun may be influenced

by some

in a

measure

distant twinkling star, which

yet

is

a mysterious link between our sun and other

portions of creation.
If there were an inhabitant on one of
tune's satellites,

the influence
planet,. and

he might not think

of our

sun upon his

Nep-

much

of

primary

he might be sadly puzzled to ac-

count for the variations in light and darkness

which occurred.

Some

observers have supposed that the two

hemispheres of the sun do not give an equal

If this behef be a truth,

quantity of light.

would give some probability

that the sun

is

not entirely independent

we might conclude

it

to the supposition

that there was a

for

summer

and a winter on the sun, and thus that one

hemisphere (the brightest) was then enjoying

summer, and the other possessing winter.

P1.4.

'Vjnr^.nt,

THE MOOIS^
SIX DAYS OLD.

BrO olcs ,llth

IN

THE HEAYEXS.

CHAPTEE

55

IV.

THE MOOX.

Next

to

object

which

From

the suu, the

moon

attracts the

the earliest ages the

sidered a mysterious body

is

the

greatest

moon

celestial

attention.

has been con-

wielding influences

over men's minds, and over the weather, and

causing strange vagaries to be played by the
otherwise orderly course of nature.
It

is

not at

all

surprising that the

moon

should have been considered mysterious in an

age when mystery was preferred to simplicity

for

her movements and condition, even in the

present age, are subjects about which some uncertainty exists.

To the

casual observer, the moon's changes

and movements appear

hopelessly

intricate

but when we obtain a key to these, we find that

COMMON SIGHTS

56
simplicity

fusion

the place of apparent con-

takes

and that the lunar machinery,

Nature's works,
beautiful

arranged upon

is

like all

the

most

and orderly system.

The moon

first

appears like a thin crescent,

and

close to the sun.

sun

is

that which

the sun has set the

is

The

side nearest to the

illuminated.

moon

Soon

also disappears

that portion of the horizon near

after

beneath

where the sun

set.

If the evening be fine

and

clear,

will the thin bright crescent of the

visible,

not only

moon be

but also the whole round body, which

appears of a pale-yellowish

tint,

and somewhat

smaller than the bright crescent.

The moon
no

light

a body which gives out

is

from

itself,

consequence of
Thus,

when

it

little

its

reflecting

the sun's light.

appears in the heavens as a thin

crescent, this appearance arises

from the greater

part of the sun-lighted portion of the

being invisible to

The

or

but merely looks bright in

moon

us.

paler light of the remaining portion of

IX
the

moon

earth,

is

57

due to the reflected light of the

which then shines on the moon just as

does the full

We

THE HEAVENS.

moon upon

must remember

the earth.

when

that,

a ball

is

shone upon, half the surface of that ball will

always be lighted

and, just as

we

reference to the ball, so can

we stand with

see the lighted

portion as a thin crescent, a semicircle, or a

circle.

When we

see the

moon

as a thin crescent,

that part upon which the sun shines

partly turned towards us,

moon, and the sun

and the

is

only

earth, the

are nearly in the

same

straight line.

If

we watch the new moon, we

each night the crescent

will

shall find that

appear larger and

larger, until the bright portion is of a

During these changes

circular shape.

moon moves

found that the

sun each night

it

will

be

farther from the

and, instead of setting

diately after the sun, as was the case

was in the thin crescent form, she

nearly to the south

semi-

when the sun

when she

will

is in

imme-

now be

the west.

COMMON SIGHTS

58

When

the

when we

moon

the

half enlightened, or rather

see the half of the lighted part of the

moon, then a

moon

is

drawn from the sun

to the earth.

The ancient astronomers were aware

and

fact,

method

they suggested

for

yery

determining the

They- Avatched until the

semicircle

number
sun,

they

distance

sun.

moon appeared an

then

of degrees between the

measured

the

moon and

the

and they thus had a right-angled

as follows

of this

ingenious

relative

from the earth of the moon and the

exact

to the

be at right angles to one drawn from

vrill

moon

line

triangle,

M was the

E the earth, and S the sun.

The anoie S M E they knew must be a rio-ht
the angle M E S they measured, and
angle
moon,

consequently they knew^ the proportional dis-

m
M E

tance of

THE HExiYENS.

and

for the three angles

make

of any plane triangle

could find the angle

59

Thus they

180^.

M S E.

Then by

rule of

three

As

the sine of the anole

Was

to the distance

MSE

M E,

So was the sine of the angle

To the

side

and thus the proportion between

moon's distance, and

EMS

S, the sun's

E, the

distance,

became known.
There

is

sometimes a great difference between

theory and practice, and so

problem

for the

ancients

it

proved with

came

this

to very dif-

ferent conclusions, in connection with the relative distances of the sun

and moon, from those

The

which are accepted in the present day.

idea nevertheless was ingenious, however uncertain were the practical results.

The enlightened portion

of the

moon

will

each night appear larger and larger, and she

will

move

farther from the sun, until she

quite circular.

At

this period the earth,

is

moon,

COMMON SIGHTS

60

and sun are

on one

in a straight line, the

side of the earth, the sun

When

the

moon

the same time that the sun

same time that the sun

on the other.

she rises at nearly

full,

is

moon being

and

sets,

sets at the

rises.

The same changes take

decrease in apparent

place duiing the

of the

size

moon

that

occurred during her increase, except that

will

be the eastern side that

instead of the western.

facing the moon,

we

now

is

So

it

illuminated,

that, if

we stand

shall see the right-hand

side illuminated dm^ing the time that she in-

and the left-hand

creases in brightness,

when she

is

decreasing.

Just before sum^ise

we may observe the moon

like a thin crescent, just as

after sunset

being

now

when

she

is

we

see her at times

new, the opposite side

bright.

The moon,

like the sun,

sometimes appears

and of a deep

of a large size on the horizon,

red

tint,

and her colour and

considerably.

due

to

side

These

brilliancy vary

effects are

most probably

changes in the atmosphere of the earth.

IX

When we know
the

moon

to

THE HEAVEXS.
that

seem

the sun that causes

it is

bright, there

ance in the moon which at

This

doxical.
line

is,

that

if

61

an appear-

is

sight

first

we draw a

para-

straight

from the sun to the moon, the illuminated

part of the latter does not at

times appear

all

at right angles to the former, as

it

ought to do.

This becomes most apparent when the

and

about half

full,

the sun

south-west.

will

is

is

is

moon

about south-east

is

when

The following sketch

show the appearance referred

to.

MOOx

^^&ru,

Eo rizon

^^^

This

is

a straight

and

as

we

due

to the horizon

line,

whereas

refer the line

darkness on the

moon

it

is

being aiwarently
really a curve

between the light and

to the horizon, this line

appears not to be perpendicular to the former.

All the celestial bodies appear to describe

COMMON SIGHTS

62

circles in the lieayens, altliongh

main

stationary

and thus any

they

may

'portion of

re-

the

apparent course of a celestial body appears to

be part of a

circle.

moon, instead of being a spherical

If the

body, were a long attenuated body, she would

appear in the heavens like a bow.

easily see

how

this

where the moon

would

rises,

be, if

We

we observe

and where she

various times during the night.

can

Then,

at

is

if

she

were a long thin body, the various portions

would extend

in

a curve

horizon to nearlv the south,

from the

much

eastern

in the

man-

ner shown below.

1, 2, 3, 4,

here represent the various positions

of the

moon

at different times during the night.

Then,

if

the

would appear

moon were
as

a long thin body,

sho^m by the Kne

1, 2, 3, 4.

it

THE HEAYEXS.

IX

This

is

why

the reason

the

63
comets

tails of

most frequently appear curved.*

If,

however, a

person were in the central portion of the earth

when
same

the

moon

passed dhectly overhead, this

line vrould appear to

bow would appear

be straight, just as a

straight if held with the bow-

Thus a comet's

string towards us.

appear bent to an

might

tail

observer in the northern or

southern portions of the earth, but quite straight

an observer near the central latitudes.

to

bendmg being dependent upon

the comet's

The

the direction of

in the heavens in connection

tail

with the horizon.

the

If

nights,

it

moon be observed dining

be seen that her height above

will

Sometimes

the horizon varies considerably^

"^

It

several

has been remarked by several observers that the

of the great
peculiarity.

comet of 1861

The

fact

the position of the

the zenith.

the

Tvas straight,

and that

this

tail

was a

was that the appearance was dne

which extended from

tail,

tail

had extended from

ithe

to

horizon to

east to west

and

over the equator, then to an observer in the north or south

the

tail

zenith

would appear curved

/.

e.,

if

but

if

the

tail

were near the

an observer were at the equator,

the same time seem to

him

quite sti'aight.

it

would

at

COMMON SIGHTS

64
slie

rises

and passes to the south with a

altitude than the

Then, in

less

less

sun has durins: midwinter.

than a fortnight, she will pass

to the south with a greater height than

has

the sun duiing summer.

The reason

of this

is,

that the

around the earth in about 27i

durmg

days and thus,

the half of that period, a change in the

altitude of the

moon

takes place, just in the

same ihanner

as a

occurs in six

months.

may

moon moves

change in the sun's altitude

The

following figure

aid to explain this fact.

^4r

represents the earth

north pole of w4iich

A and B
on the

the direction of the

indicated in the sketch.

is

are two positions of the

earth's surface

positions

of the

moon,

same observer

x and y represent two

so

that,

if

x be the

moon's place on any day, then fourteen days

IN

moon

afterwards the

shown by

THE HEAVENS.

65

be in the position

will

y.

To the observer when

moon

at B, the

will

appear very low down, and near the horizon

but when he

at A,

is

and the moon

then

at y^

she will appear nearly over his head.

There are several other changes which occur

in the apparent height of the moon, but these

are beyond the range of the present book.

We

remarked that the moon moved round

the earth in about 27^ days.

This, however,

is

not the interval between two full moons or two

new moons,
moons
arises

The period between two

&c.

about

is

from

the fact that,

moves round the

the sun.

291 days.

If the

This

earth stood

moon would become

difference

the

wliilst

earth, the earth

moon

moves round
then the

still,

of 27^

at intervals

full

full

days.

Thus, in the following sketch, S

M
M

the earth, and

moon, which at
invisible.

is

the sun,

N three positions

is full,

at

If the earth

half

full,

remained

of the

and

at E,

at

and

COMMON SIGHTS

66
the

moon moved round from

and

31 to

then the interyals between the

Ml

to

X,

moons would

be just equal to the time of the moon's passage

round the
If,

earth.

however

(as is

the case), the earth moves

on to V, then the moon

will

have moved round

Q in 27-^
to R before

the earth, and will have reached to

move on

days, but she wdll have to

she appears

''

full,"

more than two days

The

and
to

it

occupies her rather

move from

shorter of these two j)eriods

sidereal revolution of the

synodic revolution.

to E.

is

called the

moon, the longer

the

IN

THE HEAYEXS.

67

In consequence of the earth turning round

on

we have an

axis,

its

night

and

if

there were an observer on the

sun, every portion of the eartli

to

him once

day and

alternation of

would be

visible

The moon

in twenty-four hours.

does not turn upon her axis in the same

manner

as does the earth, for only about one half of the

moon

has ever been seen by man.

This arises

from the fact that the moon turns round in

exactly the same time that she moves roimd the
earth.

we were

If

to stick a

sword into a large

apple, hold the sword with the apple on the

point at arm's length, and then

around

us,

we should only

move the sword

observe one half of

the apple, and the apple itself would not spin

upon

its

axis like a top.

Just so

is

it

with the

moon, which always turns one face towards our

earth.

In consequence of the
the earth, she

by the

sun,

and a half

is

moon

revolving round

of course lighted on all sides

and thus during about twenty-nine

of our davs the

moon

has one dav

COMMON SIGHTS

68

and a

day

night, so that her

rather longer

is

than fourteen of our own.

If our earth were to
to the moon, only a

move

little

in a similar

manner

more than one half of

the earth would ever see the sun, whilst the re-

mainder would be

and thus there

in darkness,

would be no evening and morning, and no

alternation of day and night.

Some
we

singular ideas are forced

upon us when

consider this subject, and find that in the

Mosaic account of the earth's earlier

histories,

there was a period when there was darkness

upon the

face of the deep, for

it

appears by

this,

that the evening was, and the

was,

aftei^

gular

the

first

condition.

in the vast ages to

if

It

Yet

sin-

terrestrial

moon

bestirring

and turning on her axis

this

sible,

would be

come the

inhabitants were to find the

herself,

morning-

like the earth.

change cannot be pronounced impos-

in consequence of our utter inabihty to

explain the cause of the rotation of a single

planet in the system.

The moon

follows the

same law in her revo-

IN

THE HEAVENS.

69

lution that the various planets follow

moves round the earth

that the earth rotates
as

it

were

to

she

direction

thus the earth appears

drag the

same

in the

viz.,

moon round

her, just as

the sun appears by his rotation to drag the

planets around him.

The moon, when examined with the naked

eye, appears to present a
surface.
parts,

smooth and regular

There are dark patches

in

various

which assume the form of a man's

face,

but there does not seem to be any great irregularities

we

on the moon

itself.

direct a telescope of

When, however,

moderate power

wards the moon, a strange scene

is

to-

presented

to us; the curious face-like appearance disap-

pears,

and we observe a collection of

light

and

dark patches, streaks of light or shade, circular

lines,

and

all

mountainous

the varieties of a volcanic and

district

on

earth.

That portion of the moon which borders on

the dark part

is

covered with long shadows,

whilst here

and there

against the

dark

brilliant

background.

peaks

shine

Occasionally

COMMON SIGHTS

70

two or three

become

objects

star-like

visible

near the borders of the enlightened portions

moon, as the sunlight

of the

is

reflected from

the most lofty mountain summits, which

are

illuminated before the less eleyated localities

Huge

near them.

and

craters

and long ravines,

clusters of mountains,

gentle

slopes

become

visible with the aid of the telescope-

The appearance presented by

face

like that of

is

greater than upon

largest

at

the moon's sur-

a vast volcanic

where igneous action has only

where the forces

just ceased,

Some

our earth.

as large as those on the moon.

riflfe

exceeds

scarcely

meter, whereas

district,

and

work have been much

on earth are not

craters

all

nine

one

tenth

Thus Tene-

miles

a crater in the

of the

in

moon

dia-

called

Clavius measures about one hundred and forty

miles.

Some

of

these

lunar

whilst others are very

are best seen

lighted

by the

craters

much

circular,

elongated.

when the moon

sun,

are

is

They

only partially

and when consequently the

IN

THE HEAYEXS.

il

shadows upon the

sides of the crater cast

siir-

roundino: hollow ofroimd.

Mountains and yalleys,

observed on the

moon

hills

and

dales,

are

does

not

but there

appear to be any indication of large

seas, or

Eecent observations have led to

even water.

the belief that there

is

vegetation on the moon,

at least at times, but this statement requhes

confirmation.
It is

very easy to

see, tiiat if

we know the

length of shadow which an object

casts,

the angular position of the light, that

ascertain the height of the object.

and

we can

This fact

has led to the investigation of the heights of

the mountains in the

moon; and some very

elaborate tables have been constructed, sho^^dng

the altitude of the various mountains.

There

is,

however, very

little

dependence

to

be placed upon these conclusions, however ingenious they

may

be,

for

it

least follow that the hiohest

o

cast

the

altitudes

longest

assumed

shadows
for

the

does not in the

mountaiDs should

and the
lunar

various

mountains

COMMON SIGHTS

72

are calculated upon the supposition that they

do.

For

instance,

upon

earth

mountains are the highest.

the

Himalaya

These mountains

are not very abrupt in parts, but they slope

gradually upwards, and therefore they would

not, with the

sun in any position, cast a very

And

great shadow.

if

we observed the earth

from the moon, the Table Mountain, which

rises abruptly,

would cast a longer shadow than

the Himalaya mountains, and w^ould therefore,

upon the above assumption, be supposed much

higher, whereas in reality

it

is

not one-sixth

the height.

The length
tain

will

of

shadow

cast

by a lunar moun-

merely give the elevation of that

mountain above the surface immediately around

but

it,

it

will not give the relative altitude of

the various mountains above a fixed datum.

When we
it

consider the preceding reasoning,

induces us to believe that the mountains in the

moon
for

are

much higher than any on

the earth,

some of the elevated peaks are found

to be

IN

THE HEAVENS.

73

nearly twenty-fiye tliousand feet above the surface

in

immediate neighbom^hood, and

tlieii'

thus they

may

be several thousand feet more

above the lowest gTOund.

If
of

be a fact that the

it

any seas or

ance

with

moon

is

not possessed

lakes, it appears only in accord-

terrestrial

conditions

there

that

should be yerj great irregularities on her surface

for if the earth

had no sea there would

be some deep ravines and mighty peaks exposed to view in various places where the ocean

now

exists.

The
and

outline of the

moon

is

somewhat jagged

irregular, but not to so great

might be at

first

supposed.

an extent as

The approach

men-

uniformity arises from the fact before

tioned, that

we should merely observe the

jection of certain peaks

ground,

and

thus,

to

pro-

beyond the surrounding

although there would be

irregularities in the outline, still these

would

not be so very marked.

The

surface of the

moon appears

to

have

been considerably disturbed, and torn by various

COMMON SIGHTS

74

The deep

forces.

There

is,

craters at once

show

this.

however, another action apparently at

work, and which produces stars and rents, just

when

as

the ice has been broken by a skater.

These flaws appear to indicate that there has

been, or

is,

some upheaving

force going

on in

the lower strata of the moon, and which causes

the surface to crack and separate at the lines
of least resistance.

the

moon numerous

In

there would be in

fact,

flaws in the strata similar to

the " faults " in the lower deposits of our earth.

We

have not to search far before we find a

probable cause for the highly volcanic condition

v>^ho

of the

Any

moon's surface.

traveller

has passed a day upon the burning plains

in tropical regions,
in his zenith,

when the sun

and when he

is

at

midday

is

exposed to the

sun's rays only twelve or fourteen hours, can

imagine the state in which the

soil

and

air

would

be were the sun to remain twelve or fourteen

days above the horizon.

This

of each portion of the moon's

is

the condition

surface,

which

is

exposed during about a fortnight to the con-

IX

THE HEAYEXS.

75

tinued rays of the sun, and then, during a like

period, the sun

is invisible.

It is only reasonable to

may

ever

suppose that what-

be the condition of the lunar atmo-

sphere, and the other agencies appertaining to

her,

still

the sun causes heat upon her surface,

and during

his absence there

must be

cold.

very great alternation of climate, therefore,

occurs upon the

moon during every month,

heat and cold being both very intense

these

great

changes,

action of the sun,

it

and

and the long-continued

is

highly probable would

produce volcanic action, especially

if

just be-

neath the lunar surface there are rocks containing sulphur, or other non-conducting matter.
It

has long been a

subject

of

discussion

whether there are any volcanoes now burning

in the

moon.

Some

observers have

come

to

the conclusion that they have seen luminous

points,

which could not be accounted

any other way than by supposing these

active volcanoes.

there

is

for in
to

be

Other observers deny that

any evidence to prove that volcanoes

COMMON SIGHTS

76

are at present active, and that which indi-

have supposed to be a volcano, was

viduals

merely an illuminated peak.

In controversies of

must be

this description it

borne in mind that no amount of negative

evidence
thus

if

is

one

sufficient to disprove

fact,

and

half a dozen careful observers have seen

appearances which

may

be active volcanoes,

it

be

assumed

fairly

matters but

little

to

whether

half a hundred individuals

have never seen

anything of the kind.

certainly appears

It

reasonable to suppose that there

action going on

we

upon the moon's

is

look for active volcanoes after the

when

amount of

We

exposed.

igneous

surface,

consider her appearance, and the

sun heat to which she

is

ought to

moon

is full,

as she has then been exposed to a continuance

of sunlight for a long period

moon

is

thus

when the

south, at about 2 or 3 o'clock a.m.,

is

the best time.

If there be

any very great changes occurring

upon the moon's

surface, these

ought in the

course of a few years to be discovered.

Photo-

IN

graphy

is

an

falsehoods,

THE HEAVENS.

artist

who

77

neither flatters nor tells

and now that a photograph of the

moon can be

taken, and

when

this

photograph

can be placed under a microscope, we

may

col-

lect a variety of lunar portraits, which, handed

down

to posterity,

may

serve to clear up this

otherwise questionable problem connected with

the geology of the moon.

It has

been remarked that when the public

are left to themselves, they will frequently,

by

a sort of intuition, come to correct conclusions

upon even abstruse

subjects.

ever, take care that

We

must, how-

we do not confound

sort of intuition with opinions

this

which are the

result of a bias being given to public opinion

by

self-elected authorities.

The

earliest

almanacs invariably connected a

change of weather with a change of moon, and

thus a bias was given to public opinion which

might not otherwise have expressed

There

is

to the loose reasoner

itself.

something

re-

markably agreeable in the vagueness of the

terms "change of weather" and "change of

COMMON SIGHTS

78

What

moon."

From wet
cloudy to

to

mean ?

does change of weather

from

fine,

clear,

damp and foggy

from clear to cloudy

and

from

to wet;

fine

from

frosty

from a cold

north wind to a mild south wind

from a nip-

to dry

ping east to a soothing west \^ind

to rain,

of weather.

Then a change

moon

First, the

new moon.

moon
is

from snow

from thmider-storm to calmness

a hurricane to a gentle breeze

this ?

This

are
of

again,

once a week, the

then

moon

would be indeed strange

weather, in some

localities,

is

Then the

is full,

then she
Thus,

invisible.

'^changes."
if

is

then there

change.

half lighted, then she

is

half-lighted

changes

moon, what

is invisible,

is

all

from

Now

it

some change of

did not occur at or

about some of the periods when the

moon

changed.

We
this is

have mentioned different

localities,

an important consideration,

for

if

and

we

compare the weather in even various parts of

England, we find but

same time.

little

uniformity at the

If the climate of

Enoiand be com-

IX

THE HEAYEXS.

79

pared with that of the Continent,

differences will be found.
to be taken as the one

is

the change of the

still

greater

Which

locality, then,

which

is

affected

by

moon ?

In consequence of observations having been

carried on in various places, different conclusions
tific

have been arrived

men

moon on

il.

by

different scien-

in connection with the influence of the

Thus observations

the weather.

and Paris

ried on at Stutto-ard
results

at

car-

o'ave different

from those which were made at Poitevin.

Gasparin found, according to M. Arago, that

there was the least rain between the full

and the

whereas at Stuttgard the

last quarter,

was found

least rain

moon
new

at the period of the

moon.

From

consideration

by

collected

pears that

if

different

of the various

experimentalists,

the changes of the

facts
it

moon do

appro-

duce any influence upon the weather, the results

of these

change,

influences
as

the

different places.

do not cause so great a

local

conditions

surroundins:

COMMON SIGHTS

80

We

are

upon tolerably

assert that the

moon

safe

ground when we

causes some of the tidal

changes upon earth, and that consequently she

the

attracts
this,

waters

we do not

when

find

of the

it

the atmosjDhere

Granting

ocean.

impossible to believe that

is

imbued with a large

amount of moisture, that she would

attract the

atmosphere in a manner somewhat analogous to

When

that in which she attracts the ocean.

we have

we have

very

subtle force to deal with, and conjecture

must

to consider attraction,

enter largely into the investigation, whilst positive certainties cannot be

then merely with

question whether,

Dealing-

obtained.

conjectm^e,

it

becomes

when the moon thus

attracts

the waters of the ocean or the atmosphere, she

draws from either any of those elements of

which water

is

composed.

We find that

tion will act at the distance of

of miles,

and

it

is

not,

many

therefore,

material forces with which

we can

like
deal.

might be then, that when the moon

attracting the ocean, she

is.

attrac-

millions

bv means

is

any
It

thus

of the

IX

THE HEAVENS.

81

chemistry of nature, drawing from

it

some of the elements of which she herself

is

subtle

and thus she may be forming an

deficient,

atmosphere, or obtaining moisture which

will,

by the action of the sun's heat, enable her to

produce an atmosphere.

may

This action
ideas,

very slow

according to

be,

still,

find our

moon

granitic

and volcanic

if

it

passing from
state,

we should

exist,
its

human

present hard

into

condition

which would admit of vegetable and animal

of a low order being created

upon

its

life

surface

and thus a geological change would be marked.

Perhaps also

this

long sun period of fourteen

days might, when the

sphere, be

moon

suitable for the

possessed an atmo-

growth of plants

which did not produce hard wood

live

and thus

would predominate, which would cease

ferns

to

immediately the sun ceased to shine upon

them.

Their

by a deposit

fall

would be probably attended

of snow,

which another long day

would melt, and thus growth of ferns might

follow growth of ferns, and layer after layer of

COMMON SIGHTS

82

vegetables might be

deposited, which

would

eventually perhaps become the coal beds for

those

who were

created upon the moon,

when

youth had advanced towards maturity.

its

In the absence of certainty we can only deal

with conjecture.

Another subject of discussion connected with

the

moon

is,

whether or not she possesses an

atmosphere similar to the earth.

reason to believe that

atmosphere, then,

if

moon

the

when any

There

is

possessed an

stars passed the

limbs of the moon, their shape and appearance

would be considerably

phenomena

expected,

been carefully watched

dividuals provided

altered.

As might be

of this description have

;

and there are few

in-

with a telescope of even

moderate power who have not observed several such transits.

naturally exists

Some

difference of opinion

as to whether the

has shown any variation as the

before

it

star or planet

moon

passed

but the majority of observers agree

in the belief that no

change

is

produced.

It is

assumed that the atmosphere of the earth does

IX

THE HEAYEXS,

83

not extend beyond forty-fiye miles from the

surface

but this

merely an assumption.

is

may

atmosphere of a rarefied character

to

any distance.

In fact

what extent the

tend

and

it is

An

extend

to say to

it is difficult

may exmoon may be

earth's atmosphere

possible that the

within the radius of the earth's atmosphere

and thus there may be a means whereby her

volcanoes only smoulder, as
if

there were a

would burst out

it

were

whereas,

more dense atmosphere, these

We

into fierce flames.

should

of course find no alteration in the appearance of

a star as the

moon

within

atmosphere,

our

passed

it,

immediately

much more

conclusion that the

younger of the two.

dense.
or

un-

moon, and then regard the

present condition of our earth,

the

moon were

observe the incomplete

finished state of the

avoid

the

unless

about the moon, the air was

When we

if

There

is

it is difficult

moon

is

to

the

an appearance

about the moon's surface very similar to that

which the earth must have presented during

that early geological period,

when

granite or

COMMON SIGHTS

84

gneiss were the surface

were not yet conditions

to organic

life to

soil,

and when there

sufficiently favourable

admit of the existence of any

beings of a higher type than a few worms or

When we

zoophytes.

consider this probability?

and when we regard creation from an expansive

point of view,

we

are irresistibly struck with

the singularity of the statement of

Lucian and

Ovid, who both inform us that the Arcadians

asserted that their forefathers had inhabited

the earth before

objectors,

who

it

are

possessed a satellite.

Some

more ready to raise an objec-

tion than to weigh the soundness of their argu-

ments, have believed that they had exposed the

absurdity of this statement
*'

Then

if so,

the

what has become of

objection

is

prising that

its tail,

no

tailT

was ever urged

just that

has done with its

exhibits

its

tail

tail,

if

said,

a comet, and

This weak

so readily answered, that

it

remark that the moon,

with

when they

moon must have been

for

it is

sm-

we might

an old comet, has done

which the comet of Encke

for this short-period

comet

and when nearest the sun

it

THE HEATEXS.

IX

85

has a diameter not one-tentli of that which

has when at

its

approximation of
connected with
it

its

appears to be

particles

its

distance from the snn

does not necessarily follow that the

a comet

it

it

Thus the

greatest distance.

but

moon was

might have been formed in several

other ways.

statement such as that of Ovid

be hastily disposed

of,

either

off-hand objection; but

by

is

not to

ridicule or

probabihties

an

must be

weighed, and guesses should not take the place

of facts.

The

distance of the

obtained than
in

is

moon

is

more readily

that of any other c-elestial body,

consequence of her nearness to the earth.

Two

locaKties situated in distant parts of the

world are chosen as points for

The

latitudes of these

two

observation.

stations being

kno^m,

the distance in angular measm^e of the moon,

from the north pole and fi'om the south pole,

may

be obtained.

Thus,

if

and C were two

points upon the earth's surface, such as Green-

wich and the Cape, then the angTilar chstance

COMMON SIGHTS

86
of the

moon from

added

to the angular distance of the

the south pole of the heavens,

moon from

the north pole of the heavens, will exceed 180''

by exactly the angle

The

GM

C.

distance in miles between

known.

The two

sides

MG

and

and C

is

are so

nearly equal as not to interfere greatly in the

question,

and thus the angles

are known, consequently the

M G C and M C G
sides M C can be

found by simple trigonometry.

It will also be evident that to

G, the lower portion of the

same

star

some distance from the moon

observer at C.

at

moon might appear

to just touch a star, wliilst the

appear at

an observer

Hence another means

is

would
to

an

afforded

for finding the distance of our satellite,

which

amounts to about two hundred and forty thousand miles

a short distance when compared to

87

THE HEAVEXS.

lis

that of other celestial bodies, but

one

still

suffi-

ciently great to occupy an express train tra-

velling at fifty miles an hour, rather

more than

three months to accomplish the journey.

As soon

as the distance of the

her size can be ascertained

small

when compared to the

moon

is

and she

is

found,
quite

earth; her diameter

being only about two thousand one hundred and

sixty miles.

An

moon

eclipse of the

lasts a

time than an eclipse of the sun,

the earth

is

much
first,

moon

is

eclipsed, both she

and the earth are moving in the same

when

the sun

diagrams will explain this

Suppose S the sun and

with the moon,

to

direction,

eclipsed, then the

is

travelling in opposite directions.

from

because

larger than the moon, and secondly,

because when the

but

longer

The

two are

following

the earth, which,

is

travelling in the direction

the moon, during a solar

eclipse, is travelling

round the earth from

towards 0, and thus moves in one direction

whilst the earth

is

moving

in the other.

During

COMMON SIGHTS
a lunar eclipse, however, the

and

will

moon

then be moving from

course which at

is

will

be at

Is,

towards P, a

nearly the same as that

^\o

_M|t

F^.

which the earth

follows.

Thus the moon

mains some time longer in the

and consequently prolongs the lunar

To produce
is

re-

earth's shadow,
eclipse.

either a lunar or solar eclipse,

it

evident that the earth, the moon, and the

sun must be in the same straight

sequence of the
in about

line.

In con-

moon moving around

the earth

twenty-nine and a half days, these

three bodies must be twice during that period

in nearly the

appear at

first

same

straight line.

Thus

it

may

sight singular that during every

twenty-nine and a half days, there should not

IN

THE HEAVENS,

89

The

fact

crosses

the

be an eclipse of the sun and moon.

however

is,

moon only

that the

actual path of the sun tvdce during her revolution

round the earth

cross this path either

sible,

if

therefore she does not

when she

or invi-

is full

then no eclipse can occur.

There

may

be seventy eclipses observed in

different parts of the world

eighteen years
eclipses,

dming a period

of

of these, forty-one are solar

and the remainder (twenty-nine) are

lunar.

In consequence of the proximity of the moon

to the earth, eclipses of the sun

some parts of the earth

other parts as
eclipse

partial,

is invisible.

In

may be

as total eclipses, in

whilst

in

this respect

others

moon can be

the

an eclipse

of the sun differs from a lunar eclipse.

ever the

seen in

When-

seen above the horizon

during the time of an eclipse, then also the

phenomenon can be observed

but

it is

not so

with the sun, which, although visible at the

same instant

to

two observers,

may be

partially

eclipsed to the one but not to the other.

The

COMMON SIGHTS

90
reason of this

may

be understood from the

fol-

lowing diagram

Suppose S the sun,

moon.

An

earth's

surface,

the earth, and

would see the moon in the

directly

therefore to

the sun would not appear to be

the locality

The observer

eclipsed.

upon the

observer standing at

direction of T, far above the sun

moon

see the

M the

in

the

at P, however,

direction

would

that

is

between him and the sun, which would

consequently be totally eclipsed.

As the sun would not be

observer at O, whilst

by the moon

it

eclipsed to the

would be

totally hidden

at the point P, it is evident that if

observers were placed at various stations be-

tween

and 0, [they would see the

eclipse

IX THE HEAYEXS.

91

nearly total, or partial, according as tliev ^Ye^e

near to

or 0.

T\lien the
is

due

moon

may

moon

alter his.

partial eclipse

Thus a

shadow

total eclipse of
all

places

above the horizon, and a

is

be a partial eclipse.

^vill

no necessity to travel

is

this

be a total eclipse at

will

where the moon

there

phenomenon

apparent position, although an

will not alter its

the

eclipsed, the

the earth's shadow, and

to

observer

is

Thus

to different parts

of the world to obtain a better view of a lunar,

although

it

may be

we take any

If

earth's surface,

we

eclipses are visible

to see a solar echpse.

particular locality
shall find that

from that

upon the

more lunar

locality

than there

are solar, because the duration of a lunar eclipse

is

greater,

than

is

and

it

is

more

Taking the whole world, how-

a solar.

ever, three eclipses of the

of the

The
the

likely to be visible

sun will occur to two

moon.
best time for observing the surface of

moon with

quarter.

She

a telescope

will

is

during the

first

then be visible ia the south-

92

C03IM0N SIGHTS

western portion of the heavens as soon as the

evening

is

sufficiently

see her without

advanced to enable us to

The sun

difficulty.

then

is

shining upon the moon, so as to enable an

inhabitant of the earth to

shadows cast by the lunar

ters vary in size

being as

much

in diameter

and form

These cra-

craters.

some are very

large,

hundred and forty miles

as one

many

see distinctly the

of

them appear

to

have a

small opening or aperture in the centre, which

is

surrounded by a ridge, or this appearance

may

be merely a peak in the centre of the

Even during one night a

crater.

considerable

change occm-s in the appearance of a

consequence of the

shadow

cast

by the

will decrease, fresh

and various

shade
cally

moon

side

of the
of

crater, in

sun, as

the

the

mountain

peaks become illuminated,

irregular lines of hills appear to

alter their form.

trast

rise

Much

of the beauty of con-

produced by the variation of light and

is

lost

when

the sun shines nearly verti-

upon any part of the moon

is

thus the full

not so interesting an object for exami-

YmcenvBrods^IiiL

wo2Mes.

Craters on
S-SouOi of Mooji

1.

2.

Craters West
ofjsppenn ines

liVIplioiiso kc.

neaj^

Maic

iS.Posidomas
i

'

:viibiixm..
.

Wes tborder of Mare lin bnum

7. lIa.iiro

ly cii s

8.Aj^ejmme^
9.

lydio

IX

nation as

is

THE HEATEXS.

the same orb

93

when about

of the illuminated surface

is

one-third

directed towards

the earth.

On

Plate 5 are sketches of various portions

of the moon's surface taken at different periods.

These sketches have been made with a small

but very good telescope, and

may serve

to

show

the great irregularities upon the face of our

satellite.

On

Plate 4

when she was

is

a diagram of the

partly visible.

moon taken

It will

be seen

from these that the lower and left-hand side of

the

moon

are those parts which

the most covered with craters.

seem

to

be

COMMON SIGHTS

94

CHAPTEE

V.

YENUS.

The

celestial object

which appears

the next largest to the moon,

The

Venus.

this planet,

is

at times

the planet

brilliant white light reflected

and the

fact of her

or evening star only,

by

being a morning

and never

visible during

the middle of the night, caused considerable

attention to be directed towards her from the
earliest ages.

One

of the

most important steps towards

obtaining an interest in the movements and

condition of the various celestial bodies,

be able
see

is

it is

is

that

to

whether the object which we

a planet or a

planets
It

to tell

is

star,

and

also

we may have

which of the

seen.

very rarely indeed that there can be

any mistake in connection with the planets,

and the

slioiitest reflection

will enable us to

THE HEAVENS.

IN

when we

decide

see

95

a planet, whether

it

is

Venus, or Mars, or any other.

There are only two planets which appear of

a large

and which shine with a bright

size,

These two are Yenus and

whitish light.

Mars, wliich sometimes appears as large

piter.

either

as

Ju-

of

the

former,

always

exhibits

bright red appearance, and cannot therefore be

mistaken

for

them.

In discerning therefore be-

tween Venus and Jupiter, there might possibly

be some confusion, but merely at a particular
period.

Venus

is

never very distant from the sun,

and only rarely remains above

more than an hour

She may
sun.

rise also

Thus she

the horizon

or two after the sun has

set.

two or three hours before the

either immediately follows or

precedes the sun.

But Venus

is

never seen at

midnight in any but very high latitudes north

and south

nor

is

she

eve-r

seen of an evening

in that part of the heavens opposite to

the sun has gone down.

Thus,

if

liant white-looking celestial object

where

a very
is

bril-

seen near

COMMON SIGHTS

96

western horizon in

tlie

evening

tlie

shortly

after sunset, or in the east just before sunrise,

then

this object

is

most probably Venus.

If the planet Jupiter be in the

he

will

appear smaller and

cause he

will

same

locality

less brilliant,

be-

then be at a very great distance

from the earth.

scope, the planet

Thus, even without any tele-

Venus ought

to be recognized

but with the aid of one, no mistake can occur,

reasons which will be stated at a future

for

The reason why Venus

page.

very far from the sun,

moves around him

in

is,

may

is

never seen
tliis

an orbit which

that which the earth follows.

never

is

because

is

planet
within

Thus the earth

between Venus and the sun, but Venus

be between the earth and the sun.

In the following diagram S represents the

position of the sun,
wliilst

W V the

orbit of

Venus,

the largest circle represents the orbit of

the earth.

When Venus
an

observer

is

at

and the earth

at E,

on the earth would be carried

round by the daily rotation from

to

and

IX

to Q.

WTien

THE HEAYEXS.

be able to see Yenus at

invisible

was

this observer

lie

would
was

then when he had been carried to P,

rise before the sun,

star.

Thus Venus would

and would consequently be

She would

also set before the

sun, and would not therefore

evenins:.

at

whilst the sun

the sun would be rising.

a morning

97

be seen in the

COMMON SIGHTS

98
If

Venus were

at AV, then slie

wonld

and

the sun, consequently from

rise after

she would

not be seen, on account of the sunlight; but

when

the observer had been carried round to

Q, the sun would be

invisible,

be seen as an evening

but Yenus would

star.

Venus moves round the sun

direction

as

does the earth.

in the

She,

same

however,

moves more quickly, and has a shorter distance

to travel over to perform her annual journey

round the sun.

when the

move

If

we suppose

Venus

is

at

at E, then as they both

in the direction

shown by the arrows, the

earth would arrive at about

at E,

that

is

earth

and she would dm^ing

a morning

star.

Thus

visible or invisible for a

w^hen Venus was

all this

this

time remain

planet remains

long period in conse-

quence of the joint movement of the earth and

herself.

Venus

is

found to revolve around the sun in

about 224 days 17 hours

to the

same apparent

but she only returns

position as regards the

sun in 1 year, 3 months, and 29 days.

That

THE HEAYEXS.

IX
is,

in

such as this she becomes an

iiiteryals

evening star or a morning

for this,

gram,

is

99

star.

The reason

as pointed out in the preceding dia-

her motion combined with that of the

earth.

The

distance of

Yenus from the sun

is

found

to be about sixty-eight million miles, the earth

being

about

times Yenus

ninety-fiye

millions.

Thus

at

comes within about twenty-flye

million miles of the earth, a distance

much

less

than that which eyer separates us from any

other planet.

Eiiowing the distance of Yenus

from the earth we can readily obtain an approximation to her

some

size,

about which, however,

slight uncertainty exists.

admitted, however, that she

It is generally

is

rather smaller

than our earth, she being about seven thousand

seven hundi-ed and eighty miles in diameter,
whilst

the earth

is

rather

more than seven

thousand nine hundred.

Yenus, which appears like any other of the
planets or stars

when seen with the naked

presents a singular difference

when she

is

eye.

ex-

COMMON SIGHTS

100

amined with a

telescope.

A^Tien at her greatest

angular distance from the sun, she appears to

be half lighted, and thus exhibits a semicircle

of brightness, just as does the
If she be

moon

at times.

seen in this condition dm-ing the

evening, she will in a few weeks appear to

approach the sun, and will seem each night

larger

and more

If she be

brilliant.

with a telescope when she

is

examined

brightest, the size

of the illuminated portion will be about one-

fom'th of the disc of the planet, but in conse-

quence of her greater proximity, she aj)pears

larger than

As

when

half illuminated.

she approaches the sun, the lighted portion

becomes

less

and

the sun's rays.

visible,

less, until at last

she

is lost

Dm^ing a few days she

and then reappears

separates herself from the

as a
sun,

morning

in

is in-

star,

and reaches

about as far from him on the one side as she

formerly did upon the other.

When

at the

greatest apparent distance from the sun on the

west

side,

him, and

she will rise about three hom^s before

if

examined with a telesrope

will

be

THE HEAVENS,

IX

101

then found half illuminated on the side next to

the sun.

The phases

of Venus, as these changes in

appearance are termed, are not the only interesting facts reyealed

when we dkect a

scope of moderate power towards her.

an atmosphere

find that she has

that there

lead

us

of her

We
thus

and

For we

like the earth,

are appearances upon her wliich

conclude that

to

surface

she has

has an

portions

covered at times vith snow.

can see that she rotates upon an

also

tele-

alternation

we know

of

axis,

and

day and night,

that she has

a change of

season.

If from the sea-shore

we observed two

each of which possessed a similar

rigging,

and

sails,

smoke coming out

and

if

ships,

hull, masts,

from each we observed

of a chimney, these two ships

would scarcely be more ahke than are the earth

and the planet Venus.

atmosphere, each

and

is

night, a year,

Each planet has an

spherical, each has a

day

and a change of season.

Thus when we examine Venus from the

earth,

COMMON SIGHTS

102
it is

almost like looking at our owii planet from

space.

When

speaking of the moon, we pointed out

moon being

the fact of the whole body of the

visible

when only a

was

slight crescent

minated by the sun; and

believed, can be explained

this

effect,

illuit

is

by supposing that

the earth shines upon the moon.

It

is

singular,

however, that the same phenomenon has been

observed

upon Venus, the whole

surface has been distinctly seen

of

whose

when only

small portion has been illuminated by the sun.

It

admits of question whether the reflected

by the earth would be

light given

produce this observed

distant as Venus.

effect

sufficient to

on a planet as

In consequence of the orbit

of the earth being outside that of Venus, our

planet would give a

much

Venus than she ever

earth

when

upon

nearest to her would appear ^^fuU,"

whereas she
illuminated

brighter light

gives to us, because the

is

only seen by us as a partially

body.

Venus might be due

Thus the mliy

to the

light

of

earth's light re-

IN
fleeted

THE HEAVENS.

on to her sm^face.

It

is

103

not impossible,

however, that the rotation of a planet upon

axis

may

Venus and
give

some way

jDroduce light in
all

When

from the sun.

reflect

tliis

is

ex-

will again

conjectm^e.

That portion of Venus wliich

sun,

may

independent of that

amining the system of Jupiter, we

refer to

and thus

the other primary planets

out a faint Kght,

which they

its

is

much more

found to be

nearest to the
brilliant

than

the central part, where the light and shade

almost meet.

This

is

a natural consequence

of the spherical form of the planet, just as

the midday light on earth

gTeater than that

and the sunlight

in early morning,
torial regions

is

more powerful than

in

equa-

in high lati-

tudes.

There

is

an additional obscuration of

light

upon Venus, which has led to the conclusion

that she

is

surrounded by a highly refractive or

dense atmosphere

a condition which

it is

not

improbable has been produced by her great

annual chanR^e of climate.

COMMON SIGHTS

104

The

surface of

Venus

is

covered with darkish

and they occupy

spots of a deKcate character,

the greater portion of her diameter.

bright spots are

of

her surface,

Sometimes

observed upon various parts

These,

her atmosphere.

or

however, have enabled astronomers to decide,

that

she rotates upon her axis, in a period

hours and tv/enty-one

of about twenty-three
minutes.-

Thus her day

is

rather shorter than

the terrestrial day.

The method
planet's rotation

the

of discovering
is

to

able spot to appear

watch

for

upon the

time of a

some remarkplanet,

and to

correctly fix the relative position of this spot

then in some period either gTeater or

less

than

twenty-four hours the spot will appear to have

moved round
its first

exist,

the planet, and to have regained

position.

Some doubt

might, however,

whether the spot had moved round only

once, or whether two

rotations or

more had

occurred during the intervals of observation.

This question, however,

may

be settled

if

we

observe the change which takes place in the

THE HEAYEXS.

IX

position of the spot during

we can then estimate

105

an hour

or two^ for

about the rate of rotation,

and are not likely to make any very gTeat

mistake or to confound a double with a single
rotation.

In addition to the rate of rotation, another

interesting fact

is

tion of the spots

by an examina-

ascertained

upon Venus,

viz.,

we can

find

the relative changes which occur in the sun's

altitude dmino' the
is

Venus

This chano'e

vear.

found to be very great, and

is

of sufficient

interest to attract special notice.

If

we examined from space

the rotation of

the earth during the two periods of

summer

and winter, we should

rotation

find that the

took place at such an angle in connection with

the position

of

the

sun,

that

all

within twenty-thi'ee degrees and a

of the poles

localities

haK

of one

were durino; the twentv-four hours

shone upon by the sun.

If,

however, we ex-

amine Venus under similar conditions, we

find

that all localities within about seventy-five degi^ees of

one of the poles are shone upon by

COMMON SIGHTS

106

the sun during

lioui^s.

The

course of the spots upon the earth and

Yenus

may be

tlie

twenty-four

understood by the

better

following

figTires.
Venus.

Earth.

^^

"

^'-

Venus.

.^^S::^

__.

:-^^^^^^

-Sto

^^^^^M-

Ij

2,

3,

When,

we remember

that the

there-

planet revolves

round the sun, and thus turns towards

summer

that pole which

in winter,

it

(iUA^J

show the direction pursued by a

spot on the earth and on Venus.

fore,

Earth.

_j^

we

it

in

was turned away from

shall see that gTeat variations

will occur in the

two seasons in consequence of

the variations in altitude of the sun above the

horizon.

we

will

To

fully

understand these changes

suppose ourselves transferred to the

planet Venus,

and

larly situated to

to a locality exactly simi-

England upon

this earth.

Here then we stand upon the

other world,^ which

may

or

sm-face of an-

may

not present

IN THE HEAVENS.

very singular variations from

shall

We

say?

oiu'

commmence

when

at that 23eriocl

the sun

107
own,

who

our observations
over the equator,

is

in the spring of the year, a date corresponding

to the 21st pi

March upon

Instead of

earth.

that gradual advance from spring to

which

terrestrial beings observe,

find that the

were.

On

summer comes with

earth

it

sun to pass from

we

its

spring

summer, and even then

Venus

a rush, as

it

altitude

it

to its

not nearly over-

is

Thirty days after

the sun crossed the equator of Yenus,

midday be

in

takes three months for the

head to people in England.

at

summer

it

would

dh^ectly overhead to a locality

similarly situated to England,

Upon

earth the only places where the sun

seen directly overhead

gions, that

is,

is

is

within tropical re-

in latitudes not exceeding twenty-

three and a half degrees.

On

earth, however,

in those latitudes, the sun only remains about

twelve or thhteen hom-s at a time above the

horizon,

and thus the intervals of

sunlio-ht

and

COMMON SIGHTS

108

darkness are equally

cliyicled

the intense heat

of the day disperses itself in a measure during

the nighty and heavy dews moisten the ground,

and thus enable the inhabitants

midday heat
This

is

to endure the

of the morrow.

not, however, the condition of

Venus

in the regions similarly situated to England.

There the sun, as we have

midday, but

it

said, is vertical at

then passes obliquely to the

western horizon, glides down to the north, just

touches the northern horizon, and returns again
to the zenith of our locality.

Thus

in about forty days after the sun has

crossed the

equator

it

midday, and would not

would be

vertical

set at midnight,

at

and

twenty-fom^ hours of sunlight would have to be

endured

From

if

England were situated on Venus.

this date the

sun would not set during

the twenty-four hours, but would each night

rise

higher above the northern horizon, until

in about fifty-six days

it

would daily describe a

small circle in the heavens, the midday light

IN

THE HEAVEXS.

109

of the siin being about equal to that of our

Slimmer sun, and the michiight sim il ar to that

Thus

of spring.

for

about thiity-two days and

nights the sun would not

On
we

earth

we can

set.

see the midnight sun if

travel into high latitudes, but

see such a sight as a

midday

we cannot

vertical

sun and

a midnight sun during twenty-four hours

nor

can we do more than imagine the intense heat

which would be produced by such conditions

as

From

those which exist in Venus.

period

when the sun

described

cncle in the heavens until

zenith

at

it

its

the

small diurnal

again passed the

and touched the northern

midday,

horizon at midnight, there would ela]3se about

thirty-two days.

be as rapid as

The
its

retreat of the sim

advance.

would

In one hundred

and thirteen days the autumn position would

be reached, and the sun would at midday be

no higher than he

is

on earth

at

the

same

period.

Just as the

summer approached

rapidly, so

COMMON SIGHTS

110

would the milter, and in about twenty-eight

days from the period when the sun was in the
position corresponding to the

in

England on

in the

of

same

some

fifty

earth,

autumn

he would be

altitude

lost sight of

A long

locality in Venus.

period

days and nights would now elapse,

dming which

the sun would be invisible, and

those very localities which were so lately ex-

posed to an ultra-tropical summer would now

endure an arctic wmter.
light

save that of the

There

is

now no

and hence the

stars,

cold would be as intense as was the heat.

226 days the sun again returns

position,

and the

In

to the spring

yearly changes on Venus

have been accomplished.

These are strange conditions to be going on
in a planet so near our
to

own

and

it is difficult

avoid reflecting upon the changes which

Each year an

must be produced thereby.

arctic

winter,

alternate
fi.fteen

from

and a
her

tropical

poles

to

degrees of latitude from

summer,
within

will

about

her equator.

THE HEAYEXS.

IN
It

would thus take some time

beings to become

who can

Venus

her

by the scent

suffer

may be

mammoths, which,

attracted

of the rapidly growing vegetation,

as the

northward

the

course

vivifies

Onward they

country.

from these

there

regions

are travelling northwards,

stalk,

sun in

face

of

which

herds track far

away from the

and enter the now glowing lands of

the north.
is

the

During a hundred

the sun's heat has produced.

days these

its

and

farther

farther, revelling in the shade of trees

but

but

equatorial

of giant

equator,

say whether the creatures which exist

very changes

troops

for terrestrial

acclimatized in

upon her may not occasionally

In

Ill

The sun performs

its

daily circles,

again returning south, and the air begins

to feel chill,

and darkness

the ancient bulls that

Some members
away however;

it is

time to migrate.

of the

their

at midnight warns

fate

herds have strayed

is

sealed,

for

the

country which but lately glowed with sun-heat

COMMON SIGHTS

112

and was covered with succulent vegetation,

now a

dark, bleak, snow-covered

the water

and

mammoth,

the

branches,

is

wilderness

the vegetation withered,

frozen^

is

is

crunching

forced to yield

the

its life,

dried

unable to

procure water, and incapable of sustaining the

intense cold which penetrates even through

wool-covered hide.
perishy

and

Another
shortly

Many a monster might

bones would cumber the

his

season

retm-n,

the

of

heat,

however,

snow would be

its

thus

soil.

would
rapidly

melted, the pent-up streams thawed, and torrents

of water thus produced would flood the country,

carrying stones, sand, and icebergs with their

burdens of boulders into strange regions, whilst

the

mammoth

would be borne with the current

and deposited amidst a mass of

debris,

near some

watercourse, from which, centuries afterwards,

when the

planet's condition

geologist might

had changed, some

exhume him, and

speculate upon

the cause which had produced such destruction

amongst

his fellows.

IN

THE HEAVENS.

is

a mass of rock which

There again

113
an-

is

nually exposed to a process similar to that said

to

have been adopted by Hannibal when he

crossed the Alps.

A vertical

sun raises

this

rock

to a great heat during an uninterrupted period

of several weeks, then the sun's absence exposes
it

to very great cold

a change which w^ould

probably cause the rock to

split

and separate,

thus liberating large masses, which would be

each year subjected to the action of the torrents,

and which probably

at length

would become

frozen into icebergs, and transported as boulders

to distant plains.

Owing

to the annual alternations of climate in

Venus, there must be glaciers and moraines, even

vipon moderate elevations, in all localities
to within about

down

twenty degrees of her equator.

Not only would these

glaciers exist

where they do not at present upon

upon

hills

earth, but

they would be found to produce effects more

powerful than any which we can observe
the effect of .the vertical sun
regions

covered with

snow

iii

summer

would be
I

for

oyer

very

COMMON SIGHTS

114

If our polar regions were subjected

powerful.

during a couple of months to a nearly vertical

sun, the ice in those latitudes

would be

and w^ould be floated by the

down towards the

earth's

rotation

Thus a whole

equator.

would be sent annually from the

Venus the

liberated,

poles.

fleet

In

arctic ch'cle reaches to within about

fifteen

degrees of the equator

nearly

all localities, to

be covered with

drift

and therefore

the north of

this,

would

and water-worn materials

each year.
Thus,

may

whatever

affect

other

local

circumstances

Venus, stiU the sudden change from

a vertical sun to no sun at

all,

must produce

these alternations of climate, and probably that

planet

may

be

now

passing through her glacial

epoch.

An

examination of the mountains in Venus

leads to the

conclusion that they are

higher than any at present on earth.

pears that they in some instances are as
as a

hundred and

much
It ap-

much

forty-fom^ thousand feet above

the ground around them. Thus these mountains

IN

THE HEAVENS,

115

are twenty-seven miles in height, while those upon

earth do not exceed five miles.

It is not impro-

bable, however, that the great

change of climate

which we have spoken of as occmTing on Venus,

may,

in thousands of years, so rend

and crack the

elevated rocks as to produce greater uniformity

of surface.

At

present, however, her mountains

are enormous.
It has

long been a question whether Yenus

possesses a satellite.

was stated by some of

It

the earlier continental astronomers that they

had

seen one attending her;

distinctly

some even went

and

so far as to give the period of

Modern

revolution of the supposed satellite.

observers, however, have not admitted the truth

of these statements. This

to the

inquuy

good telescope, and a

all

is

of amatem-s

a subject well suited

;

little

for a

good eye, a

perseverance are

As

the requisites for investigation.

the matter has gone, the evidence

in favom- of

is

Venus having an attendant

may, however, be liable

far as

decidedly
;

which

to great variations in

brightness, just as are the satellites of Jupiter.

COMMON SIGHTS

116

Not only

as

phases, but for

many

neighbour Venus
is

regards

is

her

proximity and

other reasons, our nearest

an object of

interest,

well worthy of telescopic investigation.

and

IN

THE HEAVENS.

CHAPTER

117

VI.

JUPITEE.

Almost

rivalling

apparent

size,

which we

Venus

Jupiter

shall

dii^ect

is

in

brilliancy

the next object to

our

This

attention.

planet shines with a pale light, and

is

times remarkably brilliant, but most so

he
is

is

and

at all

when

in the south at midnight, because then

nearest to the earth.

Jupiter

largest planet in the system,

earth in size as

much

as the

exceeds that of a sparrow;

is

by

he

far the

and exceeds the

eg'R'

of an ostrich

he being nearly

ninety thousand miles in diameter^ whilst the

earth

is

less

than eight thousand.

from the sun

one

the

first

five millions

is

His distance

very gTcat, and his year a long

being four hundred and eightyof miles,

and the

latter

nearly

twelve of om' years. Thus Jupiter can never be

COMMON SIGHTS

118

nearer to the earth than about four hundred

million miles.

Jupiter.

The

receptability of

be very great,

for

ligM

of

he appears nearly,

quite, as bright to us as does

one throws

his

tHs planet must

reflected

Venus

light four

if

not

yet the

hundred

sixty
milUon miles and the other only about
seven times
million, and Jupiter is more than

as far

from the sun as

is

Venus.

Jupiter

may be

seen at any time of

consequence of his

orbit, or course,

From

side that of the earth.

great brilKancy he

Sii'ius will

even

being out-

his large size

or star, unless

Dog-Star, called also Sirius

of

niglit, in

and

not likely to be mistaken

is

any other planet

for

119

THE HEAVENS.

IX

it

be the

but as the position

be pointed out at a future page,

mistake ought not to occur.

this

However much we may be accustomed

we

deal with figures,

great distances

of

still

the

fail

to

to realize the

celestial

bodies,

and

hence the vastness of the universe, unless we

are

more

forcibly

reminded of these distances

by some comparison with

Thus we may

better

an

express

objects.

comprehend the distance

of Jupiter from the earth,

if

terrestrial

train,

when we

travelling

find that

continually,

started from the earth towards Jupiter

he was

at

the

shortest

when

distance from us,

it

would occupy more than nine hundred years

to reach him, although

it

travelled at the rate

of fiftv miles an hour.

Jupiter will always be visible during nearly

COMMON SIGHTS

120

when he

Dine months in the year, the period

is

invisible is

when he

when he

when

If

a midnight

Jupiter

we

star,

is

not very

star.

observed as a morn-

first

is

notice the stars which appear to

be close to him, we

shall find that

he will when he

rises

the east of these stars

to

is

When

he appear so large as he

brilKant, nor does

will

ino'

behind the sun.

observed as a morning star he

first

ing

is

have moved

be a

that

is,

each morn-

little

he

more

will

to the left of the stars

to

appear

near him.

This change in his apparent position will continue

for

several

days,

after

which he

will

gradually slacken the rate of his movement,

and

will

then not appear to change his place

amongst the

fixed

stationary during

After

stars.

remaining

two or three days, he will

then appear to move in the contrary direction,

that

is

to the right,

and he

motion for some months.

come

stationary,

and

will

will continue this

He

vvill

then be-

again move to the

left.

These apparent changes of

position,

in

IN

remarkable
caused

THE

celestial

body such

as

Jupiter,

direct tbeir attention

ancients to

tlie

121

HEAVE:NiS.

particularly to these " wanderers/' as they called

The movements

the planets.

of the planets

ap23eared to them, however, hopelessly intricate

and probably even to modern observers, who

have never
tlie details

planation
is

devoted any great

attention

to

of the celestial worlds, the above ex-

may

appear to indicate that intricacy

one paramount obstacle to thoroughly under-

standino- the motions of the different celestial

bodies.

little

sketch

may

away with the

often do

apparent confusion of a description

we

believe, will

case

and such,

be the result in the present

the following diagram be examined.

if

The
circle

orbit of Jupiter

KL

E F G;

is

that of the earth

the sun

is

shown

stars are represented at

we

will

at

J.

represented by the

B A

at

C.

by the
S,

circle

and three

The

earth

suppose to be situated at E, and Jupiter

Jupiter would

now appear from the

earth close to the star A, w^hich, however,

is

122

CO^OIOX SIGHTS

infinitely farther off

than

is

Jupiter, but the

two would appear close together in the sky.

In about four months the earth would have

moved
stars

to F,

and Jupiter to K, whilst the

fixed

ABC would not have altered their positions.

AATien the earth was at

and Jupiter

at

K,

star C,

and there-

fore

he would seem to have moved,

as regards

the

stars, to

he would appear close to the

the

months from the

left.

In about three or four

last period, the

earth would

IN

THE HEAVENS.

have readied

G-,

and Jupiter would be

Jupiter would

now appear

right of the star C,

and

to

to

123
at L.

have moved to the

be close to the

star

B.

Thus we have &st an apparent movement

to the left

then Jupiter

move

appears to

stationary again;

moving

to the

left,

to

is

stationary

the right;

and

lastly,

when he

then he

he

then

is

he seems to be
is

hidden by the

sun's light.

All these apparent changes in position of

this planet are

due to the jomt movement in

the same direction round the sun of the earth

and the

planet.

AATien Jupiter, or any other planet,

from the right tovrards the

west to

east, his

because this
appears to
year.

is

motion

is

left,

direction, its

is

from

said to be " direct^'

the direction in which the sun

move amongst the

When

that

moves

stars

during the

the planet travels in the opposite

motion

is

said to be " retrograder

Jupiter occupies a period of four thousand

three

hundred and thirty-two days to travel

round the sun, and thus the Jovian year

is

COMMON SIGHTS

124

equal to eleven years and three months of

our time.

was

Jovian gentleman, therefore,

years

six

old

ought to be thinking of

retiring into private

same

whilst a lad in the

life,

planet, aged one year

to be starting in

who

some

and a

ought

half,

profession.

To circumnavigate the planet Jupiter

would be necessary

to travel

hundred and eighty thousand

no

less

it

than two

miles, a distance

greater than twenty-two voyages to Australia.

Fontenelle, in his

Plurality of Worlds,' de-

very humorously

scribes

supposed con-

the

upon Jupiter, The countess says, " Pray

ditions
tell

'

me,

if

the earth be so

little

in comparison

of Jupiter, whether his inhabitants do discover

us

?'

Indeed I believe

not,' says I

appear to him ninety times

to us, judge

yet this

you

if

less

'for if

we

than he appears

there appears any possibility

we may reasonably

conjecture,

that

are

astronomers

in Jupiter, who, after

they have

made most

curious telescopes, and

there

taken the clearest nights

may have

discovered a

for then- observations,

little

planet in the

THE HEAVENS.

IN

125

heayens, which they never saw before

them

at

if

they

Imow

publish their discovery, most people

what they mean, or laugh

not

for fools

nay, the philosophers themselves will not believe them, for

of destroying

fear

may be

Yet some few

opinions.

own

theii'

little

cm^ious

they continue their observations, discover the

planet again, and are

little

no vision

then they conclude

round the sun, and

tions, find

year

that

and

know

now

it

after a

it

assured

it

is

has a motion

thousand observa-

completes this motion in a

at last (thanks to the learned) they

in Jupiter that our earth

a world

is

everybody runs to see it at the end of a telescope,

though so
"

'

It

little

must be

astronomers of

that

it is

scarcely discoverable.'

pleasant,' says she,

both

planets

'

to see the

levelling

their

tubes at one another, and mutually asking what

world

is

that

What

people inhabit

so fast either,' replied I

'

from Jupiter discover our

not

know

suspect

us

it

is

that

is,

they

for

it ?'

though they

earth, yet they

may

'

iSTot

may
may

not in the least

inhabited; and should any one

COMMON SIGHTS

126

there chance to have such a fancy, he might be

sufficiently ridiculed, if not prosecuted for

If

we were

to trace a line in the

"
it.'

heavens

where the sun each year moves amongst the

fixed stars,

we should

very far from

a

this line

rather

this line.

above,

little

fijid

and

at

that Jupiter

He

is

is

never

at times just

equally below

others

his greatest variation

from

it

being

more than twice the apparent diameter

of the sun.

Upon

directing a telescope of even moderate

powers towards Jupiter, he at once loses the

star-like

appearance which he exhibits when

seen with the naked eye, and shows a round

bright

disc.

hood there

Immediately in his neighbourwill

be seen

four,

or fewer, little

bright bodies, which exhibit a constant light,

differing slightly

from that of a

star.

If these

bodies be looked at occasionally during an hour

or so, they will be found to have altered their
relative positions

as

regards the planet and

themselves.

When

a telescope

is

used with a high magni-

IN

THE HEAYENS.

appears nearly as large

fying power, Jupiter

moon

as does the

and

127

tlie

as

satellites,

the

small attendant bodies prove to be, also show

a diameter, and other interesting phenomena.

AVe

will first speak of the planet as

by the aid of a powerful

telescope,

he

is

seen

and secondly,

of the satellites.

One

of the

first facts

connected with Jupiter,

and revealed by the telescope,

earth,

he turns upon

An

a day and night.

spots

which

by

upon
this

his axis,

that like the

and thus possesses

examination of several

his surface shows that the rate at

large planet turns round

far that of the earth.

Jovian day and night

fifty-six

is,

minutes

is

exceeds

The duration

of the

about nine hours and

and thus these periods of

light

and darkness are nearly " watch and watch

about," as

on board

ship.

In consequence of the shortness of the Jovian

day and night, there are upwards of ten thousand

four hundred days in each year,

and the various

bodies on his equator are carried over a space of

upwards of twenty-eight thousand miles per hour.

128

commo:n^ sights

It

supposed that

is

if

the earth were to spin

round with a velocity equal

to the above, the

various objects on the surface would be sent

flying into space

such an" assumption, however,

only a guess, and

is

same

which causes

force

probable that the

is

it

this rapid rotation

on

Jupiter also causes other conditions which keep

matters in order.

Some amusing

as to the supposed height

jump upon the

quence of

made

speculations have been

which a cat might

of Jupiter, in conse-

surface

this rapid rotation

of course

by the

aid of a few preliminary but important

positions,

cat
find

it

can be proved that the leap of the

would be enormous.
on

higher

earth,

v>'e

by

ought

also

jump
;

would

field,

how much

and thus the

crafty

equatorial

might overcome obstacles

effectually

scientific friends.

might we

at the equator than

by occupying the more

portion of the

which

So

certain theories,

to

at the northern regions

foxhunter,

sup-

As

"pound*'

his

less

conjectures these theories

are amusing, but as facts they are not very

THE HEAYEXS.

iX

we know not

valuable, for

129

as yet the causes of

grayity, of a planet's rotation, nor of

those

which bear upon the question

effects

and hence we cannot yentm^e

result

any of

the

to predict

which might occur by an assumed change

of conditions

for

we

are but

where we see

of a law,

know

not

the

its

successions

upon the sm-faee

but

effects only,

of

effects

which

intervene between the great First Cause and

that which our senses enable us to comprehend.

The

various

marks upon Jupiter

means whereby the changes

be known.

atlbrd

in his seasons can

These chano'es are verv

thus a singTilar difference exists

slight

and

between the

climatology of this planet and that of Venus.

The Jovian world has

scarcely

any change of

season, provided that the variation in the sun's

altitude

is

difference

the only cause of change; for the

between the summer and winter

tude of the sun

less

is

whereas on om- earth

nearly forty-seven
regions

of Jupiter

alti-

than seven degrees,

this difference

amounts to

The

equatorial

degrees.

must therefore be much

COMMON SIGHTS

130
hotter

than regions either to the

south,

whilst

his

eternally frozen, or

There

may

be,

polar

north

regions

are

either

upon the verge of a

and probably

or

frost.

conditions

are,

upon that planet which

fit

of beings possessed of

senses perhaps higher

it for

the residence

than those on this world.

It

would appear to follow as natural, that the

central portion of Jupiter should appear

much

brighter, than either the northern or southern

regions, for the first locality receives the vertical,

whilst the other receives the oblique rays

of the sun.
vation,

This conclusion agrees with obser-

which indicates a brightness

the

in

central portions nearly double that of the ex-

treme northern and southern regions.

In addition

to the spots

which serve to

indi-

cate the rate of rotation, there also exist on

Jupiter several singular dark and light streaks,

called " helts^

These belts are

all parallel to

each other, and run across the planet in the

same direction
lie across

as his equator

him from

east to west.

that

is,

they

all

IX

THE HEATEXS.

131

There have been instances recorded when

no

there were

seem upon

belts

and

Jupiter,

yet at the same time clouds were visible in his

Thus the

atmosphere.

belts

They

pearance, or yanish.

change their

also

seem

at

a23-

times

to be brighter than the surface of Jupiter, or

darker, according to chcumstances.

There

usually seen a brig:ht central belt, bordered

two darker

lines; but

it is

is

bv

singular that these do

not appear to extend quite to the margin of the

planet.

WTiat these belts are

ture.

It

is

a matter of conjec-

has been suggested that they are the

effects of strong trade winds, or of

of fluid

somewhat similar

satisfactory

is

Jupiter remain

yet

to

water

kno^Mi,

subjects

for

lone tracks
but nothing

and the

belts

speculation

of

and

observation.

Of

late

years attention has been di^awn to

several bright spots

upon

Jupiter.

During the

years 1850 and 1857 some notice was taken of

this

phenomenon, and considerable

been excited therebv.

Like the

interest has
belts,

how-

COMMON SIGHTS

132

and they may

ever, these spots are mysterious,

serve to remind us

how

little

we yet know

of

the laws which govern the universe and pro-

duce changes in the various

are the spots

A^'orlds

for not only

on the sun mysteries, but the

rapid rotation of Jupiter, his belts and bright

spots,

the ring of Saturn,

purpose

which comets come, and a host of other

for

phenomena, remain

We may

explain.

for future generations

boast of being able to fore-

eclipse will happen, but

state of weather for

twelve hours

and

we cannot

predict the

even a week, and scarcely

yet as far as the convenience

benefit of society

is

concerned, the latter

the more likely to be practically useful.

we look back, and

has been
turies,

to

an immense period the time when an

tell for

for

and the

made

is

When

consider the advance w^hich

in science within

we may even hope

a few cen-

that the state of

weather will eventually be predicted, with at

least

some foundation upon truth

when the means

covered,

we

shall

of prediction

and perhaps,

have been

dis-

stand and wonder, lost in

IX

THE HEAVENS.

133

amazement how such a simple law was

so long

overlooked by our predecessors.

During the autumn of 1857, when observing

a telescope of moderate

Jupiter with
I

noticed a

and

below his

ties

of the

From

poles.

axis

were two

there

extremi-

the

streams

bright hght, in appearance like the

comet,

chverging

planet,

and plainly

as

power,

appearance both above

singular

they receded

of

tail

of a

from

the

visible to a fhstance of ten

diameters in both du-ections.

The

light

ap-

peared to vary in brightness and extent, and

the
I

phenomenon was very

&st supposed

some defect

that this

like

an

aurora.

appearance was due to

in the object glass, but

having

ele-

vated the telescope so as to be well clear of

the light of Jupiter, I used the slow-motion

screw to
the

move the

observed

axis of the telescope across

light.

Having performed

operation several times,

this

and finding exactly

the same appearance, I concluded that the phe-

nomenon was connected with

the planet Jupiter,

COMMON SIGHTS

134

and not
friends
tory,

mth

Fortunately two

the telescope.

came the same evening

to the observa-

and upon looking through the telescope

Jupiter, they observed the

at

same appearance

although when we directed the instrument to a

star of the first
visible.

magnitude, no such

The night was one

best suited for

effect

was

of the clearest and

observation

that I have

ever

atmosphere

was

observations,

and

seen.

few

nights

after,

the

again suitable for delicate

Jupiter

was

re-examined.

Instead

of

ceiving the aurora-hke lights from the

there
still

now

a,ppeared a

much more

perpoles,

feeble,

but

a similar light on each side of the equator,

and consequently

at right angles to the former.

These appearances are

sufficiently

remarkable

to be recorded.

It

may

whether

be

very

might not be

consideration

question

for

brilliant

au-rora

seen, if there

on

earth

were an observer

with a good telescope upon Mercury or Venus

IN

THE HEAYEXS.

135

and the phenomenon obseryecl upon Jupiter

resemblance to this terrestrial

bore a strong
paradox.

How

TO FIXD JUPITEE UNTIL 1872.

December,

show the

June

March,

and

September,

positions of the earth at these periods

1871
1S70

^872
/1861

1869^

pher's Positions until 1872.

the dates 1861, 1862,

Jupiter at those

etc.,

dates.

show the positions of

Remember

that the

136
sun

C03IM0N SIGHTS
is

south at noon, and that the earth tin^ns

round as shown by the small arrows.

position

may

Jupiter's

then be found at any time and

season.

In June 1861 the sun

and Jupiter

will

be south at noon,

(see 1861, fig.) will

be south shortly

Thus Jupiter

follows the sun,

after the sun.

and

will

be visible for a short period above the

horizon just where the sun has

Where
in

will Jupiter

be seen at 6 o'clock p.m.

March 1862 ?

The sun being south

in

set.

at noon,

March the south would be

then at 6 p.m.

in the direction S,

therefore Jupiter (see 1862) would be in the

east.

WTiere will Jupiter be in September, 1869,

at midnight ?

The sun being south

in the direction
will

at noon, the south

t\i11

be

1868 at midnight, and Jupiter

be seen to the east of south.

In April, 1869, Jupiter would be

because behind the sun.

invisible,

THE HEATEXS.

I^'

In December 1870,

at 11

p.3I.,

137
Jupiter would

be seen to the south.

Thus, by remembering that east
of south, west to the right,
tial

bodies

move

Jupiter

from two

is

celes-

each night,

whether Jupiter

Iniow

yisible during the night, or

to be seen at

to the left

and that the

fi'om east to west

we may always
become

is

will

where he

is

any hom\
attended by

to three

foiu'

moons, which are

thousand miles

in

diameter

the satellite next but one to the planet being

the smallest, and the third satellite being the

Like the rotation of Jupiter, the revo-

largest.

lution of these
satellite,

moons

miles

The most

Jupiter,

yet

distant satellite revolves

Jupiter in less

although

fi'om

round him in about forty-two and a

half hours.

round

very rapid; the &st

although at a distance of two hundred

and sixty thousand

revolves

is

it

is

than seventeen

more than

a million miles

days,

from

him.

These

satellites

move round

Jupiter;

and

COMMON SIGHTS

138

appear from his surface to trace in the heavens

almost the same course that

is

passed over by

Thus during

the sun dm^ing a Jovian year.

each revolution of the

satellites

they will eclipse

the sun, and will also be eclipsed themselves.

The

fourth, or

most distant

the only

satellite, is

one which at times passes round Jupiter without

eclipsing the sun, or being itself eclipsed

him.

by

In consequence of the rapid revolution

of these moons, and the position of the orbit

in

which they move, the inhabitants of Jupiter

will witness

upwards of eight thousand

eclipses

during their year.

It is quite possible for the four
visible

at the

The

would a23pear about the same

to us

appear larger than any

variable

see except the

rate

of

first

size

satellite

that our

the others would not be

such prominent objects

we can

to be

same time in the heavens from

Jupiter during the night.

moon appears

moons

still

they ought to

celestial object

moon.

movement

which

The rapid and

of

these moons

THE HEAYEXS.

IX

must

aftorcl

ample

astronomers

Jovian

the

139

opportunities for finding their longitncle

the

eclijDses of

must enable them

to

in order, supposing

discovered

and of the

the sim

the

and

satellites

keep then- lunar tables

that

cause

of

they have not

planet's

yet

move-

ments, or that they are independent of observations.

The echpses

of

Jupiter's

shadows passing over

selves being hidden, or

by him, and
aftord the

his
''

their

satelhtes,

surface,

occulted

they them-

" as it is called,

theh^ passage across his surface,

means

of finding the time

shown by

a clock at Greenwich, although an individual

may

be in any part of the world.

In a publication called the

manac,'* and

at

'

Xautical Al-

about the 500th page, the date

and time of the various phenomena are

corded.

re-

These calculations are made for two

years in advance, so that a traveller

this publication with

him

to

world.
'^

Price

2s.

Gd.

may

any part

take

of the

COMMON SIGHTS

140

The

following

is

the tabular arrangement

adopted in the work referred to

FEBEUARY.

*^*

The

Oe. D.

I.

Ec. R.

I.

Tr.

s.

21 23

53 18-5
18 36

I.

II.

Oc. D.

18 44

[I.

Oc.D.

19 32

I.

Sh.

19 56

I.

Tr. E.

20 49

II.

Oc. E.

21 20

I.

abbreviations denote as foUows

Oc. Occultation.

Shadow.

m.

h.

d.

I.

Tr. Transit of SateUite.

D. Disappearance.

Ec.

Eclipse.

Sh. Transit of

K. Reappearance.

I.

Ingress.

E. Egress.

The year

is

indicated upon the

of course

back of the publication

the

month

above, " February."

The

the

occulted

1st

satellite

behind Jupiter.
is

is

I.

The time

indicated by the 1

d.

21

is

shown

as

Oc. D. means that

and disappears

of this occurrence

hrs.

23 min.

that

is,

at 21 hours 23 minutes past the midday of the

IN

February,

of

1st

satellite

THE HEAVENS.
Greenwich

time,

an

of

is

found in the south at mid-

night, because then he

The time

first

phenomena

nient time for observing these

is

the

The most conve-

would disappear.

when Jupiter

141

nearest to the earth.

is

eclipse or occupation

would

then be about 12 hours after noon, and indicated thus

first

Id. 12

m.

h.

s.

that

day a phenomenon would occur at

the

is,

12,

mid-

night.

It

is

of the greatest use to be able to tell the

Greenwich time when at

world

and

way country
by the

is

even interesting in out-of-the-

places to be able to set om^ clocks

aid of

least four

The

it

different parts of the

satellite,

hundred million

four

distant

from us

moons of Jupiter would appear a

most singular and interesting sight to a

trial

at

miles.

terres-

astronomer, as they rapidly traversed the

sky of the Jovian world.

full, is

Our one moon, when

a glorious object, especially

when viewed

through the transparent medium of a tropical

atmosphere.

But the

sight of sights

must be

COMMON SIGHTS

142

the planet Jupiter seen from his

From

first satellite.

this satellite the planet Jupiter could

be

seen to exhibit phases similar to those of our

moon.

Instead, however, of appearing a small

body, like our

satellite,

Jupiter would appear a

huge sphere, measuring in diameter more than

thirty-eight

times the diameter of our moon.

Such a splendid body must, we should conceiye,

when illuminated by the

flected light cast

upon the

equal to the sunlight.

ever,

sun, cause the re-

satellites to

Our

be nearly

telescopes,

how-

do not clearly show that the side of the

satellites

nearest to Jupiter

is

much

brighter

than the side away from him, although in the

first

case there

is

the joint light of the sun and

Jupiter, whilst in the second case there

Thus

sunlight only.

it is

is

the

evident that in spite

of the distance of the sun,

its

means

of light-

ing the various worlds are such that Jupiter

and

his satellites are as brilliant as

in the system

any bodies

and hence we are led

to the

conclusion that there are numerous other conditions affecting the

amount

of light wliicli a

THE HEAYENS.

planet obtains besides merely

its

143

mean

distance

from the sun.

The Jovian

and in thek apparent

variations in brightness,
size.

The

third satellite

to

that which

is

in the year 1707, this satellite

have so much decreased in

light

was

less

other moons.
are spots

is

almost

but from observations

always the brightest;

made

great

are subject to

satellites

was found

brilliancy, that its

prominent than that of the three

It has

upon the

been supposed that there

satellites,

and that these

spots vary in extent; hence the brightness of

the different

moons would vary inversely

as the

size of the spots.

There appears to be but

satellites of Jupiter are

M. Cassini

sphere.

could

in

as

it

passed

1678 remarked that he

shadow of the

across the

Jupiter, although the spots

visible.

doubt that the

surrounded by an atmo-

not perceive the

satellite

little

upon

Hence he concluded

it

first

surface

of

were clearly

that the satellite

was surrounded by an atmosphere which possessed considerable refractive power, which thus

COMMON SIGHTS

144

caused the sun's rays to bend round, and to

not entirely to do away with, the

decrease,

if

satellite's

shadow.

rect,

and these

If this supposition be cor-

satellites

pendent atmosphere,
are in a

it

do possess an inde-

would appear that they

more advanced condition than our

moon; and

thus the planet Jupiter, with

attendants,

may

secondary

members

its

be a young solar system, the

of

which

are

passing

through their great geological periods, obedient

to a prearranged law, which shall

fit

them

to

support their various phases of vegetable and

animal

life,

and

at last to receive

upon

their

surface the ima2:e of the Creator.

The

found to

differ,

although they shine merely by reflected

light.

Sir

colour of the satellites

is

W. Herschel states that he found that the first

satellite

had a whitish tinge

that the second

possessed a bluish white, which varied slightly.

The

third was always white, whilst the fourth

was of an orange-red

colour.

Later observers

consider that the fourth satellite

and the thu^d

of a

yellowish

is

of a bluish,

colour,

whilst

IX
that of the

first

THE HEATEyS.
and second

145

inclines towards

blue.

somewhat unphilosophical system has

late years crept into that

exact science

recorded

ancient

ao-ree
with the
o
rect.

this

There

is

is,

which

may be

assume that

to

observations

of

called
all

the

which do not

modern must have been

incor-

not the smallest reason to con-

clude that there are no changes going on in the

universe

in fact, the whole history of the earth,

geological and astronomical,

dence

to

the

gives direct evi-

Geology especially

contrary.

teaches us that our planet has passed through a

succession of long epochs, each of wliich

dif-

fered in conditions from

and

thus that change

is

predecessor

its

one of the laws which has

been ordained by the great Architect of space,

and of the worlds

\'\Tien

it

is

rolling

grandly therein.

asserted that ancient observatioiis

must have been incorrect

heccaise

they differ

from those of the moderns, we must premise

that no changes have occurred, or are occurrino',

in

those

bodies

which have

been ex-

COMMON SIGHTS

146

amined

and how can we know

merely guess that there

guess

may

be wrong.

is

We

this ?

no change

can

but our

however, we reject

If,

recorded facts simply because they disagree

with that which we at present see around

we

us,

are putting aside those sound principles of

and deduction, which have led

investigation

some of the

modern

The

most

discoveries

of

times.

of

satellites

going most
cause

important

to

important

their

light

In

tensity.

the

may

Jupiter

may

changes, which

to vary in

days

be under-

of

colour and

Sir

W.

in-

Herschel

they reflected light of one colour, now they

may

reflect

another coloured light.

It is these

extending over long periods,

small

changes,

which

will probably, if fairly examined, enable

us with our advancing collateral knowledge to

grasp the key which will unlock some of those

problems that have hitherto defied solution. But

to

deny

facts

simply because they

from that which we now

which,

if

see, is

may

differ

a proceeding

generally adopted, would enable us

to

THE HEAVENS.

IN

EDgland

demonstrate that

147

had

never

been

we had

without railways or steamers, because

always seen her furnished with both.

If the disappearances

and reappearances

Jupiter's satellites be observed,

it

of

be found

will

that at certain periods the sateUites will pass

from the western side to behind Jupiter, and

will,

until they

side,

seem

to touch him, continue

Instead of reappearing upon his eastern

bright.

and being seen bright and

distinct

become

before they disappeared, they will not

visible until

him.

Then

as

they are at some distance from

at

another period the satellites

would move up towards Jupiter as before; but

they would not
bright, but

him.

their

approach

continue

would disappear before they reached

When

they thus disappeared, they would

reappear on the eastern side quite bright.

These changes are due to the position of the

shadow

of Jupiter

and they

may

and the place of the earth,

be easily understood

examination of the following diagram

Suppose S the position of the sun,

by an

EFG

the

COMMON SIGHTS

148
earth's orbit,

K L the

orbit of Jupiter

the

small circles round Jupiter are the course of

his

satellites.

If the

earth were

at

and

Jupiter at J, Jupiter's shadow would be thi'own

in the dh-ection

J H.

As the

satelKte

moved

around him, in the direction shown by the

arrow, and reached the point A,

it

would then

be lost sight of from the earth at E, because

would have moved behind Jupiter; the

it

sun,

IX

THE EEATEXS.

would have shone upon

ho^veve^,

appeared, and tlierefore

bright as
satellite

it

would not reappear until

first

at

find

Jupiter

at

some

at

little

(fig.

now

moving around Jupiter

disappear

when

it

2),

thus

it

distance

side.

and the

K X.

The

as before

would

shadow thrown in the direction

satellite

dis-

had cleared

from Jupiter, and upon the left-hand

We

it

This same

it

and had arrived

become visible

as

it

would have been

passed behind Jupiter.

it

Jupiter's shadow,

would

149

entered his shadow at C.

This satellite would be at a considerable distance from Jupiter

of,

as will

line

EC

is

when

it

was thus

lost sight

be evident by noticing how

from Jupiter,

far the

for this line represents

the line of sight from the earth to the satellite.

This same satellite would be again seen froiD

the earth

when

it

reached the point

it

would have been shone upon by the sun before

it

became

visible,

and therefore

it

would be

seen to emerge from Jupiter quite bright.

Thus

in the second instance the satellite dis-

appears before

it

reaches Jupiter, and reappears

COMMON SIGHTS

150
close to liim.

In the

close to him,

and reappears

instance

first

at

disappears

it

some distance

from him.

In consequence of the

some instances

move

also

having in

satellites

and to

to pass behind Jupiter,

through his shadow, they will be

longer period than

when

Jupiter and his shadow appear as one

when

during a

invisible

When

seen from the earth.

shadow

-the

is

behind Jupiter, the sun, earth, and Jupiter

must be in a straight

line,

and

Jupiter passes to the south of

at

localities

midnight.

nearest satellite

is

At

at this period
terrestrial

all

this

period

invisible for about

and fourteen minutes

satellite is observed,

two hours

but when the

and Jupiter and

same
shadow

his

do not appear as one, then this same

wiU be

his

satellite

and a

invisible for about three hours

half.

The

eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter

served to

nature

reveal

viz.,

a very interesting

have

law of

that light requires a certain time

to travel over space,

or through that subtle

IN THE HEAYEXS.

medium which

exists

worlds in the uniyerse.

between

151
the

yarioas

That there was a

hio-h

probability that the yelocity of light was not

infinite

was suggested as early as the time of

Francis Bacon.

much more

It

was

not, however, until a

recent period that the matter was

definitely settled, although

problems

it is

like

most other

yery clear and simple when we knovj

it.

To show how
some time

it is

that light occupies

to trayerse space,

simple illustration

Suppose

known

we

will take a

the earth, and

the position of

Jupiter and his satelhtes, and let us suppose

that

is

another planet with satellites close to

COMMON SIGHTS

152

and

Jupiter,

at exactly the

Now

the earth.

same distance from

the nearest satellite of

let

these two planets revolve at exactly the same

the eclipses and occultations occur at

rate, let

same

exactly the

two bodies

instant,

and

in fact let the

be exact counterparts of

satellite

was eclipsed at A, at that

and

each other.

AVhen the

same

would the

instant

satellite

be eclipsed at

B, the two phenomena occurring at the same

time.

Now
and

suppose that the planet

let us

satellite

moved

in the direction of

same

eclipses being the

we now found

satellites at

taneously,
light

was

it

and

that at D,

some time

it

its

earth,

of

its

as before.

that the eclipses of the two

appeared to occm^ simul-

would show that the velocity of

infinite

satellite at

and

D, the actual rate of the

movements and the period

satellite's

If

away from the

slowly

if,

however,

we saw

that the

appeared to be eclipsed before

would indicate that

to pass

from

to A.

light occupied

If

we knew

IN
the distance

THE HEAVENS.

D, and the difference of time

between the eclipse at

know the

AD

153

and

of light.

velocity

at

D, we at once

For

instance, if

were one million miles, and the difference

in time of the eclipses one minute, then one

million miles per minute would be the rate of

The

light.

true velocity

being

this,

nearly

is

much

twelve

greater than

miles

million

minute.

As an

additional

example

to

illustrate the

fact of the velocity of light, let us suppose that

when
B, a

the two satellites were eclipsed at

gun

w^as fired

from each planet

the report of these guns would reach

same

instant.

we should
towards

B moved away

the report of the

would arrive

A and

and B,
at the

Then the same event occurring

find that as

gun

fired

after the report of the

from

from

gun

fired

from A, and thus the velocity of sound could be

ascertained.
for the

same

Let us substitute a ray of light

wave of sound, and we have exactly the

result.

The

distance of Jupiter from the earth varies

COMMON SIGHTS

154
considerably

lie is

nearest

south at midnight, and

the

is

sun in the heavens

when he
farthest

and

passes the

when near

thus,

variation in his distance from the earth

number
is

by the
and the

of his eclipses in a given time, a

found to indicate the velocitv of

lio-ht.

means

PL6.

MARS.

"^Sncent Brooks.IiLK.

Spots on Mars and white patches at

the poles, p rob ahly snow.

IN

155

THE HEAVENS.

CHAPTER

VII.

MARS.

LARGE

briglit-red looking object in the sky,

which does not

is visible

scintillate like a star,

in a portion of the

from that

heavens different

which the sun has

in

Mars.

likely to be

and which

set, is

In consecjuence

most

of this

planet lying farther from the sun than the

earth,

and
will

it

is

is

visible in all parts of the heavens,

thus unlike Venus in

larger and

appear

south at midnight than

because then he

is

much

its

motion.

brighter
at

He

when due

any other time^

nearer to the earth.

Mars approaches the earth more

closely than

any other planet except Venus,

as

tant

about

nearest to us

fifty
:

million

miles

thus an express

he

is

when he

disis

train, travelling

at an imiform rate of fifty miles an hour,

would

COMMON SIGHTS

156

pass over the shortest distance which separates

Mars from the earth

in about one hundred

and

twenty years.

Mars

is

a very small planet, his diameter

being rather

less

than four thousand miles,

although from his proximity to us he

is

very remarkable object in the heavens.

often a

Placed

beside the earth the relative dimensions would

appear as below

EARTH

mars]

We

have mentioned that Venus always ex-

hibits phases,

visible

when

invariably

like

moon, and

the

fully illuminated,

is

never

whilst Jupiter

appears round and bright.

Mars,

however, can at times be seen when the whole

surface

is

not visibly lighted by the sun, and

then his appearance

is

like that of the

when within a few days

phases of Mars are

moon

of the "full."

visible to

us,

because

The

we

IX THE HEATEXS.
obtain a side view of

157

planet wlien he

tlie

nearly in the same part of the heavens as

sun

is

the

is

whereas, owing to the distance of Jupiter,

we cannot

see

any part

As

not illuminated.

of his surface that

is

early as the year 1610,

Galileo perceived that 3Iars was not at times

perfectly round.

The year

of 31ars, being one terrestrial year

ten months and two days in length,

nearly

is

as long as our own.

When

a telescope

of

moderate

directed towards 31ars, several

served upon his surface

manent, and

Cjuite

power

spots

are

many of these

distinct.

is

ob-

are per-

They appear

in

groups and of various shapes, the gTeater quantity

being situated in northern regions.

the same principle that

we were

that

Jupiter rotated upon

know

that

sal

Mars partakes

movement.

an

UjDon

able to tell

axis,

we

also

of this almost univer-

Thus the day and night

alter-

nate upon this planet, the period from the

noon of one day to that of the next being about

twenty-four hours and thirty-seven

minutes.

COMMON SIGHTS

158

Thus

day and night do not vary much from

his

the length of our own.

The

upon

spots

his surface also

show that the

annual alternations of climate are not very

from those on earth

different

sun

being about fifty-seven degrees,

whilst on our world

There

is

variation

the

between the midsummer and mid-

in altitude

winter

it

is

forty-seven degrees.

not, therefore, the great alternation of

cold and heat which occurs upon Yenus, nor

the uniformity of climate which exists upon the

Amongst the

surface of Jupiter.
teresting

facts

various in-

which the telescope

vealed, not the least

is

has

re-

that of the rotation of

the planets in our system upon their various

axes,

in

such a manner that they

all

have

either a slight or great variation of season,

thus that

summer and winter

the surface of each world.

alternate

That there

is

and

upon
every

reason to conclude that change of season

experienced on Mars

circumstance
their

winter

that

may be shown by

around

season

his

appear

poles

brilKant

is

the

during
white

IN
spots,

as

Tvhich

THE HEAVENS.

have

fairly

159

been

The

accumulations of snow.

upon

looked

spot around

the north pole increases in size as the northern

winter

and

approaches,

^yinter.

When

the

largest

is

spring and

mid-

at

summer

ap-

proach, the white gradually diminishes, until at

midsummer

it

north pole.

Thus,

scarcely visible around the

is

when each hemisphere

winter, the white spots around the pole

apparent

is

in

become

then when the summer approaches,

These white spots appear

the spot disappears.

more than double as

as

brilliant

portion of the surface of Mars

any other

and

as they

merely extend to about the same distance from

the poles of Mars that our arctic and antarctic

snows reach fi'om om^ poles,

it

is

reasonable to

conclude that the climate of this red planet

is

not very different from that of our own.

It

has been found that during the winter of Mars

the snow extends to about thirty-five degrees

from that pole which

summer

the snow

degrees from the

is

is

not

in winter, but in the

more than

same

pole.

six or seven

This

is

really

COMMON SIGHTS

160
that which

we should expect from the

alterna-

and

tion in altitude of the sun between winter

summer

for in

day about

five

rises to us,

and

less altitude

at

Mars extend

rise at

he would be at a

midday than our

Thus the

by the

sun,

arctic circle

would in

to about tw^enty-eight degrees

half, whilst

mid-

degrees higher than our sun

in midwinter

same quantity.

summer he would

our

arctic

to twenty-three degrees

circle

and

reaches only

and a half from the

poles.

It

is

indeed a singular fact that we can thus

gaze upon another

world,

can

observe

the

changes of climate upon his sm-face, and we

may

thus keep a register of his severe and

mild winters.

To even have hinted

at such

unheard-of wonders a thousand years ago would

have aroused the ridicule of many an em23tyheaded

critic, as

would

which we now have

also the idea of

realized.

Who

ture to declare that in future ages a

much

shall ven-

means

of

communication may not be discovered between

other worlds and our own, perhaps by the aid

IN

THE HEAVENS.

161

beyond the subtlety of our

of forces as far

present electrical force, as the delicacy of this

communicating agent

is

beyond that of the few

methods of telegraphing, or

signalling,

to the philosophers of the early ages

known
It

was

once supposed impossible to make a signal

beyond the

limits of material terrestrial vision

now, however,

it is

supposed that where we can

establish the material conductor there only can

we

telegraph, for

by which

to speak.

the future

mains

for

it is

may

necessary to lay the wire

Who

reveal,

knows, however, what

and how much yet

unborn generations

to glean

re-

COMMON SIGHTS

162

CHAPTEE

VIII.

SATURN.

We

have now to describe a world which pre-

sents peculiarities not in accordance with those

which characterize any other member of the

solar

system, with which

Although not a very

we

are acquainted.

brilliant

object in the

heavens when examined with the unaided eye,

still

when the

telescope

is

a most interesting sight.

used, Saturn

becomes

Nearly spherical in

form, like the other planets and worlds, Saturn

is

of

furnished with an appendage, the purpose

which

not known.

is

him there

is

not touch

him

in

any

a material substance.
or " ring " as

eight

Extending around

a sort of brilliant hoop, which does

it

is

part, but yet

seems to be

In addition to

this hoop,

termed, there are at least

moons attendant upon Saturn.

His

size

PI. 7.

JUPITEPu
and
liis

Satellites

"feiceiit Brooks.litJi

SATUR^^
and

Ms E in^

IN

also is considerable,

he being nearly seventy-

six thousand miles in diameter

size,

163

THE HEAVENS.

thus from his

attendant ring, and numerous moons, he

becomes a most important member of the solar

Saturn, like Jupiter and Mars,

system.

seen in
is

all parts of

much

may be

the heavens, for the planet

farther from the sim than the earth

which consequently
former bodies

may

is,

be between the two

thus Saturn

may

pass the south

at midnight.

In consequence of Saturn appearing some-

what
it

like a star, although

may

heavens,

we

if

Saturn

is

years.

No

he does not twinkle,

amateur to

aid the

find

him

in the

give a diagram, showing where

to be

found during the next thirty

other knowledge will be required

to enable the reader to

comprehend the

sketch,

than to remember that the earth turns round

during twenty-four hours, and that at noon
the sun will be south.

In the centre of the accompanying diagram

is

the sun

four

four small spots round this

positions

show

of the earth during the year.

COMMON SIGHTS

164

These four positions are marked December,

March,

and

June,
How

Saturn

may

September.

At twelve

be found until a.d. 1882.

Ncfv^l861

1870
Saturn's Positions.

o'clock (noon) the sun

in
in

December,

is

due south

at midnight, the south

the direction opposite to the

sequently

therefore,

would be south

would be

sun

con-

at midnight.

In December, 1861, we should find Saturn

nearly south-east at midnight, because
south, Saturn

is

seen on the

left.

being

THE HEATEXS.

IX

165

In March, 1863, Saturn would be south about

midnight; in June, 1870, also south at midnight.

As

all

move from

the celestial bodies

east towards

remember

the

south,

the

we have merely

to

that they pass from east to south in

six hours, consequently fr^om south-east to south

Thus

in three hom's.

if

a body

pass the south at midnight,

it

will

is

known

to

be found in

the south-east at nine p.m., the south-west at

three a.m.

Then suppose we wish

where to find Saturn

Xine

1862.
six P.M.

p.3I.

to

know

at nine P.3i. in 3Iarch,

would be half way between

and midnight, and therefore our south

would point

in

that direction

at

that

hour.

"We see on the sketch where Saturn would

be in 1862.

Thus, at nine p.m. in 3Iarch,

1862, he would be a

An

little

to the left of south.

examination of this diagram will

where

to find

Saturn

show

at all times of nio-ht

and

of the year, for the next thiity years.

Saturn

is

much

farther from the sun than

either Jupiter or Mars, and as a consequence

COMMON SIGHTS

166
his year

a long one, consisting of twenty-

is

nine of our years, five months, and sixteen days.

mortal, therefore,

terrestrial

upon Saturn, and yet subject

ditions,

three

would barely

summers

a resident

to terrestrial con-

live long

for if

if

enough to see

he died at the mature

age of eighty earthly years, he would

merely be three years

old,

still

according to the

years of Saturn.

In

of the large size of this singular

s|)ite

planet,

he rotates with gTcat

still

rapidity, his

day and night consisting of only ten hours and

twenty-four minutes.

Thus a

day

terrestrial

and night are longer than two of Saturn's

and

therefore during a given period the sun rises

and

sets to the Saturnites

more than twice

as

often as he does to the earth-dwellers.

The ring

of Saturn also spins round, and

with a velocity almost equal to that of the

planet, as

it

rotates in about ten hours

and

forty minutes.

We
planets

have before mentioned

and

satellites

shine

that

all

the

only in conse-

IN

THE HEAVENS.

167

quence of being lighted by the sun

also, that

this

ring of Saturn

from the same cause

ring

is

for the

distinctly visible

it is

found,

visible

is

only

shadow of the

upon the body of the

planet, whereas if the former gave out light

there would be scarcely any shadow.

is

Also

it

found that the planet casts a shadow on the

and thus

ring,

it

shines at least mainly

We

known

is

by

have spoken of

that the former

reflected light.

tJie

ring of Satm^n, but

the appendage referred to really

consists

of

several concentric rings, which appear to be

The extreme

separated one from the other.

diameter of the exterior ring

is

about one hun-

dred and seventy-six thousand miles, and

extends to

upwards of

forty-eight

miles beyond the surface of the planet.

breadth of this exterior ring

sand
is

five

is

its

not more than two hundred and

From

this earth the ring of

The

about ten thou-

hundred mUes, whilst

always appear of the

it

thousand

thickness

fifty miles.

Saturn will not

same shape, because,

owing to the movement of the planet around

COMMON SIGHTS

168

the sun, and with an axis inclined from the perpendicular,

we sometimes

see the ring of an

elliptical form, or as a straight line.

gram which we have given

In the

show the position

to

of Saturn during the next thirty years,

also
it

shown the

dia-

we have

relative position of the ring as

would appear from our

earth.

It will there

be seen that in the year 1861 the ring

will

appear like a thin streak of light; whilst in

the year 1868

it

will

and therefore best

be in

its

most open form,

suited for observation.

Conjectures have of course been

made

the formation of the ring of Saturn.

as to

One

of

the earher astronomers of modern times * sup-

posed that a number of

together, and

satellites

were strung

thus formed a continuous body.

Another individual believed that Saturn was

once
ring

much
is

larger than he

is

now, and that the

a sort of remnant of the planet, and which

has not shrivelled up like the remainder. Then

it

has been supposed that a comet was captured

by the gravitating influence of Saturn, and the

*

James

Cassini.

comet's

tail

169

THE HEATEXS.

IX

has now attached

the

to

itself

equatorial regions of the planet.

In ahnost

the conjectures which have been

made

nection with this body, there

all

in con-

one preliminaiy

is

proposition which appears to

have been assumed

not always an ap-

that

viz.,

ring was

the

pendage of Satm^n.
ring

is

ther,
solid

at

not a

and we

number

of

now know

tail of

the

a comet

speculations

whilst the other mentioned

an absence of

Within the

facts

it

more

and thus two

worthless,

are

untenable fi^om

is

it

far

is

upon which

few years

last

that the

of satellites strung toge-

also perceive that

than the

least

We

to

base

it.

has been shown

that several changes are occmTing in Satiu'n's

rings, a
itself

new ring having been foimd

from the

others.

well ascertained

inasmuch

as

it

and

This
it

is

is

to separate

a fact tolerably

an interesting one,

indicates that changes of

kind are occmTino- in at least one of the

some

mem-

bers of this system.

WTien the siuiace of Saturn

is

examined

with high magnitH'ing power, several streaks or

COMMON SIGHTS

170

belts are observed, somewliat similar to those

visible

upon Jupiter: these

belts

do not run

planet parallel to the rings, but

across the

they incline to and from them to the amount

of several degrees.

The

polar regions of the planet are found to

vary considerably in brightness

fact

which

seems to indicate the presence of an atmosphere, or of changes of temperature.

Saturn

is

or satellites,

attended by at least eight moons,

which revolve around

ferent distances.
little

liim at dif-

The nearest moon

to

him

more than half the distance from

surface that our

moon

is

from

us,

and

it

is

his

moves

around him in a period of about twenty-two

hours thirty-seven minutes.

Owing

to the dis-

tance of this body, and the position of his ring,

the eclipses of the satellites cannot be observed

with such facility as those of Jupiter's moons

but to be able to perceive the eight moons of

Saturn

is

a proof that the telescope with which

we observe

is

a good one.

THE HEAYEXS.

IN

CHAPTEE

171

IX.

UEAXUS AXD XEPTUXE.

Beyoxd

the orbit of Saturn, and at a vast dis-

tance from
far

sun, there are

tlie

exceed in

these, Uranus,

size

two worlds which

own

our

One

earth.

moves round the sun

eighty-foui' of om^ years,

and

is

of

in about

distant upwards

of eighteen hmidred million miles from the sun.

The

other,

and

sixty-five

Xeptune, occupies nearly a hundi'ed

years to

from which he

is

move round

distant about

the sun,

two thousand

eight hundred and seventy million miles.

From

the great distance of these two planets

they present very few peculiarities to the eye

of the

with

common
telescopes

observer

for unless

examined

with very high magnifying

powers, their diameters even will not become

appreciable.

with

Both these planets are attended

satellites,

probably with

many;

eight,

however, are usually assigned to Uranus, and

COMMON SIGHTS

172

We

one or two to Neptune.

that

it

have mentioned

appears to be a rule that the satellites

attendant upon a planet invariably

their primary in the

primary

same direction that the

Thus the

itself rotates.

if

to

east

that

from

is,

satellites

of

move around

the earth, Jupiter, and Saturn

from west

move round

right to left

they Avere seen from the northern regions,

but from

left

to right if seen

from the southern.

If we observe the satellites of Jupiter from the

northern hemisphere, we shall find that when

they are moving from right to

they will pass

left

behind the planet, but when moving from

right they will pass across his disc.
i^

B,
it

when

it

satellite

revolve round

him from

would appear upon

move from west

would

of Jupiter, a

would then move on to C.

If

were the north and south poles

(^

A.

left to

Thus if

to east

now we were

to

Thus

it

would

round Jupiter.

to turn the axis

into a horizontal position,

satellite revolving

Jupiter's disc

and

still

S down

keep the

round the equator of Jupiter,

IN

we should
to B, C,

THE HEAVENS.

see the satellite

and

over to our

173

move thus

from A

(upper figure), or from our west

thus

east, or

/
A-

from
is,

to B, C,

and

(lower figure)

that

from our east over to west, just as we turned

the north or south pole towards us

these

moons would move with

hence

left or right

hand

rotation, just as the north or south pole of Jupiter

w^as

tm-ned towards

The

satellites

us.

of

Uranus appear

in

this

manner, in consequence of the axis of the

planet being turned down, as

it

were, hori-

zontally, so that during forty-two years they

174

COMMON SIGHTS

would appear

to

retrograde, as

move from

it is

termed

then for forty-two

years they would appear to

east to west, or

move from west

to

been allowed

to

east, or direct.

Some
exist

slight confusion has

connection with the

in

these bodies,

some

Aviiters

movements of

having gone so far

as to state that their motion was at variance

with that of

all

other satellites.

The

fact

is,

however, as shown above, a simple change in

their

apparent movements, according as the

one or the other pole of Uranus

towards the earth

directed

is

and as the same pole remains

turned towards the earth for forty-two years,

the fact of a change occurring was overlooked.

We

should not be warranted in asserting that

the sun
solar

moved

in opposition to the rules of the

system when we observed him from the

southern hemisphere, and when consequently

he moves from right to

left

each day

neither

ought we to state that the moons of Uranus

move

in

an irregular manner, simply because

sometimes they

will

be seen to move with right-

IX

hand

THE HEAYEXS.

175

and after many years with

rotation,

left-

hand, just as the north or south pole

is

wards the sun and earth.

even be said

It cannot

that the position of the axis of

usual one, for

tui^ned to-

Uranus

we know not what

is

is

an un-

the most

general position, no two planets being exactly

alike.

The inhabitants of Uranus might

state that our earth's axis

as well

was in an excentric

because the sun was neyer vertical at

position,

midday bevond twentv-three and

a half desTees

on each side of the equator, whereas to them he

was sometimes
In

vertical,

tiny earth as a

assume

all

even in polar regions.

not philosophical to take our

fact, it is

model of

own

and

perfection,

to

other worlds either imperfect or in

an excentric condition, simply because they are

sKghtly different in some details.
bably,

is

admh-ably suited to

constitution,

Each, proposition and

its

and may be where

it

now

simply because, by a prearranged law,

reached the locality to which

sent bear an affinity,

its

and where

the balance of the universe.

it

atoms

it

is,

has

at pre-

will maintain

COMMON SIGHTS

176

The diagrams below

positions of

will

show the

relative

Uranus and Neptune during the

next forty years, the rules for finding them

being the same as those for finding Saturn and

Jupiter.

The

How Uranus

ring next the earth

and Neptune

may

is

the orbit

be found until a.d. 1900.

of Uranus, the exterior that of Neptune.

referring to Uranus,

Thus,

we know that during May,

June, and July, from 1861 to about 1876, he

would not be

visible

because behind the sun.

IX

THE HEAYEXS.

177

During Xovember, December, and January,

however, of the same years he will pass the

About

south at about midnight.

1883

to

Uranus

18S6,

will be

south at midnight, whilst at the

of June,

found to the

commencement

1900, he will be south about mid-

and not

night,

from

]\rarch;

visible in

December

or

Xovem-

ber.

Xeptune

will

3Iarch, or April,

years

for the

next ten or fifteen

September and October being the two

months

best

not be visible in February,

for the

for

examining

this

remote planet

next twenty years.

Mercuey.
At

certain intervals of about one

twenty days a small

-v^ill

hundred and

brilliant red-coloured

body

be observed in close proximity to the sun.

The body
cury,

to wliich

which

is

we

refer

situated at a

is

the planet Mer-

mean

distance of

about thirty-six million miles from the sun.

Mercury, like Yenus, will be seen sometimes as

a mornino; and at other times as an evenino;

star,

COMMON SIGHTS

178
but

it

will

never appear so far away from the

sun as will Venus.

Tlius either immediately

after sunrise, or oefore sunset, this planet

be looked

for.

This

must

which

little planet,

it

is

supposed measures less than three thousand

miles in diameter, rushes round the sun in a
period of about eighty-eight days.

year of Mercury

is

Thus the

only about one-fourth the

length of our own, and

years old on our earth,

if

we

lived to be sixty

we should be about two

hundred and sixty years of age, counting by

the years of Mercury.
It is

found that, like

in the system.

Mercury

all

the other planets

rotates

upon an

axis,

and occupies about twenty-four hours and

minutes in rotating.

It is

five

assumed that Mer-

cury rotates in such a manner that the sun

will

be vertical each year at midday at

localities,

all

except those within twenty degrees

of the polar regions.

Thus, in consequence of

the quick return of the seasons,

and the ex-

tension of the tropical regions, there would be

but

little

time for ice to form upon any part of

THE HEAVENS.

IX

179

Mercury, as the sun would be absent merely a

few days even from the extreme northern

re-

thus a very uniform climate ought

to

gions;

prevail in that planet, which, with the

quick

return of the seasons, would probably be very

suitable to the rapid growth of vegetation, especially so of that

type of vegetable found so

abundantly in our

coal-fields.

possess a soil

and an atmosphere at

gous to those of our earth,

that the

If then ilercury

little

planet

all

analo-

we might suppose

now engaged

was

in

coaling.

It has

been supposed by some observers that

there are very enormous mountains upon the

surface of

Mercury

of a height sufficient to alter

the shape of the crescent which

sometimes shows.

Like

many

this j^l^^et

other delicate

observations connected with science,

some

ob-

servers assert, whilst others as vigorously deny,

that these excrescences exist.

Mercury

is

seen occasionally to pass across

the disc of the sun,

when

opaque body, attended by a

it

appears a romid

sort of atmosphere.

COMMON SIGHTS

180

The passage

of a planet across the sun

" a transit " across the sun's disc.

is

called

During the

next forty years six transits will occur

viz.

in
1868

Nov.

4.

1878

May

6.

1881

Nov.

7.

1891

May

9.

1894

Nov.

10.

1901

Nov.

4.

The planet

will

occupy about from four

six hours in passing across the sun's disc,

therefore

its

and

can easily be distinguished from a

spot in consequence of

motion

to

spot

the rapidity of

its

appearing to scarcely change

position during a whole day.

?] 8

CONSTELLATIOKS.
d

ai e

fe/

IiQ.2.

'/mcerd 2rooT<s hxh

leg. 4.

a^a Betelgeux
.

l3."b

Q. c.

d. d

e .e

f -f

Saipli

li."h

Oi-ioTislDelt.
Siciiis

Gr.G.

ilitf el
Tjeflatrdx

i^t^. 2.
.

^Mdebaran

3
ei ajd.e3
^^orth ern Cro^vn
Pointers
ai The

l.l.Tega or alYTse
1.2. The Pole Star.
13. CapeHa
4.4 The Great Bear.
.

Cassiopeia.
Tig.

IN

THE HEAYENS,

CHAPTEE

181

X.

THE FIXED STAES,

To

tlie

mere casual observer the

stars

appear

to be scattered promiscuously in the heavens,

and

to

have no special characteristics which

can distinguish them from each other.

little

very

attention will, however, show that they

differ in

apparent size and brilliancy, that their

colours vary,

and that they are formed into

groups or patterns which can, when once known,

bo easily recognized.

We have mentioned that some of the so-called

stars are really planets similar to our earth,

would probably look like a small

which

star if seen

from

one of them.

These planets wander amongst

the fixed

but around a particular course

stars,

and are therefore

to

be found at various periods

near to various gToups of

stars.

The

fixed

COMMON SIGHTS

182
stars,

name

as the

they do,

it

is

implies, never move, or if

merely by the aid of delicate

instruments and long examination that these

movements become manifest

Hence a group

of stars can always be recognized because the

members do

various

not alter their relative

positions.

If the stars be

year,

it will

attentively observed for a

be found that during summer very

different constellations will

be seen in various

parts of the heavens to those which are visible

in

the same localities in winter.

liant constellations, also,

dmdng one

which we

Some

may

bril-

observe

season are invisible during another

other constellations likewise are always to be

seen, but are

found in different parts of the

sky, according to the time of the year.

From

the very earliest ages names have been

given to the principal

stars,

constellations which are the

the heavens.

and also to the

most prominent in

Thus individuals are enabled

to

speak intelligibly in connection with the sky,

just as

we can with

reference to various parts

IN
of the earth

THE HEAVENS.

for if there

183

were no such names

as Africa, xlmerica, &c., the world

would

to us

be a confused and indefinite accumulation of

land and water, just as would the heavens
the stars could not be

known by name.

If an individual acquainted with the

and

if

positions of the yarious stars

names

were to

tell

another Avho was ignorant of them that a comet

or

meteor had been

moving from

seen

Sirius towards Capella, the information

be

about as

would

and instructive

interesting

as

though we told a Bushman that there was free

trade with France.
his

So

far

beyond the range of

knowledge would such an intimation

that he would probably not trouble his

about the matter.

be,

mind

When, however, we know

the direction or position thus pointed out, and

also picture to ourselves

the probable

of the comet, resulting from

its

course

movement

in

the direction indicated, and compare this course

with that

we

of others of which

we have

read,

begin to take an interest in the subject,

simply because we understand something about

COMMON SIGHTS

184

For

it.

it

really appears as

were not only indifferent

disliked

some

to,

but even often

subject, simply because they

unacquainted even with

We

though individuals

will first

that there are

mere

its

outline.

endeavour to explain

some

stars

seen in these latitudes

it is

which some of the

and

also

positions at various periods during

the

principal constellatioi^s will be shown,

their

why

which can always be

after

were

year.

A
view

moment's
is

reflection wdll show^ us that our

bounded by the horizon; we cannot,

therefore, see that w^hich

is

below the horizon

may be

Then

all,

however, that

let

us remember that our earth turns round

is

above

seen.

during about twenty-four hours, and we can

understand the following sketch.

Suppose

the position of any person upon

the earth, say, for example, in England, then

the line
of this

HOE would
person,

and

horizon might be seen

that were situated as

all
;

represent the horizon

that w^as above this

therefore various bodies

T ES

AP

and X, would

IN
all

P would

be visible from 0.

head,

185

THE HEAVENS.

be nearly over-

near the horizon, and lo\Yer down

than T.
P

TRSA

-^^
Jiiii/

In twelve hours' time, the same person would

be carried by the rotation of the earth round
to Q,

when

by the

his horizon

line

P Q

IT,

would be represented

From

the position Q^

would seem high above the horizon, and

much

higher than T.

P, which was nearly

overhead when the person was at O, would now

be just on the horizon, and

X which

was seen

from 0, vfould be invisible from Q.

Thus T

and Q.

The

at 0,

T.

T was

^vould be seen

from both

principal difference being, that

above A, but from Q,

was above

This chano-e would arise merelv from the

COMMON SIGHTS

186

that the head of the observer pointed to a

fact,

different direction at

from that in which

it

pointed at Q.

T E SA

If

are called stars, they would also

be always visible from the positions

bnt

X would be a star only visible

The
and

stars

and Q,

from 0.

can only be seen during the night

in consequence of the earth

moving around

the sun, night Vvould occur on the side

according to

the time

of year.

or

\Mien the

night occmTed on the side 0, then the stars

T K S A and X would be seen, T being above

A. When the night happened on the side Q,
X would not be visible, but T E S A would be
seen,

A being above

Hence there

are

T.

some

visible during the night

stars

which are always

from certain

localities,

these stars beins: sometimes nearlv overhead or

close to the horizon, according to their position

in the heavens

Amono' the

and the time of year.

stars

which can alwavs be seen

from England, the following are the principal.

The

constellation of the Great Bear, also the

IX
Pole-st^ir

THE HEAYEXS.

187

The

and the Little Bear.

constellatiou

Cassiopeia, the bright star Capella, called also

Alpha

the

Aiirigae,

bright star Alpha Lvr^.

called also Tega. can just be seen on the horizon

from the south of England when

to the north of us.

At other times

it is

lowest,

it will

and

be found

Alpha Cygni

high up, and to the south.

is

another bright star always visible from England.

To enable any person to find the position of the

various principal stars at any time of the year,

the following sketch

adopted

is

given

the method to be

similar to that for finding Saturn,

Uranus, &c.

member

is

Thus we have merely

that the sun

is

and that the earth

turns round in about twenty-foui^ hours.

is

between the earth and a

latter is of course invisible,

light.

re-

to out' south at midday,

to our north at midnight,

the sun

to

By remembering

Allien

star,

the

owing to the sun-

these simple facts, the

following sketch becomes intelligible.

The sun

is

shown

in the centre of the

dia-

gram, the earth in four positions according to

the time of vear.

COMMON SIGHTS

188

For

illustration let us see

which

stars are to

our south at midnight in December.

Capella.
^

Cassiopeia.
o.

Andromeda.

Alpha CygnL

At noon, the sun

is

to oui^ south, consequently

twelve hours after noon, that

is,

at midnight,

our south will be in the opposite direction.

Thus Orion^ Eigel, Betelgeux, &c. would be

in

the southern heavens at midnight in December.

At about

9 P.M. at the

same

season, a Persei

and Aldebaran would be nearly

in

south.

the direction of Ve2:a could not be

Stars

seen

IN THE HEAYEXS.

because of the sun, unless

tliey

189

were near

tlie

northern pole of the heavens.

In Septemljer Alpha Cygni would be south

about

p. M,,

Cassiopeia

and

Andromeda

about midnight.

In June, we should not be able to see Sirius

or

Orion in consequence of the sun, whilst

Capella would be in the north,

because

England.

Vega would be south

and Altair

at this period,
in

and

visible,

one of those stars always seen from

it is

the morning.

Thus,

at

midnight

at

about one o'clock

by remembering

in

which direction the earth tmms round, we can

always find by this diagram the position of the
principal groups of stars.

In March,

at

noon the sun

Orion, Sirius, and the stars near

EegTdus
3

A.:\r.

about 6

at

them

about midnight Spica

Arcturus
a.:j:.

south

is

and

Yega and

the

at 6 p.3i.

at 9

p.:m.

at about

Xorthern crown;

Ako

Altair.

at

mid-

night Sirius will be in the west, and setting,

Yega

in the east,

and

rising,

of the principal groups

sketch of some

of stars

is

shown

in

COMMON SIGHTS

190
Plate

that they

so

8,

may

be recognized by

their forms.

In addition to the diagram which we have

given, the position of the various stars

may

be

ascertained by the aid of the constellation of

the Great Bear and one or two other

The Great Bear

lation that

it

is

stars.

snch a remarkable constel-

can easily be found at any time

and hence the Pole-star can be found by the

aid of the pointers.

Then

if

a line be drawn

from the Pole-star at right angles to a line

from the pointers to the Pole-star, then
line

will

pass

close to

a bright star

this

called

Capella.

A
will,

line
if

called

from Capella through the Pole-star

produced, pass through a bright star

Vega

or

Alpha Lyrse

thus Capella,

Vega, and the Pole-star are in nearly the same

straight line.

If a line be

drawn from the Pole-star through

the last star in the Great Bear, this line pro-

duced will pass through Arcturus, a bright

reddish star, famous to all observers as the star

IN

THE HEAVENS.

191

near which the brilliant comet of 1858 was

seen

when

The

in

its

splendour.

belt of Orion

easily recognized,

is

another constellation

hence Sirius becomes known

(see Plate 8), also Betelgeux

on the opposite
Sirius
line,

is

we

and Eigel.

side of the belt to that

Then

on which

found, and nearly in the same straight

find a star

named Aldebaran.

Smus, Betelgeux, and a bright

star

named

ProcYon, will form an almost equilateral triangle.

At about one-thuxl
turus to

small

Vega we

stars,

large star

of the distance

one of the gTOup being

is

from Arc-

find a semicircular group of

This

large.

named Alphacca, the group being

the Northern Crowm.

About midway between the Pole-star and the

tail-star of

direction

the Great Bear, and nearly in the

of a

line

joining these two,

is

the

brightest star of the Little Bear.

few minutes'

heavens

any evening

individual to

and

attention

know some

will

directed to

soon

enable

the

an

of the principal stars,

to find them, if visible, at

any time of

tlie

COMMON SIGHTS

192

The

year.

principal groups of stars, such as

the Great Bear, Orion, Capella, Cassiopeia, or

the Northern

Crown can be recognized by

theu^

form, some of the large solitary stars by theu^

position relatively with the Great

Bear and the

Pole-star.

There

is

a vast field for speculation and ad-

miration in the illuminated page spread before

When

us during each clear night in the year.

we

realize the fact that each twinkling star

the centre probably of a system of re-

sun,

volving worlds, each of which

to that

may

be similar

on which we dwell, we become bewil-

dered amidst so
stand insjDired

we

is

reflect

much

may

grandeur, and

with veneration

upon our own

and

awe

insignificance

pared with the extent of creation.

well
if

com-

"Wlien

we

behold these millions of suns glittering in the

midnight heavens,

v/e natm^ally ask, for

what

are they intended? It has been said that* they

are to give light on earth, and this

obvious use;

Have

all

but

is

it

their

is

their

most

only purpose?

these gigantic bodies, each of which

is

THE HEAVENS.

IX

193

ten tliousancl times the size of our pigmy world

been created solely

for the

purpose of casting

dim Kght upon

at rare intervals a

Such a

us.

conclusion would partake somewhat of the

sufficiency of

that

we

self-

man, but would scarcely show

realized the perfect system which has

been adopted in creation, and the endless variety

and

originality

which observation teaches us

really exists.

As

far as

we can judge from

posed that the sun

facts, it is

member

is a solitary

of om*

system, and that although attended by

planets or satellites, he
panion.

sup-

many

without a com-

is still

We cannot, however, say whether if our

sun were seen from the Pole-star he would appear alone

It is probable that

he would

and

thus he presents a variation from other stars in

the universe, some of which possess companions,

which give out light and revolve round each

other.

Thus two suns belonging

would appear
advanced

to

indicate

and

state,

in creation there

is

to one system

a higher or more

at least to

an endless

remind us that

variety, both as

COMMON SIGHTS

194

regards suns, systems, and worlds, or the most

minute insects that creep around

Like most

ment

us.

the early announce-

novelties,

of the fact that several of the stars were

double, excited ignorant or bigoted critics,

compared

who

this supposed condition of the stars to

the pairs of soles on a fishmonger's

stall.

Now

the most accurate observations have shown that

these stars

move round each

from year to year they

position

and thus

other,

alter

their

hence the name of fixed

relative

star is a mis-

nomer.

The
Bear
to

tliird

from the

a double star

is

move

other,

star

tail of

the Great

the two stars appearing

round, or the one to revolve round the

in a period of about fifty-eight years.

Castor, one of the twins, consists of two stars

a period of about two hundred and

fifty

years

being assigned to the revolution of one of these.

Eigel,

the Pole-star,

Hercules, and

double

Bootis,

y Virginis, a

many other remarkable

stars,

are

in fact, nearly six thousand double stars

are alreadv known.

Ti.d.

DOTIBLE STARS

/3

CjoTd

.3a Geminoruin

2 S Bootis

'n

Cassiopeia.

(Telescopic)

b/x Saoittaiii

Polai^is

7.

51 Iibrce.

Arcturus

be able to

is

IN THE HEAVENS.

195

a star which the reader will

now

find.

About ten degrees

east of Arcturus, or,

more

to the north-

definitely speaking,

about ten degrees up a line drawn from Arc-

we

towards Vega,

turus

Miraeh, which

is

find a

star

called

double, the contrast of colour

between the two

stars

being yery beautiful.

In addition to double, there are some groups

and quadruple

of triple

pearing single

stars

the

star

when seen with the naked

apeye,

but triple or quadruple when examined with a

large telescope.

By

examining the records of ancient

nomers

has been found that there are varia-

it

tions in the brightness of the stars

to

be getting

brilliant

dim,

whilst

vv^as

some appear

stars

when Troy was

times

is

brightness

more

have

dis-

the case with the

seventh star of the Pleiades, which

vanished

are

others

Some

than formerly.

appeared entu^ely, as

it

astro-

taken.

it

was

said

In modern

found that several stars vary in

dming

pying from

certain periods,

five to ten

some occu-

days to pass through

COMMON SIGHTS

196

changes, whilst others occupy three or

their

same

four hundred days in returning to their

condition.
size

In some instances a star of large

has appeared merely for a short time, and

has then suddenly been lost sight

The

of.

principal object to be observed in con-

nection with the

the relative position of the double

scope,

is

stars,

and the

existing

become

provided with a tele-

stars, if

beautiful

between them.

diversity

colour

of

A^Tien the two stars

visible in the telescope, it

can then be

seen that they are usually of different colours.

Some

of these contrasts are very lovely

tinge

is

possessed

by one

perhaps a beautiful green

a star called 24

Com^

The prevaiKng
is

a rosy

companion

this is the case

with

Berenicis.

colour of the attendant stars

blue or greenish blue.

of the

star, its

same colour

Sometimes they are

as the principal star, but

this is not usual.

It is

found that certain stars which formerly

shone with a white or red

light,

now appear

of

a different colour, and thus there appears to be

IN
a change of

THE HEAVENS.

some kind

197
every

occuiTing in

portion of the universe.

If
find

we examine the

earth beneath our feet,

from the very

tha.t

present time

there

earliest ages

has been

change, or onward movement.

we

to the

one continued

We may

per-

ceive cropping out in various localities an ac-

cumulation of hard rocks which formed the

surface soil in ages long since past

these rocks

were not capable of affording nourishment to

plants or trees until they

had been submitted

to certain actions during long periods of time.

Again,

we

find that

a subsequent epoch

plants of various kinds flourished abundantly,

whilst

the

numerous

earth was
class of the

still

untenanted by a

animal creation

we recognize a period when animals

size

roamed over our now fair

monarchs of the
being

still

earth,

plain, forest,

of vast

and reigned

and river

an unknown creature in

then

man

this planet.

History teaches us that there was afterwards a

time when vast hordes of

world,

men

peopled the

whose minds were comparatively con-

COMMON SIGHTS

198
tract ed,

and whose aims were

modern savant with

scopes,

steam,

limited.

knowledge of

his

electricity,

If a
tele-

photography,

and

other scientific facts, had existed some seven or

eight hundred years ago, he would probably

have been treated as a deity by those who

were then capable of perceiving the utiKty of
the

subjects

Thus we

find

with which he was acquainted.

amongst men that progeess has

been one of the most prominent

Hence from the period

characteristics.

of hard unfertile rock

to that of the present day, there has

onward movement
in

been one

and even now we are livmg

an epoch which daily presents some change

by which the crude

past

or erroneous opinions of the

become trimmed

so as to

more nearly

ap-

proach truth, and hence to be more in harmony

with that Divine wisdom which has created
all

the vast celestial machinery as well as the

minds by which
hended.

his

When we

works can be compre-

find

that there are stars

which disappeared, changed theu^ colour, appeared or are variable, we are induced to reflect

THE HEAVENS.

IN

199

upon the probable cause or purpose

of these

changes, and to form conjectures as to the

own

various appearances which our

have presented
least probable

different

at

that vfhen a

apparent colour there

may

times.

It

some change

at

is

changes

star

Perhaps

that star.

dition in

is

earth might

its

of con-

atmosphere

its

have become affected by the approach of

some other

body;

celestial

magnetic

condition

varied, or

the body

various epochs

and

of

the

the

may be

electrical

star

may have

passing through

in rapid succession,

the same manner that om^

or

own

much

in

planet passed

through changes which occupied ages of time

before they were
creation

is

most interesting
this

completed.

To know

not stereotyped in one form

fact

that
is

and we become aware of

whether we observe the distant suns and

worlds, or examine the earth beneath our feet.

common sights

200

Nebulae.

An

attentive examination of the sky during

a clear night will enable an individual, even

with

unaided

the

eye,

perceive

to

several

whitish-looking foggy patches of light, which

appear somewhat like the mist which at times

surrounds a bright

If a telescope of even

star.

the smallest power be turned towards these

patches,

will

it

merely of an

be

found that they consist

accumulation

of

small

stars

grouped very closely together.

When

the

telescope

is

dnected to various

parts of the heavens, there will be seen

many

of these misty patches, which then appear with

the aid of the telescope very similar to the

groups of small stars

unaided eye.

if

examined with the

These groups or patches of misty

matter are called Nebulse.

With the
some

of

aid of the most powerful telescopes

the

resolved as it is

so-called

termed

Nebulae

that

is,

have

been

they have been

found to consist merely of groups of stars in

close proximity to each other.

There are

still,

:pi.iO.

:NrEBrx^

I.

2.

In Hercules.
Aitinous.
,,

3.
4<.

In Cassiopeia. o.DumLBell
,,

Andromeda.

6.

In Lyra.

Mupeada.

IX

THE HEAYEXS.

201

however, several nebulae which no telescopes

have resolved, and which appear misty even

when examined with high magnifying powers.

An

observer

small telescope
resolve

baran

some

is

who may be provided with any

will

find that he

is

of these patches of light.

able to

Alde-

a star easily found from the descrip-

tion already given; close to Aldebaran there

is

a group of stars which to the unaided eye

presents this misty light appearance.

also

two patches close to Cassiopeia.

There are

COMMON SIGHTS

202

CHAPTEK

XI.

COMETS.

The most

mysterious bodies in the heavens are

The

certainly comets.

we can

planets

readily

imagine to be, and there appears every probability that

of

they are, the residence of created beings

some kind.

The sun and the

fixed stars ap-

pear to be the centres of systems to which they

contribute light and heat.

When, however, we

examine the form and condition of these

sin-

gular wandering bodies which are called comets,

it is difficult

fitted for

and

it

to conceive that they are as yet

the residence of any material beings

would be no

less in opposition with the

analogy of nature, to assert that they have not

their use in the

economy of the

In ancient times,

and

believe, that

it

universe.

was the custom to

state

comets produced diseases and

losses to princes, as well as to peasants,

and they

Pl.ll.

COMETS

1 Encke's
2.

Comet

of 18

IX

THE HEAVENS.

203

were thus considered messengers of

more modern times these

visitors

posed to be the vehicles in which the

the departed were
locality

assumed

Some

conveyed

to

In

evil.

were supspirits

some

of

special

to be that of Paradise.

of the ancient

philosophers behaved

comets to be a sort of meteor which existed in

the atmosphere of the earth

whilst others ven-

tured very daring and, for theu^ time^ unor-

thodox opinions, and asserted that comets were

probably nearly as high up as the moon.

Comets may be divided into two

those whose course

is

classes, viz.,

known and whose

reap-

pearance can therefore be foretold, and those

whose course

is

unknown, and whose

visits

are

therefore imcertain.

There are

some comets whose course

is

known, and whose return to any point in the

heavens can be predicted
nificant in appearance

but these are insig-

when compared

of those brilliant visitors,

to

which gleam

some
for a

period in the heavens, and then dash away into

endless space.

204

C03I3ION SIGHTS

Comets

become

first

visible to us in a variety

The mere searcher

of ways.

who night

after night directs his telescope to

various parts of the sky,

may

a small speck of light which

appearance from a
this
its

of the heavens,

at length perceive
differs slightly in

An

star.

examination of

body dm^ing a few evenings,

may show

that

and that

it is

position changes very rapidly,

moving amongst the various

first

fact resulting

from

fixed stars.

this discovery

The

would

be,

that the speck of light was either a planet or a

comet, and a very few evenings would enable

an observer

to decide

had discovered.
the sun,

more

it

each

distinct

it

comet were approaching

would probably become more and

become visible
distinct

which of these bodies he

If the

night,

and would

to the unaided eye.

When

soon
thus

usually appears like a small star,

with a slight ray of light shooting out from the

bright

tween
tion

The mere

portion.

might not
this

at

first

comet and a

would soon

casual

observer

perceive any difference be-

shovv^

star

but a

little atten-

the difference between

IX THE HEAYEXS.
If the

the two.

comet were a large one, and

passed near the earth,

a remarkable,

it

would become not only

but a splendid object in the

There can then be

heavens.

bright head, or nucleus, as

from

205

distinctly seen a

it

is

termed, and

this there are diverging rays of light or

vapour which extend to a considerable distance

behind the head of the comet.

body moves on with great

length lost

approach

of in

sight

This brilliant

rapidity,

consequence

The above

to the sun.

and

is

of

at
its

description of

the changes which occur with a comet holds true

when a comet

is

seen as

it

approaches the

sun.

With the

aid of a

diagram we

will

now show

the usual course of a comet, and also endeavour

to explain

why they

are sometimes seen only

as they are travelhng

why some

away from the

sun,

and

also suddenly appear, and. of a very

large size.

The earth

travels

round the sun, and

at

nearly uniform distance, this being the usual

course of a planet.

comet passes round the

COMMON SIGHTS

206

sun, but not completely

far

round

away beyond the range

know

not where.

planet and comet

then travels

it,

of our sight,

we

The

respective courses of a

may

be understood from the

following diagram

As

Np

^(

The circle A B C D represents the

round S the sun

xy

of a comet's orbit,

earth's orbit

z represents

which

may

a portion

extend to one

hundred times the distance from the sun that

the earth's does.

If the earth were at

the comet was at

x^

be seen, as
it

would

it

set

when

the comet would scarcely

would be

so close to the

immediately after

sun that

and thus on

it,

account of the light would not be

visible.

then the comet moved from x

y and

\^o

If
z^

it

would reach the point y perhaps when the earth

was at B, and would thus be invisible in consequence of the sunlight.

Then

as the

comet

THE HEAYEXS.

IX

moved

to

z,

207

the earth would have travelled to C,

and the comet would now be

time just before sunrise.

from the sun. and

It

visible for a short

would be travelling

at a great distance, therefore

not a very noticeable object in the heavens.

If,

however, the earth had happened to be

at the point

comet was

in

its

at x, then

tinctly

visible,

south

about

it

orbit

when

the same

would have been

dis-

and would have been in the

midnight.

AThen

earth

the

moved on towards A, the comet would have

passed round towards y, and would thus have
disappeared.

we

Viliether

see a

long period, as

it

comet

distinctly

approaches or

and

for a

moves from

the Sim, depends therefore entKely upon the

and the

relative positions of the earth, the sim,

comet.

Any

person, however, although not scientific,

or acquainted Y^ith

mathematics or astronomy,

can draw a

can place the sun in the

circle,

centre of this circle, and can

make

indicate the position of the earth

mark

then

if it

to

be

C03IM0X SIGHTS

208

announced that a comet

is visible

of the heavens at a certain hour,

or

to^Yard,

away from the

in

and

any part

is

moving

sun, he can sketch

the most probable com^se of the comet^ and can

then see where

it

is

likely to

move

to.

For

example, suppose a comet were obseiTed in the

month

of September, and was visible at mid-

night in the south-east

we can

draw a

circle

V'C

jST

E, which represents the earth's orbit, S being

the sun,
tember,

the position of the earth in Sep-

which moves round towards D.

At

midnight in September the south would be in

THE HEAYEXS.

IN

209

the opposite direction to that of the sun

fore the south-east at

direction

EC.

there-

midnight would be in the

very few observations would

show whether the comet was moving towards

away from the

or

sim,

for if it increased in

apparent size or brightness, we should

was approaching the sun.

once that

it

comet

approaching

if

either as

by the
lowed,

C T

line

This

31 or

Whichever course

P.

at

would move

sun

the

shown by the curved

line
it

know

would come very near

it

fol-

to the earth,

and would therefore be a much more remarkable

in

object

observed.

it

upon

C T
its

P,

whilst the comet

we should probably

from C to

travelled

the

it

moving towards the

it

clearly

sun, for as

when

only
it

comet pur-

sued the course shown by the line

we

also

moyed round towards D,

had

towards P.

should see

first

return from the sun, for the

earth would have

and round

than when

comet moved in the course

If the

indicated by
see

the heavens

M,
it

was

moved awav

would be between S and M, and therefore

p

COMMON SIGHTS

210

behind the sun, because the earth woukl be

near the point D.

September a comet were observed

If in

midnight in the south-west,

moved on from
from

this

comet would be

shown by X. Then

in the direction

at

as the earth

towards D, and the comet

towards S,

would soon be

it

view in consequence of

its

lost to

approach to the

sun.

Sonietimes a comet will approach the sun

Irom what we should

heavens

when

this

call
is

a high point in the

the

case

it

may

be

clearly visible in the north at midnight, the

sun being then in the north, but belov/, whilst

the comet
fine

is

comets

last brilliant

above, the horizon.

may

be seen in

Some very

this position, the

comet that visited us having been

during a considerable time in the north about

midnight, whilst retreating from the sun.

xlny

novice can, however, roughly calculate whether

a comet

is

likely to

in the heavens,

be a very remarkable object

by drawing a

circle,

and placing

on this a mark to indicate the earth's position,

IN

THE HEAVENS.

211

then sketch the position of the comet and the

two courses which

it

may

pursue.

Referring to the preceding sketch, the comet

vfould be said to be

were

the planets

were

C T

moving

M, because

P,

this

move round
it

direct if its course

the way in which

is

the sun.

would be said

grade motion, because this

is

to

If

have a

announced, therefore, that a comet

sun with a

it

is

retro^

the opposite course

to that w^hich the planets pursue.

the heavens, and that

course

its

When
is

it is

visible in

moving towards the

direct motion, a little

sketch will soon

enable us to judge whether the comet

is

likely

to approach the earth, or to be visible for

any

length of time.

We may
sketch that

perceive by an examination of the

it

would be quite possible

comet to approach the sun, move round

travel

for
it,

and

away without being seen from the earth-

Such a position

as

D,

for instance,

would pre-

vent us from seeing the comet X, which might

pass round the sun from
invisible during its

T to 0, and thus remain

whole course.

COMMON SIGHTS

212

There are various kinds of comets, or

may visit

tliey

us in diiferent stages of development

for tliere are

Comets without a nucleus.

Comets without a

tail.

Comets, the nucleus of which

is

quite trans-

parent.

Comets, the nucleus of which

is

either

opaque

or solid.

be an invariable rule that

It is believed to

the tails of comets always point aivay from the

sun

so that, whichever

moving,

it

way

does not draw

the tail appears driven

its

Hence
precedes

the
its

"

taiV

is

it,

but

solid or

action of the sun.

a misnomer; for a

any body, but ought

tail of

tail after

away from the

more dense portion by the

may be

a comet

to follow

tail
;

never

whereas

a comet retreats from the sun before

head, and thus imitates a courtier retreat-

ing from the presence of majesty.

Occasionally variations
rule are observable

seen in 1823 had two

from

thus, a
tails,

an

apparent

comet which was

one of which was as

THE HEAVENS.

IN

away from the sun

usual turned

with a total disregard of

w^as

all

213
but the other,

cometary etiquette,

turned directly towards the great luminary

of our system.

Many

comet has

cases are recorded where a

possessed a tail divided into

branches, some having as

it

several

were

distinct

five

or six

tails.

The

and

size

brilliancy of the nucleus of a

comet are no guides

to the dimensions of the

some large

being attendant upon a

tail,

tails

small nucleus, and

vice versa.

There are three comets in particular which belong exclusively to our solar system, and which
return at regular

known

intervals.

These pre-

sent peculiarities which are very interesting, and

which have served

tion.

The

are called,

first
is

for a fertile field of specula-

periodic comet, as these bodies

named

brated astronomer.

after Dr. Halley, the cele-

The

after the tvvo astronomers

their orbits,

viz.,

other two are

who

Encke and

first

named

calculated

Biela.

comet travels romid the sun within the

Encke's
orbit of

COMMON SIGHTS

214
Mercury on one

side,

and then journeys nearly

as far as Jupiter on the other.

This comet has

revealed two very singular facts

near the sun,

its

diameter

than when at a distance

first,

very

is

when

that

much

smaller

thus the sun appears

to condense the particles of which this

comet

is

Secondly, the retm^n of the comet

composed.

to a certain point does not occur uniformly, but

there
it

is

a gradual decrease in the period.

Thus,

might occupy 1069 days and 12 hours

move completely round

its orbit

when we

to

ob-

served one revolution, but merely 1069 days

and 8 hours dming the next

1069 days and 4

hours for the third, and so on with a gradually

decreasing rate.

These two

facts

have of course

caused considerable speculation to be expended

upon the

results

to the various

We

will

which might possibly happen

members

now

of the system.

refer to the speculations

and

conjectures which have been offered in connection with comets.

Among

the earlier conjectures about comets

were those which we have already mentioned,

IX
viz.,

that they

THE HEAYENS.

come

215

as messengers of evil, or

were the vehicles for conveying good

A messenger

other parts of the universe.

tail

spirits to

with

about thu^ty millions of miles in length

would be rather an extravagant courier to be

employed by the divine Architect of nature,

whose w^orks so decidedly
is

testify that

economy

one principle of the universal system.

Another supposition

comets

as to the use of

was, that they revolved a few times around our

central luminary

and thus

'

and then dropped into him,

kept the kettle boihng

words, supplied the

light.

or,

in other

it

was

as-

oivino^ out heat

and

which,

losses

sumed, the sun suffered bv

;"

In an age when a blazing &e, or some

sort of fire,

was supposed

to be the only cause

of heat, such a speculation as the above did not

seem absurd.

ISTow,

however, those who reason

amongst us would not be disposed

either that the sun
fuel to

keep

it

is

on

going.

fire,

or that

Such a theory

explain the finale of a comet, but

its orio'in in obscuritv.

it

it

to grant
requii'es

also

might

would leave

COMMON SIGHTS

216

Will a comet ever run away with the earth,

or run against

it ?

or will the tail of a

comet

ever surroimd the earth? are questions which

have been gravely asked, and

Are comets habitable

swered.

duce diseases or fogs ? and

earth's

seriously

an-

do they pro-

will they disturb the

motion? are considered

fair subjects for

inquiry.

The

speculations

of

M. Laplace upon the

supposed effects whic^h might happen, assuming

that a comet was solid, and that
foul of the earth,

in Paris,

could run

produced great consternation

where good situations in Paradise were

sold to the credulous at a fah:

when a

it

large

comet became

market

visible

price,

in

the

heavens.

collision is

much more

in character with

the proceedings of a couple of intoxicated cab-

men, than with those of the works of nature in

which

order,

everywhere

harmony, and arrangement are

visible.

In the year 1770 there was a comet which

passed twice through the system of Jupiter, yet

THE HEAVENS.

IN
it

produced not the slightest

movements

21

upon the

effect

When

of Jupiter or his satellites.

a collision between a planet and a comet

spoken

of,

assumed

is

it

its

orbit,

comet

that the

is
is

the planet

still

and that therefore

it is

hurled blindly at the sun,

rushes around

<

wliilst

merely a matter of luck or chance ^Yhether the

two run foul of each other.

Are we warranted

in assuming that anything in natm-e

chance ?

is

it

is

left to

not more probable that the very

law which brings comets towards the sun,

serve to keep

them

planets that no disasters

like

A planet,

may happen ?

one pole of a magnet,

may have

an attracting power

may

from the

at such a distance

a repelling

and though

at

certain distances a

comet might be attracted

to

a planet,

the distance decreased, this

as well as

still,

if

attraction might cease.

It

is

possible, nay,

have an use

it

almost certain, that comets

does not appear that they are

required to supply the sun with fuel

pass around him, and travel
regions.

May they not

away

into

for

they

unknown

be the agents for gather-

COMMON SIGHTS

218

ing up all those gases or used vapours

may

be

planets

thro\^Ti off

by the sun and the various

dustmen, in fact

celestial

wliieli

merely when the condition

is

who come

such as to require

them, and which are attracted by a sort of

adjusting law

presence

From

when

self-

the system requires their

our sun they

may

luminary, and

may

travel to another

thus serve to maintain a

balance between various portions of the universe

extracting from one group that whicli

may be

dispensed with, and imparting this to

another where

it

the comet that

may

we have spoken

the Jovian system

planet Jupiter,

it

Thus when

be required.

of as visiting

passed twice close to the

was probably playing the

part of scavenger, and relieving that system of

elements which were no longer requned.

It

is

possible also that a comet,

called into existence,

tination,

which

may have

a definite des-

may depend upon

the particles of which

it

is

when once

the affinity of

composed towards

various portions of the universe.

For example.

THE HEAVENS.

IN
a comet
for

may

perhaps move around two suns

a long period, until

state,

when

219

it

reaches a certain

might become merely the

it

The comet

tendant of one of these.

at-

of Encke,

for example, belongs exclusively to our system

and we see that

this

comet has merely a

less

dense or compact form than a planet, and a

more

This orbit

elliptical orbit.

in ellipticity, whilst the comet

is

decreasing

is

gradually as-

suming more and more the course of a

planet.

Let these changes continue during many ages,

and

length have to call this comet

w^e shall at

a planet, as
particulars

it

will

then

diifer in

no essential

from a planet with a very

elliptical

orbit.

The

fact of the

comet of Encke having been

observed to be gradually contracting

its

journey

of revolution around the sun, has led to the

conjecture that what

we term

space

that

is,

the intervals between the sun and the respective

planets, &c.

is

filled

with some subtle fluid

which opposes the motion of bodies,

being termed a

resisti7ig

medium.

this fluid

Hence

it

has

COMMON SIGHTS

220
been supposed
sisting

tliat,

in consequence of this re-

medium, not only

the comets, but

all

all

the planets, will eventually tumble into the sun,

the

moons upon

their primaries,

and the whole

bumping

of the bodies in the universe will be

and knockino*

a2:ainst

each other.

There are one or two

trifling

which have to be assumed before

state of confusion could

we

preliminaries
this disastrous

be reached, and these

will briefly consider.

The

belief of the

medium
facts

and

arises

existence of a resisting

from the following mixture of

suppositions.

a law

of motion

if

a material

body be given an impetus in any

direction, a

It

is

movement

will take

that

place,

and continue

ever unless some opposition be offered.

So

for
also,

a comet, if flung towards the sun, would continue

move

to

at the

same

rate

there were no resisting

"

and time, provided

medium

to oppose

The comet does not move uniformly

fore there

is

a resisting medium."

it.

there-

This rea-

soning might have passed muster in a bygone

THE HEAVENS.

IN

when

age,

cause

and

were but

effect

when hypothesis

studied,

221

rested

little

upon theory,

and theory upon guesses, the whole being

rounded by a maze of

sur-

to protect the

figui^es

assumption from the criticism of the inquirer

but some further probabilities must

now be

examined before we grant any such theory

as

the comets and planets are going

to

that all

tumble into the sun.

In the

first

place, are

we

quite certain that

comets have really been flung or launched in

their orbits

we

by some mechanical agency.

If

are not certain of this, the theory of the re-

sisting

medium

rests

upon a guess

whereas a

theory ought to be based upon well-established

Again, let us grant the singular assump-

facts.

tion that this gaseous

body was launched or

hurled towards the sun from some out-of-the-

way
we

locality

orbit of our earth,

and

are not driven to the necessity of granting

that

beyond the

it

will fall into the sun, in

resisting

medium.

consequence of

AYe know that as the

comet approaches the sun,

its

diameter de-

COMMON SIGHTS

222
creases

are

the comet to

gaseous

and

become more and more

it,

cause

solid

and

In fact, to become more planetary

cometary in

less

may

certain that the sun

each time the comet approaches

not,

less

we then

constitution

its

Such a

change would cause the comet to decrease

its

period of revolution, even according to the laws

of

mechanics as interpreted by us

and the

body, by these transmutations, might at length

take

place in the system, as an inter-Mer-

its

curial planet, with a density

that of Mercury, and with

even greater than

an

orbit not less

elliptical.

It is always

theories

an advantage

to

have a choice of

and we are impressed with the idea

that progression in Nature's vast works

much more
collision,

trust

agreeable to reflect

confusion,

and

the reader will

destruction,

pardon the

is

so

upon than
that

we

somewhat

lengthy conjectures offered upon the probable

use and destination of cometary bodies.

IN

CHAPTEE
At

uncertain

223

THE HEAVENS.

XII.

periods and intervals there

is

near the northern portion of the hea-

visible

vens a very beautiful phenomenon, called the

'

Aurora Borealis." The aurora presents during

a very short time various changes, which, for

the sake of distinction, have been designated

by

different names.

The
is

first

light

somewhat

indication of the advent of an aurora

appearance in the northern

similar to the

dawn

of day.

sky,

This

light is usually seen about one or two hours

after^ sunset,

and has been

called the aurora

This "twilight" varies in intensity,

twilight.

and serves as an indication of the

aurora,

which should be looked

for

coming

during the

evening.

As

the evening advances arches of light, in

COMMON SIGHTS

224

form somewhat like a rainbow,

may

be seen to

stretch from the north-east round to the north-

west

these arches are usually pale yellow or

whitish.

From these arches,

looking

clouds

or from

some dark smoky-

which usually

rest

near the

northern horizon, several streamers will be seen

to shoot

above

up from the north towards the heavens

These streamers are bright, and

us.

conamonly pale blue or pink, and they

and rush upwards with great

circle of either

brilliant colom^s,

from

it,

aurora.

is

flash

rapidity.

pure white or of various

with streamers shooting out

frequently

This circle

is

observed

during

the

usually around the point

in the heavens towards which the pole of

balanced magnetic needle would point, and

it

is

called the corona.

In addition to the streamers there are sometimes undulations or waves of light, which flow
upv/ard towards the corona or along the line of

an arch.
In addition to the above there are milky

sort

IN

THE HEATEXS.

225

of clouds, which have a self-luminous appear-

ance,

the

and which prognosticate the

aui^ora.

In England the aurora

phenomenon

is

not a very

common

but in North America and in

northern regions
if

intensity of

an individual

it

is

is

frequently visible.

Still,

acquainted with the pre-

liminary indications of the coming aurora, he

may

frequently observe

and

beautiful

this

mystical effect.

very beautiful aurora was visible on the

evening of the 9th March, 1861

of this

may serve

a description

to explain the general appear-

ances of the phenomenon.

At a very
horizon,

and

short distance above the northern

at about half-past 8

p.m.,

there

gradually appeared a sort of green-tinted twilight, as

though the sun were going

to rise.

few dark clouds then gathered in the centre of

this light,

which soon varied in

faint pale-bluish streamers

from the

N.jST.E.

the horizon.

intensity,

some

then shot upwards

and from the N.X.^Y. points of

These streamers reached nearly

COMMON SIGHTS

226

overhead, but as tliey ascended tliey changed

their hue,

and became of a warm rosy

They extended

and

east

colour.

west, lost the streamer

form, and illuminated the heavens just as though

some large

fire

were

^casting reflected light into

These ajDpearances came

the sky.

in flashes,

and there were intervals of several minutes

when no streamers were

visible.

The aurora

continued during nearly two hom^s.

From

observations which have been carried

on during upwards of a centm^y,

number

the greatest

month
ratio

it is

found that

of aurorse occur in the

and the fewest in June. The

of October,

being as follows

October,

March, No-

vember, September, December, February, April,

May, July, June.

This ratio

is liable to variation,

which some

Januar)^, August,
it

is

believed

inquirers suppose to be periodical.

It

has been found that at certain periods,

both during the day and night, there are currents

of a

subtle

earth's surface.

element rushing over the

These are usually called mag-

netic or electrical currents, because they cause

227

THE HEAYEXS.

IN'

a magnetic needle to slightly vary, and also

produce singailar

common

the
cm^s

upon the needles

of

AYhen an am'ora

oe-

telegraph.

considerably

disturbances are

these

and

creased,

effects

in-

sometimes almost impossible

it is

to

send a telegraphic message when an aurora

is

in

The aurora

force.

seen best in the

is

higher regions of the earth, and better in the

western continent than in the eastern.

these facts

we

the aurora

is

are at once led to conclude that

probably a magnetic phenomenon.

We are not yet

electricity

From

or

aware how the proper balance of

magnetism

is

maintained upon

and in our earth, nor are we yet made acquainted

Avith the

these

exact relation which exists between

two

forces.

We know

that

electrical

storms occur at certain interrals, but we are

not fully aware of the cause of these, which
after all

must be merely the

It

effects.

may

effects of

other

be then that, when there

superabundance of magnetism in the earth,

surplus

is

is

this

discharged from both magnetic poles

the rapid passage

of

the

magnetic element

228

C03IM0N SIGHTS

through the atmosphere producing

it

Hence

light.

probable, should this supposition be true,

is

same time an aurora would be

that at the
visible

both in the northern and southern

gions.

It is possible that this

for

many

may

re-

be the case

other reasons, which would, however,

be beyond the course of

this

little

work

to

adduce.

very

little

observation directed towards

the northern horizon soon

after

sunset,

es-

pecially in February, March, September,

and

October, will be rewarded by a ^^ew of the

bril-

liant

phenomenon

called the

Aurora

Borealis,

METEOES AXD AEEOLITES.

At various times of the year, but particularly in

the

month

may be

of August, a brilliant star-like object

seen,

short distance,
**

which shoots along the sky

and

either disappears as

went out," or bursts with a loud

objects are

commonly

for a

though it

report.

These

called meteoes, aeeo-

LiTES, or SHOOTIXG STAES.

The

gular bodies afforded one of the

fall

of these sin-

many examples

IX
of the danger

who

science

THE HEAVEXS.

that

says 31. Arago,

''

The Academy of Sciences,"

by

to perceive

it

reached the earth's surface, had not

from the heavens," and the savants of

Europe affirmed

''

that the fall of stones from

As M. Arago

the atmosphere was impossible/'

justly remarks, " It

who

at Luce,

its fall

who continued

several persons

fallen

of

" declared in 17(19 that the stone

picked up at the instant of

it

men

surrounds those

believe that they have solved all

the laws of nature.

until

229

refuse

to

is

certain that physicists

admit any facts except those

which they perceive to admit of explanation, do

more injury

who

to the progTcss of science

are liable to the reproach

than

men

of being too

credulous."
It

has been found that

in

nearly

all

the

masses which have been ascertained to have

fallen

from the atmosphere, there

derance of nickel.

Some

is

a prepon-

of these masses are

hard, whilst otliers are spongy.

We

have the record of several accidents

which have been caused by

aerolites

and when

COMMON SIGHTS

230

we consider the weight

of

some of these

bodies,

not remarkable that accidents should occur.

it is

In 1674, a ball weighing nine pounds killed

two men on board a Dutch East Indian

An

aerolite fell in

New Granada

vessel.

in 1810,

and

weighed upwards of sixteen hundred pounds.

Globes of

then

which suddenly appear and

fire

vanish

are

usually

termed

bolides.

Sometimes bolides give out a very bright

or

leave behind

them a

train of fire

light,

occa-

sionally they burst into several pieces,

which

form those falling bodies of which we have

spoken.
Aerolites have afforded a fine field for conjecture, since

were

men

possible.

of science admitted that they

It has

been supposed that a ring

of these bodies revolves about

sun,

and surroimds the

and that the earth passes through this ring in

August, when, consequently, the greatest number become visible.

Other speculators imagine

that they are fired out of the volcanoes in the

moon.

But, as

we do not yet know

lunar volcanoes are active,

that the

and we have

to

THE HEAVENS.

IN

231

assume a Yelocity of projection of upwards of

eight thousand feet per second, this conjecture
is

rather baseless.

It

may

be possible that the

elements of which asteroids are formed exists

in space,

and that these become soUdified by

agencies occasionally at work, and which

be induced by the

earth's electrical or

state, just as water

may

may

magnetic

be formed from

its

elements by the electric spark.

THE END.

LONDON

PRINTED 3T WILUAil CLO"^ES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET.

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