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Coordinates:385259N77059W

NASA
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration
(NASA)isanindependentagencyoftheexecutivebranchof
theUnitedStatesfederalgovernmentresponsibleforthe
civilianspaceprogramaswellasaeronauticsandaerospace
research.[note1]

NationalAeronauticsandSpace
Administration

PresidentDwightD.EisenhowerestablishedNASAin
1958[7]withadistinctlycivilian(ratherthanmilitary)
orientationencouragingpeacefulapplicationsinspace
science.TheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceActwaspassed
onJuly29,1958,disestablishingNASA'spredecessor,the
NationalAdvisoryCommitteeforAeronautics(NACA).The
newagencybecameoperationalonOctober1,1958.[8][9]

SealofNASA

Sincethattime,mostUSspaceexplorationeffortshavebeen
ledbyNASA,includingtheApollomoonlandingmissions,
theSkylabspacestation,andlatertheSpaceShuttle.
Currently,NASAissupportingtheInternationalSpace
StationandisoverseeingthedevelopmentoftheOrion
MultiPurposeCrewVehicle,theSpaceLaunchSystemand
CommercialCrewvehicles.Theagencyisalsoresponsible
fortheLaunchServicesProgram(LSP)whichprovides
oversightoflaunchoperationsandcountdownmanagement
forunmannedNASAlaunches.
NASAscienceisfocusedonbetterunderstandingEarth
throughtheEarthObservingSystem,[10]advancing
heliophysicsthroughtheeffortsoftheScienceMission
Directorate'sHeliophysicsResearchProgram,[11]exploring
bodiesthroughouttheSolarSystemwithadvancedrobotic
spacecraftmissionssuchasNewHorizons,[12]and
researchingastrophysicstopics,suchastheBigBang,
throughtheGreatObservatoriesandassociatedprograms.[13]
NASAsharesdatawithvariousnationalandinternational
organizationssuchasfromtheGreenhouseGasesObserving
Satellite.

Contents
1 Creation
2 Spaceflightprograms
2.1 Mannedprograms
2.1.1 X15rocketplane(195968)
2.1.2 ProjectMercury(195963)
2.1.3 ProjectGemini(196166)
2.1.4
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA

ProjectApollo(196172)

NASAlogo
Motto:FortheBenefitofAll[1]

FlagofNASA
Agencyoverview
Formed
Preceding
agency
Jurisdiction

July29,1958
NACA(19151958)[2]
UnitedStatesgovernment

Headquarters Washington,D.C.
385259N77059W
Employees

17,345+[3]

Annual
budget

US$19.3billion(2016), [4]also
seeNASABudget

Agency
executives

Website

CharlesBolden,
Administrator
DavaNewman,Deputy
Administrator
nasa.gov(https://www.nasa.gov/)<
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2.1.4 ProjectApollo(196172)
2.1.5 Skylab(196579)
2.1.6 ApolloSoyuzTestProject(1972
75)
2.1.7 SpaceShuttleprogram(1972
2011)
2.1.8 InternationalSpaceStation
(1993present)
2.1.8.1 CommercialResupply
Services(2006present)
2.1.8.2 CommercialCrew
Program(2010present)
2.1.9 BeyondLowEarthOrbitprogram
(2010present)
2.2 Unmannedprograms
2.3 Recentandplannedactivities
3 Scientificresearch
4 Staffandleadership
5 Facilities
6 Budget
7 Environmentalimpact
8 Observations
9 Spacecraft
10 Examplesofmissionsbytarget
11 Seealso
12 Footnotes
13 References
14 Externallinks

Seemore

Creation
From1946,theNationalAdvisoryCommitteefor
Aeronautics(NACA)hadbeenexperimentingwithrocket
planessuchasthesupersonicBellX1.[14]Intheearly
1950s,therewaschallengetolaunchanartificialsatellite
fortheInternationalGeophysicalYear(195758).An
effortforthiswastheAmericanProjectVanguard.After
theSovietlaunchoftheworld'sfirstartificialsatellite
(Sputnik1)onOctober4,1957,theattentionoftheUnited
Statesturnedtowarditsownfledglingspaceefforts.The
USCongress,alarmedbytheperceivedthreattonational
securityandtechnologicalleadership(knownasthe
"Sputnikcrisis"),urgedimmediateandswiftaction
PresidentDwightD.Eisenhowerandhisadvisers
counseledmoredeliberatemeasures.Thisledtoan
agreementthatanewfederalagencymainlybasedon
NACAwasneededtoconductallnonmilitaryactivityin
space.TheAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency(ARPA)
wascreatedinFebruary1958todevelopspacetechnology
formilitaryapplication.[15]

WilliamH.Pickering,(center)JPLDirector,
PresidentJohnF.Kennedy,(right).NASA
AdministratorJamesE.Webb(background)
discussingtheMarinerprogram,withamodel
presented.

OnJuly29,1958,EisenhowersignedtheNationalAeronauticsandSpaceAct,establishingNASA.Whenit
beganoperationsonOctober1,1958,NASAabsorbedthe43yearoldNACAintactits8,000employees,an
annualbudgetofUS$100million,threemajorresearchlaboratories(LangleyAeronauticalLaboratory,Ames
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AeronauticalLaboratory,andLewisFlightPropulsionLaboratory)andtwosmalltestfacilities.[16]ANASA
sealwasapprovedbyPresidentEisenhowerin1959.[17]ElementsoftheArmyBallisticMissileAgencyandthe
UnitedStatesNavalResearchLaboratorywereincorporatedintoNASA.AsignificantcontributortoNASA's
entryintotheSpaceRacewiththeSovietUnionwasthetechnologyfromtheGermanrocketprogramledby
WernhervonBraun,whowasnowworkingfortheArmyBallisticMissileAgency(ABMA),whichinturn
incorporatedthetechnologyofAmericanscientistRobertGoddard'searlierworks.[18]Earlierresearchefforts
withintheUSAirForce[16]andmanyofARPA'searlyspaceprogramswerealsotransferredtoNASA.[19]In
December1958,NASAgainedcontroloftheJetPropulsionLaboratory,acontractorfacilityoperatedbythe
CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology.[16]

Spaceflightprograms
NASAhasconductedmanymannedandunmannedspaceflight
programsthroughoutitshistory.Unmannedprogramslaunchedthefirst
AmericanartificialsatellitesintoEarthorbitforscientificand
communicationspurposes,andsentscientificprobestoexplorethe
planetsofthesolarsystem,startingwithVenusandMars,andincluding
"grandtours"oftheouterplanets.Mannedprogramssentthefirst
AmericansintolowEarthorbit(LEO),wontheSpaceRacewiththe
SovietUnionbylandingtwelvemenontheMoonfrom1969to1972in
theApolloprogram,developedasemireusableLEOSpaceShuttle,and
developedLEOspacestationcapabilitybyitselfandwiththe
cooperationofseveralothernationsincludingpostSovietRussia.Some
missionsincludebothmannedandunmannedaspects,suchasthe
Galileoprobe,whichwasdeployedbyastronautsinEarthorbitbefore
beingsentunmannedtoJupiter.

AtlaunchcontrolfortheMay28,
1964,SaturnISA6launch.Wernher
vonBraunisatcenter.

Mannedprograms
TheexperimentalrocketpoweredaircraftprogramsstartedbyNACAwereextendedbyNASAassupportfor
mannedspaceflight.Thiswasfollowedbyaonemanspacecapsuleprogram,andinturnbyatwomancapsule
program.Reactingtolossofnationalprestigeandsecurityfearscausedbyearlyleadsinspaceexplorationby
theSovietUnion,in1961PresidentJohnF.Kennedyproposedtheambitiousgoal"oflandingamanonthe
Moonbytheendof[the1960s],andreturninghimsafelytotheEarth."Thisgoalwasmetin1969bythe
Apolloprogram,andNASAplannedevenmoreambitiousactivitiesleadingtoamannedmissiontoMars.
However,reductionoftheperceivedthreatandchangingpoliticalprioritiesalmostimmediatelycausedthe
terminationofmostoftheseplans.NASAturneditsattentiontoanApolloderivedtemporaryspacelaboratory,
andasemireusableEarthorbitalshuttle.Inthe1990s,fundingwasapprovedforNASAtodevelopa
permanentEarthorbitalspacestationincooperationwiththeinternationalcommunity,whichnowincludedthe
formerrival,postSovietRussia.Todate,NASAhaslaunchedatotalof166mannedspacemissionsonrockets,
andthirteenX15rocketflightsabovetheUSAFdefinitionofspaceflightaltitude,260,000feet(80km).[20]
X15rocketplane(195968)
TheX15wasanNACAexperimentalrocketpoweredhypersonicresearchaircraft,developedinconjunction
withtheUSAirForceandNavy.Thedesignfeaturedaslenderfuselagewithfairingsalongthesidecontaining
fuelandearlycomputerizedcontrolsystems.[21]RequestsforproposalwereissuedonDecember30,1954for
theairframe,andFebruary4,1955fortherocketengine.TheairframecontractwasawardedtoNorthAmerican
AviationinNovember1955,andtheXLR30enginecontractwasawardedtoReactionMotorsin1956,and
threeplaneswerebuilt.TheX15wasdroplaunchedfromthewingofoneoftwoNASABoeingB52
Stratofortresses,NB52Atailnumber52003,andNB52B,tailnumber52008(knownastheBalls8).Release
tookplaceatanaltitudeofabout45,000feet(14km)andaspeedofabout500milesperhour(805km/h).
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TwelvepilotswereselectedfortheprogramfromtheAirForce,Navy,andNACA(laterNASA).Atotalof199
flightsweremadebetween1959and1968,resultingintheofficialworldrecordforthehighestspeedever
reachedbyamannedpoweredaircraft(currentasof2014),andamaximumspeedofMach6.72,4,519miles
perhour(7,273km/h).[22]ThealtituderecordforX15was354,200feet(107.96km).[23]Eightofthepilots
wereawardedAirForceastronautwingsforflyingabove260,000feet(80km),andtwoflightsbyJosephA.
Walkerexceeded100kilometers(330,000ft),qualifyingasspaceflightaccordingtotheInternational
AeronauticalFederation.TheX15programemployedmechanicaltechniquesusedinthelatermanned
spaceflightprograms,includingreactioncontrolsystemjetsforcontrollingtheorientationofaspacecraft,space
suits,andhorizondefinitionfornavigation.[23]ThereentryandlandingdatacollectedwerevaluabletoNASA
fordesigningtheSpaceShuttle.[21]
ProjectMercury(195963)
ShortlyaftertheSpaceRacebegan,anearlyobjective
wastogetapersonintoEarthorbitassoonas
possible,thereforethesimplestspacecraftthatcould
belaunchedbyexistingrocketswasfavored.TheUS
AirForce'sManinSpaceSoonestprogramconsidered
manymannedspacecraftdesigns,rangingfromrocket
planesliketheX15,tosmallballisticspace
capsules.[24]By1958,thespaceplaneconceptswere
eliminatedinfavoroftheballisticcapsule.[25]

Friendship7,firstUSmannedorbitalspaceflight

MercuryAtlas6
StillframeofJohnGlenninorbit
WhenNASAwascreatedthatsameyear,theAir
launchonFebruary fromcamerainsideFriendship7
Forceprogramwastransferredtoitandrenamed
20,1962
ProjectMercury.Thefirstsevenastronautswere
selectedamongcandidatesfromtheNavy,AirForce
andMarinetestpilotprograms.OnMay5,1961,astronautAlanShepardbecamethefirstAmericaninspace
aboardFreedom7,launchedbyaRedstoneboosterona15minuteballistic(suborbital)flight.[26]JohnGlenn
becamethefirstAmericantobelaunchedintoorbitbyanAtlaslaunchvehicleonFebruary20,1962aboard
Friendship7.[27]Glenncompletedthreeorbits,afterwhichthreemoreorbitalflightsweremade,culminatingin
L.GordonCooper's22orbitflightFaith7,May1516,1963.[28]

TheSovietUnion(USSR)competedwithitsownsinglepilotspacecraft,Vostok.Theysentthefirstmanin
space,bylaunchingcosmonautYuriGagarinintoasingleEarthorbitaboardVostok1inApril1961,onemonth
beforeShepard'sflight.[29]InAugust1962,theyachievedanalmostfourdayrecordflightwithAndriyan
NikolayevaboardVostok3,andalsoconductedaconcurrentVostok4missioncarryingPavelPopovich.
ProjectGemini(196166)
BasedonstudiestogrowtheMercuryspacecraftcapabilitiestolongdurationflights,developingspace
rendezvoustechniques,andprecisionEarthlanding,ProjectGeminiwasstartedasatwomanprogramin1962
toovercometheSoviets'leadandtosupporttheApollomannedlunarlandingprogram,addingextravehicular
activity(EVA)andrendezvousanddockingtoitsobjectives.ThefirstmannedGeminiflight,Gemini3,was
flownbyGusGrissomandJohnYoungonMarch23,1965.[30]Ninemissionsfollowedin1965and1966,
demonstratinganendurancemissionofnearlyfourteendays,rendezvous,docking,andpracticalEVA,and
gatheringmedicaldataontheeffectsofweightlessnessonhumans.[31][32]
UnderthedirectionofSovietPremierNikitaKhrushchev,theUSSRcompetedwithGeminibyconvertingtheir
VostokspacecraftintoatwoorthreemanVoskhod.Theysucceededinlaunchingtwomannedflightsbefore
Gemini'sfirstflight,achievingathreecosmonautflightin1963andthefirstEVAin1964.Afterthis,the

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programwascanceled,andGeminicaughtupwhilespacecraftdesigner
SergeiKorolevdevelopedtheSoyuzspacecraft,theiranswertoApollo.
ProjectApollo(196172)

EdWhiteperformsthefirstUS
spacewalkin1965duringtheGemini
4.

TheU.Spublic'sperceptionof
theSovietleadinthespacerace
(byputtingthefirstmanin
space)motivatedPresidentJohn
F.KennedytoasktheCongress
onMay25,1961tocommitthe
federalgovernmenttoaprogram
tolandamanontheMoonby
theendofthe1960s,which
effectivelylaunchedtheApollo
program.[33]

Spacecraftandlaunchvehicle
comparisonofApollo,Geminiand
Mercury.TheSaturnIBand
MercuryRedstonelaunchvehiclesare
leftout.

ApollowasoneofthemostexpensiveAmericanscientificprograms
ever.Itcostmorethan$20billionin1960sdollars[34]oranestimated
$206billioninpresentdayUSdollars.[35](Incomparison,theManhattanProjectcostroughly$26.3billion,
accountingforinflation.)[35][36]ItusedtheSaturnrocketsaslaunchvehicles,whichwerefarbiggerthanthe
rocketsbuiltforpreviousprojects.[37]Thespacecraftwasalsobiggerithadtwomainparts,thecombined
commandandservicemodule(CSM)andthelunarlandingmodule(LM).TheLMwastobeleftontheMoon
andonlythecommandmodule(CM)containingthethreeastronautswouldeventuallyreturntoEarth.

Thesecondmannedmission,Apollo8,broughtastronautsforthefirst
timeinaflightaroundtheMooninDecember1968.[38]Shortlybefore,
theSovietshadsentanunmannedspacecraftaroundtheMoon.[39]On
thenexttwomissionsdockingmaneuversthatwereneededforthe
Moonlandingwerepracticed[40][41]andthenfinallytheMoonlanding
wasmadeontheApollo11missioninJuly1969.[42]
ThefirstpersontostandontheMoonwasNeilArmstrong,whowas
followedbyBuzzAldrin,whileMichaelCollinsorbitedabove.Five
subsequentApollomissionsalsolandedastronautsontheMoon,thelast
inDecember1972.ThroughoutthesesixApollospaceflights,twelve
menwalkedontheMoon.Thesemissionsreturnedawealthofscientific
BuzzAldrinontheMoon,1969
dataand381.7kilograms(842lb)oflunarsamples.Topicscoveredby
experimentsperformedincludedsoilmechanics,meteoroids,
seismology,heatflow,lunarranging,magneticfields,andsolarwind.[43]TheMoonlandingmarkedtheendof
thespaceraceandasagesture,ArmstrongmentionedmankindwhenhesteppeddownontheMoon.[44]
Apollosetmajormilestonesinhumanspaceflight.Itstandsaloneinsendingmannedmissionsbeyondlow
Earthorbit,andlandinghumansonanothercelestialbody.[45]Apollo8wasthefirstmannedspacecrafttoorbit
anothercelestialbody,whileApollo17markedthelastmoonwalkandthelastmannedmissionbeyondlow
Earthorbittodate.Theprogramspurredadvancesinmanyareasoftechnologyperipheraltorocketryand
mannedspaceflight,includingavionics,telecommunications,andcomputers.Apollosparkedinterestinmany
fieldsofengineeringandleftmanyphysicalfacilitiesandmachinesdevelopedfortheprogramaslandmarks.
Manyobjectsandartifactsfromtheprogramareondisplayatvariouslocationsthroughouttheworld,notably
attheSmithsonian'sAirandSpaceMuseums.
Skylab(196579)
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SkylabwastheUnitedStates'
firstandonlyindependently
builtspacestation.[46]Conceived
in1965asaworkshoptobe
constructedinspacefroma
spentSaturnIBupperstage,the
169,950lb(77,088kg)station
wasconstructedonEarthand
launchedonMay14,1973atop
thefirsttwostagesofaSaturn
V,intoa235nauticalmile
(435km)orbitinclinedat50to
theequator.Damagedduring
Apollo17'slunarrovingvehicle,
Skylabspacestation,1974
launchbythelossofitsthermal
1972
protectionandoneelectricity
generatingsolarpanel,itwasrepairedtofunctionalitybyitsfirstcrew.
Itwasoccupiedforatotalof171daysby3successivecrewsin1973and1974.[46]Itincludedalaboratoryfor
studyingtheeffectsofmicrogravity,andasolarobservatory.[46]NASAplannedtohaveaSpaceShuttledock
withit,andelevateSkylabtoahighersafealtitude,buttheShuttlewasnotreadyforflightbeforeSkylab'sre
entryonJuly11,1979.[47]
Tosavecost,NASAusedoneoftheSaturnVrocketsoriginallyearmarkedforacanceledApollomissionto
launchtheSkylab.Apollospacecraftwereusedfortransportingastronautstoandfromthestation.Threethree
mancrewsstayedaboardthestationforperiodsof28,59,and84days.Skylab'shabitablevolumewas11,290
cubicfeet(320m3),whichwas30.7timesbiggerthanthatoftheApolloCommandModule.[47]
ApolloSoyuzTestProject(197275)
OnMay24,1972,USPresidentRichardM.NixonandSovietPremier
AlexeiKosyginsignedanagreementcallingforajointmannedspace
mission,anddeclaringintentforallfutureinternationalmanned
spacecrafttobecapableofdockingwitheachother.[48]Thisauthorized
theApolloSoyuzTestProject(ASTP),involvingtherendezvousand
dockinginEarthorbitofasurplusApolloCommand/ServiceModule
withaSoyuzspacecraft.ThemissiontookplaceinJuly1975.Thiswas
thelastUSmannedspaceflightuntilthefirstorbitalflightoftheSpace
ShuttleinApril1981.[49]
Themissionincludedbothjointandseparatescientificexperiments,and
providedusefulengineeringexperienceforfuturejointUSRussian
spaceflights,suchastheShuttleMirProgram[50]andtheInternational
SpaceStation.

ApolloSoyuzcrewswithmodelsof
spacecraft,1975

SpaceShuttleprogram(19722011)
TheSpaceShuttlebecamethemajorfocusofNASAinthelate1970sandthe1980s.Plannedasafrequently
launchableandmostlyreusablevehicle,fourspaceshuttleorbiterswerebuiltby1985.Thefirsttolaunch,
Columbia,didsoonApril12,1981,[51]the20thanniversaryofthefirstknownhumanspaceflight.[52]
Itsmajorcomponentswereaspaceplaneorbiterwithanexternalfueltankandtwosolidfuellaunchrocketsat
itsside.Theexternaltank,whichwasbiggerthanthespacecraftitself,wastheonlymajorcomponentthatwas
notreused.Theshuttlecouldorbitinaltitudesof185643km(115400miles)[53]andcarryamaximum
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payload(toloworbit)of24,400kg(54,000lb).[54]Missionscouldlastfrom5to17
daysandcrewscouldbefrom2to8astronauts.[53]
On20missions(198398)theSpaceShuttlecarriedSpacelab,designedin
cooperationwiththeEuropeanSpaceAgency(ESA).Spacelabwasnotdesigned
forindependentorbitalflight,butremainedintheShuttle'scargobayasthe
astronautsenteredandleftitthroughanairlock.[55]Anotherfamousseriesof
missionswerethelaunchandlatersuccessfulrepairoftheHubbleSpaceTelescope
in1990and1993,respectively.[56]
In1995,RussianAmericaninteractionresumedwiththeShuttleMirmissions
(19951998).OncemoreanAmericanvehicledockedwithaRussiancraft,this
timeafullfledgedspacestation.ThiscooperationhascontinuedwithRussiaand
theUnitedStatesastwoofthebiggestpartnersinthelargestspacestationbuilt:the
InternationalSpaceStation(ISS).Thestrengthoftheircooperationonthisprojectwasevenmoreevidentwhen
NASAbeganrelyingonRussianlaunchvehiclestoservicetheISSduringthetwoyeargroundingoftheshuttle
fleetfollowingthe2003SpaceShuttleColumbiadisaster.
Launchofthespace
shuttle

TheShuttlefleetlosttwoorbitersand14astronautsintwodisasters:Challengerin1986,andColumbiain
2003.[57]Whilethe1986losswasmitigatedbybuildingtheSpaceShuttleEndeavourfromreplacementparts,
NASAdidnotbuildanotherorbitertoreplacethesecondloss.[57]NASA'sSpaceShuttleprogramhad135
missionswhentheprogramendedwiththesuccessfullandingoftheSpaceShuttleAtlantisattheKennedy
SpaceCenteronJuly21,2011.Theprogramspanned30yearswithover300astronautssentintospace.[58]
InternationalSpaceStation(1993present)
TheInternationalSpaceStation(ISS)combinesNASA'sSpaceStation
FreedomprojectwiththeSoviet/RussianMir2station,theEuropean
Columbusstation,andtheJapaneseKiblaboratorymodule.[59]NASA
originallyplannedinthe1980stodevelopFreedomalone,butUS
budgetconstraintsledtothemergeroftheseprojectsintoasinglemulti
nationalprogramin1993,managedbyNASA,theRussianFederal
SpaceAgency(RKA),theJapanAerospaceExplorationAgency
(JAXA),theEuropeanSpaceAgency(ESA),andtheCanadianSpace
Agency(CSA).[60][61]Thestationconsistsofpressurizedmodules,
externaltrusses,solararraysandothercomponents,whichhavebeen
TheInternationalSpaceStation
launchedbyRussianProtonandSoyuzrockets,andtheUSSpace
Shuttles.[59]ItiscurrentlybeingassembledinLowEarthOrbit.Theon
orbitassemblybeganin1998,thecompletionoftheUSOrbitalSegmentoccurredin2011andthecompletion
oftheRussianOrbitalSegmentisexpectedby2016.[62][63]Theownershipanduseofthespacestationis
establishedinintergovernmentaltreatiesandagreements[64]whichdividethestationintotwoareasandallow
RussiatoretainfullownershipoftheRussianOrbitalSegment(withtheexceptionofZarya),[65][66]withtheUS
OrbitalSegmentallocatedbetweentheotherinternationalpartners.[64]
LongdurationmissionstotheISSarereferredtoasISSExpeditions.Expeditioncrewmemberstypicallyspend
approximatelysixmonthsontheISS.[67]Theinitialexpeditioncrewsizewasthree,temporarilydecreasedto
twofollowingtheColumbiadisaster.SinceMay2009,expeditioncrewsizehasbeensixcrewmembers.[68]
Crewsizeisexpectedtobeincreasedtoseven,thenumbertheISSwasdesignedfor,oncetheCommercial
CrewProgrambecomesoperational.[69]TheISShasbeencontinuouslyoccupiedforthepast15yearsand
341days,havingexceededthepreviousrecordheldbyMirandhasbeenvisitedbyastronautsandcosmonauts
from15differentnations.[70][71]
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ThestationcanbeseenfromtheEarthwiththenakedeyeand,asof
2016,isthelargestartificialsatelliteinEarthorbitwithamassand
volumegreaterthanthatofanypreviousspacestation.[72]TheSoyuz
spacecraftdeliverscrewmembers,staysdockedfortheirhalfyearlong
missionsandthenreturnsthemhome.Severaluncrewedcargo
spacecraftservicetheISS,theyaretheRussianProgressspacecraft
whichhasdonesosince2000,theEuropeanAutomatedTransfer
Vehicle(ATV)since2008,theJapaneseHIITransferVehicle(HTV)
since2009,theAmericanDragonspacecraftsince2012,andthe
TheSTS131(lightblue)and
AmericanCygnusspacecraftsince2013.TheSpaceShuttle,beforeits
Expedition23(darkblue)crew
retirement,wasalsousedforcargotransferandwouldoftenswitchout
membersinApril2010
expeditioncrewmembers,althoughitdidnothavethecapabilityto
remaindockedforthedurationoftheirstay.UntilanotherUSmanned
spacecraftisready,crewmemberswilltraveltoandfromtheInternationalSpaceStationexclusivelyaboardthe
Soyuz.[73]ThehighestnumberofpeopleoccupyingtheISShasbeenthirteenthisoccurredthreetimesduring
thelateShuttleISSassemblymissions.[74]
TheISSprogramisexpectedtocontinueuntilatleast2020,andmaybeextendedbeyond2028.[75]
CommercialResupplyServices(2006present)

ThedevelopmentoftheCommercialResupply
Services(CRS)vehiclesbeganin2006withthe
purposeofcreatingAmericancommerciallyoperated
uncrewedcargovehiclestoservicetheISS.[76]The
developmentofthesevehicleswasunderafixed
pricemilestonebasedprogram,meaningthateach
companythatreceivedafundedawardhadalistof
milestoneswithadollarvalueattachedtothemthat
theydidn'treceiveuntilaftertheyhadsuccessful
completedthemilestone.[77]Privatecompanieswere
alsorequiredtohavesome"skininthegame"which
refersraisinganunspecifiedamountofprivate
investmentfortheirproposal.[78]

TheDragonisseenbeing TheStandardvariantofCygnus
isseenberthedtotheISSin
berthedtotheISSin
September2013
May2012

OnDecember23,2008,NASAawardedCommercialResupplyServicescontractstoSpaceXandOrbital
SciencesCorporation.[79]SpaceXusesitsFalcon9rocketandDragonspacecraft.[80]OrbitalSciencesusesits
AntaresrocketandCygnusspacecraft.ThefirstDragonresupplymissionoccurredinMay2012.[81]Thefirst
CygnusresupplymissionoccurredinSeptember2013.[82]TheCRSprogramnowprovidesforallAmerica's
ISScargoneedswiththeexceptionofafewvehiclespecificpayloadsthataredeliveredontheEuropeanATV
andtheJapaneseHTV.[83]
CommercialCrewProgram(2010present)

TheCommercialCrewDevelopment(CCDev)programwasinitiatedin2010withthepurposeofcreating
Americancommerciallyoperatedcrewedspacecraftcapableofdeliveringatleastfourcrewmemberstothe
ISS,stayingdockedfor180daysandthenreturningthembacktoEarth.[84]Itishopedthatthesevehiclescould
alsotransportnonNASAcustomerstoprivatespacestationssuchthoseplannedbyBigelowAerospace.[85]
LikeCOTS,CCDevisalsoafixedpricemilestonebaseddevelopmentalprogramthatrequiressomeprivate
investment.[77]

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In2010,NASAannouncedthewinnersofthefirstphaseoftheprogram,atotalof$50millionwasdivided
amongfiveAmericancompaniestofosterresearchanddevelopmentintohumanspaceflightconceptsand
technologiesintheprivatesector.In2011,thewinnersofthesecondphaseoftheprogramwereannounced,
$270millionwasdividedamongfourcompanies.[86]In2012,thewinnersofthethirdphaseoftheprogram
wereannounced,NASAprovided$1.1billiondividedamongthreecompaniestofurtherdeveloptheircrew
transportationsystems.[87]In2014,thewinnersofthefinalroundwereannounced.[88]SpaceX'sDragonV2
(plannedtobelaunchedonaFalcon9v1.1)receivedacontractvaluedupto$2.6billionandBoeing'sCST100
(tobelaunchedonanAtlasV)receivedacontractvaluedupto$4.2billion.[89]NASAexpectsthesevehiclesto
begintransportinghumanstotheISSin2017.[89]

DragonV2

Computerrenderingof
CST100inorbit

BeyondLowEarthOrbitprogram(2010present)
FormissionsbeyondlowEarthorbit(BLEO),NASAhasbeendirectedto
developtheSpaceLaunchSystem(SLS),aSaturnVclassrocket,andthetwo
tosixperson,beyondlowEarthorbitspacecraft,Orion.InFebruary2010,
PresidentBarackObama'sadministrationproposedeliminatingpublicfundsfor
theConstellationprogramandshiftinggreaterresponsibilityofservicingthe
ISStoprivatecompanies.[90]DuringaspeechattheKennedySpaceCenteron
April15,2010,Obamaproposedanewheavyliftvehicle(HLV)toreplacethe
formerlyplannedAresV.[91]Inhisspeech,Obamacalledforamannedmission
toanasteroidassoonas2025,andamannedmissiontoMarsorbitbythemid
2030s.[91]TheNASAAuthorizationActof2010waspassedbyCongressand
signedintolawonOctober11,2010.[92]Theactofficiallycanceledthe
Constellationprogram.[92]

Artist'srenderingofthe70
mtvariantofSLSlaunching
Orion

TheAuthorizationActrequiredanewly
designedHLVbechosenwithin90days
ofitspassingthelaunchvehiclewas
giventhename"SpaceLaunchSystem".Thenewlawalsorequiredthe
constructionofabeyondlowearthorbitspacecraft.[93]TheOrion
spacecraft,whichwasbeingdevelopedaspartoftheConstellation
program,waschosentofulfillthisrole.[94]TheSpaceLaunchSystemis
OrionspacecraftdesignasofJanuary
plannedtolaunchbothOrionandothernecessaryhardwareformissions
2013
beyondlowEarthorbit.[95]TheSLSistobeupgradedovertimewith
morepowerfulversions.TheinitialcapabilityofSLSisrequiredtobe
abletolift70mtintoLEO.Itisthenplannedtobeupgradedto105mtandtheneventuallyto130mt.[94][96]
ExplorationFlightTest1(EFT1),anunmannedtestflightofOrion'screwmodule,waslaunchedonDecember
5,2014,atopaDeltaIVHeavyrocket.[96]ExplorationMission1(EM1)istheunmannedinitiallaunchofSLS
thatwouldalsosendOriononacircumlunartrajectory,whichisplannedfor2017.[96]Thefirstmannedflight
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ofOrionandSLS,ExplorationMission2(EM2)istolaunchbetween2019and2021itisa10to14day
missionplannedtoplaceacrewoffourintoLunarorbit.[96]AsofMarch2012,thedestinationforEM3and
theintermediatefocusforthisnewprogramisstillinflux.[97]
OnJune5,2016,NASAandDARPAannouncedplanstobuildaseriesofnewXplanesoverthenext10
years.[98]Oneoftheplaneswillreportedlybeasupersonicvehiclethatburnslowcarbonbiofuelsandgenerates
quietsonicbooms.[98]
NASAplanstobuildfullscaledeepspacehabitatsaspartofitsNextSpaceTechnologiesforExploration
Partnerships(NextSTEP)program.[99]

Unmannedprograms
Morethan1,000unmannedmissionshavebeendesignedtoexploretheEarth
andthesolarsystem.[100]Besidesexploration,communicationsatelliteshave
alsobeenlaunchedbyNASA.[101]Themissionshavebeenlauncheddirectly
fromEarthorfromorbitingspaceshuttles,whichcouldeitherdeploythe
satelliteitself,orwitharocketstagetotakeitfarther.
ThefirstUSunmannedsatellitewasExplorer1,whichstartedasan
ABMA/JPLprojectduringtheearlypartoftheSpaceRace.Itwaslaunchedin
January1958,twomonthsafterSputnik.AtthecreationofNASAtheExplorer
projectwastransferredtothisagencyandstillcontinuestothisday.Itsmissions
havebeenfocusingontheEarthandtheSun,measuringmagneticfieldsandthe
solarwind,amongotheraspects.[102]AmorerecentEarthmission,notrelated
totheExplorerprogram,wastheHubbleSpaceTelescope,whichasmentioned
abovewasbroughtintoorbitin1990.[103]
Pioneer3and4launchedin
TheinnerSolarSystemhasbeenmadethegoalofatleastfourunmanned
1958and1959,respectively
programs.ThefirstwasMarinerinthe1960sand'70s,whichmademultiple
visitstoVenusandMarsandonetoMercury.Probeslaunchedunderthe
Marinerprogramwerealsothefirsttomakeaplanetaryflyby(Mariner2),totakethefirstpicturesfrom
anotherplanet(Mariner4),thefirstplanetaryorbiter(Mariner9),andthefirsttomakeagravityassist
maneuver(Mariner10).Thisisatechniquewherethesatellitetakesadvantageofthegravityandvelocityof
planetstoreachitsdestination.[104]

ThefirstsuccessfullandingonMarswasmadebyViking1in1976.Twentyyearslateraroverwaslandedon
MarsbyMarsPathfinder.[105]
OutsideMars,JupiterwasfirstvisitedbyPioneer10in1973.Morethan20yearslaterGalileosentaprobeinto
theplanet'satmosphere,andbecamethefirstspacecrafttoorbittheplanet.[106]Pioneer11becamethefirst
spacecrafttovisitSaturnin1979,withVoyager2makingthefirst(andsofaronly)visitstoUranusand
Neptunein1986and1989,respectively.ThefirstspacecrafttoleavethesolarsystemwasPioneer10in1983.
Foratimeitwasthemostdistantspacecraft,butithassincebeensurpassedbybothVoyager1andVoyager
2.[107]
Pioneers10and11andbothVoyagerprobescarrymessagesfromtheEarthtoextraterrestriallife.[108][109]
Communicationcanbedifficultwithdeepspacetravel.Forinstance,ittookabout3hoursforaradiosignalto
reachtheNewHorizonsspacecraftwhenitwasmorethanhalfwaytoPluto.[110]ContactwithPioneer10was
lostin2003.BothVoyagerprobescontinuetooperateastheyexploretheouterboundarybetweentheSolar
Systemandinterstellarspace.[111]
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OnNovember26,2011,NASA'sMarsScienceLaboratorymissionwassuccessfullylaunchedforMars.
CuriositysuccessfullylandedonMarsonAugust6,2012,andsubsequentlybeganitssearchforevidenceof
pastorpresentlifeonMars.[112][113][114]

Recentandplannedactivities
NASA'songoinginvestigationsincludeindepthsurveysofMars(Mars2020andInSight)andSaturnand
studiesoftheEarthandtheSun.OtheractivespacecraftmissionsareJunoforJupiter,CassiniforSaturn,New
Horizons(forJupiter,Pluto,andbeyond),andDawnfortheasteroidbelt.NASAcontinuedtosupportinsitu
explorationbeyondtheasteroidbelt,includingPioneerandVoyagertraversesintotheunexploredtransPluto
region,andGasGiantorbitersGalileo(19892003),Cassini(1997),andJuno(2011).
TheNewHorizonsmissiontoPlutowaslaunchedin2006andsuccessfullyperformedaflybyofPlutoonJuly
14,2015.TheprobereceivedagravityassistfromJupiterinFebruary2007,examiningsomeofJupiter'sinner
moonsandtestingonboardinstrumentsduringtheflyby.OnthehorizonofNASA'splansistheMAVEN
spacecraftaspartoftheMarsScoutProgramtostudytheatmosphereofMars.[115]
OnDecember4,2006,NASAannounceditwasplanningapermanent
moonbase.[116]Thegoalwastostartbuildingthemoonbaseby2020,
andby2024,haveafullyfunctionalbasethatwouldallowforcrew
rotationsandinsituresourceutilization.However,in2009,the
AugustineCommitteefoundtheprogramtobeona"unsustainable
trajectory."[117]In2010,PresidentBarackObamahaltedexistingplans,
includingtheMoonbase,anddirectedagenericfocusonmanned
missionstoasteroidsandMars,aswellasextendingsupportforthe
InternationalSpaceStation.[118]
Since2011,NASA'sstrategicgoalshavebeen[119]
Extendandsustainhumanactivitiesacrossthesolarsystem
ExpandscientificunderstandingoftheEarthandtheuniverse
Createinnovativenewspacetechnologies
Advanceaeronauticsresearch
EnableprogramandinstitutionalcapabilitiestoconductNASA's
aeronauticsandspaceactivities
ShareNASAwiththepublic,educators,andstudentstoprovide
opportunitiestoparticipate

Visionmissionforaninterstellar
precursorspacecraftbyNASA

InAugust2011,NASAacceptedthedonationoftwospacetelescopesfromtheNationalReconnaissance
Office.Despitebeingstoredunused,theinstrumentsaresuperiortotheHubbleSpaceTelescope.[120]
InSeptember2011,NASAannouncedthestartoftheSpaceLaunchSystemprogramtodevelopahumanrated
heavyliftvehicle.TheSpaceLaunchSystemisintendedtolaunchtheOrionMultiPurposeCrewVehicleand
otherelementstowardstheMoon,nearEarthasteroids,andonedayMars.[121]TheOrionMPCVconductedan
unmannedtestlaunchonaDeltaIVHeavyrocketinDecember2014.[122]
TheJamesWebbSpaceTelescopeiscurrentlyscheduledtolaunchinlate2018.
OnAugust6,2012,NASAlandedtheroverCuriosityonMars.OnAugust27,2012,Curiositytransmittedthe
firstprerecordedmessagefromthesurfaceofMarsbacktoEarth,madebyAdministratorCharlieBolden:

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Curiosity'swheelonMars,2012

Hello.ThisisCharlieBolden,NASAAdministrator,speakingtoyouviathebroadcast
capabilitiesoftheCuriosityRover,whichisnowonthesurfaceofMars.
Sincethebeginningoftime,humankindscuriosityhasledustoconstantlyseeknewlife...new
possibilitiesjustbeyondthehorizon.IwanttocongratulatethemenandwomenofourNASA
familyaswellasourcommercialandgovernmentpartnersaroundtheworld,fortakingusa
stepbeyondtoMars.
Thisisanextraordinaryachievement.LandingaroveronMarsisnoteasyothershavetried
onlyAmericahasfullysucceeded.Theinvestmentwearemaking...theknowledgewehopeto
gainfromourobservationandanalysisofGaleCrater,willtellusmuchaboutthepossibilityof
lifeonMarsaswellasthepastandfuturepossibilitiesforourownplanet.Curiositywillbring
benefitstoEarthandinspireanewgenerationofscientistsandexplorers,asitpreparestheway
forahumanmissioninthenottoodistantfuture.Thankyou.[123]

Scientificresearch
NASA'sAeronauticsResearchMissionDirectorateconducts
aeronauticsresearch.
NASAhasmadeuseoftechnologiessuchastheMultiMission
RadioisotopeThermoelectricGenerator(MMRTG),whichisatypeof
Radioisotopethermoelectricgeneratorusedonspacemissions.[124]

Staffandleadership
Radioisotopewithinagraphiteshell
thatgoesintothegenerator.

Theagency'sleader,NASA'sadministrator,reportstothePresidentof
theUnitedStatesandservesasthePresident'sseniorspacescience
adviser.Thoughtheagencyisindependent,thesurvivalor
discontinuationofprojectscandependdirectlyonthewillofthePresident.[125]Theagency'sadministrationis
locatedatNASAHeadquartersinWashington,DCandprovidesoverallguidanceanddirection.[126]Except
underexceptionalcircumstances,NASAcivilserviceemployeesarerequiredtobecitizensoftheUnited
States.[127]
ThefirstadministratorwasDr.T.KeithGlennan,appointedbyPresidentDwightD.Eisenhower.Duringhis
termhebroughttogetherthedisparateprojectsinAmericanspacedevelopmentresearch.[128]

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ThethirdadministratorwasJamesE.Webb(served19611968),appointedbyPresidentJohnF.Kennedy.In
ordertoimplementtheApolloprogramtoachieveKennedy'sMoonlandinggoalbytheendofthe1960s,Webb
directedmajormanagementrestructuringandfacilityexpansion,establishingtheHoustonMannedSpacecraft
(Johnson)CenterandtheFloridaLaunchOperations(Kennedy)Center.
In2009,PresidentBarackObamanominatedCharlesBoldenasNASA'stwelfthadministrator.[129]
AdministratorBoldenisoneofthreeNASAadministratorswhowereastronauts,alongwithRichardH.Truly
(served19891992)andFrederickD.Gregory(acting,2005).

Facilities
NASA'sfacilitiesareresearch,constructionand
communicationcenterstohelpitsmissions.Some
facilitiesservemorethanoneapplicationforhistoric
oradministrativereasons.NASAalsooperatesa
shortlinerailroadattheKennedySpaceCenterand
ownspecialaircraft,forinstancetwoBoeing747
thattransportSpaceShuttleorbiter.
JohnF.KennedySpaceCenter(KSC),isoneofthe
bestknownNASAfacilities.Ithasbeenthelaunch
siteforeveryUnitedStateshumanspaceflightsince
1968.Althoughsuchflightsarecurrentlyonpause,
KSCcontinuestomanageandoperateunmanned
rocketlaunchfacilitiesforAmerica'scivilianspaceprogramfromthreepadsattheadjoiningCapeCanaveral
AirForceStation.
JetPropulsionLaboratory
complexinPasadena,
California

VehicleAssemblyand
LaunchControlatKennedy
SpaceCenter

LyndonB.JohnsonSpaceCenter(JSC)inHoustonishometotheChristopherC.KraftJr.MissionControl
Center,whereallflightcontrolismanagedformannedspacemissions.JSCistheleadNASAcenterfor
activitiesregardingtheInternationalSpaceStationandalsohousestheNASAAstronautCorpsthatselects,
trains,andprovidesastronautsascrewmembersforUSandinternationalspacemissions.
AnothermajorfacilityisMarshallSpaceFlightCenterinHuntsville,AlabamaatwhichtheSaturn5rocketand
Skylabweredeveloped.[130]TheJPLworkedtogetherwithABMA,oneoftheagenciesbehindExplorer1,the
firstAmericanspacemission.
ThetenNASAfieldcentersare:
JohnF.KennedySpaceCenter,Florida
AmesResearchCenter,MoffettField,California
ArmstrongFlightResearchCenter(formerlyHughL.Dryden
FlightResearchFacility),Edwards,California
GoddardSpaceFlightCenter,Greenbelt,Maryland
JetPropulsionLaboratory,nearPasadena,California
LyndonB.JohnsonSpaceCenter,Houston,Texas
LangleyResearchCenter,Hampton,Virginia
JohnH.GlennResearchCenter,Cleveland,Ohio
GeorgeC.MarshallSpaceFlightCenter,Huntsville,Alabama
JohnC.StennisSpaceCenter,BaySt.Louis,Mississippi

FCR1in2009duringtheSTS128
mission,JSCinHouston

NumerousotherfacilitiesareoperatedbyNASA,includingtheWallopsFlightFacilityinWallopsIsland,
VirginiatheMichoudAssemblyFacilityinNewOrleans,LouisianatheWhiteSandsTestFacilityinLas
Cruces,NewMexicoandDeepSpaceNetworkstationsinBarstow,CaliforniaMadrid,SpainandCanberra,
Australia.

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Budget
NASA'sbudgethasgenerallybeenapproximately1%ofthefederal
budgetfromtheearly1970son,afterbrieflypeakingatapproximately
4.41%in1966duringtheApolloprogram.[125][131]Publicperceptionof
NASA'sbudgethasdifferedsignificantlyfromrealitya1997poll
indicatedthatmostAmericansrespondedthat20%ofthefederalbudget
wenttoNASA.[132]
ThepercentageoffederalbudgetthatNASAhasbeenallocatedhas
beensteadilydroppingsincetheApolloprogramandin2012itwas
estimatedat0.48%ofthefederalbudget.[133]InaMarch2012meeting
oftheUnitedStatesSenateScienceCommittee,NeildeGrasseTyson
testifiedthat"Rightnow,NASAsannualbudgetishalfapennyonyour
taxdollar.Fortwicethatapennyonadollarwecantransformthe
countryfromasullen,dispiritednation,wearyofeconomicstruggle,to
onewhereithasreclaimedits20thcenturybirthrighttodreamof
tomorrow."[134][135]
ForFiscalYear2015,NASAreceivedanappropriationof
US$18.01billionfromCongress$549millionmorethanrequested
andapproximately$350millionmorethanthe2014NASAbudget
passedbyCongress.[136]

Environmentalimpact

NASA'sbudgetfrom1958to2012as
apercentageoffederalbudget

Anartist'sconception,fromNASA,
ofanastronautplantingaUSflagon
Mars.AmannedmissiontoMarshas
beendiscussedasapossibleNASA
missionsincethe1960s.

Theexhaustgasesproducedbyrocketpropulsionsystems,bothinEarth'satmosphereandinspace,can
adverselyeffecttheEarth'senvironment.Somehypergolicrocketpropellants,suchashydrazine,arehighly
toxicpriortocombustion,butdecomposeintolesstoxiccompoundsafterburning.Rocketsusinghydrocarbon
fuels,suchaskerosene,releasecarbondioxideandsootintheirexhaust.[137]However,carbondioxide
emissionsareinsignificantcomparedtothosefromothersourcesonaverage,theUnitedStatesconsumed
802,620,000USgallons(3.0382 109L)gallonsofliquidfuelsperdayin2014,whileasingleFalcon9rocket
firststageburnsaround25,000USgallons(95,000L)ofkerosenefuelperlaunch.[138][139]EvenifaFalcon9
werelaunchedeverysingleday,itwouldonlyrepresent0.006%ofliquidfuelconsumption(andcarbondioxide
emissions)forthatday.Additionally,theexhaustfromLOxandLH2fueledengines,liketheSSME,isalmost
entirelywatervapor.[140]NASAaddressedenvironmentalconcernswithitscanceledConstellationprogramin
accordancewiththeNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActin2011.[141]Incontrast,ionenginesuseharmless
noblegaseslikexenonforpropulsion.[142][143]
OnMay8,2003,EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyrecognizedNASAasthefirstfederalagencytodirectlyuse
landfillgastoproduceenergyatoneofitsfacilitiestheGoddardSpaceFlightCenter,Greenbelt,
Maryland.[144]
AnexampleofNASA'senvironmentaleffortsistheNASASustainabilityBase.Additionally,theExploration
SciencesBuildingwasawardedtheLEEDGoldratingin2010.[145]

Observations

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Plotoforbitsofknown
Variousnebulae
PotentiallyHazardous observedfromaNASA
Asteroids(sizeover
spacetelescope
460feet(140m)and
passingwithin
4.7millionmiles

1Ceres

PlutoandCharon

(7.6 10 6km)of
Earth'sorbit)

Spacecraft

CassiniHuygens

HubbleSpace
Telescope

Curiosityrover

JamesWebbSpace
Telescope

Examplesofmissionsbytarget

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Examplesofroboticmissions
Spacecraft

Launch
Mercury Venus
year

Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto

Mariner2

1962

Flyby

Mariner4

1964

Mariner5

1967

Mariner9

1971

Pioneer10

1972

Flyby

Pioneer11

1973

Flyby

Flyby

Mariner10

1973

Viking1&Viking2

1975

Voyager1

1977

Flyby

Flyby

Voyager2

1977

Flyby

Flyby

Galileo

1989

Flyby

Magellan

1989

Orbiter

Flyby
Flyby
Orbiter

Flyby

Flyby
Orbiters
Landers

MarsGlobalSurveyor 1996

Flyby

Orbiter
Orbiter

Cassini

1997

MarsOdyssey

2001

Orbiter

Spirit&Opportunity

2003

Rovers

MESSENGER

2004

MRO

2005

NewHorizons

2006

Flyby

Juno

2011

Orbiter

Curiosity(MSL)

2011

Rover

MAVEN

2013

Orbiter

Spacecraft

Flyby

Flyby

Orbiter

Flyby Orbiter

Flyby

Launch
Mercury Venus
year

Orbiter
Flyby

Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto

Seealso
AstronomyPictureoftheDay
DepartmentofDefenseMannedSpaceFlight
SupportOffice
Listofgovernmentspaceagencies
ListofNASAaircraft
ListofNASAmissions
ListofUnitedStatesrockets
NASAAdvancedSpaceTransportation
Program
NASAawardsanddecorations
NASAinsignia

NASAinsignia
NASAResearchPark
NASATV
NASAcast
SmallExplorerprogram
SpacepolicyoftheBarackObama
administration
TechPort(NASA)

Footnotes
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1.NASAisanindependentagencythatisnotapartofanyexecutivedepartmentbutreportsdirectlytothe
President.[5][6]

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