CE2038 APM Notes PDF

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UNIT-1
SOURCES AND EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Introduction
Air pollution occurs in many forms but can generally be thought of as gaseous
and particulate contaminants that are present in the earth's atmosphere. Gaseous
pollutants include sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3),
carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC), hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), hydrogen fluoride (HF), and various gaseous forms of metals. These
pollutants are emitted from large stationary sources such as fossil fuel fired
power plants, smelters, industrial boilers, petroleum refineries, and
manufacturing facilities as well as from area and mobile sources. They are
corrosive to various materials which causes damage to cultural resources, can
cause injury to ecosystems and organisms, aggravate respiratory diseases, and
reduce visibility.
Particulates come in both large and small or "fine" solid forms. Large
particulates include substances such as dust, asbestos fibers, and lead. Fine
particulates include sulfates (SO4) and nitrates (NO3). Important sources of
particulates are power plants, smelters, mining operations, and automobiles.
Asbestos and lead affect organisms, while sulfates and nitrates not only cause
health problems, but also contribute to acid rain or acid deposition and a
reduction in visibility. Particulate matter, a term sometimes used instead of
particulates, refers to the mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in
the air.
Toxic air pollutants are a class of chemicals which may potentially cause health
problems in a significant way. The sources of toxic air pollutants include power
plants, industries, pesticide application, and contaminated windblown dust.
Persistent toxic pollutants, such as mercury, are of particular concern because of
their global mobility and ability to accumulate in the food chain. More research is
needed to fully understand the fate and effects of mercury and the many other
toxic pollutants.
Primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly into the air from pollution
sources. Secondary pollutants are formed when primary pollutants undergo
chemical changes in the atmosphere. Ozone is an example of a secondary
pollutant. It is formed when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) are mixed and warmed by sunlight. Ozone (O3) is a major
component of what is often referred to as smog. The ozone which is present in
the troposphere, or the atmosphere that is close to the ground, should not be
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confused with beneficial ozone that is located in the stratosphere or upper
atmosphere. This beneficial ozone in the stratosphere helps protect the earth from
harmful ultraviolet light from the sun.
Sources of Air Pollution

Stationary and Area Sources
A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that does not
move, also known as a point source. Stationary sources include factories, power
plants, dry cleaners and degreasing operations. The term area source is used to
describe many small sources of air pollution located together whose individual
emissions may be below thresholds of concern, but whose collective emissions
can be significant. Residential wood burners are a good example of a small
source, but when combined with many other small sources, they can contribute to
local and regional air pollution levels. Area sources can also be thought of as
non-point sources, such as construction of housing developments, dry lake beds,
and landfills.
Mobile Sources
A mobile source of air pollution refers to a source that is capable of moving
under its own power. In general, mobile sources imply "on-road" transportation,
which includes vehicles such as cars, sport utility vehicles, and buses. In
addition, there is also a "non-road" or "off-road" category that includes gaspowered lawn tools and mowers, farm and construction equipment, recreational
vehicles, boats, planes, and trains.
Agricultural Sources
Agricultural operations, those that raise animals and grow crops, can generate
emissions of gases and particulate matter. For example, animals confined to a
barn or restricted area (rather than field grazing), produce large amounts of
manure. Manure emits various gases, particularly ammonia into the air. This
ammonia can be emitted from the animal houses, manure storage areas, or from
the land after the manure is applied. In crop production, the misapplication of
fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides can potentially result in aerial drift of these
materials and harm may be caused.
Natural Sources
Although industrialization and the use of motor vehicles are overwhelmingly the
most significant contributors to air pollution, there are important natural sources
of "pollution" as well. Wildland fires, dust storms, and volcanic activity also
contribute gases and particulates to our atmosphere.
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Unlike the above mentioned sources of air pollution, natural "air pollution" is not
caused by people or their activities. An erupting volcano emits particulate matter
and gases; forest and prairie fires can emit large quantities of "pollutants"; plants
and trees naturally emit VOCs which are oxidized and form aerosols that can
cause a natural blue haze; and dust storms can create large amounts of particulate
matter. Wild animals in their natural habitat are also considered natural sources
of "pollution". The National Park Service recognizes that each of these sources
emits gases and particulate matter into the atmosphere but we regard these as
constituents resulting from natural processes.
Air Pollution at Shenandoah
Sources of air pollution that affect Shenandoah National Park are largely outside
of the park. These include industrial facilities located throughout the mid-Atlantic
region and the Ohio River Valley as well as urban centers in this same region.
Because most areas adjacent to the park are rural and agricultural, it is clear that
transport of pollutants from distant locations is an important element upon which
park air quality hinges. Even some agricultural activities, such as ammonia from
the poultry industry and pesticides that are applied to adjacent fields, may
contribute to air pollution in the park. In-park emission sources are relatively
small, but do include motor vehicles, maintenance equipment, small boilers and
generators. The relative contribution from the in-park sources is very small
compared to other sources. In a July 2002 report describing an emissions
inventory for Shenandoah National Park, it was determined that less than 1% of
emissions
were
produced
from
in-park
sources.
How does air pollution move?
Air transport is the term used to describe the mechanism by which air pollution
moves from an emissions source to a receptor. A source is a location (i.e.,
smokestack, chimney, exhaust pipe) from which the pollutant emanates and a
receptor is the place (i.e., soil, vegetation, waterbodies, human lungs) where the
pollutant is deposited. The atmosphere itself is the transporter of pollutants from
sources to receptors. If the wind carries the plume of pollution high enough in the
air, it may travel for hundreds of miles before being brought to earth. This is
known as long-range or long-distance transport.
Air Pollution Effects
The air is an important component of the natural system of a park in its own
right. The presence of pollution in the atmosphere results directly in air quality
degradation. Air pollution is also a critical factor affecting the quality of other
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environmental resources as well as the human-made structures and facilities in
the area. Polluted air can and has harmed park resources in a variety of ways
depending upon the chemistry of the pollutant, weather and environmental
conditions, and the nature or sensitivity of park resources. Examples of this harm
include vegetative discoloration and growth disruption from ozone, loss of
aquatic species from stream acidification, shifts in nutrient availability from acid
deposition, and erosion of building surfaces and rock formations. Air pollution
impairs visibility and contributes to climate change. Air pollution can also be
detrimental to human health.
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UNIT-2
DISPERSION OF POLLUTANTS
Dispersion characteristics of stack plumes
Dispersion is the process of spreading out pollution emission over a large area
and thus reducing their concentration. Wind speed and environmental lapse rates
directly influence the dispersion pattern. Five classifications of plume behaviour,
which may occur under some commonly encountered metrological conditions.
Coning
A coning plume, shown in Figure 1 (a), occurs under essentially neutral stability,
when environmental lapse rate is equal to adiabatic lapse rate, and moderate to
strong winds occur. The plume enlarges in the shape of a cone. A major part of
pollution may be carried fairly far downwind before reaching ground.
Looping
Under super-adiabatic condition, both upward and downward movement of the
plume is possible. Large eddies of a strong wind cause a looping pattern, Figure 1
(b). Although the large eddies tend to disperse pollutants over a wide region, high
ground level concentrations may occur close to the stack.
Fanning
A fanning plume occurs in the presence of a negative lapse rate when vertical
dispersion is restricted, Figure 1 (c). The pollutants disperse at the stack height,
horizontally in the from of a fanning plume.
Fumigation
As shown in Figure 1 (d), when the emission from the stack is under an inversion
layer, the movement of the pollutants in the upward direction is restricted. The
pollutants move downwards. The resulting fumigation can lead to a high ground
level concentration downwind of the stack.
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Page 6
UNIT-3
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
1. When do maximum ground level concentrations of pollutants occur in
mountain valleys? Why?
Maximum ground level concentrations occur a few hours after sunrise
when inversion layers are broken up and brought to the ground.
2. What is an urban plume? How is it formed?
An urban plume is the large mass of polluted air that moves downwind of a
city. It is produced from emissions from both mobile and stationary
sources.
3. What air quality problems are associated with long-range transport?
Long-range transport results in elevated pollutant concentrations hundreds
to thousands of miles downwind. It increases background levels in areas
subject to regulatory compliance with air quality standards.
4. Generally, how long does it take for a long-lived pollutant to be uniformly
mixed vertically in the troposphere? Horizontally throughout the troposphere?
In the first case it may take days; in the second case, approximately one
year.
5. By what mechanisms are pollutants transported into the stratosphere?
These include (1) a uniform rising motion across the tropical tropopause,
(2) in the middle latitudes, rising along surfaces of constant potential
temperature that cross into the tropopause, and (3) in events known as
tropopause folds.
6. Characterize air circulation in the stratosphere.
Because of the strong thermal inversion present there is limited vertical
mixing. However, significant horizontal movement occurs between
equatorial and polar regions.
7. What factors affect the lifetime of pollutants in the atmosphere? Pollutant
lifetime is primarily affected by the pollutants chemical stability and
processes that bring pollutants into contact with earth surfaces.
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8. What is dry deposition? What factors contribute to increased deposition rates?
Dry deposition is the removal of pollutants from the atmosphere in the
absence of precipitation. Deposition rates for gas-phase pollutants are
affected by their reactivity with surfaces and solubility in water.
Particulate Matter Air Pollution

What is Particulate Matter?
Particulate matter -- particulates or PM for short -- refers to the many types and sizes of
particles suspended in the air we breathe each day. Particulates include products of
combustion, such as soot or ashes, wind blown dust, and minute droplets of liquids
known as aerosols. PM can range in size from visible pieces of sand and dirt to
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microscopic particles so small that 500,000 of them could fit on the period at the end of
this sentence.
Why should you be concerned about PM?
Particulate matter not only impairs visibility, it also poses a serious health threat to
citizens. Our respiratory systems are equipped to filter out larger particles. However, the
lungs are vulnerable to particles less than 10 microns in diameter (PM10), which can slip
past the respiratory system's natural defenses. Very tiny particles (PM2.5) can penetrate
deeply into the lungs and do the most harm.
The particulates we breathe enter the lungs and pass through progressively smaller
airways until they reach the alveoli, tiny air sacs where oxygen enters the blood stream.
Particulates that get trapped in these most sensitive tissues interfere with oxygen uptake.
Toxic and cancer-causing compounds can "hitchhike" into the lung on these particulates
and be directly absorbed into the lungs.
What are the health effects of PM air pollution?
PM air pollution can cause coughing, wheezing, and overall decreased lung function in
otherwise healthy children and adults. Particulate pollution can trigger asthma attacks and
respiratory illness in the more sensitive subgroups of the population, such as the elderly
and those with heart and lung disease. Children are more susceptible to particulates
because they have smaller lungs and less mature immune systems. In the past 10 years,
more than two dozen health studies have linked high concentrations of particulate air
pollution with an increase in emergency room visits, hospital admissions, and even
premature
death.
What causes PM air pollution?
PM is introduced to the air through both natural and human causes. The primary sources
of PM in California, excluding agricultural dust, are motor vehicles; diesel trucks and
buses; residential wood stoves and fireplaces; industrial emissions; agricultural, slash and
yard waste burning; and even exhaust from lawn mowers and boats. PM concentrations
tend to be especially high in area with greater population density, nearby industries or
agriculture, or where local topography or weather conditions contribute to air stagnation.
Here are a couple of quick facts about sources of particulate matter:
During wintertime air inversions, wood stoves and fireplaces release more
hazardous particles.
Diesel trucks and buses are major producers of particulate matter and should
be replaced with natural gas-, methanol-, or electric-powered vehicles.
As our population increases, our vehicle miles traveled increases at a much
higher rate, which means more cars on the road and more air pollution from
motor vehicle exhaust.
Industrial emissions are a major source of air pollution. The best control
technologies should be encouraged to protect human health and the environment.
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What is being done to control PM air pollution?

Our nation's Clean Air Act of 1970, in combination with important amendments adopted
in 1977 and 1990, requires that the United States Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) identify and set standards for air pollutants. These National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) must be strict enough to protect the health of even the most sensitive
members of the population. PM10 is currently one of six "criteria" pollutants identified by
the EPA. Here in California, the Department of Ecology and local air pollution control
agencies cooperate with the EPA to implement laws designed to reduce PM levels.
A new PM standard
Though our air quality has improved since adoption of these laws, our visibility has
worsened. There is also mounting evidence that the PM10 standards may not be strict
enough to protect lung health. A 1996 analysis by the Natural Resources Defense Council
(NRDC) estimates that PM levels far below current air pollution limits contribute to over
1,000 premature deaths each year in Washington state. Experts suggest that changing the
PM standard to contain limits on fine particles (those 2.5 microns or less in diameter)
would better protect lung health. A PM2.5 standard might mean tougher restrictions on
diesel trucks and buses, wood stove and fireplace usage, outdoor burning, and industrial
sources. It will also mean that citizens will breathe easier and spend less on health care to
treat
PM-induced
illnesses.
POLLUTANT
SOURCES
HEALTH EFFECTS
STANDARD
Particulate
Matter (PM)
Wood burning, motor

vehicles, industry, outdoor
burning, windblown dust,
construction, mining,
unpaved roads, diesel
Eye and nose irritation,

airway irritation, cough,
decreased lung function,
increased respiratory
illness, premature
mortality
PM10 150 g/m
(24-hour average)
PM10 50 g/m
(annual average)
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What are bioaerosols?
A healthy indoor environment is important to you and your family. This includes keeping
the air free of biological contaminants, which can cause health problems. Scientists call
these airborne contaminants bioaerosols.
Bioaerosols are extremely small living organisms or fragments of living things suspended
in the air. Dust mites, molds, fungi, spores, pollen, bacteria, viruses, amoebas, fragments
of plant materials, and human and pet dander (skin which has been shed) are some
examples. They cannot be seen without a magnifying glass or microscope.
Can bioaerosols cause health problems?
They can cause severe health problems. Some, like viruses and bacteria, cause infections
(like a cold or pneumonia). Others cause allergies. Both allergic responses and infections
may be serious or even fatal. An allergic reaction occurs when a substance provokes
formation of antibodies in a susceptible person. We call substances which will cause an
allergic reaction in some people antigens or allergens. Bioaerosols may cause allergic
reactions on the skin or in the respiratory tract. Rashes, hay fever, asthma (tightness in the
chest, difficulty in breathing), and runny noses are common allergic reactions.
A few people develop a severe allergic reaction in the lung, which can destroy lung
tissue. This is called hypersensitivity pneumonitis. It is not an infection, but repeated
episodes can lead to infections of the lung, such as bacterial pneumonia.
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis can be triggered by exposure to very small amounts of the
allergen, once a person is sensitive to it. Symptoms can range from tightness in the chest,
cough, and difficulty in breathing, to low-grade fever, muscle aches, and headaches.
What are sources of bioaerosols in the home?
are Molds, mildews, bacteria, and dust mites like the same conditions that we do--warmth
and moderate to high humidity. They need little more than a constant moisture supply for
survival. You may find bacteria, molds, and mildews in air conditioning equipment,
humidifier reservoirs, dehumidifier drip pans, shower heads, toilets, and ice machines.
Water damaged carpets, ceiling panels, walls, and paneling are prime sites for new
growth if they are allowed to stay damp. When molds, mildew, dust mites, and bacteria
are disrupted or release their spores into the air, this results in bioaerosol
formation.Molds and mildews develop from spores, which are in the air all around you.
As soon as spores settle in an a with the right conditions for growth, they establish
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UNIT-4
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
The common air pollutants
. *PM10: Particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter<10m
**PM2.5: Particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter<2.5m
Primary and secondary air pollutants
Primary pollutants: SO2, CO2, CO, NO, NO2, Particulate Matter (PM) and VOCs are
primary pollutants - they are released directly into the atmosphere. Vehicle emissions and
emissions from other combustion sources may be significant primary sources of fine
fraction (PM2.5) particulate emissions. The combustion of the hydrocarbons - fuel oil,
diesel and petrol - produces elemental carbon as a primary particulate. Windblown dust
contributes to the coarse fraction of PM10 as a primary pollutant.
Secondary pollutants are formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions and
physical processes. For example, SO2 and NO2 react with ammonia or other alkaline
species, atmospheric oxygen and water vapour to form sulphates (ammonium bisulphate
and /or sulphuric acid) and nitrates (ammonium nitrate, peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) and/
or nitric acid). The nuclei that form when these substances condense may grow through
the physical processes of deposition and agglomeration.
Ozone is a secondary pollutant formed through a complex series of reactions between
NOx (NO2 and NO), volatile organic compounds and ultraviolet sunlight. Note that this
refers to the ozone formed in the lower levels of the atmosphere (troposphere), not the
ozone layer in the stratosphere.
The ozone layer in the stratosphere (Figure 2) occurs naturally, and helps to protect us
from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. The ozone depletion problem relates to the
discharge of large quantities of chlorine and bromine containing compounds into the
atmosphere which migrate into the stratosphere and promote the destruction of this
protective ozone layer, leading to increased exposure to ultraviolet rays and skin cancer
rates.
What is clean air?
At locations that are remote from pollutant sources, air concentrations reach
background levels. Background level concentrations refer to measurements done far
from pollution sources. Due to the mixing and dispersion processes in the atmosphere,
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background levels may represent concentrations that are low but significantly different
from the unpolluted air of pre-industrial periods.
The concentration of pollutants in urban air is one to three orders of magnitude (10x to
1000x) greater than levels in background or unpolluted air. For example, Cape Point
background concentrations for ozone (average 20-25ppb) and CO (average +-55ppb)
may be compared with values within the City of Cape Town of up to 100ppb for ozone
and 10ppm for CO. In some cities, peak ozone values of more than 200 ppb are not
uncommon. (ppb: parts per billion; ppm: parts per million)
3. The Sources, Health and Environmental Effects of the Common Air Pollutants
Exposure-response relationships (frequently called dose-response relationships) may be
used to estimate potential impacts on people and/or the environment. The World Health
Organisation (WHO) has published information on the exposure-response relationships
for the most common urban air pollutants as well as Air Quality Guidelines Values.
The adverse health effects of ambient air pollution on exposed communities,
demonstrated through many epidemiological studies include:
reduced lung functioning
provoking asthma attacks
worsening of respiratory symptoms
restricted physical activity
increased medication use
increased hospital admissions
increased emergency room visits
development of respiratory diseases
premature death.
The expected health effects depend on the type of pollution, the level (pollutant
concentration) and duration of exposure, and the personal susceptibility of an individual.
SO2 (Sulphur dioxide)
Sulphur dioxide is formed when fuels (mainly coal and oil products) containing sulphur
is burned, and during metal smelting and other industrial processes. Vehicle fuels (petrol
and diesel) contain significant levels of sulphur and hence contribute to the emission of
SO2 and sulphate particulates. SO2 in the atmosphere is converted to sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) and other sulphate particulates. Large scale emissions of SO2 from power
stations contribute to acid rain.
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Health and Environmental Effects of SO2: The major health concerns associated with
exposure to high concentrations of SO2 include effects on breathing (decreased lung
function), respiratory illness, alterations in pulmonary defences, and aggravation of
existing cardiovascular disease. Children, the elderly, and people with asthma,
cardiovascular disease or chronic lung disease (such as bronchitis or emphysema), are
most susceptible to adverse health effects associated with exposure to SO2.
NOx
NOx consists of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitric oxide (NO) is
mainly produced by combustion processes. NO is thus present in motor vehicle exhaust
gases, stack emissions from stationary combustion sources such as coal, oil and diesel
fired boilers, coal fired power stations and waste incinerators. The negative
environmental impacts of NO are not due to direct exposure to NO but to the atmospheric
transformation products of NO. About 90% of the NOx is released in the form of NO
which is converted to NO2 in the atmosphere. Nitric acid plants are sources of NOx and
nitrous oxide (N2O), a powerful greenhouse gas. It plays a major role in the atmospheric
reactions that produce ground-level ozone (or smog) and the nitrates in fine particulate
matter (PM2.5).
Health and Environmental Effects of NO2:
Nitrogen dioxide can irritate the lungs and lower resistance to respiratory infections such
as influenza. The effects of short-term exposure are still unclear, but continued or
frequent exposure to concentrations that are typically much higher than those normally
found in the ambient air may cause increased incidence of acute respiratory illness in
children. Nitrogen oxides contribute to ozone formation and can have adverse effects on
both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. NO2 is a strong oxidizing agent that reacts in the
air to form corrosive nitric acid, as well as toxic organic nitrates. Nitrogen oxides in the
air contribute to acid rain and eutrophication. (Eutrophication occurs when a body of
water suffers an increase in nutrients that leads to a reduction in the oxygen in the water,
producing an environment that is destructive to fish and other animal life.)
Ozone (O3)
Ground-level ozone (the primary constituent of smog) is the most complex, difficult to
control, and pervasive of the six principal air pollutants. Unlike other pollutants, ozone is
not emitted directly into the air by specific sources. Ozone is created by sunlight acting
on NOx and VOC in the air. There are thousands of types of sources of these gases. Some
of the common sources include petrol vapour, chemical solvents, combustion products of
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fuels, and consumer products. As noted earlier, emissions of NOx and VOC from motor
vehicles and stationary sources can be carried hundreds of miles from their origins, and
result in high ozone concentrations over very large regions.
Health and Environmental Effects of ozone: Scientific evidence indicates that groundlevel ozone not only affects people with impaired respiratory systems (such as
asthmatics), but healthy adults and children as well. Exposure to ozone for 6 to 7 hours,
even at relatively low concentrations, significantly reduces lung function and induces
respiratory inflammation in normal, healthy people during periods of moderate exercise.
It can be accompanied by symptoms such as chest pain, coughing, nausea, and pulmonary
congestion. Recent studies provide evidence of an association between elevated ozone
levels and increases in hospital admissions for respiratory problems in several U.S. cities.
Results from animal studies indicate that repeated exposure to high levels of ozone for
several months or more can produce permanent structural damage in the lungs. Ozone
damages crops and forest ecosystems.
CO (Carbon monoxide)
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, poisonous gas formed when carbon in fuels
is not burned completely. It is a by-product of vehicle exhaust, which contributes about
60 percent of all CO emissions. In cities, vehicle exhaust can cause as much as 95 percent
of all CO emissions. These emissions can result in high concentrations of CO,
particularly in local areas with heavy traffic congestion. Other sources of CO emissions
include industrial processes and fuel combustion in sources such as boilers and
incinerators.
Health and Environmental Effects of CO: Carbon monoxide enters the bloodstream
and reduces oxygen delivery to the body's organs and tissues. The health threat from
exposure to CO is most serious for those who suffer from cardiovascular disease. Healthy
individuals are also affected, but only at higher levels of exposure. Exposure to elevated
CO levels is associated with visual impairment, reduced work capacity, reduced manual
dexterity, poor learning ability, and difficulty in performing complex tasks.
Lead (Pb)
The main source of environmental lead is emissions from cars using leaded petrol.
Smelters and battery plants are major sources of lead in the air in their immediate
vicinity. The highest concentrations of lead may be found in the vicinity of nonferrous
smelters and other stationary sources of lead emissions.
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Other air pollutants
Dioxins and furans (two Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)) are two groups of
extremely harmful substances emitted from waste incinerators that are not equipped with
the most sophisticated operational and emission control systems. This is one of the main
reasons for communities opposition to the use of incineration as a means of disposal of
solid waste. (Other reasons are incineration discourages recycling and reuse of the
waste materials, and is wasteful of energy and other natural resources.) Particulate
matter containing heavy metals (principally Pb) or persistent organic compounds (such as
dioxins) contaminate soil and crops.
4. Principle Sources of Air Pollution
Air Quality (air pollutant concentrations) is the result of the interaction of pollutant
emissions, chemical and physical transformations, dispersion of pollutants and pollution
sinks. There are natural and anthropogenic (the result of human activities) sources of
pollution. Dispersion of pollutants is greatly influenced by meteorology; the oceans and
surfaces of plants, earths surface or buildings act as sinks. All pollutants undergo
dispersion, chemical transformation and deposition in the lowest layer of the atmosphere
the troposphere. The troposphere extends to an altitude of about 16 to 18 km over the
tropics, reducing to about 10 km over the poles and contains about 80% of the total air
mass. All weather phenomena occur in this layer. Mixing between the troposphere and
higher levels of the atmosphere (stratosphere and above) is negligible, therefore the
dispersion of pollutants occurs almost exclusively within the troposphere.
The sources of air pollution may be classified as stationary point sources (generally
industrial in origin), diffuse or area sources and mobile sources (mainly cars and trucks).
The stationary industrial sources are usually classified by process type or sub-type. Thus
an oil refining plant also includes large industrial boilers as a sub-type. Small and
medium scale plants such as garment or food processing plants may include industrial
boilers, a common source of air pollution. The quality and type of fuel used for energy
production are important determinants of the air pollution potential of a plant. Each type
of plant or activity generally emits more than one pollutant, and the pollutant emission
rate depends on the fuel type and quality, the design of the plant (and whether fitted with
air pollution control devices or not), and the activity rate or output of the plant.
Air quality monitoring
An air quality monitoring system essentially measures ambient air concentrations at a
number of fixed locations, for example across a city or within a region. In principle, the
function of a monitoring station is to compare the measured values against a standard or a
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guideline and to take action if the measured values exceed the standard or guideline.
(Unfortunately, in the absence of a regulated management system, too frequently no
action is taken even if guidelines are exceeded.)
Continuous monitors are instruments capable of measuring pollutant concentrations (for
example, SO2, NO2, CO, PM) continuously and more or less instantaneously (in reality,
over very short periods of time). The instantaneous values are not in themselves useful
for assessing air quality. Thus these values may be averaged over time periods of 10 or
15 minutes, one hour, 3 hours, 8 hours, 24 hours or longer periods. The time-averaged
values (time weighted averages) may be compared with air quality standards or
guidelines, or may be used to estimate the potential health impacts of the air pollutant
concentrations.
Instruments capable of measuring air pollutant concentrations continuously are
comparatively expensive, and have to be housed in a protected and controlled
environment, usually at a fixed site or in a mobile station or caravan. Thus a city with a
monitoring system would have a limited number of monitoring sites, each measuring a
limited number of pollutants. For example, the City of Cape Town has the following
monitoring network:
The choice of locations for monitoring sites should consider: proximity to major pollution
sources or suspected areas of high concentration, areas with high population density and
an area remote from local pollution sources to assess background pollution levels.
Cape Town publishes monthly reports of the results obtained at its monitoring stations.
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UNIT-5
NOISE POLLUTION
What is noise?
In simple terms, noise is unwanted sound. Sound is a form of energy which is emitted by
a vibrating body and on reaching the ear causes the sensation of hearing through nerves.
Sounds produced by all vibrating bodies are not audible. The frequency limits of
audibility are from 20 HZ to 20,000 HZ.
A noise problem generally consists of three inter-related elements- the source, the
receiver and the transmission path. This transmission path is usually the atmosphere
through which the sound is propagated, but can include the structural materials of any
building containing the receiver Noise may be continuous or intermittent. Noise may be
of high frequency or of low frequency which is undesired for a normal hearing. For
example, the typical cry of a child produces sound, which is mostly unfavorable to
normal hearing. Since it is unwanted sound, we call it noise.
The discrimination and differentiation between sound and noise also depends upon the
habit and interest of the person/species receiving it, the ambient conditions and impact of
the sound generated during that particular duration of time. There could be instances that,
excellently rendered musical concert for example, may be felt as noise and exceptional
music as well during the course of the concert! Sounds of frequencies less than 20 HZ are
called infrasonics and greater than 20,0000 HZ are called ultrasonics. Since noise is also
a sound, the terms noise and sound are synonymously used and are followed in this
module.
Sources of noise
Where does it generate from?
The sources of noise may vary according to daily activities. They sources may be
domestic (movement of utensils, cutting and peeling of fruits/vegetables etc.) natural
(shores, birds/animal shouts, wind movement, sea tide movement, water falls etc.),
commercial (vendor shouts, automobiles, aeroplanes, marriages, laboratory, machinery
etc.) industrial (generator sets, boilers, plant operations, trolley movement, transport
vehicles, pumps, motors etc.). The noise levels of some of the sources are summarised at
table 4. Typical surveys pertaining to causes of noise pollution, reveal the various sources
of noise pollution and frequency variation of their occurrences. The results of a survey
conducted in Central London, way back in 1961-62 reveals the presence of noise
pollution even in the early 60s (Table 5). Road traffic is identified as the major source of
noise pollution while at home or outdoors or at work.
Page 18
Impacts of noise
Why bother about noise? Often neglected, noise induces a severe impact on humans
and on living organisms. Some of the adverse effects are summarised below.
Annoyance: It creates annoyance to the receptors due to sound level fluctuations.
The aperiodic sound due to its irregular occurrences causes displeasure to hearing
and causes annoyance.
Physiological effects: The physiological features like breathing amplitude, blood
pressure, heart-beat rate, pulse rate, blood cholesterol are effected.
Loss of hearing: Long exposure to high sound levels cause loss of hearing. This is
mostly unnoticed, but has an adverse impact on hearing function.
Human performance: The working performance of workers/human will be affected as
they'll be losing their concentration.
Nervous system: It causes pain, ringing in the ears, feeling of tiredness, thereby
effecting the functioning of human system.
Sleeplessness: It affects the sleeping there by inducing the people to become
restless and loose concentration and presence of mind during their activities
Damage to material : The buildings and materials may get damaged by exposure to
infrasonic / ultrasonic waves and even get collapsed.
Control of Noise Pollution
Noise generation is associated with most of our daily activities. A healthy human ear
responds to a very wide range of SPL from - the threshold of hearing at zero dB,
uncomfortable at 100-120 dB and painful at 130-140 dB(3). Due to the various adverse
impacts of noise on humans and environment (See LO-5), noise should be controlled.
The technique or the combination of techniques to be employed for noise control depend
upon the extent of the noise reduction required, nature of the equipment used and the
economy aspects of the available techniques.
The various steps involved in the noise management strategy is illustrated at Fig 4.
Reduction in the noise exposure time or isolation of species from the sources form part of
Page 19
the noise control techniques besides providing personal ear protection, engineered control
for noise reduction at source and/or diversion in the trajectory of sound waves.
Noise Control at Source
The noise pollution can be controlled at the source of generation itself by employing
techniques like
Reducing the noise levels from domestic sectors: The domestic noise coming from
radio, tape recorders, television sets, mixers, washing machines, cooking operations can
be minimised by their selective and judicious operation. By usage of carpets or any
absorbing material, the noise generated from felling of items in house can be minimised.
Maintenance of automobiles: Regular servicing and tuning of vehicles will reduce the
noise levels. Fixing of silencers to automobiles, two wheelers etc., will reduce the noise
levels.
Control over vibrations: The vibrations of materials may be controlled using proper
foundations, rubber padding etc. to reduce the noise levels caused by vibrations.
Low voice speaking: Speaking at low voices enough for communication reduces the
excess noise levels.
Prohibition on usage of loud speakers: By not permitting the usage of loudspeakers in
the habitant zones except for important meetings / functions. Now-a-days, the urban
Administration of the metro cities in India, is becoming stringent on usage of
loudspeakers.
Selection of machinery: Optimum selection of machinery tools or equipment reduces
excess noise levels. For example selection of chairs, or selection of certain
machinery/equipment which generate less noise (Sound) due to its superior technology
etc. is also an important factor in noise minimisation strategy.
Maintenance of machines: Proper lubrication and maintenance of machines, vehicles
etc. will reduce noise levels. For example, it is a common experience that, many parts of
a vehicle will become loose while on a rugged path of journey. If these loose parts are not
properly fitted, they will generate noise and cause annoyance to the driver/passenger.
Page 20
Similarly is the case of machines. Proper handling and regular maintenance is essential
not only for noise control but also to improve the life of machine.
Page 21

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