BOTANICAL EVOLUTIONARY

PROCESSES
Abstract
Many scientists have discussed many theories of evolution. It was a scientific
competition between scientists to proof the accuracy of their theories and
hypothesis. As a result of these theories, understanding of the principles that are
related to microevolution, natural selection, adaptation within the species, gene
flow and genetic drift, isolation, and hybridization, will help to evaluate all of these
theories. At national and global levels, countries take serious actions and
legislations to secure species survival. During the studying of the simple green
plants (bryophytes), scientists discovered that they are beneficial to human
survival. They also have ecological importance. Another important topic is the
diversity of the seed plants and the importance of them to both environment and
human. It is also important to understand the diversity of bacteria and viruses and
to study their structure and functions. They also are essential to both human and
environment.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1735.0803

SAMEH F. ABDELGHANY

BOTANICAL EVOLUTIONARY PROCESSES

Botanical evolutionary processes

Introduction
Many scientists have discussed many theories of evolution. It was a scientific competition between
scientists to proof the accuracy of their theories and hypothesis. As a result of these theories,
understanding of the principles that are related to microevolution, natural selection, adaptation
within the species, gene flow and genetic drift, isolation, and hybridization, will help to evaluate all
of these theories. At national and global levels, countries take serious actions and legislations to
secure species survival. During the studying of the simple green plants (bryophytes), scientists
discovered that they are beneficial to human survival. They also have ecological importance.
Another important topic is the diversity of the seed plants and the importance of them to both
environment and human. It is also important to understand the diversity of bacteria and viruses
and to study their structure and functions. They also are essential to both human and environment.
Theories of Evolution
The theories of evolution can be divided into two periods, before and after Darwin. Before Darwin, I
would like to discuss the most the two famous theories about evolution. The first method is
invented by Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744 1829) (Prothero and Buell, 2007). He proposed a
theory of evolution called, The Law of Use and Disuse. He stated that if the animal uses an organ
frequently, the organ will develop and strengthen, while if it is not used, it will atrophy. He also
invented a theory of The Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics. He believed that if organ
characteristics developed through adapting to a new lifestyle, it would transfer it to its offspring.
For example, the giraffe used its neck to reach the tree leave, so its neck stretched and this
characteristic has transferred to next generations. I completely disagree with this theory because of
the way inheritance works. The second theory of evolution is stated by Charles Lyell, 1830,
(Anthro.palomar.edu, 2015). He explained the biological evolution by the geological process called
Uniformitarianism. He assumed that the processes that are happening now had operated in the
past. As a geologist, I can ensure that the impact of uniformitarianism influences the biological
evolution of the same species. The second period is after Charles Darwin, 1859 theory of evolution
(Darwin, Einstein, and Smith, 1859). He explained the development of life from nonlife. He argued
that the most complicated creatures are evolved from more simple ancestors naturally over time. I
agree with this theory as it is more reasonable to me. A good example that makes me agreed with
this theory the evidence of the evolution of horse toes. The ancestors of horse were five-toes, foxsized. By the time and natural selection, horse toes became equine. I would like to maintain that the
Darwinian Theory is the most acceptable theory to me. Lamarck theory failed to illustrate why the
offspring of metalworkers does not have developed muscles as their fathers. The Lyell theory can
be acceptable, but it cannot give a clear interpretation on how creatures are evolved.
One of the theories that Darwin proposed in called Natural Selection. It is a process of preserving
functional advantages of a species to survive in the wild. It can be used to control some species
populations by selective breeding. It has four processes; variation, inheritance, high rate of
population growth and, differential survival and reproduction. Microevolution is a change in gene
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BOTANICAL EVOLUTIONARY PROCESSES

frequency within a group (Evolution.berkeley.edu, 2015). We can observe the evolution over short
periods of time, for example, an increase of the pesticide resistance gene in crop pests. Adaptation
within a species is a change in species characteristics, size, color, or organs of offspring due to
environmental changes. Adaptation is the change in the frequency of a gene. Adaptation can be by
evolving of a gene as a result of natural selection for a particular function. An excellent example of
this perspective is the streamline body shape of marine fish. Gene flow and genetic drift are a
crucial part of evolution theories. Gene flow is a movement of a gene from population to population.
Migration is one of the ways that the gene may flow amongst populations. Genetic drift is when
unpredictable changes happened in allele frequencies. In a small population, genetic drift is more
impactful to the gene pool than in bigger communities. It is a one of several strategies that evolution
can occur in the population. The last aspect that can affect the development is isolation and
hybridization. There are several ways of isolation; geographic isolation, the reproductive isolation
that is divided into pre-zygotic and post-zygotic isolation. Hybridization is the interbreeding of
different species to produce different offspring.
Secure species survival
Nationally in the UK, there is Wildlife and Countryside Act, 1981. It is a very efficient legislation
as it covers the protection of wildlife, including wild plants and wild animals. The great
achievement of this act is the establishment of protected areas as the UK has 5,000 SSSIs (Sites of
Special Scientific Interests) that cover around 8% of the land area of England and 12% of Wales
(GHK Consulting Ltd, 2015). Another strategy that is very successful in the UK is Special Areas of
Conservation (SACs). It helps to conserve 189 habitat types and 788 species that are identified in
Annexes I, and II of the EC Habitats Directive; however, the UK has about 652 SACs
(Jncc.defra.gov.uk, 2015). In my opinion, the UK is doing very well to preserve species.
Internationally there are several effective strategies. One of these strategies is The Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The effectiveness
of this approach is that CITES protect 35,000 species against over-exploitation (cites.org, 2015).
Despite this strategy achieved a high achievement in protecting species, it failed to protect wildlife
in some areas, such as areas of war. It also cannot enforce non-developed countries to fight illegal
trades. In Egypt, for example, the government cannot prevent illicit trade in endangered species of
fish and coral reefs. Another useful strategy, I believe, is IUCN, the International Union for
Conservation of Nature, Red list. It is succeeded to preserve 23,250 species till 2015. It is also
achieved to protect Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) as its population has increased from 52 mature in
2002 to 156 in 2016 (iucn.org, 2015).

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UK SAC/SCI sites summary

Jncc.defra.gov.uk, (2016). Special Areas of Conservation (SAC). [online] Available at: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-23
[Accessed 7 Dec. 2015].

Bryophytes
They are non-vascular land plants that are a small, herbaceous plant. Bryophyte plants are different
than vascular plants. Its sporophytes have a very short life, and they are attached to their
gametophytes as dependents to obtain nutrients from them. Bryophyte sporophytes consist of an
unbranched stalk, or seta, and a single terminal sporangium, and they are 2-5 cm tall (Schofield,
2014). Bryophyte gametophore structure contains stems, roots, and leaves while the sporophyte
produces spores. Sporophytes are unknown in some bryophytes, and the gametophyte reproduces
asexually. Bryophyte classes are Division Bryophyta, or Mosses (Class Bryopsida, or Musci),
Division Marchantiophyta or Liverworts (class Heptapsida, or Hepaticae), and Division
Anthocerotophyta or Hornworts (Class Anthocerotopsida, or Anthocerotae) (Mauseth, 1998).

Mauseth, J. (1998). Botany. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

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Bryophytes are considered a simple green plant that is ecologically relevant and for human as well.
The most important mosses that are vital to human survival are peat mosses. They are a primary
source of fuel and they consider a vast reservoir of different energy. It is used, till now, for cooking
in some countries. About 95% of peat harvested in Ireland is burned to produce electricity
(Science.jrank.org, 2015). A human can use peats to improve the soil water-holding capacity. I
believe that peat mosses play an imperative role in human survival. You can imagine that our lives
without Bryophytes, I would argue that we would have an issue in energy demands. The most
important role they play is they are sensitive indicators of pollutants in the atmosphere.
As we have seen, that green plants are essential for human survival. It also has ecological
importance. Mosses, the liverworts, and lichens are the vast vegetation sources in the absence of
other vegetation. They occupy the areas of hills to prepare the soil for angiospermic and other plant
growth. Sphagnum plants have a great ecological importance as they cover the whole surface of
water help in minimizing the rate of evaporation. They also give an appearance of the soil from the
surface. I also would maintain that some bryophytes play a critical role in protecting soil erosion.
Despite bryophytes plans are useful for the environment; it might not be useful for other plants
such as a vascular plant. I think bryophyte mat can kill vascular seeds if it was deep enough.
Adaptation, Survival, and classification of seeds
Terrestrial plants are well-adapted to grow and persist. Seeds provide a significant adaptation for
terrestrial plants. A diploid embryo that exists in the seed is developed into a sporophyte. It also
stores tissue to help continuous growth, and it acts as a protective coat. Several layers of hard tissue
cover seeds to prevent desiccation of it. Seeds are scattering widely by wind, animals, or water. It
helps them to avoid food competitions with their parents. Plants can access the deep water by their
vascular systems. The most important adaptation strategy, I guess, this plant can reduce water loss
across the cell wall as it has a waxy cuticle. The other important strategy is that plant has stomata
on its leaves that can close and open. Plants can be tolerant dry conditions as they develop spores
with a protective wall. I believe that plant has very efficient adaptation strategies.
Seed survival is crucial to both environment and human survival. Seeds are the source of food to
human while other seeds are valuable raw materials for the manufacture of industrial chemicals.
They are not only necessary for human vegetation, but it also plays a crucial role in human welfare.
Human can eat seeds directly, or they might exist in fruit that human eat. I usually use an apple in
the morning as a diet for me. It helps me to lose weight and builds my body. Seeds are used to
manufacture flour, starch, oil, and alcohol. Environmentally, seeds are used to restore ecosystems
by the plantation. This is one of the most important usages of seeds environmentally. Seed banks
and seed genetic engineering can help in restoring the forests. I argue that seeds can control plant
population and crop variety. Despite seed genetic engineering is required to conserve plants, it
might, in my opinion, be an evil for plant diversity. Any unwell-studied genetic modification or an
error in the gene of a seed, it can damage a whole species of the plant. Seeds can act like a nuclear
bomb for other plant species if it is misused or genetically damaged.
In order to identify seed species, there are two ways to classify seeds. Classification of seeds is by
internal morphology, and by families. By internal morphology, seeds are divided into two classes;
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Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous. The bulk of monocotyledonous families seeds

(Gramineae, and Cyperaceae) have reserve food tissue. Its embryo has endosperm and seed leaves.
Dicotyledonous embryo occupies a small space of the seed cavity. The classification of seed by
families depends on the seed structure. This strategy is varied from a system to another. There are
four systems of classification, and they are divided into two main groups (Plantexplorers.com,
2015). Gymnospermae includes conifers, cycads, and Welwitschia. Angiospermae is called
Magnoliophyta, and it is divided into six main groups; Amborellaceae, Nymphaeaceae, Illiciacea,
Magnoliids, monocotyledons, and Eudicots.
The reproduction strategy of these two groups differs from group to another. The reproduction in
gymnosperms takes place inside cones due to the absence of flowers or ovaries. The seed can be
transferred by the wind, over water, carried by the animal or by explosions. In angiosperms, seeds
are developed inside the ovary.
Bacteria and Viruses Species, Structure, and Function
Bacteria are divided into many classes. Class Cyanobacteria species can obtain their energy by
conducting photosynthesis. It is blue bacteria, and they existed as blue-green algae. I consider this
species as they caused the great Oxidation Event. They produce oxygen as a byproduct of
photosynthesis. Class Prochlorobacteriae is one of the bacteria species that are discovered
recently as photosynthetic bacteria. It contains chlorophyll A & B. Class Eubacteria is unicellular
and contains DNA, and its cell has a wall. This is the most important species as it is used for medical
applications. Class Archaebacteria includes bacteria that live in harsh conditions. They are
anaerobic bacteria. Viruses have two species; Viroid, and Prions. Viroid contains small singlestranded RNA. They can infect plants that they are responsible for crop damage. Prions are smaller
than viruses, and it contains neither DNA nor RNA.
Bacteria size is ranged between 0.2 m and 700m. They have several shapes. It differs from
species to another (Fastbleep.com, 2015):
-

Rod-shaped or bacillus: E.coli and Bacillus cereus.

Spherical (coccus): Staphylococcus epiderminis.
Curved (Vibrio, spirochetes): Vibrio cholera.
Square-shaped (Arcola)
Star-shaped (Stella), and
Flagella: has a leg-like structure that helps to hold the bacterium.

The function of the cell structure is vital to protect the bacteria. Call wall is responsible prevent the
osmosis shock of the cell and cell wall damage. Cytoplasmic membrane controls the traffic of
substance in and out of the cell. Chromosome holds the bacteria gene. Plasmid carries the genetic
information of the bacteria. Ribosome participates in protein synthesis. Flagella helps cell to
move. The minerals are stored in Inclusion body while Pili is responsible for attaching the cell to
the host. Endospore is tough and helps bacteria to survive in hard conditions.

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Fastbleep.com, (2015). Bacterial Cell Structure and Function - Microbiology | Fastbleep. [online] Available at:
http://www.fastbleep.com/biology-notes/35/112/654 [Accessed 31 Dec. 2015].

Viruses have a different structure than bacteria. A protein coat called, a capsid surrounding the
nucleic acid core. Viruses have two shaped, viral shape, icosahedron 20 triangular faces, for
example, chicken pox, and helix-coiled spring, for example, Rabies. Bacteriophage T4 Structure
has many components. Head consists of genetic material surrounded by capsid; it is responsible for
protecting the genome. Neck connects the head to the tail and consists of many discs. The tail is a
contractile protein that helps in the injection of genetic material into the host cell. The base plate is
responsible for attachment to the host (YouTube, 2015).

Horne, R. (1974). Virus structure. New York: Academic Press.

The Importance of Bacteria and Viruses

Both bacteria and viruses are important ecologically and for a human. Ecologically, viruses are
essential in freshwater and saltwater regulation. They play a vital role in the carbon cycle in the
marine environment as they destroy the bacteria. Viruses and bacteria form more than 90% of the
biomass in the marine environment (Viral Roles in Ecosystems, 2015). I agree with the fact that
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viruses destruct harmful algae bloom that they kill other marine organisms. This is a very useful
role of viruses in marine life. However, viruses are not always harmless. Viruses can kill some of the
marine animals, for example, Parvovirus was a responsible of melting if sea stars along the West
Coast of Canada and the US (Lee, 2014). Bacterial, as well as viruses, play a vital role in the
environment. They are responsible for decomposition of dead bodies. I would maintain that this is
one of the most important roles of bacteria. The absence of those bacteria can make our lives full of
diseases because of rotten dead bodies. Another active role of the bacteria is that they are useful in
nitrogen fixation and make it available to plants, for example, Rhizobium and Cyanobacteria. Some
scientist can argue that some bacteria are harmful to the environment; however, I find that the
benefits of bacteria to the environment are more effective than their adverse effects.
Viruses and bacteria are not only relevant to the environment. They are also necessary for a human.
Most of the bacteria help human to digest food and produce vitamins such as gut bacteria. The real
thing in the bacteria is that the human can use them to produce dairy food such as, cheese, yogurt,
and also sourdough bread. I like the uses of bacteria and viruses to make the vaccine. The human
takes the advantages of the science to fight the harmful effect of bacteria and viruses by themselves.
Despite I believe that viruses have the significant adverse impact on human health, viruses can help
human as they can kill harmful bacteria. My strong belief is that the adverse effects of the viruses
are more than its useful effect.
Conclusion
As we have seen that I agreed with the Darwin theory of evolution as I find it more accurate and
logic. It can be considered in the definition of microevolution and natural selection theories. The UK
and other international agency have maintained very efficient practices to preserve species. The
study of bryophytes and simple green plants lead the scientist to discover the importance of these
plants to human survival, and also, it has ecological important as well. Seeds adapt to the terrestrial
life by maintaining several useful strategies. The one of the methods to understand the diversity of
seed is to know how they classified and how they reproduce. This led me to study viruses and
bacteria diversity as they are crucial to maintaining our environment and our survival. I can tell
that bacteria have the more beneficial effect to human than viruses. However, the modern science
takes full advantages of turning viruses to be useful than it though before.

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