Chapter 1

Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment
Materials in Construction
1.1
Stages in the life of a building
The successful operation of materials in buildings requires an understanding of

their characteristics as they affect the building at all stages of its lifetime as
follows:
Design
Materials appropriate to the building design, function and environment must be

selected; indeed, traditionally, consideration of the materials to be used was a
coherent part of the design process. Today there is more choice but designers
must be aware of the limitations as well as the opportunities associated with
individual materials, and how they interact with each other.
Chapter 1: Materials in Construction
Page 1
Construction
Builders are legally obliged to build-well and this includes a responsibility to use
specified materials in the correct manner and to identify potential defects.
Maintenance
Although some materials are virtually maintenance-free, the majority require

some form of care during their lifetime. Effective maintenance depends upon
knowledge of how materials react with their environment over the planned
lifetime. It may in the long term be much more expensive to maintain certain
materials if their initial quality is poor for example, protective coatings to
timber and metals.
Repair
A wide choice of repair systems is now available for many materials. Informed
and efficient use of such systems hinges upon an understanding of decay
processes, how to arrest decay, and how the repair materials interact with the
original materials.
Demolition/recycling
These processes are increasingly being considered as a part of the overall

selection procedure. The safety/environmental aspects of alternative materials
are, in particular, now being included in assessments of overall suitability.
1.2
Performance Criteria
Modern buildings are usually one-off structures of great complexity. They

comprise many components, some pre-manufactured and assembled on site,
while others, such as concrete, may be manufactured in situ. In each case,
satisfactory operation of the building as a whole depends on the performance of
the materials from which its components are made and on the interrelationships
between them.
Before assessing the suitability of any one material for a given situation, the
performance requirements for that situation must be identified. Such
requirements might include:
Structural Safety
The ability to withstand stresses resulting from gravity, wind, thermal or

moisture movement, or other sources.
Fire
The material must behave acceptably in resisting fire spread, release of

dangerous substances in fire and retaining satisfactory structural stability.
Page 2
Durability
The material should fulfil the above performance criteria as required for the
planned lifetime of the building.
Health/safety
There should be no risk to health due to chemical or physical effects of the

material, both during and after construction.
There are a number of other important performance requirements; for example:
Comfort
Resistance to weathering
Serviceability
Appearance
These will be referred to as appropriate when individual materials are described.

In addition to the above performance requirements of materials within the
finished building, the following might also have to be considered:
1.3
Availability/cost.
Ease with which material can be incorporated into the building
(buildability).
Environmental aspects for example, energy demand of the materials
during manufacture and ability to conserve energy in use.
Materials properties: specifications, standards and regulations
Most new buildings are produced with the aid of some written specification,
which may often take the form of detailed annotations to drawings, a bill of
quantities, or separate documents which are part of the contract. Some form of
written specification is highly desirable because it communicates to the
construction team exactly what is required and provides the client with a basis
on which unsatisfactory performance may be identified and remedied.
It is important to appreciate the background to the production of specifications,
standards and, ultimately, regulations for a particular item or context. In order
to be enforceable there is a need for each stage of the process to be precise
and repeatable. The developmental stage that lie behind any specific standards
or regulations are shown in the following figure.
Page 3
Specify
Identify
Define
Measure
Standardise
Regulate
For example, imagine the resistance to fire spread through a walling component.
Identify
Define
Measure
Standardise
Specify
Regulate
Type of wall to be tested

Can be defined in terms of how long (time in minutes) fire would
take to penetrate the wall.
Can be measured by carefully designed experimental tests
If results are to have wide-spread applicability, all relevant aspects
of the test procedure should be standardised. Standards may be
confined to the method of test, but very often they also include
acceptable levels of performance under the test.
A client or designer may specify performance levels by reference
to the standard.
Where Health and Safety are involved, a local authority or
government may regulate use by requiring a given level of
performance under the standard.
1.3.1 Standards
There exists two main standards which most of all the European countries are
obliged to follow. These standards are the;
British Standards
European codes and standards
British Standards
The British standards were produced at the beginning of the twentieth century
and now cover a vast range of materials and components, including most of
those used in the construction industry. They are produced by committees
representing manufacturers, researchers, users and government organisations.
With the advent of Eurostandards, British Standards now operate only on a care
and maintenance basis they will eventually be replaced by their European
counterparts which have validity in Europe as a whole. Because this process is
gradual, many British standards still exist; indeed new versions may be
Page 4
produced in the transition period (for example, the latest edition of BS 4449 for
steel reinforcement was published in 1997 during the preparation of EN 10080,
the European equivalent), but such standards will only be valid until the
European equivalent is operational. However, the final versions of European
Standards, on adoption by member states of the EU in the appropriate language,
again become national standards. For example, EN 10080 will be BS EN 10080
and will be available from the British Standards Institution.
European codes and standards
These provide a mechanism by which construction products and materials can be
traded and used freely throughout the European Common Market. They are
produced by Technical Committees of the European Committee for
Standardisation (CEN), which are of international composition reflecting the
viewpoints of member states. Although December 1992 was considered to be
the implementation date for these standards, their introduction and validation
are gradual processes and at present many standards are incomplete. As with
British Standards, there is a need for recognised testing and validating
authorities in each member state, and this infrastructure inevitably takes time to
introduce.
At present there are nine Eurocodes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
General and actions

Concrete
Steel
Composite (concrete/steel)
Timber
Masonry
Foundations
Seismic design
Aluminium
Each Eurocode can be regarded as a code of practice, although there is normally

nothing to prevent individual countries continuing with their national codes for
the time being. Eurocodes are being supported by European Standards (ENs)
whose use is enforced by directives. The Construction Products Directive
(CPD) was given legal force in 1991. Associated standards are based on six
essential requirements relating to health, safety and energy conservation, as
defined in the CPD. They are:
Stability
Safety in fire
Safety in use
Health
Noise
Heat retention
Page 5
As with British Standards, European Standards must be developed with great
care, representing the viewpoints of various interested parties. They are
therefore produced first as prestandards, or ENVs, which have no legal status;
these being followed by the full standard after a period of about three years. Any
product which complies with the essential requirements given in the standard is
eligible to carry a CE mark.
The use of CE mark does not necessarily indicate full compliance with a given
standard. The use of CE marks becomes mandatory once product directives are
issued by the European Union. Any standard will require a level of attestation
which demonstrates that it has been adequately assessed.
ISO Standards
These are standards produced by the International Standards Organisation and
they are intended to have world-wide validity. They may be adopted by
individual countries as national standards; for example, ISO 9000: Quality
Systems, has been adopted by the BSI and the European Union and has the full
title BS ISO 9000.
Page 6
1.4
Quality, quality control and quality management
Quality
This can be simply defined as 'fitness for

purpose'
Quality
Control
This is the practical procedure which assists

in the production of a quality product
Quality
Management
This involves the operation of a

comprehensive system of quality control,
including employment of a quality manager
to oversee the maintenance of quality
standards and keeping of systematic written
records of every part of a design, production,
or other process.
1.4.1 BS Kitemark
The British Standards Institution awards the kitemark to products produced and
assessed to a quality system operated to BS EN ISO 9000. The kitemark is most
commonly awarded against British standards, but it can be obtained against any
national, European or ISO standards for the product. It has widespread
recognition and is synonymous with high standards of production and quality
control.
Page 7
1.5
Materials performance and its measurement
The main considerations under which performance might be assessed where

mentioned at the beginning of this chapter. The following is an amplification of
some of these areas in order that the critical parameters in any one material
might be identified and controlled:
Stability (structural)
Safety in fire
Durability
Safety in use and health
Environmental and issues
1.5.1 Stability (structural)

There are many aspects of structural performance; the main ones being as
follows:
Strength
Strength may be defined as the ability to resist
failure or excessive plastic deformation under stress.
Compression
Tension
Bending
Shear
Torsion
Figure 1: Basic stress configurations
Page 8
L = 2D
L=D
L = D
Figure 2: Effect of specimen shape on compression test result.
(a) Shear in a bolt connecting two plates or more
(b) Shear in a timber joist
Figure 3: Shear Stress induced by applied compressive stress.
Testing
Compression testing needs special care because:
Slender specimens may tend to buckle, and this is really a failure in

bending.
The result depends upon the frictional restraining force between the
platen of the testing machine and the specimen which, in turn, depends
on the design of the machine.
Compression test results depend on the shape of the sample. The
situation is represented in figure 2, which shows that highest strength for
three compressive specimens of equal cross-sectional area will be the
sample with L = D since the platens of the testing machine reinforce
the material as it tends to spread sideways under load. The specimen with
L = 2D will record the lowest stress.
Page 9
It may well be argued that a pure compression test should not cause failure
since the forces are assisting atomic bonds and should therefore tend to hold the
materials together. While this is true, uniaxial compression (compression in one
direction only) also includes shear forces (figure 3) and tensile stresses as the
material swells in a lateral direction.
Tension testing can be difficult, especially with materials such as ceramics
because gripping specimens of uniform section produces stresses within the
grips which tend to cause premature fracture there (figure 4). Such problems
can be overcome by, for example, wasting the specimen, but this adds to the
cost of the test.
Figure 4: Additional stresses acting on a specimen when tensile stress is applied via friction grips.
(The diagram is schematic only; the friction grips would operate, for example, by pivots and scissors
actions.)
Bending produces compression, tension and shear stresses within the material,
the balance between these depending upon the shape of the sample. These
stresses can be calculated but the calculations presuppose simple bending
theory and it is known that such theory cannot be applied accurately to many
materials (such as timber and concrete).
Torsion, or twisting, occurs quite commonly when loads are applied
eccentrically. For example, if a beam supports a further beam at right angles to
it at mid-span, the carrier beam will be under a torsional stress. The calculation
of torsional stresses and resistance of materials to torsion can be quite complex.
All stresses should be measures in Newtons per square mm (N/mm2). Note that
fracture is not necessary for strength failure. For example, steel for practical
purposes has failed when it yields (see figure 5) though yielding does not
initially damage the metal. There are, on the other hand, many materials
ceramics, for example where sudden fracture is the first indication that
strength has been exceeded.
Page 10
Stress vs. Strain curve for structural steel.

Reference numbers are:
1 - Ultimate Strength
2 - Yield Strength(elastic limit)
3 - Rupture
4 - Strain hardening region
5 - Necking region
A: Apparent stress (F/A0)
B: Actual stress (F/A)
Figure 5: Stress vs. Strain curve for structural steel.
Stiffness
Stiffness is the ability of a material to resist
elastic deformation under load.
Elastic deformation is deformation which is recovered when the load is removed.
High deformations, even if elastic, may cause problems for example, unsightly
appearance or failure of plaster coatings if attached to a substrate which has
large deflections. It is normal practice, therefore, to check deflections as part of
the structural design. Stiffness is normally measure by:
( )
Since strain has no units (= fractional change of length), E values have the units
of stress. Measured strains are usually small, typically less than 0.001, leading
to large values of E. They are, therefore, usually measured in kN/mm2.
Note: 1 kN/mm2 = 1000 N/mm2
Page 11
Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb
energy by impact or sudden blow.
Strong materials are not always tough for example, cast iron. Relatively weak
materials can have high toughness for example, leather. Figure 6 illustrates a
typical impact test such as that used to measure the behaviour of toughened
glass.
Figure 6: Impact tester suitable for testing toughness of glass (Adapted from BS 6206: 1981)
Page 12
Hardness
Hardness is resistance to indentation under
stress.
Hardness is relevant to floor and wall surfaces (figure 7) and depends on a
combination of strength and stiffness properties.
Figure 7: Hardness testing
Figure 8: Hardness testing machine
For full information about this machine go to the following link:>

http://www.emcotest.com/en/loesungen/branchen/automotive.php
Page 13
Creep
Creep is the effect of long-term stress, leading
to additonal distortion or failure.
Creep does not necessarily produce a safety risk though marked deflections in,
say, beams can appear alarming. In extreme cases, creep may lead to ultimate
failure. Materials subject to creep are timber, clay, lead, concrete,
thermoplastics, and, to a small extent, glass. Creep can be tested using rigs of
the form shown in figure 9. Simple mechanical systems are preferred and the
strain can be measured by a demountable dial gauge. Alternatively, deflections
of simply supported beams such as timber could be measured.
Figure 9: Bench-mounted machine which demonstrates the phenomenon of creep under different conditions and in
2
different materials
For full information about this bench go to the following link:>

http://www.tecquipment.com/Datasheets/SM1006_0908.pdf
Page 14
Fatigue
Fatigue is the effect of load reversals such as vibrations
which lead to failure at relatively low stresses.
All materials are subject to fatigue effects and, in some situations for example,
roads or floors subject to heavy moving loads, or machine frames fatigue may
be the critical factor in design. The fatigue life of components is measured in
cycles since each cycle adds to the level of damage. For metals, fatigue lives of
several million cycles may be required in situations at risk.
Comparative properties of construction materials

The figures presented in this table are simply a guide, and should only be used
for comparative purposes.
Material
Density
(kg/m3)
Tensile
Strength
(N/mm2)
Elastic
modulus
(kN/mm2)
Toughness
Hardness
Creep
resistance
Softwood
(pine)||to grain
500
90
High
Low
Low
Hardwood
(oak) ||to grain
700
140
10
High
Moderate
Moderate
Elastomer
(butyl rubber)
900
10
0.1
High
Very Low
Low
Thermo-plastic
(rigid PVC)
1100
50
205
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Clay facing
brick (stock)
1900
20
Low
High
High
Concrete
(normal)
2300
30
Moderate
High
Moderate
Glass (glazing)
2600
100
70
Low
High
Moderate
Glass (fibre
reinforcement)
2600
3000
70
Moderate
High
High
Steel (mild)
7800
300
210
High
Very High
Very High
Steel
(prestressing)
7800
2000
210
High
Very High
Very High
Page 15
1.5.2 Safety in Fire
To initiate the process, heat or a source of ignition is essential, though, once

started, many combustion processes are self-sustaining because heat is a byproduct. The situation is illustrated by the triangle of figure 10.
Figure 10: The fire triangle: if any one ingredient is missing the fire cannot start.
To prevent or extinguish a fire, it is only necessary to remove one of the three

essential ingredients; for example, fire risk is greatly reduces as the quantity of
combustible material in an enclosure is reduced. Some extinguishers work by
surrounding the fire with a gas such as halon, containing the halogens chlorine,
fluorine or bromine which interfere with the combustion process/prevent oxygen
access. Water extinguishes fire by removal of heat, greatly assisted by
vaporisation of water which is highly endothermic reaction, consuming very large
quantities of heat.
The calorific value of a fuel measures the heat output on total combustion and
does not vary greatly within the range of organic materials. For example, wood,
coal, paper, petrol are all in the range 15-50 MJ/kg. It should be appreciated
that a flame is burning vapour and for it to occur the burning material must
vaporise. The risk in practice varies greatly, being greatest with liquid or
gaseous fuels. Liquid fuels are volatile they vaporise very easily. Together with
gaseous fuels they therefore mix easily with oxygen. The risk with bulk solid
materials such as large timber sections is lower since oxygen access is limited
and they vaporise less readily. The biggest risk with solid materials is when they
occur in sheet or foam form. In each case oxygen access is greater and when
heat is applied they become hot much more rapidly than large masses of
material.
Page 16
Evaluating fire hazard is a highly complex process and this is reflected in practice
by the numerous BS tests for the different aspects of fire. The chief hazards can
be summarised:
Heat itself causes burns.

Fire may endanger the structure.
Many materials generate toxic fumes when they are heated (even some
which do not readily flame or spread fire). This is a common cause of
fatalities in house fires in which fumes may affect the occupant
especially while asleep at night well before there is exposure to heat.
Materials often generate smoke, which makes breathing difficult and tends
to cause panic and disorientation as people try to escape.
Building and Fire Regulations are chiefly concerned with escape. The welfare of
the structure itself is of secondary importance, though insurance companies will
be anxious to minimise building damage in addition and the fire services will
also be concerned about provisions in the building for tackling fires effectively
without undue risk to personnel.
Illustration of some current British Standards are given in figure 11.
Double fire door immediately after 3 hour fire test inside a

4 hour rated
Surface spread of flame

[BS 476: Part 7]
Fire resistance, integrity and insulation

(door/partition)
[BS 476: Parts 20-24]
Example of a Firewall used to inhibit the spread of a

fire at an electrical substation.
Fire resistance, stability (wall)

[BS 476: Parts 20-24]
External fire exposure test

[BS 476: Part 3]
Page 17
1.5.3 Durability
Service lives for components of less than the building life may be appropriate
where replacement is straightforward, where there is a severe cost penalty of
longer life or where replacement arising from changing user requirements may
be desirable.
It is often very difficult to predict the durability of individual components. Also,
since failures in a very small proportion of the items in use may be
unacceptable, the only safe course of action may be to over-design them so
that materials in the worst likely situation should be satisfactory. In
consequence, many buildings last much longer than their design lifetime. The
following table summarises some of the main modes of deterioration of major
materials groups.
Type
Form of deterioration
Surface deterioration by
electrolytic corrosion in damp
conditions
Recommendation
Use resistant metal
such as stainless steel
or apply coating to
exclude moisture.
Metals
Moisture penetration followed by

frost or chemical action.
Deterioration at or below surface.
Bricks, stone,
concrete (porous)
Use non-permeable
forms; weatherings to
shed water;
impermeable coatings
to prevent water
penetration
Page 18
Fungal attack (damp conditions).
Timber and timber

products
Insect attack (normal conditions)
Exclude water; apply

preservatives
Ultraviolet Degradation
Polymeric
materials
Protect from sun e.g.

carbon black pigment,
or use
indoors/underground.
Use stabilisers or
surface coatings
It will be noted that the majority of modes are associated with the effect of
water. A further important point is that if these modes of deterioration are
avoided, as should be the case with good practice, long life should be achieved;
most materials do not age except by these specific mechanisms. There are, for
example, samples of timber, concrete and metals over 1000 years old and in
good condition.
1.5.4 Safety in use and health

Public awareness of health and safety issues is increasing rapidly and the
construction industry has come under scrutiny both from the point of view of
safety of the construction team and the general public during the construction
process and because the finished building might present a hazard to the
occupants. The following table indicates some of the possible safety hazards
posed by materials together with recommendations for addressing them.
Page 19
Common construction industry materials: risks
Substance
Situation
Risk
Lead
Formerly in paints,
pipes, solders
Diffuses from some

granite rocks
Radon gas
through ground
floor
Present in some
Formaldehyde foams (e.g. cavity
gas
fills) and wood
products
Used in refrigerants,
air conditioning
Chlorofluoro- systems,
carbons
propellants for
(CFCs)
aerosols and
foaming agents for
some plastics
Wood
preservatives
Asbestos
Polyvinyl
chloride
(PVC)
During storage,
transportation and
at or soon after
application
Not currently used
but may be present
as insulation or
other forms
especially in older
buildings
Widely used for
waste systems,
windows,
miscellaneous
applications.
Plasticised version
in fabrics
Solventbased paints
Factory and site
Bitumen
Site application
Health risk if
ingested, especially
to children
Remedy
Remove existing lead
pipework. Specify
lead-free paints and
solders
Radioactive gas
Isolate ground
beneath buildings
Can cause nausea
Adequate ventilation
after installation
Depletes ozone layer,

hence contributes to
global warming and
increases UV
radiation at earths
surface
Check specifications
for products which
might contain CFCs.
Less harmful
substitutes now
available
Risk to human,
animal or plant life
Use only in safe

situations under strict
control. Consider
other ways of
controlling risk
Risk of lung cancer
Arrange for safe

removal/disposal if
found
Chief risk is in
manufacture, where
chloride pollution in
effluent is a risk.
Small risk of toxic
gas in fire
Stringent precautions
during manufacture.
Normal fire
precautions
Risk to operator and

of general
atmospheric pollution
Vapours of hot
applied material may
be hazardous
Use water-based
paints where
possible.
Take precautions
during use
Page 20
1.5.5 Environmental Issues

There is currently relatively little legislation concerning environmental issues and
therefore a strong tendency for these matters to be overshadowed by economic
or other criteria when selecting materials for building.
Environmental matters are beginning to feature much more strongly in the
assessment of building materials and as this trend are likely to continue to
gather momentum into the new millennium, the following key aspects of
environmental performance will be considered:
Embodied energy
Recycling potential
Environmental management
In practice other factors such as potential damage to the landscape caused by

the extraction and disposal processes should also be considered.
Embodied energy
Energy should be regarded as a precious and finite resource and although it is
relatively cheap at the present time there is an economic advantage of use of
materials which take less energy to convert them from raw materials into the
final, in-situ product. In seeking new materials, emphasis should be given to
those materials which consume less energy in their manufacturing process, and
such materials should become increasingly competitive when, as is very likely,
energy costs rise. The process can be quite complex since costs must be
assessed at each stage as shown below.
The following table shows qualitatively the energy inputs associated with major
groups of building materials. Such a table can only be approximate and the
transport cost in particular will depend upon the geographic proximity of the
various stages from extraction to point of use. It does, however, permit general
conclusions to be reached. It should also be appreciated that the energy used to
produce materials for construction is in general considerably smaller than that
used to operate the building over its lifetime. The biggest component of energy
input for all applications industrial, public and private is usually heating and
attention needs to be given to how the need for such inputs can be reduced. This
is one illustration of the need to consider the lifetime scenario relating to any
one material, rather than simply the issues concerned with its production.
Page 21
Major groups of building materials: embodied energies
Material
Extraction
Manufacture
Timber
Low: felling
and
transport
Very low:
machining/
seasoning
Concrete
Clay bricks
Low:
aggregate
extraction
Low
Medium:
requires 1020% of
cement-a
high-energy
material
High: bricks
must be
heated to
1100oC
Plastics
Medium
obtained
from oil
High: complex
manufacturing
process
Steel
High: ore
must be
obtained
and
transported
Very high:
steel is molten
during
manufacture
Aluminium
High: ore
must be
obtained
and
transported
Very high:
high electricity
cost in
process used
Cost in
use
Generally
low:
Low: timber yard
requires
to site
occasional
protection
Transportation
Comments
Timber
overall
scores
highly
Fairly high due

to high density
Low:
provided
material is
durable
Overall
moderate
energy cost
Fairly high due

to high density
Very low:
provided
material is
durable
Overall high
energy cost
Low: low-density
material
Medium:
usually
limited life
High: highdensity material
Low:
provided
rust
protection
applied
Medium
Very low:
usually
protected
by oxide
coating
High energy
cost, offset
by
advantages
for common
applications
A highenergy
material,
with
significant
structural
advantage
A highenergy
material:
advantages
are
durability
and
lightness
Page 22
Recycling Potential
This may conveniently be described as a hierarchy of Rs, as shown in the
following table. Only when none of these is feasible should disposal be
considered. Materials/situations in which disposal is the only practical option
should be regarded as failures in an environmental sense.
Recycling may have various goals:
Reduction of raw materials consumption

Reduction of fuel consumption in manufacture
Reduction in waste generation
In any one context the aims of recycling should be established and the feasibility
of recycling examined bearing in mind the following:
Energy costs involved with recycling comparative to energy savings in

primary manufacture.
Economic cost of recycling, including recovery of material for the process.
Possible environmental implications of the recycling process itself,
including possible toxic emissions/residues.
Recycling options
Options
Comments
Reduce
Problems can be avoided at source if wastage in production is
reduced and materials have inherently low maintenance
characteristics
Reuse
This implies minimum recovery/reprocessing cost - for example,
reusing limestone after a building is demolished
Recycle
Some manufacturing is involved for example, lead, steel,
glass. Solid wood could be reprocessed into chipboard
Recover
This may still be worthwhile if combustible materials such as
energy
timber, plastics and rubber are incinerated and the heat
recovered is used for district heating schemes
Disposal
Should be the last resort
Environmental Management
There are calls for sustainable construction, which is a subset of a sustainable
society. Such a society should be able to continue to operate without
compromising prospects for operation of future societies. In environmental
terms, this means avoiding the following:
Depletion of finite resources

Adversely affecting the environment by pollution or waste
Adversely affecting the environment by energy emission
Adversely affecting the environment in a broader sense, such as upsetting
the eco-balance of wildlife
Page 23
At the present time these criteria are rarely fulfilled and there is an urgent need
to address issues, especially where it is believed that measurable adverse
changes are already taking place. In addition to the BS ISO 9000 Quality
Management Systems described above, many organisations are now operating
Environmental Management Systems in which environmental implications of all
operations are systematically considered and controlled. The ISO version of this
BS EN ISO 14001 and the corresponding European Standard is the
Ecomanagement and Auditing Scheme. Such schemes may be driven by local
authority initiative or, in the case of for example, materials suppliers, by public
perception and demand.
1.6
Further questions that make you reflect
1.
Distinguish between the functions of British Standards and Agreement

certificates.
2.
Describe the use of the CE mark in relation to construction products.
3.
Explain the difference between the terms quality control and quality
management systems.
4.
Explain the difference between the terms strength and stifness. Give
examples of materials of
5.
a)
high strength and high stiffness;
b)
low strength and high stiffness;
c)
high strength and low stiffness;
d)
low strength and low stiffness;
Explain the difficulty of measuring the strength of a material

a)
in compression;
b)
in tension.
6.
A material is to be used to clad the entrance hall to a large public building.

Indicate three aspects of its fire performance which should be considered.
7.
Compare the embodied energies of
8.
a)
timber;
b)
concrete;
c)
steel.
Describe the options available other than disposal at the demolition stage
of a building.
Page 24
1.7
Important Standards related to this topic
BS 476:
Part 3: 1975: External fire exposure test.

Part 4: 1970 (1984): Non-combustibility test for materials.
Part 7: 1987: Method of classification of the surface spread of flame
for products.
Part 11: 1982 (1988): Method for assessing the heat emission from
building materials
Part 20-22: Determination of fire resistance
Part 31: Methods for measuring smoke penetration through door
sets and shutter assemblies
Part 31.1: 1983: Method
temperature conditions
BS ISO 9000:
of
under
ambient
Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standards
BS EN ISO 14001: Environmental Management

guidance for use
1.8
measurement
Systems.
Specification
with
Final Note:
These notes were taken from the book Materials in Construction by G.D.Taylor.
All the pictures were taken from the internet to illustrate what was being
described. Some of the notes are related to English Standards. We only adopt
these standards when these are still not written in the European Standards. In
Malta we have also our own standards as well. In general, when a research is
done, we first try to find the Maltese standards, and then if such standards dont
exits, we try the other options.
Page 25

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Unit 2: Science and Materials for Construction and the Built Environment

Stages in the life of a building

The successful operation of materials in buildings requires an understanding of

Materials appropriate to the building design, function and environment must be

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

Although some materials are virtually maintenance-free, the majority require

These processes are increasingly being considered as a part of the overall

Modern buildings are usually one-off structures of great complexity. They

The ability to withstand stresses resulting from gravity, wind, thermal or

The material must behave acceptably in resisting fire spread, release of

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

There should be no risk to health due to chemical or physical effects of the

These will be referred to as appropriate when individual materials are described.

Materials properties: specifications, standards and regulations

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

Type of wall to be tested

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

General and actions

Each Eurocode can be regarded as a code of practice, although there is normally

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

Quality, quality control and quality management

This can be simply defined as 'fitness for

This is the practical procedure which assists

This involves the operation of a

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

Materials performance and its measurement

The main considerations under which performance might be assessed where

1.5.1 Stability (structural)

Figure 1: Basic stress configurations

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

Figure 2: Effect of specimen shape on compression test result.

(a) Shear in a bolt connecting two plates or more

(b) Shear in a timber joist

Figure 3: Shear Stress induced by applied compressive stress.

Slender specimens may tend to buckle, and this is really a failure in

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

Stress vs. Strain curve for structural steel.

2 - Yield Strength(elastic limit)

4 - Strain hardening region

A: Apparent stress (F/A0)

B: Actual stress (F/A)

Figure 5: Stress vs. Strain curve for structural steel.

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

Figure 7: Hardness testing

Figure 8: Hardness testing machine

For full information about this machine go to the following link:>

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

For full information about this bench go to the following link:>

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

Comparative properties of construction materials

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

1.5.2 Safety in Fire

To initiate the process, heat or a source of ignition is essential, though, once

To prevent or extinguish a fire, it is only necessary to remove one of the three

Chapter 1: Materials in Construction

Heat itself causes burns.

Double fire door immediately after 3 hour fire test inside a

Surface spread of flame

Fire resistance, integrity and insulation

Example of a Firewall used to inhibit the spread of a

Fire resistance, stability (wall)