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Where The Sojourner fits within the Broader Context of Old Testament Theology
There are many issues and subjects regarding social justice within the discipline
of Old Testament Theology that, particularly in the last few decades, have received
increased attention. The category of the group of people designated as the sojourner is
not one of these subjects. This is understandable in that the focus of most Old Testament
theologies had not been in such a place where such a perspective was needed or even
viable from the point of certain theological presuppositions however, given the renewed
focus upon social justice, such neglect is no longer acceptable. A renewed look at the
sojourner is now essential for several reasons.
The first is this; to speak of the sojourner in the Old, or first, testament is to
speak fundamentally about the issue of oppression and Yhwhs mission of blessing and
salvation. This is seen throughout the Old Testament text, however it is particularly seen
within the Pentateuch in both the overarching narrative from creation into the cultic life
of Israel, as well as the individual pieces of the narrative such as the law books. In terms
of social justice as a general subject, as well as in respect to the particulars of such a
subject as the sojourner, it must be observed that Israels ethics of social justice are
found within the narrative history and law books. Furthermore, it is these ethics of social
justice that have formative power over how Israel perceives God, and how Israel interacts
with him and other peoples based on this perception as they move farther away from the
giving of the law and the events of the narrative-historical formation. Given this aspect
of social justice within the Pentateuch, one must take seriously the various proclamations
of justice dealing with the sojourner and alien, both within the context of law, and

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narrative formation, as they are essential to conducting a meaningful theology proper
within the bounds of not only the Pentateuch, but also the entire Old Testament.
Within this line of reasoning it is necessary to root most social justice issues, in
particular that of the sojourner, within the field of biblical ethics. Christopher Wright
illustrates this importance of Israels social ethics in regards to the perception of God,
biblical ethics . . . assumes the existence of the one living personal God and sets the
whole of human life in response to him. Ethics is . . . primarily a response to God, who he
is and what he has done.1 The issue of the sojourner then, is set within the bounds of
the formative narrative and law or the post exilic narrative, is fundamentally tied to the
very character of Yahweh in the whole of the Old Testament text. This direct connection
necessitates that any issue of social justice and ethics among the people of God, be of
paramount importance to the Old Testament theologian and their various studies, as it is
the issue of Gods character, and more specifically the issue of theodicy, which comes to
the forefront of all such discussions.
Israels Covenant
It is impossible, given the origin of the Old Testament text itself as specifically
written by and for the people Israel, to attempt to identify and furthermore speak of
anything or any people group from a definitively Old Testament perspective without
making note of Israels covenant with Yahweh as the anchor point from which all
definitions of other peoples can be seen. Israel is the perspective from which the Old
Testament flows thus, all discussions regarding the sojourner and resident alien from an
Old Testament perspective must be brought back to the point of definitional reliance upon
1 Christopher J.H. Wright, Walking in the Ways of the Lord: The Ethical Authority of the
Old Testament (Leicester : Apollos , 1995). 117.

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what Israel says regarding this specific peoples relationship to Israel and to Israels god,
Yahweh. This requires attention to the context in which Israels covenant as such a study
is both historically important for the testimony of Israel itself as well as for the Old
Testament theologians specific purpose in study. Again, the character of Yahweh as
understood by those in the text is the driving force. As Walter Eichrodt illustrates in his
Theology of Old Testament, the formation of the covenant with Israel in regards to the
character of Moses; the question of the key to his leadership position in forming the
covenant people is answered . . . in the concrete historical task which was entrusted to
him in the very hour in which he was seized of a new understanding of the whole nature
of God.2 Based on this statement, the discussion of the sojourner must be brought
back to the discussion of covenant, which is really all about Yahweh himself.
The Placement of Covenant Amongst the Nations
It is both helpful and necessary, particularly in light of the relatively untouched nature of
this particular subject, to seek out the broader context of both the identity of the
sojourner, and where such a subject would fall in terms of our modern categories of
social justice (i.e. human rights issues, political abuse, etc.). In regards to the first of these
two contexts, a careful examination of the general peoples referred to as the nations will
observed in way that will yield a more ordered picture of where the sojourner falls on
the broad scale of peoples in the Old Testament. This will be essential in the process of
identifying who the sojourner actually is in the mind of Yahweh, as Israel perceives it
within the law books specifically.

2 Walther Eichrodt, "Walther Eichrodt on Covenant ," in Old Testament Theology:

Flowering and Future (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns , 2004 ). 51-52.

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A basic understanding of who the nations are is really contingent upon an
understanding of who Israel is as a elect people. Israel undoubtedly is Yahwehs favored
people, a preferred and privileged partner in Yahwehs workings among creation.3 This is
particularly important insofar as Israels ethical code, both within the context of cultic life
among the covenant people alone as well as Israel on the ancient Near Eastern stage, is
concerned with life as Gods creation.
In Israels unsolicited testimony, Israel becomes the key partner to
Yahweh and the subject of the testimony. In these ancient texts and in its
ongoing life in the world, Israel is indeed an oddity and a mystery, because
Israel is a theological phenomenon that has concrete sociopolitical
embodiment and is expected to live differently in a world of power.4
Israel and its relationship to Yahweh is unique in many ways, but perhaps the most
telling difference from among the rest of the ancient Near Eastern world, in relation to
this God, is that Israels very existence is depicted as directly tied to and derived from
Yahweh himself.5 While Israel is indeed the key partner and chosen people of Yahweh for
his purposes among his creation, it is important to note the context in which they are
placed. It is within the broader context of the world that this covenant people must seek
to live out its own unique and dependent existence.
Since Israel is set apart as a Holy nation (Ex. 19:6) it is easy to see them as a
separatist people, being completely removed from their broader world at large. This
perception of Israels broader political standing leads the reader to assume that Yahweh,
as he is choosing the people of Israel, is also paralleling this election with a stance of
3 Walter Brueggemann, Theology of The Old Testament: Testimony, Dispute, Advocacy
(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997). 413, 492.
4 Ibid. 413.
5 Ibid. 413.

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rejection or even ignoring completely the other peoples of his created world. John
Goldingay writes in regards to Isaiah 40-55s statements about Israels election and the
nations,
However, Isaiah 40-55 also makes especially clear that the election of
Israel neither signaled YHWHs renouncement of the other nations nor
involved their rejection in any way The First Testament does not develop
a doctrine of rejection to parallel its doctrine of election. One way of
avoiding the scandal involved in the idea that God chose one people is to
declare that in reality everyone is chosen.6
There are two concepts specifically that are of great value to the issue of the sojourner
within this broader discussion of Israels election. The first is that Yahweh, while
specifically choosing to orient his divine work among his creation through a particular
and quite frankly unspectacular people group, does not turn his back on the rest of his
creation. Israel is indeed chosen and looked upon with favor, but this favor in now way
denotes a negation of the rest of the peoples of the earth. In reality, Israels election is
also a choosing of the whole of creation as Yahweh deliberately moves amidst finite
creation to redeem and bless. It is in large part this active using of Israel to bless that
enacts significant actions and requirements in the Torah when speaking of the treatment
of sojourners, and the overarching subjects of oppression and human rights. This is the
second point to take away from this discussion, as it is the holy nation of Israel that
provides the anchor point for the nations to be saved, and for the sojourner to be
identified.
The Sojourner in General Relation to Covenant Israel

6 John Goldingay, Old Testament Theology: Israel's Gospel, Vol. 1 (Downers Grove:
Intervarsity Press, 2003). 216-217.

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In order to see the paradigm established for the identification of the sojourner, as well
as the broader treatment and participation of the nations in relation to Israel and Yahweh,
the context of Israels life with its deity and the others must be stated clearly. To do this
one must see that, Israel did not live its life or practice its faith in a sociopolitical
vacuum. From beginning to end, Israel lived among the nations who, in various ways,
decisively impinge upon Israels life.7 These nations among whom Israel finds itself,
find their own relation to Yahweh in the life of Israel through their relationship with the
holy nation. Thus, the sojourner finds their identity within a holistic dependency upon
the chosen people; Israel.
The position of the alien in ancient Near Eastern society was generally
one of dependence, with a certain amount of cultural isolation . . . Within
pentateuchal law the alien was generally assumed to be a non-Israelite
foreigner residing within the community. As such, with few exceptions,
the alien was generally subject to Israelite law, including religious law.8
This translates directly to the sojourner mentioned in such passages regarding the
practice of Yahwehistic faith in Leviticus 24:15-17 and Numbers 15:14-16, as the persons
mentioned find their relationship to Yahweh defined by the covenant of Israel. The
sojourner then may be identified in the Old Testament law and formative narrative
through the general relationship the outer peoples have with Yahweh through the people
of Israel. Here, in the context of the covenant people of Israel, the nations cease to be a
surrounding broad entity and become an immediate and intimate people living amongst
Yahwehs elect.
7 Walter Brueggemann, Theology of The Old Testament: Testimony, Dispute, Advocacy
(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997). 492.
8 R.J.D. Knauth, "Alien, Foreign Resident," in Dictionary of The Old Testament:
Pentateuch (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2003). 26.

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The Concept Of Blessing
It may seem at first glance, that the rise of Israel out of slavery and into a powerful nation
is a slight against the other peoples of the world, but as stated earlier, the election of
Israel is a choosing of creation in general. John Goldingay again drives this point to the
forefront of the discussion of covenant,
The context on both sides of the promise also suggest that this promise
does more than merely indicate the magnitude of the blessing Abram will
experience . . . Blessing and curse have been wrestling for dominance in
the world, and it has not been clear which would win. God declares that
blessing will do so, first in Abrams family, but then through Abrams
family in the wider world.9
This leads into the place of blessing in the life of Israel in its relationship to the nations
and the sojourner among them. Seeing that the sojourner act an intimate representative
of the nations among the people of Yahweh is a concept that must be closely tied to the
statements made by Yahweh in Genesis 12, specifically verse 2, And I will make of you
a great nation, and I will bless you and make your name great, so that you will be a
blessing (ESV). The concept of blessing here in inextricably tied to the covenant made
by Yahweh with Israel and with how this covenant will develop as Israel grows. This also
translates into the development of Israels social ethics regarding the sojourner since, as
stated earlier; the sojourner is literally the nations amidst Israel. This direction for
blessing is addressed in the second part of verse 3, I will those who bless you, and him
9 John Goldingay, Old Testament Theology: Israel's Gospel, Vol. 1 (Downers Grove:
Intervarsity Press, 2003). 214. See also, Bruce K. Waltke, An Old Testament Theology:
An Exegetical, Cannonical, and Thematic Approach (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2007).
Waltkes portrayal of the election of Israel via Moses on pages 350-352, and theological
reflection on pages 355-359 illustrate the placement of election within a hostile world,
which for the purposes of this paper, illuminate the overall status of Israel as sojourner.
Waltkes comments are exounded in the latter section of this paper entitled The Exodus:
Israel as Sojourner.

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who dishonors you I will curse, and in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed
(ESV). The immediate application for the issue of the sojourner, especially in the
events and actions of Israel as a people, as well as the law literature is that as Yahweh
chooses Abraham he chooses him for the specific purpose of blessing all the families of
the earth. It only makes sense that if this very important event of Israels narrative
history is taken serious by the people of Israel that the ethical standards and practices of
such standards would reflect both this importance in Israels relation to foreign entities, as
well as the sojourner living among them. Walther Zimmerli illustrates this connection
between Israels election, as seen in Deuteronomy 7:6-14:2, with the identification of
Israel in the covenant as a kingdom of priests,
The significant point is that here Israel is described not only as Yahwehs
special possession and a holy people, but as a kingdom of priests. It has
been suggested that this phrase reflects the designation of someone set
apart for the priestly service of mediation.10
The concept of blessing may be said to be the foundation for why Israels
covenant relationship with Yahweh is so immediately important to the people living as
sojourners within Israels life. If Israels perception of Yahweh, or the factual existence
of Yahweh, is that of a god who is like all the other nation-specific gods of the ancient
Near East, then the motivation for there to be such laws as Leviticus 19:9-11, 23:21-23,
and 25:5-7. These particular laws indicate not just a desire for a disinterested coexistence
of the people of Yahweh with the nation living among them, but also a desire for the
sojourners well being. In this section of the book of Leviticus the theological
statement made about Yahweh is that he desires for his creation aside from the chosen
10 Walther Zimmerli, Old Testament Theology In Outline (Edinburgh : T&T Clark ,
1978). 45.

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people to be blessed in him and his instrument of Israel. When talking of the sojourner
the Old Testament theologian is making theological statements primarily about Yahweh
himself.
The Sojourner as Slave: Israels Social Ethics
The connections between the people known as the sojourner and Israels social ethics
are undeniable. While there may not be much literature in publication regarding the
sojourner as independent subject, there is much in the way of the study of Israels
ethical codes and ways of life. For the purposes related to the sojourner in general, the
methodology of Robin Routledge will be assumed in respect to his break down Israels
ethics within the various genres of OT literature, including those of narrative and law.11
Israels laws, which said much about the way in which the people of Israel were to
interact and even bless the sojourner, is a directive form that finds its place among the
broader scope of narrative history and experience of Israel leading up to that point when
the Levitical laws are composed. The individual pieces of directive command must then
find their place within the broader scope of Israels historical narrative. Along with this, it
is primarily within the Exodus identity of Israel as sojourner-to-slave that the identity of
the sojourner is made manifest within the laws of the Pentateuch.
Israel as Sojourner
The ethical practices of Israel towards the sojourner are connected at a basic level with
Israels own identity, not only as an elect people of God, but inherently as sojourners and
aliens themselves. This identity is obviously present seen throughout Israels history
11 Robin Routledge, Old Testament Theology: A Thematic Approach (Downers Grove:
InterVarsity Press, 2008 ). See pages 238-249 for his brief overview of Israels ehtics
within the varying genres.

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particularly in Egypt, but perhaps another more uncommon placement of this identity can
be seen from the very unique place Israels covenant puts them in regards to their
complete and utter uniqueness by comparison to other ancient Near Eastern nations.
Either way, the identity and treatment of the sojourner in the Old Testament is
contingent upon Israels identity as sojourners themselves. Brueggemann illustrates this
principle in a more broad fashion when speaking of how the nations in general relate to
Yahweh,
We have seen, moreover, that as a second partner to Yahweh, the human
person is characterized by in this testimony only derivation and
extrapolation from the character of Israel, so that human persons are and
do, by reiteration and replication, what Israel is and does. 12
While Yahweh cares for Israel specifically, he also cares for all who are identified as the
sojourner.
The Exodus Narrative and the Law: Sojourner Identity
It is from within the overarching narrative history of Israel that the identity of sojourner is
placed upon Israel. In most studies of the social ethics of Israel the focus tends towards a
focus upon the law and wisdom literature. This focus is understandable and necessary in
that within the law are the specific commands to the covenant people, and within the
wisdom literature, in particular the prophets, exists the reaction and justice brought from
Yahweh when such law directives are not followed. However good this focus is, it does
leave out the aspect of narrative and remembrance. Gordon Wenham argues that there
exists a sort of gap between the requirements of the law, and the ideal of the ethics being

12 Walter Brueggemann, Theology of The Old Testament: Testimony, Dispute, Advocacy

(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997). 492.

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conveyed.13 It is the concept of narrative history and reflection that may bridge this gap,
specifically the reflection upon Israels own liberation and Exodus from the oppression
endured by the Egyptians. It is within the context of the Egyptian sojourn, oppression,
and Exodus that most of Israels ethics are linked and born out of. This is also it may be
stated, an important connection to why Israel is so brutally condemned in the words of
the prophets as they forget their story of God given liberation in place of a story of
empire and oppressive cultural and governmental behavior. That being stated, the Exodus
narrative is as important to the identity of the sojourner, as well as to the ethical identity
of post-Exodus Israel. Robin Routledge writes,
Ethical conduct in the OT also has its roots in Israels history. So, for
example, in Exodus 23:9 the command do not oppress an alien s given the
explanation you yourselves know how it feels to be aliens, because you
were aliens in Egypt. Instructions about the redemption of (Hebrew) slaves
are linked with Israels own experience, and also with the imitation of
God: remember that you were aliens in Egypt-and the LORD your God
redeemed you (Deut. 15:15a). In all of this we see the significance of
narrative.14

13 Gordon J. Wenham, "The Gap Between Law and Ethics in the Bible," JJS 48.I, 1997:
17-29.
14 Robin Routledge, Old Testament Theology: A Thematic Approach (Downers Grove:
InterVarsity Press, 2008 ). 245.

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This leads to see the explicit connections between Israels laws and its narrative as well
as the most important connection in regards to the sojourner; the connection between the
slave and the sojourner in the Pentateuch.
It is more than plausible to assume that, based upon such verses as Exodus 23:9
and Deuteronomy 15:15, Israel engages social ethics from a commanded position of
remembrance of its own historical-theological narrative. There are several connections to
note in this specific passage, for example, in relation to Israels Exodus narrative. The
first is that the law this passage concerns indentured servants and is based on the
recognition that Israels ancestors were slaves in Egypt (v.18).15 From the beginning of
the law, Israels interactions with those in a servant position, which is really where a
sojourner is placed living as subservient to the local laws of the land in most any ANE
culture, is tied intimately to the remembering of Israels former identity as sojourners
turned slaves. The people of Israel were enslaved unjustly themselves so Consequently
the people should show empathy to those who have been forced into servitude by the
vicissitudes of life.16 This connection is particularly tangible in verse 14. The law states
that the former servant is not to be sent away empty-handed, you shall surely make
provision for him (v.14). In the Exodus narrative the people received gifts of silver and
gold objects from their former masters in Egypt.17 This law, which can be linked to that
of Leviticus 25, finds itself as mirroring the Exodus event in how a servant shall make his
or her own individual exodus from the masters service.
15 Duane L. Christensen, Word Biblical Commentary: Deuteronomy 1-21 Revised, 2nd
Edition, Vol. 6A (Dallas: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2001). 318.
16 Ibid. 318.
17 Ibid. 318.

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