Tutorial

5. Airport Layout
Aviation is controlled by an agency of the United States' government known as
the Federal Aviation Administration or the FAA. This agency mandates
identification standards for airport layout that is meant to assist pilots in
easily recognizing runways from the air and to taxi safely from the runway to
the gate. From runway numbers and painted stripes to airport and runway
lights and signs, the FAA regulates the National Airspace System.
In navigation and surveying, all measurement of direction is performed by
using the numbers of a compass. A compass is a 360 circle where 0/360 is
North, 90 is East, 180 is South, and 270 is West. Runways are laid out
according to the numbers on a compass. A runway's compass direction is
indicated by a large number painted at the end of each runway. Preceding that
number are 8 white stripes. Following that number by 500 feet is the
"touchdown zone" which is identified by 6 white stripes. A runway's number is
not written in degrees, but is given a shorthand format. For example, a runway
with a marking of "14" is actually close to (if not a direct heading of) 140
degrees. This is a southeast compass heading. A runway with a marking of "31"
has a compass heading of 310 degrees, that is, a northwest direction. For
simplicity, the FAA rounds off the precise heading to the nearest tens. For
example, runway 7 might have a precise heading of 68 degrees, but is rounded
off to 70 degrees.

Each runway has a different number on each end. Look at the diagram below.

One end of the runway is facing due west while the other end of the runway is
facing due east. The compass direction for due west is 270 degrees ("27"). The
compass direction for due east is 90 degrees ("9"). All runways follow this
directional layout. This runway would be referred to as "Runway 9-27"
because of its east-west orientation.

The FAA includes over 20 different runway layouts in their advisory materials. There
are 4 basic runway configurations with the rest being variations of the original
patterns. The basic runway configurations are the following:
A) single runway
This is the simplest of the 4 basic configurations. It is one runway optimally
positioned for prevailing winds, noise, land use and other determining factors. During
VFR (visual flight rules) conditions, this one runway should accommodate up to 99
light aircraft operations per hour. While under IFR (instrument flight rules)
conditions, it would accommodate between 42 to 53 operations per hour depending on
the mix of traffic and navigational aids available at that airport.

B) parallel runways
There are 4 types of parallel runways. These are named according to how closely they
are placed next to each other. Operations per hour will vary depending on the total
number of runways and the mix of aircraft. In IFR conditions for predominantly light
aircraft, the number of operations would range between 64 to 128 per hour.

C) open-V runways
Two runways that diverge from different directions but do NOT intersect form a shape
that looks like an "open-V" are called open-V runways. This configuration is useful
when there is little to no wind as it allows for both runways to be used at the same
time. When the winds become strong in one direction, then only one runway will be
used. When takeoffs and landings are made away from the two closer ends, the
number of operations per hour significantly increases. When takeoffs and landings are
made toward the two closer ends, the number of operations per hour can be reduced
by 50%.

D) intersecting runways
Two or more runways that cross each other are classified as intersecting runways. This
type of configuration is used when there are relatively strong prevailing winds from
more than one direction during the year. When the winds are strong from one
direction, operations will be limited to only one runway. With relatively light winds,
both runways can be used simultaneously. The greatest capacity for operations is
accomplished when the intersection is close to the takeoff end and the landing
threshold as shown below (with the configuration on the left).

The capacity for the number of operations varies greatly with this runway
configuration. It really depends on the location of the intersection and the manner in
which the runways are operated (IFR, VFR, aircraft mix). This type of configuration
also has the potential to use a greater amount of land area than parallel runway
configurations.
Airports also use standardized lighting and ground markings to provide
direction and identification to all air and ground crews. To assist pilots in
differentiating at night between airport runways and freeways, airports have
rotating beacon lights. These beacons usually flash green and white lights to
indicate a civilian airport. They are visible from the air long before the entire
airport is recognizable. To help pilots at night quickly identify the beginning of
a runway, green threshold lights line the runway's edge. Red lights mark the
ends of runways and indicate obstructions. Blue lights run alongside taxiways
while runways have white or yellow lights marking their edges. All these
markings and lights serve to set a safety standard for all pilots to follow.

Tutorial
6. Influences on Airport Layout
When runways are built, their layout is influenced by many factors:

Federal Aviation Regulations

environmental concerns
noise level impacts
terrain and soil considerations
natural and man-made obstructions
annual weather patterns
the size and performance characteristics of the airplanes that will use the
runways

These are all factors in runway and airport planning. Many issues are studied
before final decisions on airport location and runway layout are determined.

Impact Report Maps for Ames Research Center, 1999

Cultural and Historic

Wetlands and Habitat

Noise and Safety

Site Pollution

Environmental impact requirements for airports were first established with

the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 and in 1970 with the Airport
and Airway Development Act. These acts ensure that due consideration is
given to the effects on the quality of the environment and the surrounding
communities in regard to airport expansion, use and development. Before
building a new facility or expanding an existing facility, an impact study or
feasibility study must be done. These studies include a critical assessment of
all impact issues from soil to air quality.
Controlling water pollution from airports has been well-mastered by planners.
Airports can be major contributors to water pollution if suitable treatment
facilities are not provided for the various types of airport wastes. These wastes
include the following: domestic sewage, industrial wastes such as oil and fuel
spills and high temperature water degradation that stems from the heat of
various power plants in nearly constant use at an airport.
One of the most severe problems is that of aircraft noise in and around an
airport. Laying out runways so that air traffic patterns occur minimally over
heavily populated areas is a practice now widely employed during runway
expansion and when building new airports. Controlling the land use around
an airport also helps reduce the interference of aircraft noise with the public.
Noise abatement procedures during takeoff and landing make for quieter
airport operations. Such procedures consist of a faster takeoff speed quickly
followed by slowing the engine once airborne over a populated area, then
returning the engines to full speed and resuming normal flight operations.
This lessens the amount of engine noise over the populated area without
adversely affecting the flight. Improvements in engine design have also been a
successful factor in reducing aircraft noise.
Airports attract business and people, but airports are noisy. Businesses and
people do not like airport noise. There are very few airports in the world where
no noise complaints have been recorded. Dallas/Ft. Worth International
Airport (DFW) records the time and track of every arriving and departing
aircraft. If a complaint is received DFW personnel can identify the aircraft that
was the cause. There is an organization called the San Francisco Airport
Roundtable that keeps tabs on noise and other concerns at the San Francisco
International Airport (SFO).

One of NASA's aeronautics

research goals is to reduce
the perceived levels of
noise from future aircraft
by a factor of 2 within 10
years and a factor of 4
within 25 years
Noise in the vicinity of
airports generated from
aircraft operations has an
adverse impact on a
NASA Research
A new approach to noise reduction is the active noise control
community's quality of
effort. The primary principle of active noise control is to sense the
life. At the very least,
aircraft noise is distracting noise disturbances in the engine and cancel them before they leave
the engine. In effect, negative noise is made to cancel out the
and it can be unhealthy.
engine's sound waves so that no noise is heard. This is a
Noise is generated from
multidisciplinary effort involving duct acoustics, controls, and
the propulsion system by actuator/sensor design.
the rotating machinery,
NASA Glenn has a unique facility for this testing. The Active
the combustion process,
Noise Control Fan is a 4-ft-diameter low-speed fan designed
the jet flow from the
specifically for active noise control testing. To date, several
nozzle as well as by the
concepts have shown successful cancellation of selected acoustic
aircraft from airflow over modes. Because noise is the sum of all possible acoustic modes,
wing flaps and around the the effort is still in its infancy, but it has potentially high payoffs.
Active noise control will contribute to the 6 db noise reduction
landing gear. Noise is
goal of the AST program.
measured as sound
pressure levels in decibels (dB). Noise impact on communities is a function of
both the noise (dB) from a single aircraft operation and the number of aircraft
operations. Therefore, as operations increase, overall community noise impact
increases. NASA's objective is to lower aircraft source noise such that there is
a substantial reduction in community noise impact even as the number of
aircraft operations increase.
The Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) makes the regulations (CFR, Part 36) but
airport operators are primarily responsible for planning and implementing
action designed to reduce the effect of noise on residents of the surrounding
area. Such actions include optimal site location, improvements in airport
design, and noise abatement procedures. Noise abatement procedures can
include designated arrival and/or departure paths and procedures. Land
acquisition and restrictions on airport use should not unjustly discriminate
against any user or impede the federal interest in safety and management of
the air navigation system.
Over the last 10 years aircraft have been required to become less noisy. This
change was accomplished with the design of quieter engines and in some cases
"hush kits" were installed on some older aircraft. The change came in three
stages where the aircraft noise level in decibels was reduced to less
objectionable and less dangerous levels. As of the first of January 2000 Stage
3, the final stage, was implemented.
The noise level of Stage 3 aircraft is comparable to a busy urban street and is

much quieter than the Stage 2 aircraft noise level which is similar to an
amplified rock music concert.
To find noise restrictions for individual airports check out the Boeing
Corporation web site:
http://www.boeing.com/assocproducts/noise/airports.html
The ground on which the airport is to be built must have a stable stratum of
earth upon which building foundations can be anchored. The soil must be
capable of supporting heavy loads without shifting or sinking. If the airport's
runways are to be used by heavy aircraft (airplanes with a gross weight
300,000 pounds and heavier) the underlying soil and/or bedrock must be
able to support the weight of the runway plus the aircraft's weight. Many
airport runways have several feet of reinforced concrete to support the
airplanes without cracking.
Land at a greater elevation surrounding an airport such as mountains also
have a profound effect on winds. In the daytime, air next to a mountain slope
is heated by contact with the ground as it receives radiation from the sun. This
air usually becomes warmer than the air farther up the slope. Colder, denser
air in the area settles downward and forces the warmer air near the ground up
the mountain slope. This wind is called a "valley wind" because the air is
flowing up and out of the valley. At night, the air in contact with the mountain
slope is cooled by terrestrial radiation and becomes heavier than the
surrounding air. It sinks along the slope producing the "mountain wind"
which flows like water down the mountain slope. Mountain winds are usually
stronger than valley winds, especially in winter. The wind pattern on the
leeward side of a mountain contains dangerous downdrafts or "rotor waves".
An aircraft flying through such wind would encounter hazardous turbulence
that would push the airplane towards the ground. These are all considered
when orienting runways in an area near mountains.

There are many airports within mountainous areas where the runway
headings generally run parallel with the length of the valley in which they are
located or run along neighboring rivers. The terrain often influences
development of the runways in the mountains. The airport runway at Aspen,
CO, Aspen-Pitkin County/Sandy Field (ASE) is located near the end of a long
valley. Airplanes land up the valley and takeoff down the valley. Mountains

rise abruptly from the airport elevation of 7,815 feet to above 14,000 feet on
three sides of the airport.
Man-made obstructions like multi-storied high rises, transmissions towers
and bridges can and do influence runway orientation. Landing at Reagan
National Airport on Runway 15 requires a curving approach that follows above
the Potomac River's course. Takeoff on Runway 33 from the same airport
requires the reverse trip following above the Potomac River because of
government buildings to the north of the river and many high buildings south
of the river.
Consideration of local weather patterns is also a factor in determining an
airport's layout. The weather patterns of an area, especially the prevailing
winds, are a major factor in determining runway headings. Prevailing winds
are defined as the direction from which the winds blow most frequently.
Remember that airplanes take off and land into the wind. Let's say that at a
given airport the prevailing winds blow in from the west 65% of the year, while
30% of the year the wind blows in from the east, and the remaining 5%
coming from the northwest. It would be best then to orient the runway W (27)
and E (9). That would mean that approximately 95% of the year airplanes
would be landing and taking off into the wind. In most of Texas and Oklahoma
the runways are generally N-S runways because the winds are usually from
either the North or South. In parts of the Eastern United States there are
many airports with NE-SW and NW-SE runways because the winds are more
likely to change between those two directions.

Tutorial

7. Terminal Configuration
Although there are many types of terminal configurations currently in use at
airports across the United States, the five basic types are given below with a
brief description of each.
Simple terminal
This configuration consists of one building holding a common ticketing and
waiting area with several exits leading to a small aircraft parking apron for
boarding. This is used at mainly small aircraft airports and some older large
airports.
Linear

terminal/ Curvilinear terminal

This is simply an extension of the
simple
terminal
concept
providing
more
gates and
more
room within
the
terminal for
ticketing and
passenger processing.
Pier finger terminal
This terminal configuration evolved during the 1950s when gate concourses
were added to the simple terminal building designs. A concourse is actually
defined as an open space where paths meet. Passengers are usually processed
at the simple terminal location and then routed down a "pier" where aircraft
are parked in the "finger" slots or gates for boarding.
Pier satellite terminal/ Remote satellite terminal
This configuration involves a single terminal where all the ticketing and
passenger processing takes place. Connected to this are numerous concourses
that lead to one or more satellite structures. At the end of each concourse the
aircraft are parked in a cluster. This increases the distance a passenger must
walk to get from one terminal to another or one gate to another. People-mover
systems are employed in these settings to reduce these walking distances.
These systems can be high speed escalators, monorails or electric-powered
carts. This design concept lends itself to a compact central terminal, but is
difficult to expand without disrupting airport operations.
Mobile lounge or transporter terminal (remote aircraft parking concept)
This concept is currently in use at Dulles International Airport and Tampa
International Airport. In this concept passengers are transported to and from
the building to the parked airplane. The mobile lounge can also be used as

holding rooms for waiting passengers at gate positions. Airplanes are parked
at gates placed along parallel rows. Several sets of parallel parking rows can be
created as increased traffic deems such expansion necessary. This design has
excellent expansion capabilities and can maintain the pace with increased
airport usage. With this concept, aircraft can be parked remotely from the
terminal buildings thus increasing the amount of aircraft enplaning and
deplaning passengers. Airplane taxiing time to and from the runway is
decreased as well as the amount of aircraft engine noise around the terminal.

Tutorial
8. Airports Tomorrow
In the future, designing new airports or re-designing existing airports will be a
challenge. Not only will there be increased concern for efficient intermodality
(getting passengers into, through and out of the airport by an integrated use of
transportation systems), a new look in terminal configurations might be part

of a future design. Use of underground, intra-airport transportation systems

like those found in Denver and Atlanta will probably increase. Airport design
of the future will be greatly influenced by new aircraft, new land-based and
air-based monitoring systems, land availability as well as growth and shifts in
population density.

Aviation futurists predict that both

larger jetliners and VTOL (Vertical
Take Off and Landing) aircraft will
fly us to our future destinations.
Large jetliners with the passenger
capacity of over 600 will require a
tremendous amount of thrust and
lift forces. This will result in larger
engines per jetliner or an increased
number of engines per jetliner, and
a longer wingspan. What effect will
this have on runways? Runways
will need to be longer as these
future jetliners will need greater
starting and stopping distances.
Ground controllers will also need
to allow for wider passing zones
between airplanes moving along the ground. Taxiways may have to be
widened. Increased usage of VTOL aircraft as well as VTOL aircraft with
passenger loads between 30 and 60 will create a whole new look at your local
airport. VTOL aircraft do not require runways, merely an unobstructed path to
a circular pad. Current airports might add an entirely new terminal to
accommodate these aircraft or communities might develop VTOL only
airports for the "short-hoppers" that is, flights less than 1,000 miles in
distance.
As NASA continues its research and development of new aviation tools for
ground-based operations and air-based monitoring, the National Airspace
System will experience fewer than before non-weather related delays. Despite
the increase in air traffic, these new aviation tools will lower the incidence of
runway incursions and air-bound delays by more efficiently tracking and
routing
aircraft.
As

communities continue to grow and spread out around their airports,

expansion for these airports will become nearly impossible. This will limit the
airport's capacity and can limit the type of aircraft that could use the airport.
For example, if an airport has no additional land available to lengthen a
runway for use by the extra large jetliners predicted for future use, then that
airport will not be able to service those routes. This would limit the amount of
passengers that could be served at that airport despite the fact that the
surrounding population has continued to increase. If that airport is not
allowed to expand, then an additional airport site will need to be found,
perhaps leaving the older airports to accommodate the smaller aircraft and/or
converting to VTOL aircraft with the newer, larger airports accommodating
the extra large jetliners.

Population growth in some areas along with shifts in population to other areas
will also influence an airport's design and location. As major metropolitan
areas have little vacant land on which to expand an existing airport or to
accommodate an increase in population, smaller cities are experiencing new
and rapid growth. As these smaller cities continue to grow, their need for
expanded air transportation will result in the establishment of a new airport
or expansion of the existing one. The current conversion of closed military
airfields can also provide air traffic relief for such growth spurts and
population shifts.

Tutorial
9. Closing
The airport is a complex hub of
transportation. It services
passengers, baggage and cargo
while monitoring air and ground
vehicles. The first one hundred
years of flight have witnessed a
tremendous amount of change in
aircraft and the airports that
support and service them. The
airport is a zone for transitioning
passengers and cargo from the
land-based transportation network
to the air-based transportation
system. Airport design influences
airport capacity, safety and
efficiency of operations on the ground and in the air.