Pageii

BiographicalCompaniontoLiteratureinEnglish
AntonyKamm

TheScarecrowPress,Inc.
Lanham,Md.,&London
1997

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SCARECROWPRESS,INC.
PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
byScarecrowPress,Inc.
4720BostonWay
Lanham,Maryland20706
Copyright1993,1997byAntonyKamm
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,
photocopying,recording,orotherwise,withoutthepriorpermissionofthepublisher.
TheauthoracknowledgestheadviceandtechnicalassistanceofAdrianBukkersofRowlandPhototypesettinginthepreparationofthetextofthisedition.
BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationInformationAvailable
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
Kamm,Antony.
BiographicalcompaniontoliteratureinEnglish/AntonyKamm.
p.cm.
Rev.andupdateded.of:Collinsbiographicaldictionaryof
Englishliterature.1993
Includesbibliographicalreferences
ISBN0810833190(alk.paper)
1.Authors,EnglishBiographyDictionaries.2.Authors
BiographyDictionaries.3.EnglishliteratureDictionaries.
I.Kamm,Antony.CollinsbiographicaldictionaryofEnglish
literature.II.Title.
PR106.K351997
80.9'0003dc219711819
[B]CIP
ISBN0810833190(cloth:alk.paper)
ThepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirementsofAmericanNationalStandardforInformationSciencesPermanenceofPaperforPrinted
LibraryMaterials,ANSIZ39.481984.ManufacturedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.

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Contents
TotheReader

TotheUser

vii

CrossReferences

vii

BibliographicalReferences

vii

GeneralNotes

viii

Abbreviations

viii

TheEntries

Pagev

TotheReader
Thisisarevisedandupdatedversion,primarilyfortheNorthAmericanmarket,ofmyCollinsBiographicalDictionaryofEnglishLiterature,publishedinthe
UnitedKingdomin1993.Itcomprisesbriefoutlinesofthelivesandprincipalliteraryachievements,andindicatesthelinksbetweenthelifeandart,of1544authors:
744fromBritainandIreland,249fromtheUnitedStatesofAmerica(ofwhom43arenewtothisedition),264frompastandpresentmembersofthe
Commonwealth,246fromothernations,and41fromtheancientclassicalworld.
TheintentionhasbeentoincludearepresentativeselectionofauthorswhohavemadeasignificantcontributiontoliteratureinEnglishortotheirnationalliterature,orto
both.WritersinlanguagesotherthanEnglishareincludedwhoseworksarewidelyreadinEnglishorhaveinfluencedthedevelopmentofliteratureinEnglish.
TheidentificationofanauthorasIrish,Scottish,orWelshhasbothliteraryandnationalsignificance.ThoseborninEnglandwhoflourishedbeforetheunionofthe
EnglishandScottishparliamentsin1707aredesignatedEnglishthosewhosewritingwasdoneafterthatdateareidentifiedasBritish.
Thisisaworkofbiography.Itmustthereforebeexpectedthatmorespaceisgiventoauthorswhohaveledvariedandinterestinglivesaswellastothosewhose
literaryachievements,influence,orversatilityhavebeenthegreater.VirgilisnotnecessarilyamoresignificantpoetthanHomeritisjustthatmoreisknownabouthim
andawidervarietyofworksareattributedtohim.
Bywritinghalfasmuchabouteachauthor,itwouldtheoreticallyhavebeenpossibletoincludetwiceasmany,butthatwouldhavemadeitadifferentbook.Asitis,I
haveendeavouredtomaintainanappropriatebalancebetweenvariousliterarygenres,andbetweenthenations,regions,andculturesrepresented,whilestillincluding
writerswhosepersonalindividualityoreccentricityhasenrichedthehistoryofliteratureinEnglish.

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TotheUser
CrossReferences
Anameinsmallcapitalsindicatesthatthereisanentryforthatpersontowhichreferencecanbemadethesurnameonlyisgivenexceptwherethereismorethanone
entrywiththatname(e.g.AUSTENCHARLOTTEBRONT).
Severaladditionalcategoriesofheadwordareincludedinthemainalphabeticalsequence:significantauthorsandeditorstowhomreferenceismadeinthecourseofan
entrybutwhohavenoseparateentryoftheirownpseudonymsandpennamesnamesofwhichtherearealternativewaysofbeingrepresentedasheadwords.
BibliographicalReferences
Italictypeindicatesthattheworkwaspublishedinvolumeform,orwasperformedinpublic,underthattitle.Itshouldgenerallybeclearfromthecontextwhetherthe
datecitedforaplayisthatofitsfirstperformanceorfirstpublicationoftenthetwoarethesame.
TitlesinLatin,French,German,Italian,Portuguese,Spanish,andDutcharegivenintheoriginallanguageaswellasinthatofthepublishedtranslation.Squarebrackets
areusedtoindicateEnglishequivalentsoftitlesinotherlanguages.Italictype(orromantypeinquotationmarks)withinsquarebracketsindicatesthetitleunderwhich
theworkhasbeenpublishedorperformedinanEnglishtranslation.
Dateswithinthemaintextofanentryare,unlessotherwisestated,thoseoffirstpublication.Inthecaseofatranslation,thedateisoffirstpublicationintheUSA,
whereappropriate.Thedateanddetailsofawork'sfirsttranslationintoEnglisharegivenwherethesemaybeofhistoricalinterest.
Inthe'See..'referencesattheendofanentry,thedateineachcaseisthatofthelatestrecordededitionofthework.Discrepanciescanoccurwhereabookhas
beenimportedfromitscountryoforigin.

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Theterm'newedn'usually,butnotexclusively,indicatesthepublicationofasubsequentpaperbackorsoftcovereditionofthework.Manybooksfromuniversity
pressesandotheracademicpublishersarenowissuedsimultaneouslyinhardcoverandpaperbackeditions.Theterms'rev.edn'(revisededition),'2ndedn',etc.are
selfexplanatory.
Bookscitedwithinorattheendofanentryforreference,orforbackgroundoradditionalreading,havebeenchosenasfaraspossiblefortheiraccessibilitytothe
ordinaryreaderandfortheirgeneralavailability.
GeneralNotes
Inheritedtitlesareincorporatedintheheadwordsofanentryinboldtypeconferredtitles(otherthanthosewhicharepartofanauthor'susualdesignation)areinthe
textface.
Alternativenamesintheheadwordsofanentryareenclosedinlightbrackets.
Insofarasitispossibletoapplythedistinction,'penname'denotesthenameunderwhichapersonwrites,'pseudonym'thatbywhichtheyareorweregenerally
knownineverydaylife.
Theterm'sizar'isdefinedintheentryforGeorgeFarquhar,whereitfirstappears.
Itshouldbeclearfromthecontextwhethertheacademictitleof'professor'isusedinitsAmericansenseofauniversityteacherorlecturer,orinitsBritishsenseof
principallecturerinafieldoflearningortheholderofauniversitychair.
Abbreviations
AB

BachelorofArts

AC

CompanionoftheOrderofAustralia

AM

MemberoftheOrderofAustralia

ANC

AfricanNationalCongress

AO

OfficeroftheOrderofAustralia

b.

born

BA

BachelorofArts

BBC

BritishBroadcastingCorporation

BCh

BachelorofSurgery

BD

BachelorofDivinity

BL

BachelorofLaw

BLitt

BachelorofLetters

Pageix

BM

BachelorofMedicine

BSc

BachelorofScience

c.

circa,about

CB

CompanionoftheOrderoftheBath

CBE

CommanderoftheOrderoftheBritishEmpire

CH

CompanionofHonour

CMG

CompanionoftheOrderofStMichaelandStGeorge

d.

died

DBE

DameCommanderoftheOrderoftheBritishEmpire

DCL

DoctorofCivilLaw

DD

DoctorofDivinity

DLitt

DoctorofLetters

DPhil

DoctorofPhilosophy

DSO

DistinguishedServiceOrder

ed.

editor,editedby

edn

edition

edns

editions

eds

editors

fl.

floruit,flourished

GBE

KnightGrandCrossoftheBritishEmpire

HMS

His(orHer)Majesty'sShip

Hon.

Honourable,Honorary

INLA

IrishNationalLiberationArmy

IRA

IrishRepublicanArmy

KBE

KnightCommanderoftheBritishEmpire

KCB

KnightCommanderoftheBath

KCMG

KnightCommanderofStMichaelandStGeorge

KCVO

KnightCommanderoftheRoyalVictorianOrder

KGB

StateSecurityCommittee(informerUSSR)

LittD

DoctorofLetters

LLB

BachelorofLaw

LLD

DoctorofLaw

LRCP

LicentiateoftheRoyalCollegeofPhysicians

MA

MasterofArts

MB

BachelorofMedicine

MBE

MemberoftheOrderoftheBritishEmpire

MD

DoctorofMedicine

MI5/6

MilitaryIntelligence,Section5/6

MP

MemberofParliament

MRCS

MemberoftheRoyalCollegeofSurgeons

NCO

noncommissionedofficer

n.d.

nodate[printedinthebook]

Pagex

OBE

OfficeroftheOrderoftheBritishEmpire

OM

OrderofMerit

PhD

DoctorofPhilosophy

QC

Queen'sCounsel

RA

RoyalAcademician

rev.

revised

tr.

translated,translatedby,translator

trs

translators

USSR

UnionofSovietSocialistRepublics

VC

VictoriaCross

vol.

volume

vols

volumes

Page1

A
AbKobo(192493)
Japanesenovelistanddramatist,wasbornAbKimifusainTokyoandwasbroughtupinMukden,Manchuria,wherehisfatherwasdoctortotheJapaneseoccupying
forces.In1933,shockedbythetreatmentofthelocalpopulation,hechangedhisnametoitsChineseequivalent.OnhisreturntoJapan,wherehefeltequallythathe
didnotbelong,hestudiedmedicineatTokyoUniversity.Hefailedhisexaminations,butwasgivenafacesavingpassonconditionthatheneverpractised.Hisfirst
novel,[TheRoadSignattheEndoftheRoad](1948),setinManchuria,containsinitsstudyofalienationandisolationthekeytomuchofhiswork.Thesettingof
[TheWomanintheDunes](1962tr.E.DaleSaunders,1964withanintroductionbyTHWAITE,1987),thesandduneswhereanentomologistdisappearsand
survivesinanundergroundcommunity,issufficientlyindefinitetogivethebookauniversalitywhichisunusualinJapanesefictionthefilm,thescriptofwhichhewas
coauthor,wonthejuryprizeattheCannesFilmFestivalin1964.In[TheFaceofAnother](1964tr.Saunders,1966),theisolationisofaresearchscientistwhose
facehasbeenhorrifyinglyscarredinalaboratoryexplosionin[SecretRendezvous](1978tr.JulietWintersCarpenter,1979)itisofasalesmanwhosewifehas
mysteriouslybeenconsignedsomewhereinthenightmareundergroundcomplexofahospital.BeyondtheCurve,tr.Carpenter(1991),isacollectionofshortstories
whichfurtherillustratehisdisquietaboutfamilyresponsibilities,identity,andoppressiveconditionsintheworkplace.
Hepublishedhisfirstplayin1955,andin1973begantoproducehisownwork(mainlycollagesofdifferentformsofvisualimages)inatheatrebuiltforhimbyits
ownerontheninthfloorofadepartmentstoreseeThreePlaysbyKoboAbe(1993).HewasthefirstwritertointroduceWesternconceptsofabsurdityand
nihilismintoJapaneseliterature,andthoughhisfictionhasbeencomparedtothatofBECKETT,KAFKA,andROBBEGRILLET,hehimselfacknowledgedtheinfluenceratherof
CARROLLandPOE.Hismotifofisolationwasreflectedinhisownlife:heneveropenedhismailoransweredthetelephone.
Ablard,Peter(orPetrusAbaelardus)(10791142)
Frenchtheologianandphilosopher,wasborninLePallet,nearNantes.HerenouncedhisbirthrightastheeldestsontostudylogicinParisunderWilliamof
Champeaux(c.10701121),whomhedefeatedsooftenindisputationthatitwasadvisabletomoveontotheschoolsatMelonandCorbeil,wherehelecturedto
packedaudiences.Afteraspellathomeforhishealth,hestudiedtheologyatLaon,andin1115becameacanonofNotreDameandaprofessorofphilosophy,in
whichcapacityheissaidtohaveinstructedonefuturepope,19cardinals,andoverfiftybishops.AttractedtoHlose,the17yearold'reputedniece'ofCanon
Fulbert,hebecameherprivatetutor.Theyhadanintenseaffair,ofwhichason,Astralabe,wasborn.ThoughtheysecretlymarriedinBrittany,Hloserefusedto
acknowledgethatshewashiswifesoasnottoprejudicehisprefermentintheChurch.AfuriousFulberthadAblardcastrated,asheslept,byathugwitharazor.
HloseretiredtoanunneryatArgenteuil.AblardbecameamonkoftheabbeyofStDenis,butafterhisteachingandhisbookIntroductioadTheologiamhad
beencondemnedasheretical,hewentintohermitagenearNogentsurSeine.Hisdisciplespromptlybesiegedtheplace,andbuilthimastonechapel,dedicatedunder
thenameofParaclete.Induecourse,whenAblardwasappointedAbbotofStGildasdeRhuysinBrittany,itbecameaconvent,ofwhichHlosewasputin
charge.Aphilosophicalconceptualistandatheologicalrationalist,AblarddiedatCluny,wherehehadstoppedonhiswaytoRometoanswerfurtherchargesa
selectionofhiswritingsisinEthics,ed.andtr.D.E.Luscombe(1971).Forthemoreromanticallymindedisthecacheoffourlettersbetweentheformerlovers,hers
moreardentthanhis,writteninLatininabout1132andfirstpublishedin1616seeTheLettersofAbelardandHeloise,ed.andtr.BettyRadice(1974),which
includes'HistoriaCalamitaturn'[TheStoryofHisMisfortunes],hisownaccountofhislifeupto1132,andotherdocuments.Hosediedin1163/4andwasburied
besidehimatParaclete.Theirremainsare

Page2

nowinParis,inthecemeteryofPreLachaise.
Abrahams,Peter(b.1919)
SouthAfricannovelist,wasborninVrededorp,nearJohannesburg,andeducatedattheDiocesanTrainingCollege,GraceDieu,andStPeter'sSecondarySchool,
Rosettenville.InhislateteenshereadrightthroughtheAmericannegroliteraturesectionofthelibraryintheBantuMen'sSocialCentre,becomingwhathetermeda
'colournationalist',andhadabookofverseprinted,ABlackmanSpeaksofFreedom.In1941,havingservedfortwoyearsasastokerintheMerchantNavy,he
settledinEngland.HewasonthestaffoftheCommunistnewspaper,theDailyWorker,andpublishedabookofshortstories,DarkTestament(1942),andaminor
novel,SongoftheCity(1945).MineBoy(1946)establishedhimaswhatMichaelWade,inPeterAbrahams(1972),calls'SouthAfrica'sfirstproletarianwriter'.
WildConquest(1950)isanartisticviewofthecollisionbetweenBoerandMatabeleatthetimeoftheGreatTrek.HisrevealingpersonalreportsonSouthAfrica,
writtenfortheObserver,werepublishedasReturntoGoli(1953).In1955heandhisfamilymovedtoJamaica,wherehewasEditoroftheWestIndianEconomist
andControllerof'WestIndianNews'broadcasts195564,andChairmanofRadioJamaica197780.HisdivorcefromtheSouthAfricansceneforcedhimnowto
takeabroaderlookatcontemporaryblackissues.AWreathforUdomo(1956)looksattheimplicationsofanAfricancountry'sindependence.TheViewfrom
Coyaba(1985)isahistoricalnovelwhichrecreatesblackexperienceinAfrica,theCaribbean,andtheAmericanSouth.SeeTellFreedom:MemoriesofAfrica,
1954(autobiography).
Abse,Dannie(b.1923)
Welshpoet,novelist,anddramatist,wasborninCardiffandeducatedatStIlltyd'sCollege,Cardiff,theUniversityofSouthWalesandMonmouthshire,andKing's
College,London,qualifyingasaphysicianin1950,andbecomingachestspecialist.Hispoetry,whichbeganwithAfterEveryGreenThing(1949)andwhichhehas
continuedtowritearecentvolumeisRemembranceofCrimesPast(1990)isrootedinhisWelshandJewishbackgroundsandinhisowndaytoday
experience,beingreflective,oftenamusing,andusuallyreadilyaccessible.Hisplaysareextensionsofhispoeticimpulseratherthandeparturesintoadifferentgenre.
ThoseregardedashisbestaretheoneactGone(produced1962)andIntheCage,bothpublishedinThreeQuestorPlays(1967)thelatterisarevisedversionin
proseofhisverseplayFireinHeaven(produced1948,published1956),astudyofthedilemmasofpacifismandofhowviolencecanescalate.AshonaYoung
Man'sSleeve(1954)isasharplyetchedsemiautobiographicalnovelofaJewishfamilyinCardiffbeforeWorldWarIIThereWasaYoungManfromCardiff
(1991)isacompanionvolume.SeeWhiteCoat,PurpleCoat:CollectedPoems19481988,newedn1992SelectedPoems,1994APoetintheFamily,new
edn1984(autobiography)IntermittentJournals,1995(medicalandliteraryreminiscences,andpersonalexperiences)JosephCohen(ed.),ThePoetryofDannie
Abse:CriticalEssaysandReminiscences,1983.
Achebe,Chinua(b.1930)
Nigeriannovelist,poet,andcritic,wasbornAlbertChinualumogointoaChristianfamilyintheprominentvillageofOgidi,EasternNigeria,inwhich'theoldhadnot
beencompletelydisorganized...andthefestivalswerestillobserved'.HewaseducatedatGovernmentCollege,Umuahia,andonascholarshipatUniversity
College,Ibadan.'WhenIleftschoolIdidn'treallyknowwhatIwantedtodoandmedicinewasveryglamorous,butIsoondiscoveredthatitwasnotreallymycupof
tea,soIchanged.'HegraduatedasBAinEnglishliteraturein1953,andafterafewmonthsasateacherjoinedtheNigerianBroadcastingCorporationasatalks
producerinLagos,becomingController,Enugu,in1958,andDirectorofExternalBroadcastingin1961.Hebeganthinkingaboutanovelatuniversity,andstartedto
writeitin1956,whenhedecidedtomaketwobooksoutofthestory,andto'blowupthefirstpart'.ThingsFallApart(1958),whosethemeisthemutual
incomprehensionbetweentribalcommunitiesandwhiteofficialsinthe1890s(withmorethanaglanceatchangingattitudeswithinthetribe),isoverlaidwithcolourful
detail,andwithinsightsintotraditions,strangerituals,andtaboos.OnesuchtaboocatalysesthedownfallofthechiefcharacterinNoLongeratEase(1960),thecivil
servantwhoisthegrandsonofthestubborntragicheroofThingsFallApart.ArrowofGod(1964)revertstoanearlierphaseofcolonialintervention,andexplores
ingreaterdepththeconflictbetweenAfricanspiritualityandBritishauthority.AManofthePeople(1966)isasearingindictmentofpostcolonialpoliticalcorruption
inanAfricanstate.
In1966,becauseofthepoliticalsituation,AchebegaveuphisjobinLagosandreturnedtohiseasternhomeland,servingBiafraduringthecivilwarof196769asa
rovingambassador.Outofthewaritselfcameacollectionofstrongpoems,Beware,SoulBrotherandOtherPoems(1971),whichinarevisededition(1972)was
jointwinneroftheinauguralCommonwealthPoetryPrize.Duringthe1970sheconcentratedonteaching:asDirectorofAfricanStudiesattheUniversityofNigeria,
Enugu(wherein1971hefoundedandbeganhissojournasEditorofOkike:anAfricanJournalofNewWriting),andthenasProfessorofEnglish,Nsukkaandas
avisiting

Page3

professorinAmericanuniversities.HewasalsowritingcriticalessaysseeMorningYetonCreationDay:Essays(1975),inwhichappeared'TheAfricanWriter
andtheEnglishLanguage'and'TheNovelistasTeacher'.Heextendedtheroleofthenovelistasaneducatorofsocietybywritingfictionforchildren,TheFlute
(1977)andTheDrum(1977).AnthillsoftheSavannah(1987)washisfirstnovelfor22years.Morecomplexthanhisothersinthattheactionisseenfromseveral
pointsofview,itfollowsthetragiccourseofevents,fomentedapparentlyoutofnothing,whichunstabilizesthemilitarygovernmentofthestateofKangan(representing
Nigeria).Whilebleaklydemonstratingthepitfallsofgovernmentbythosewhohavenotbeeneducatedforit,thenovelendsonanoteofchallenge,andhope.
Achebehasexplainedthathisnovelsare'allrelated'andthathehastried'tolookatthestoryofAfricainthemodernworld'.Theinevitableconflictsarerootedinwhat
heseesas'themarkonthefacethatsetsonepeopleapartfromtheirneighbours'.HesupportsanAfricanliteratureinEnglishwhere,asinNigeria,Englishfunctionsas
asupraregionalnationallanguage.Hehaswonmanyhonoursandhonorarydegrees.His60thbirthdayin1990wasmarkedbyathreedayinternationalsymposium
atNsukka,atwhich,itwasreported,'hesatsilentthroughallthesessions,hisfaceamaskashelistenedtothepraisesofthemanyacademicswhoanalysedhis
writingsfromeverypossibleangle'.WhilereturningtoLagostocatchaflighttoNewYork,hewasbadlyinjuredinacarcrash,andspentsixmonthsinStoke
MandevilleHospitalintheUK.HerecoveredsufficientlytofulfilateachingengagementintheUSA,inawheelchair.SeeHopesandImpediments:SelectedEssays
196587,1990C.L.Innes,ChinuaAchebe,newedn1992(criticalstudy)SimonGikandi,ReadingChinuaAchebe:LanguageandIdeologyinFiction,1991
KirstenHoistPetersenandAnnaRutherford(eds),ChinuaAchebe:aCelebration,1991.
Ackroyd,Peter(b.1949)
Britishnovelistandbiographer,wasborninLondon,theonlychildofworkingclassCatholicparents,andwasbroughtuponacouncilestateinActonhisfather,
withwhomhehassubsequentlycorrespondedbutnotmet,leftthefamilyhomewhenAckroydwasababy.Hewent(onascholarship)toStBenedict'sSchool,
Ealing,andthentoClareCollege,Cambridge,afterwhichhewasaFellowofYaleUniversity197173.Hethenbecame,at23,LiteraryEditoroftheSpectator.His
firstpublishedworksweretwovolumesofverse,reissuedtogetherasDiversionsofPurley(1987),buthe'foundtheurgetowritepoetrystoppedpoetryisanact
ofintransigenceproseoffersasocialinteraction'.Inhisfirstnovel,TheGreatFireofLondon(1982),DickensianLondonandthecharactersinLittleDorrithave
theirparallelsinthe1980s.InTheLastTestamentofOscarWilde(1983)heexploresthemindofthewriterintheformofaconfessionbythedyingman.Inthe
darklybroodingHawksmoor(1985)twoLondons,ofthe17thcenturyandoftoday,dissolveintoeachotherinahuntforabizarrekiller.Heemploysasimilar
artifice,involvingthreeeras,inChatterton(1987),inwhichthepoet'sdeathislinkedwiththemarriageofMEREDITHandwithcuriouseventsandcharactersinmodern
times.Hawksmoorwasthesecondlegofaremarkabledouble,foritwontheWhitbreadAwardforfictiontheyearafterhisT.S.Eliot(1984)gainedtheWhitbread
Awardforbiography.Thelatter,whichcentresonthepoet'screativeyears,isallthemoreimpressiveinthatpermissionwasnotforthcomingtoquotefromanyof
Eliot'spublishedorunpublishedwork.CHATTERTON,WILDE,andT.S.ELIOTreappear,asdoesAckroydhimself,intheoccasionalfictionaldialoguesintroducedinto
Dickens(1990),abiographyinwhichthenovelist'scharactersreceivefullertreatmentthanhisfamily.ThetechniqueisextendedinEnglishMusic(1992),anovelof
the1920sinwhichaboyvisionary,inalternatechapters,meetsclassicEnglishwritersandpaintersandmovesthroughtheirworks,thewholeformingalyrical
panoramaofEnglishculture.Fictionandfact,presentandpast,areamalgamated,too,inthesinisternarrativesofLondon,TheHouseofDoctorDee(1993)andDan
LenoandtheLimehouseGolen(1994).MiltoninAmerica(1996)isanalternativeandsatiricalexcursionintothelifeofthepoet.Blake(1995)isastraightand
distinguishedcriticalbiographyofthethepoet,engraver,andmysticseeBLAKE.
Acorn,Milton
seePURDY.
Adam,VilliersdeL'Isle
seeMAETERLINCK.
Adams,Henry(Brooks)(18381918)
Americanprosewriter,thegreatgrandsonofthesecondPresidentoftheUSA,grandsonofthesixthPresident,andsonofCharlesFrancisAdams(180786),
congressmananddiplomat,wasborninBoston'undertheshadowofBostonStateHouse'.AftergraduatingfromHarvardCollegein1858andtravellingandstudying
inItalyandFrance,hewasfrom1860to1868privatesecretarytohisfather,whowasappointedMinisterinEnglandin1861.In1870hebecameEditorofthe
NorthAmericanReviewandalso,reluctantly,anassistantprofessorofmedievalhistoryatHarvard.Heresignedfrombothpostssevenyearslatertoundertake
historicalresearchinWashingtonforbiographiesoftheformerSecretaryoftheTreasury,AlbertGallatin(1879),andthecolourfulVirginiancongressman,John
Randolph(1882).Healso

Page4

published(anonymously)Democracy:anAmericanNovel(1880),anattackonpoliticalcorruption,and(asFrancesSnowCompton)Esther:aNovel(1884),a
studyofawoman'sconflictofmindandworkedonhisninevolumeTheHistoryoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaDuringtheAdministrationsofThomas
JeffersonandJamesMadison(188991).Thesuicideofhiswifein1885ledtoarestlessperiodofextendedtravelandlittlecreativity,fromwhichheemergedto
writeMontSaintMichelandChartres(privatelyprinted1904tradeedition1913),atravelogueoftheimaginationwhichhesawas'astudyof13thcenturyunity'.
InTheEducationofHenryAdams(privatelyprinted1907tradeedition1918),'astudyof20thcenturymultiplicity',hedecriedhisfailureasausefulmemberof
societyandprojectedthatthequickeningpaceofscientificadvancewoulddehumanizetheworldandreduceittochaos.Hiscontributiontoliteratureasasocial
philosopheroutweighsanythinghemighthaveachievedinthepoliticalfieldduringhislifetime.SeeErnestSamuels,HenryAdams,newedn1989,rev.edninone
volume,1995(biography)R.P.Blackmur,HenryAdams,ed.VeronicaA.Makowsky,newedn1984(criticalstudy).
Adams,Richard(b.1920)
Britishnovelist,wasborninNewbury,Berkshire,andeducatedatBradfieldCollegeand,afterwartimeserviceintheRoyalArmyServiceCorps,atWorcester
College,Oxford.Hebecameacivilservant,beingAssistantSecretary,DepartmentoftheEnvironment196874,withspecialresponsibilitiesinairpollutionresearch.
HewaselectedPresidentoftheRoyalSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoAnimalsin1980,butresignedin1982.Hisfirstnovel,WatershipDown(1972),having
beenturneddownbyseveralmajorpublishers,waspublishedasachildren'sbookandswiftly,anddeservedly,becameaclassic.Whetherreadasapoliticaloran
environmentalallegory,orsimplyasaqueststory,itisespeciallyremarkableforthecreationofacompleteworld,andofcharactersandconvincinglanguageforthe
rabbitcommunitywhichinhabitsit.InShardik(1974),setinashadowybutablydelineatedmythicalpast,agreatbearisunwittinglythemovingforcebehindclashes
betweenprimitivecultures.ThePlagueDogs(1977)revertstomoderntimes,astwodogsescapefromananimalresearchstation.Subsequentnovelsabouthuman
characters,TheGirlinaSwing(1980)andMaia(1984),metwithlesscriticalacclaim.AfterTraveller(1989),inwhicheventsintheAmericanCivilWarareseen
throughtheeyesofGeneralRobertE.Lee'shorse,andasevenyeargap,cameTalesfromWatershipDown(1996),storiesandrabbitmythologyoftheoriginal
communitywhichhehadbeenaccumulatingovertheyears.SeeTheDayGoneBy:anAutobiography,newedn1991.
Adcock,Fleur(b.1934)
NewZealandpoet,theeldersisterofthenovelistMarilynDuckworth(b.1935),wasborninPapakura,andbetween1939and1947wenttonumerousschoolsin
England,whereherManchesterbornfatherwasthenlecturingfortheWorkers'EducationalAssociation.BackinNewZealand,shewenttoWellingtonGirls'College,
marriedALISTAIRCAMPBELLin1952(theyhadtwosons,andweredivorcedin1958),andgraduatedinclassicsatVictoriaUniversity.From1958shetaughtanddid
librarywork,andthenin1963emigratedtotheUK'StewartIsland'expressesherambivalentfeelingsaboutNewZealandatthistime.ShewasAssistantLibrarian,
ForeignandCommonwealthOfficeLibrary,until1979,whenshebecameafulltimewriter.Anumberofpoemsfromherfirstbook,TheEyeoftheHurricane
(1964),publishedinWellington,werereprintedinTigers,publishedinLondonin1967.SelectedPoems(1983reissued1991)includesthepamphletBelow
Loughrigg(1979).SubsequentcollectionsareTheIncidentBook(1986)andTimeZones(1991),inwhichsheapplieshercrispapproachandpreciseuseof
languagetopersonal,communal,andinternationalissues,weavingpastexperienceintotheexpressionofpresentconcernsandfutureuncertainties.Shehasalsowritten
EnglishversionsofTheVirginandtheNightingale:MedievalLatinPoems(1983),frommanuscriptsshestudiedwhileshewasNorthernArtsFellowatthe
universitiesofDurhamandNewcastlefrom1979to1981translatedfromtheRomanianthepoetryofGreteTartler(1989)andDanielaCrasnaru(1991)and
compiledTheOxfordBookofContemporaryNewZealandPoetry(1982).ShewasmadeMBEin1996.
Addison,Joseph(16721719)
Britishessayist,critic,poet,dramatist,andstatesman,wasborninMilston,Wiltshire,thesonofRev.LancelotAddison(DeanofLichfield16831703),andwas
educatedatCharterhouse(wherehefirstmetandbecameaclosefriendofSTEELE)andTheQueen'sCollege,Oxford.HisprecocityatLatinverseledtohistransfer
toMagdalenCollege,wherehewasaFellow16981711'Addison'sWalk'alongtheRiverCherwellstillbearshisname.Hisinterestinpoliticsbroughthima
Treasury,granttotravelinEuropeforfiveyearsandthecommissiontowriteacelebratorypoemonthevictoryoftheDukeofMarlborough(16501722)at
Blenheim,publishedtogreatacclaimin1705asTheCampaign.Withasuccessionofgovernmentpostsinprospect,hewasabletolendSteelemoneyforhis
theatricalventures.In1708hewaselectedaMemberofParliament,whichheremainedfortherestofhislife.WhileChiefSecretaryinIre

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land,hecontributedessaysanonymouslytoSteele'sTatler.WhentheWhigsfellin1710,leavinghimoutofoffice,heandSteelefounded,edited,andbecamechief
contributorstothedailyperiodicaltheSpectator,whichliketheTatlerconsistedofasinglesheetprintedonbothsides.Intwobursts(March1711toDecember
1712andJunetoDecember1714)ithadgreatsuccess,andwasalsopublishedinbookform(171215).Addison'sversetragedyCatowasperformedin1713,its
popularitybeingduepartlytoitspoliticalimplicationsandpartlytothefactthatitisagoodplayofitskind.Acomedy,TheDrummer,floppedin1715,butinthat
year,withthereturnoftheWhigsaftertheaccessionofGeorgeI,hewasreappointedtotheGovernmentandtohisformerIrishpost,andpublishedhisownpolitical
journal,theFreeholder,whichranfor55issues.In1716hemarriedtheDowagerCountessofWarwick,andinthenextyearhewasappointedoneofthetwo
secretariesofstateundertheCrown.Hishealthwasfailing,though,andheretiredin1718,todieof'asthmaanddropsy'.Hewasjust46.
Theperiodicalessay,whichparticularlyflourishedinthe18thcentury,reacheditsacmeasavehicleofcritical,philosophical,andpoliticalopinion,andofcultured
amusement,inthehandsofAddisonandSteele.TheaimoftheSpectator,propoundedbyAddisoninissue10,was'toenlivenmoralitywithwit,andtotemperwit
withmorality'.ThewitwasenhancedbytheintroductionofexperiencesofmembersofthefictitiousSpectatorClub,notablySirRogerdeCoverley.Addison'sseries
ofessays'OnthePleasuresoftheImagination'(issues41121)andhis18weeklyessaysonMiltonbeginninginissue267alsopublishedinbookformasNotes
UpontheTwelveBooksofParadiseLost(1719)areadmirableinthecontextoftheattitudesofthetimes,andstandamongthemostelegantexamplesofearly
18thcenturyliterarycriticism.SeeTheSpectator,ed.DonaldEBond,5vols,newedn1987PeterSmithers,TheLifeofJosephAddison,2ndedn1968.
Ade,George(18661944)
Americanfabulistanddramatist,wasborninKentland,Indiana,thesonofanEnglishimmigrant.Hehadaschoolessay,'ABasketofPotatoes',publishedinthelocal
Gazettein1881.In1883,becauseofhisaversiontofarmingasacareer,hewassenttoPurdueUniversity,Lafayette,fromwhichhegraduatedin1887witha
commencementorationon'TheFutureofLettersintheWest'.HebecameajournalistandwastakenonbytheChicagoMorningNews(laterRecord),forwhichhe
beganin1893adailydoublecolumn,'StoriesoftheStreetsandoftheTown',illustratedbyhiscollegefriend,JohnT.McCutcheon(18701949).Fromthishe
extractedsketchesofthreecharacters,eachofwhomhemadethesubjectofabook:Artie(1896),PinkMarsh(1897),andDoc'Horne(1899).Asafurtheroutlet
forhisaptitudefortherepresentationofcolloquialspeechandforhislightninghumour,heinventedhisownbrandoffable,ofwhichthefirstappearedintheRecordin
1897.Acollectionfollowed,FablesinSlang(1899),whosetext,liberallysprinkledwithcapitalletters,evokedAmericantypesandregionalandculturalquirks.He
wasstillwritingthemin1939.Hiscareerasadramatistwasasspectacularbutmuchshorter,effectivelyconsistingofamusical,TheSultanofSulu(produced1902),
andtwocomedies:TheCountyChairman(1904),aboutlocalpolitics,andTheCollegeWidow(1904),asatireonuniversitylife(theclimaxisafootballgameand
thepaceandnoiseoftheproductionimpressedevenaudiencesinLondon,whowerethoughtfullyprovidedwithaglossaryofAmericanisms).SeeLeeCoyle,George
Ade,1964(criticalstudy).
Aeschylus(525456BC)
classicalGreekdramatist,wasborninEleusis,nearAthens,andfirstenteredtheannualdramaticfestivalofDionysiusin499,withoutsuccess.Hefoughtagainstthe
PersiansatthebattleofMarathon(490),inwhichhetookmorepridethananythingelse.Hewontheprizefortragedyin484,andagainin472,butafterlosingto
SOPHOCLESin468,heleftAthensindisgustforthecourtofSyracuse.Hereturnedlater,andwonhislastprizein458withhistrilogy,theOresteia(Agamemnon,
Choephoroi,andEumenides),thethemesofwhicharerespectivelyretribution,punishment,andreconciliation.HediedinGela,itissaidwhenaneagle,lookingfora
rockonwhichtosmashtheshellofatortoise,droppeditonhisbaldhead.FourothertragediessurviveoftheninetyplayshewroteTheSuppliants,ThePersians,
SevenAgainstThebes,andPrometheusBound,inthelastofwhichespeciallyhedevelopedhisideaofasupremerulerwhoisworkingtowardsperfectionrather
thanbeingperfectionitself.AeschylusisregardedasthefounderofGreektragedythepoetryinhisplaysisdramatic,intense,andoftenlyrical.Byintroducinga
secondactorandreducingtheroleofthechorus,heeffectivelyinventeddramaticdialogue.SeePlays,tr.KennethMcLeishandFredericRaphael,2vols1991
Oresteia,tr.MichaelEwans,1995(includesactingdirections).
Aesop
seeHENRYSONLAFONTAINE.
Agate,James(18771947)
Britishdramaticcriticandnovelist,wasborninPendleton,Lancashire,andeducatedatManchesterGrammarSchool,afterwhichhejoinedhisfather'sbusinessof
agenttothecottontrade.From1907hewasalsowritingdramaticcriticismfortheManchesterGuardian.DuringWorldWarI,inwhichhismainfunctionin

Page6

Francewastobuyhayforhorses,hewroteanepistolarynovel,L.ofC.[LinesofCommunication](1917).Afterthewarhesetup,briefly,asmanagerofageneral
storeinLondon,publishedafurthernovel,Responsibility(1919),andwasthenappointedDramaticCriticfirstoftheSaturdayReviewandthen,in1923,ofthe
SundayTimes,whichheremaineduntilhisdeath.Heproducedtwomorenovelsandseveralvolumesofessaysandcriticism,buthischiefworkisadaytodaydiary,
publishedinninevolumesasEgo(193548),whichdescribeswittilyandoftencausticallytheculturalandsociallifeofLondon.Asacritichewassometimesobstinate
inhisreluctancetodetectanygreatnessincontemporarydramatistsoractors,buthewasalwaysrespectedandentertaining.Heisalsotoberememberedforhis
advicetoaspiringjournalists,quotedbyhisgodsonPaulDehninForLoveandMoney(1956):'Spendthreetimesaslongonyourfirstparagraphasyouspendonthe
restofyourarticle.Thencutthefirstparagraph.'
Agee,James(190955)
Americannovelistandjournalist,wasborninKnoxville,Tennessee,andeducatedatExeterAcademyandHarvard,afterwhichhebecamein1932astaffwriteron
Fortune.Hepublishedabookofverse,PermitMeVoyage,in1934.Aseriesofarticles(withphotographsbyWalkerEvans)ontheconditionsofthepoorwhite
tenantfarmersinAlabama,wascommissionedin1936byFortune,andthenrejected.Theresultingbook,LetUsNowPraiseFamousMen(1941inUK1965),is
amasterpieceofdiscreetdocumentaryreportage.In1939hemovedtoTime,forwhomhereviewedbooksandfilms,whilealsobeingFilmCriticoftheNationfrom
1943to1948seeAgeeonFilm:ReviewsandComments(1958).Healsowrotefilmscripts,amongthemthatofFORESTER'STheAfricanQueen(1951).The
MorningWatch(1951),hisfirstnovel,coversatraumaticdayinthelifeofaboyataCatholicboardingschool.ADeathintheFamily(1957),published
posthumouslyandawardedthePulitzerPrizeforfiction,isasemiautobiographicalstudyofaboy,andhisfamily,copingwiththedeathofhisfatherinacaraccident.
Agee'sexperimentalapproachtomarriageisdescribedbyhissecondwife,AlmaMailman(191288),inAlmaNeuman,AlwaysStraightAhead:aMemoir(1993),
editedbytheirsonJoel.SeeLaurenceBergreen,JamesAgee:aLife,1984.
Agnon,S(hmuel)Y(osef)(18881970)
Israelinovelist,wasbornSamuelJosefCzaczkesintheGaliciantownofBuczacz,thesonofafurmerchant,andadoptedhispseudonymashisofficialnamein1924.
Hewasprivatelyandbroadlyeducated,studyingGermanandtheTalmudwithtutors,andHasidicliteratureatthesynagogue.Hepublishedaboutseventyproseand
versepiecesinYiddishandHebrewbeforegoingtoPalestinein1907,afterwhichhewroteonlyinHebrew.In1913hesettledinGermany,wherehepublishedthree
collectionsofstories(192122).HereturnedtoJerusalemin1924,havingthatyearlostmostofhismanuscriptsinafireathishome,includingthatofasemi
autobiographicalpanoramicnovelofmodernJewishhistory.Hisprincipaloeuvreistheseriesoffivenovelswhichhewrotebetweenthenandhisdeath:[TheBridal
Canopy](1931tr.I.M.Lask,1937),[ASimpleStory](1935),[AGuestfortheNight](1939tr.MishaLouvis,rev.edn1968),[Yesteryear](1945),andthe
unfinishedShira(1971tr.ZevaShapiro,1989),ineachofwhichawandering,tormentedsoulsearchesfutilelyforamate.Consciousofhismasteryofshorter
fictionseeTwentyOneStories,ed.NahumN.Glatzer(1970)heoftenpublishedextractsfromhisnovelsasseparateworks.AnauthorintheEuropeantradition
ofJewishliterature,hewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1966,thefirstwriterinHebrewtoreceiveit.
Aidoo,(Christina)AmaAta(b.1942)
Ghanaiandramatist,novelist,andshortstorywriter,wasborninAbeadziKyiakorandeducatedatWesleyGirls'HighSchool,CapeCoast,andtheUniversityof
Ghana,Legon,whereherfirstplay,TheDilemmaofaGhost(published1965),wasperformedbytheStudents'Theatrein1964,duringherlastyearasan
undergraduate.Basicallyabouttraditionalresponsestomodernattitudes,itwasproducedinLagos,Nigeria,laterthatyearandpublishedin1965.AsResearch
FellowattheInstituteofAfricanStudies,UniversityofGhana,shestudiedcontemporaryGhanaiandrama,afterwhichshetravelledinEastAfrica,England,andthe
USA,whereshewasCreativeWritingFellowatStanfordUniversity.Hersecondplay,Anowa(1970),isherinterpretationofataleoftheGoldCoastinthelate19th
century,toldtoherbyhermotherintheformofasong.TheshortstoriesofcontemporaryGhanainNoSweetnessHere(1970)aretheworkofacritical,involved
observer,andare'writtentobeheard,primarily'.Inhernovel,OurSisterKilljoy:or,ReflectionsfromaBlackeyedSquint(1977),thecriticaleyeisdirectedat
Europeanattitudestoblackvisitors,expressedbyagirlfromGhanawhoconcludesthatAfrica,'crazyoldcontinent',is'homewithitsunavoidablewarmthandeven
afterthesethousandsofyears,itsuncertainties'.Aidoo,whotaughtAfricanliteratureattheuniversitiesofCapeCoastandNairobi,beforesettlinginZimbabwe,has
alsopublishedtwocollectionsofverse,SomeoneTalkingtoSometime(1985)andAngryLetterinJanuary(1992).

Page7

Aiken,Conrad(18891973)
Americanpoet,fictionwriter,andcritic,wasborninSavannah,Georgia,thesonofaNewEnglandcouple,aphysicianandthedaughteroftheMinisteroftheFirst
CongregationalSociety,NewBedford.HewasreadingPOEwhenhewasten,'andscaringmyselftodeath.Scaringmybrothersandsisterstodeath,too.'Hewas11
whenheheardtwopistolshots,andmadethediscoverythathisfatherhadkilledhiswifeandthenhimselfafteranargument.Hewassubsequentlybroughtupbyan
elderlyrelativeinNewBedford,andwaseducatedatMiddlesexSchool,Concord,andHarvard,wherehewasPresidentoftheAdvocateand'sawagreatdeal'ofT.
S.ELIOT.Hegraduatedin1912,andmarried(thefirstofthreewives)afewdayslater.HehoneymoonedinEurope,andthenbeganwritingpoemsforEarth
TriumphantandOtherTalesinVerse(1914),thefirstofeightvolumesofpoetryhepublishedinthenexttenyears,andof42booksinallwhichappearedduringhis
lifetime.Afterseveralextendedtripsabroad,andthreeyearsinEngland,livinginSussex,wherehisdaughter,theBritishnovelistandchildren'swriterJoanAikenwas
bornin1924,hesettledinBrewster,Massachusetts.InitiallycomparedwithMASEFIELD,hewentontobeinfluencedbyFREUD,andtoinvestigatemusicalforms,from
'symphonies'to'preludesseeCollectedPoems19161970(1971).Hewrotefiveexperimentalnovels,beginningwithBlueVoyage(1927),whichhealternated
withvolumesofshortstoriesseeTheCollectedShortStories(1960).CollectedCriticismwaspublishedin1968.HismostlastingproseworkisUshant:an
Essay(1952),apartlyfictional,thirdpersonnarrativeinwhichheexploreshislifeanddescribeshisliteraryacquaintances.
Ainsworth,WilliamHarrison(180582)
Britishnovelist,wasborninManchesterandeducatedatManchesterGrammarSchool,whichheleftat16tobearticledtoalocalsolicitor.Afterhavinghadstories
printedinseveralperiodicals,hepublishedanonymouslySirJohnChiverton(1826),anovelofchivalryinthestyleofWALTERSCOTT,whoreaditonpublicationand
notedthedebttohiminhisjournal.Aftergettingmarriedandhavingabriefcareerasapublisher,Ainsworthwrote,accordingtohimin'lessthantwentyfourhours',
Rookwood(1834),anovelglamorizingthehighwaymanDickTurpin(170639).HecontinuedthisgenrewithJackSheppard(1839),whoseeponymousantihero
washangedin1724attheageof22.Thecriticswereoutragedthepublicwasdelighted.HefollowedtheseGothicstyleromanceswithastringofhistoricalnovels,
manywithlocalassociations,ofwhichTheTowerofLondon(1840),OldStPaul's,aTaleofthePlagueandtheFireofLondon(1841),forwhichtheSunday
Timespaidhim1000,andTheLancashireWitches(1849)arestillreadableforthesenseofsolidhorrorwhichtheyevoke.HewasEditorofBentley'sMiscellany
184042and185468,Ainsworth'sMagazine184253,andtheNewMonthlyMagazine184570.
Akhmatova,Anna,
pseudonym(fromhergrandmother'sname)ofAnnaAndreevnaGorenko(18891966)Russianpoet,wasborninBolshoiFontan,asuburbofOdessa,thedaughter
ofaretirednavalengineer,andspentherearlyyearsnearStPetersburg,whereshewenttosecondaryschool.'Wedidn'thaveanybooksinthehouse,notasingle
book.OnlyNekrasov[182177,Russianeditorandpoetofpeasantlife],athick,boundvolume.Mymotherusedtoletmereaditonfeastdays....[It]wasa
presenttoMamafromherfirsthusband,whoshothimself.'ShebeganacourseinlawatthecollegeforwomeninKiev,butreturnedtoStPetersburg.In1910she
marriedthepoetNikolaiGumilev,withwhomandMANDELSTAMshewasafoundermemberoftheAcmeistmovement,whichgavemoreattentiontosoundandmeaning
thanwasthehabitoftheSymbolists.Theyweredivorcedin1918(hewasexecutedin1921forallegedlyplottingagainsttheBolsheviks).Shesubsequentlyremarried
twice,andinbetweentimeslivedinacreativerelationshipwithacomposerandanactress.Aftertheappearanceofseveralvolumesofverseandacollectededition,
AnnoDomini(1923),shewaspersecutedforherformerhusband'sconnectionsandbannedfrompublishinganynewpoemsthereweretimeswhenshefearedeven
towritethemdown.ItwasnowthatshemetLydiaChukovskaya(190796),whowouldmemorizepoemsAkhmatovahadwrittenonscrapsofpaper,andhandthem
backtobeburnedseeLydiaChukovskaya,TheAkhmatovaJournals19381941(1976,Paristr.MilenaMichalskiandSylvaRubashova,poetrytr.Peter
Norman,1994).
FreedomtowriteduringWorldWarII,partofwhichshespentincentralAsia,wasfollowedbyaclampdownonwriterssuchasAkhmatova,whosefavouredthemes
ofloveandreligionwerenotregardedasservingtheinterestsofthestate.In1946shewasexpelledfromtheWriters'Union,ofwhichultimately,intheonly
comparativelyrelaxedatmospherefollowingthedenunciationofStalinin1956,shewaselectedPresidentin1964.ThesupremeRussianlyricpoetofthe20thcentury,
whosereputationantedatestheRevolutionof1917,shewasafirmbelieverinChristianitywhoseworkalsoreflectsthephysicaltormentandprivatesufferingof
familieswhowerepersecutedinthenameofCommunism,particularlyRequiem,tr.D.M.ThomaswithPoemWithoutaHero(1979).See

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TheCompletePoems,ed.RobertaReeder,tr.JudithHemschemeyer,2ndenlargededn1993SelectedPoems,tr.StanleyKunitzwithMaxHayward,newedn
1989SelectedPoems,tr.RichardMcKane,1989MyHalfCentury:SelectedProse,ed.RonaldMeyer,1992AmandaHaight,AnnaAkhmatova:aPoetic
Pilgrimage,newedn1990(biography)RobertaReeder,AnnaAkhmatova:PoetandProphet,newedn1995(biography)KonstantinPolivanov(ed.),Anna
AkhmatovaandHerCircle,tr.PatriciaBeriozkina,1994DavidWells,AnnaAkhmatova:HerPoetry,1996.
AlainFournier,penname(from1907)ofAlainHenriFournier(18861914)
Frenchnovelist,wasborninLaChapelled'AngilloninthevalleyoftheCher,andgrewupinEpineuilleFleuriel,wherehisfatherwasthevillageschoolteacher.After
twoyearsattheLyceVoltaire,Paris,hetransferredofhisownvolitiontothenavaltrainingschoolinBrest,whichheleftafterashorttimetoreturntotheCher.He
wenttotheLyceLakanal,Paris,in1903spentthesummerholidaysof1905inTurnhamGreen,London,translatinglettersforSanderson's,thewallpaper
manufacturerandtwicefailedhisentrancetothecoleNormaleSuprieure.Hedidhisstatutorymilitaryservicefrom1907to1909,whenhefoundworkasa
journalistonParisJournalin191011hegaveFrenchlessonstoT.S.ELIOT,whorecommendedEnglishbooksforhimtoreadandgavehimacopyoftheworksof
JOHNFORD.LeGrandMeaulnes(1913tr.FranoiseDelisleasTheWanderer,1929tr.FrankDavisonasTheLostDomain,1959),aSymbolistnovelofyouthful
aspirationswhosestructureisakintothatofSTEVENSON'SKidnapped,firstappearedasafivepartserialinNouvelleRevueFranaise,andcontroversiallyjustfailed
towinthePrixGONCOURT.EarlyoninWorldWarIhewasshotintheheadwhileleadinghiscompanyonareconnaissanceinthewoodsofSaintRemy,shortlyafter
thebattleoftheMarne.HewasadevotedadmirerandloveroftheactressSimone(PaulineCasimirPerier),whosehusbandwaskilledinactionin1915.Shediedin
1985inher109thyear.
AlasdairMacMhaighstirAlasdair
seeMACDONALD,ALEXANDER.
Albee,Edward(Franklin)(b.1928)
Americandramatist,wasborninWashington,D.C.,andwasattwoweeksoldadoptedbyReedandFrancesAlbee,membersofatheatricalfamily.Hewasnamed
afterhisadoptivegrandfather,EdwardFranklinAlbee(18571930),whoownedorhadaninterestinseveralhundredcoasttocoastvaudevilletheatres.Itissaidthat
hewrotehisfirstplay,Aliqueen,athreeactsexfarce,whenhewas12.HewaseducatedatValleyForgeMilitaryAcademy,ChoateSchool,andTrinityCollege,
Hartford,whichheleftinhissophomoreyearafterfailingtoattendclasses.In1950,againsthisparents'wishes,hewenttoliveinGreenwichVillage,NewYork,
whereforeightyearshewrotepoetryandsupplementedthe$50aweekfromhisgrandmother'swilltrustbyworkingasanofficeboy,salesassistant,luncheonette
counterman,andmessengerforWesternUnion.Justbeforehis30thbirthdayhetypedoutaoneactplay,TheZooStory,aparkbenchconfrontationpiece.First
producedinBerlinin1959,itwasfollowedbyothershortdramasseeTheZooStoryandOtherPlays(1962)andthenbyhisfirstfulllengthplay(andfirst
Broadwayproduction),Who'sAfraidofVirginiaWoolf?(1962).Thisnewstylebattleofthesexes,inwhich,duringthecourseoftheearlyhoursofonemorning,a
marriagedisintegratesandthen,throughasymbolicsacrifice,ismadestrongerthanbefore,wonawardsandplaudits,andisstillhismostsignificantwork.ADelicate
Balance(1966),inwhichacouplefaceuptoresponsibilitiestofriends,wonthePulitzerPrize,butinotherplaysdramaticintensityhasoftengivenway,asitdoesin
TinyAlice(1963),tosurrealism.InThreeTallWomen(1994),whichwonthePulitzerPrizeandis,accordingtoAlbee,abouthisadoptivemother,wholivedintoher
nineties,thefamiliaralienatedprotagonistbecomes,inthesecondact,asynthesisofthree,atdifferentages.HehasalsoadaptedforthestagenovelsofCAPOWE,
MCCULLERS,andMELVILLE.Ofteninvolvedin,andprovokedby,controversy,hehasstatedthathisinfluencesare'SophoclesandNoelCoward'.SeeRichardAmacher,
EdwardAlbee,rev.edn1982(criticalstudy)GerryMcCarthy,EdwardAlbee,1987(criticalstudy).
Alcott,LouisaMay(183288)
Americannovelist,wasborninGermantown,Pennsylvania,theyoungestoffourdaughters.HerfatherwastheeducationistandsocialreformerAmosBronsonAlcott
(17991888),whoseUtopianschemesandgeneralunworldlinessputtheburdenofsupportingthefamilyfirstonhiswifeseeCynthiaH.Barton,Transcendental
Wife:theLifeofAbigailMayAlcott(1996),whodidsocialwork,andthenonhisdaughter.Inbetweentimesthefamilysubsistedonwhatthefourgirlscalledthe
'AlcottSinkingFund'(handoutsfromcharitableneighbours).Louisawastaughtbyherfatherathome,andbyfriends,includingEMERSON,HAWTHORNE,andTHOREAU,and
workedasaservant,seamstress,andteacher,beforeestablishingherselfasawriter.Shewaswritingseriouslyatleastfrom1849:FlowerFables(1854)washerfirst
publishedbook.Shealsowroteatthistime,anonymouslyorasA.M.Barnard,Gothicromances,thrillers,andsensationnovelsofviolence,rape,incest,anddrug
abuseseeLouisaMayAlcottUnmasked:CollectedThrillers,

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ed.MadeleineStern(1995).Asardentanabolitionistasherfather,butmorepractical,shevolunteeredasanurseintheCivilWarand,untilstruckdownbytyphoid
aftersixweeks,servedintheUnionHospital,Georgetown,anexperiencewhichsherecreatedinHospitalSketches(1863).Havingwritten,unsuccessfully,a
psychologicalstudyofmarriedlove,Moods(1864),shewaspersuadedbyaneditortowriteagirls'story,thoughshecomplainedinherjournal:'Neverlikedgirlsor
knewmany,exceptmysistersbutourqueerplaysandexperiencesmayproveinteresting,thoughIdoubtit.'LittleWomen:or,Meg,Jo,BethandAmy(1868)and
itssecondvolume(1869),latercalledGoodWives,succeededbecauseoftheirtruthandwarmth,andindoingsobecametheforerunnersofthemodernfamilystory
forchildren.ThesagaoftheMarchfamilywasextendedbyLittleMen:LifeatPlumfieldwithJo'sBoys(1871)andJo'sBoysandHowTheyTurnedOut(1886),
andcomplementedbyotherdomestictales.LatterlyAlcottlivedinBoston,whereshecampaignedfortemperanceandwomen'srights,herconcernforwhichis
reflectedinseverallaternovels,extractsfromwhich,withrepresentativesamplesofherotherlesserknownwritings,areinSelectedFiction,ed.DanielShealy,
MadeleineB.Stern,andJoelMyerson(1991).SeeTheSelectedLettersofLouisaMayAlcott,ed.JoelMyersonandDanielShealy,1995MadeleineB.Stern,
LouisaMayAlcott,newedn1996(biography)MarthaSaxton,LouisaMayAlcott:aModernBiography,1995.
Aldington,'Richard'[EdwardGodfree](18921962)
Britishpoet,novelist,critic,biographer,andtranslator,wasborninPortsmouthandeducatedatDoverCollegeandUniversityCollege,London,whichheleftfor
financialreasonswithouttakingadegree.WithPOUNDandDOOLITTLE,whomhemarriedin1913,hewasaleadingexponentofImagistpoetryhisfirstbookofverse,
Images19101915,waspublishedin1915.HeservedinFrancefrom1916to1918,beinggassedandshellshockedoutofhistraumaticexperienceshewrotehis
firstworkoffiction,DeathofaHero(1929rev.edn1930),themostviolentlyantiwarEnglishnoveltocomeoutofWorldWarI.Heseparatedfromhiswifesoon
afterthewarandfrom1928untilhisdeathlivedinFranceand,duringWorldWarII,theUSA.Publicityofhismessylovelife,hisrathertoofrankrevelationsabout
NORMANDOUGLASpublishedin1954,andthefuroreoverhisfindingsinhisbiographyofT.E.LAWRENCE(1955)madehimsounpopularwiththeliteraryestablishmentthat
atonetimeallseventyofhisbookswereoutofprint.Hecontinuedtopublishpoetryuntil1937andnovelsuntil1946.HewroteanotablebiographyoftheDukeof
Wellington(1946)andinfluentialstudiesofD.H.LAWRENCE.HewasalsoagiftedtranslatoroftheGreekandLatinpoets,andofItalianandFrenchliterature.Latterly,
afterthefailureofhissecondmarriage,thefriendshipwithhisfirstwifewasrevivedseeRichardAidingtonandH.D.:theLaterYearsinLetters,ed.Caroline
Zilboorg(1995).SeeTheCompletePoems,1948SelectedCriticalWritings19281960,ed.AlisterKershaw,1970NormanT.Gates(ed.),RichardAidington:
aBiographyinLetters,1992CharlesDoyle,RichardAidington:aBiography,1989.
Aldiss,Brian(b.1925)
Britishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninEastDereham,Norfolk,andeducatedatFramlinghamCollegeandWestBucklandSchool,wherehefirstbeganto
writesciencefictionandotherstoriesacacheofrisqutales,buriedinabiscuittintoavoidpunishment,wasdiscoveredbyboysattheschoolfiftyyearslater.He
servedintheRoyalSignalsintheFarEastduringandafterWorldWarII.Afteraspellinbookselling,hewasLiteraryEditoroftheOxfordMail195869.His
reputationasoneofthemostrespectedandcreativewritersofsciencefictionhaslesstodowithanyconsciousattempttoextendtheboundariesofthegenrethanwith
apreoccupationwiththeforcesoftimeandchange.This,hehimselfsuggests,hasinspiredmostofhismanynovels.TheyrangefromNonStop(1958),aconventional
spacedisasterstory,throughBarefootintheHead:aEuropeanFantasia(1969),alinguisticallyinnovativestudyoftheeffectsofabrainpoisononthethought
processes,andthroughthethreesagasofthesexualselfeducationandprogressofHoratioStubbsTheHandRearedBoy(1970),ASoldierErect(1971),A
RudeAwakening(1978),tothe'HelliconiaTrilogy'(1982,1983,1985),forwhichhecreatedasolarsystemwithitsownhistory,culture,andreligionstobea
metaphoricalimageofourownsociety,andSomewhereEastofLife(1994),afuturisticnovelofpersonalandpoliticalconscience.Collectionsofshortstories
includeTheCanopyofTime(1959),BestScienceFictionofBrianAldiss(1965),SeasonsinFlight(1984),andTheSecretsofThisBook(1995)withlinking
commentary.PoetryisinAttheCaligulaHotel(1995).Hehaseditedmanysciencefictionanthologies,andwrittenBillionYearSpree:aHistoryofScience
Fiction(1973)andTheDetachedRetina:AspectsofSFandFantasy(1995).SeeBuryMyHeartatW.H.Smith's,newedn1991(literaryreminiscences).
Aleichem,Shalom
seeSHALOMALEICHEM.
Alexander,William(182694)
Scottishnovelist,wasborninChapelofGarioch,Aberdeenshire,andwenttotheparishschool.Hebecameafarmlabourer,butanaccidentonthelandwhenhewas
inhistwentiesresultedinhislosingaleg.He

Page10

movedtoAberdeen,totrytoearnalivingbywriting.Thebreakthroughcameonlyaftermanyyears,withtheserializationintheAberdeenFreePressin186970ofa
novel,JohnnyGibbofGushetneuk(1871).Thisvivid,episodicevocationofevents,controversies,andconflictingloyaltiesinacountryparishduringandafterthe
Disruption(1843),whichsplittheChurchofScotlandandcausedtheestablishmentoftheFreeChurchofScotland,isnarratedinliteraryEnglish,withthedialogueof
thecountryfolkrepresentedinthelocalBuchandialectofScots.Writtenonlythirtyyearsaftertheeventsitdepicts,itisasignificantsocialdocumentaswellasa
literarylandmark.AlexanderwentontoedittheAberdeenFreePress.
Alfred,'TheGreat'(84999)
KingofWessex,translator,andprosewriter,wasborninWantage,Berkshire.Hesucceededhisbrotherthelredin871,andsuccessivelydefeated,orforcedthe
submissionof,theDaneswhooccupiedtherestofEngland,untilultimatelyheachievedsupremacyoverthewholeland.Hisearlyeducationwasrudimentary,
consistingmainlyofwhathelearnedfromtwojourneystoRomebeforehewasseven.HewasunabletoreadEnglishuntilhewas12,orLatinuntilhewasnearly
forty.Then,withthehelpofamonkcalledAsser(d.909),laterBishopofSherborne,whowroteabiographyofhimseeAlfredtheGreat,tr.anded.Simon
KeynesandMichaelLapidge(1983)AlfredbegantoreadpassagesofLatinandtoturnthemintoEnglish.ThiswasthebeginningofEnglishprose,andpartof
Alfred'sdesignthatEnglish(intheformnowknownasOldEnglishorAngloSaxon)ratherthanLatinshouldbethemediumofinstructioninschools.Between892
andhisdeathheworkedonEnglishtranslationsoffivemajorworks:CuraPastoralis[PastoralCare]ofPopeGregory(c.540604)ahistoryoftheworldbythe
5thcenturyChristianclericOrosiusHistoriaEcclesiasticaofBEDEDeConsolationePhilosophiaeofBOETHIUSandacuriousworkwhichhecalledBlostman
[Blossoms],inwhichatranslationofthefirstbookoftheSoliloquiesofStAugustine(d.c.606),ArchbishopofCanterbury,formsanintroductiontohisown
philosophicalargumentsandthoughtsonimmortality.Inapreface,helikenshisliteraryendeavourstothoseofamancollectingwoodinaforest,whereothersmay
followandfindthemeansofconstructingallmannerofbuildings.Theclaim,firstmadein1964,thatAsser'slifeisamedievalforgery,hasexercisedscholarsever
since.SeeAlfredESmyth,AlfredtheGreat,1995(biography)DavidSturdy,AlfredtheGreat,newedn1996(biography).
Alger,Horatio,Jr(183299)
Americanwriteroffictionforboys,wasborninChelsea,Massachusetts,thesonofaUnitarianministerwhoin1844defaultedonhisdebtsandmovedhisfamilyand
pulpittoMarlborough.HewaseducatedthereatGatesAcademy,andatHarvard.Hethenvacillatedbetweenteaching,writingBertha'sChristmasVision:an
AutumnSheaf,storiesandverses,appearedin1856,andtheministrybeforeoptingtostudyatCambridgeDivinitySchool,fromwhichhegraduatedin1860.
AfterahurriedEuropeantour,hereturnedtoMassachusetts,andpublishedstoriesandpoemsinjournals,breakingintothejuvenilemarketwithFrank'sCampaign
(1864).In1864heacceptedthepostofMinisteroftheUnitarianSocietyofBrewster.Heresigned15monthslater'andhastilylefttownonthenexttrainforparts
unknown',accordingtotheparishstandingcommittee,afterbeingchargedwith'theabominableandrevoltingcrimeofunnaturalfamiliaritywithboys'.Hesettledin
NewYork,whereheinterestedhimselfintheplightofvagrantboysandwiththeeffortsmadeontheirbehalfbytheNewsboys'LodgingHouse,andbegantowrite,as
expiationaswellasforemployment,moraltalesinwhichvirtueandindustryarerewarded.RaggedDick:or,StreetLifeinNewYorkwiththeBootBlacks(1868),
thefirstofaseriesofeightvolumesincludingMark,theMatchBoy(1869)andBen,theLuggageBoy(1870),beganapersonalliterarycrusadewhichcontinued
withnumeroussimilarbooksthroughouthislife,andbeyondOutforBusiness(1900)wascompletedbyEdwardStratemeyer(18631930),hissuccessorinthe
fieldofpopularjuvenilefiction,whoasLauraLeeHopewrote'TheBobbseyTwins'series,andasCarolynKeenetheoriginal'NancyDrewMysteries'.Algerretired
toSouthNatick,Massachusetts,in1896,brokenbyoverwork,havingbeenanotedtraveller,personaltutortoprominentfamilies,andarespectedmemberofthe
HarvardClub,NewYork.SeeGaryScharnhorstandJackBales,TheLostLifeofHoratioAlger,Jr,newedn1992GaryScharnhorst,HoratioAlger,Jr,1980
(biographical/criticalstudy).
Algren,Nelson(190981)
Americannovelistandjournalist,wasbornNelsonAhlgrenAbrahaminDetroit,thesonofworkingclassJewishimmigrantswithSwedishantecedents.Hewas
broughtupinChicago,graduatedfromtheUniversityofIllinoisin1931,tookaqualificationinjournalism,androdetherailroadsintheSouth,pickingupcopyfrom
thevagrantsoftheDepression,whichheusedinhisfirstnovel,SomebodyinBoots(1935)seealsoTheTexasStoriesofNelsonAlgren,ed.BettinaDrew
(1995).Inhissecond,NeverComeMorning(1942),ofwhichHEMINGWAYremarked,'Youshouldnotread[it]ifyoucannottakeapunch',adoomedPolishteenage
boxerissentencedtodeathinChicagoformurder.AlgrenworkedfortheChicagoVenerealDiseaseProgramin1941

Page11

42,andservedintheUSArmyMedicalCorpsfrom1942to1945.TheNeonWilderness,acollectionofshortstories,appearedin1947.AmeetingwithBEAUVOIRat
aliterarypartyin1947wasthebeginningofanintenseaffair,whichranintoproblemswhenintheearly1950stheStateDepartmentwithdrewhispassportfor
suspectedunAmericanactivities.TheManwiththeGoldenArm(1949),themurkycareerandmessysuicideofaChicagogamblingdencarddealerandmorphine
addict,wontheNationalBookAwardandwasfilmed(1955).OfhiscontributiontothescriptAlgrencommentedlater:'Iwentoutthereforathousandaweek,andI
workedMonday,andIgotfiredWednesday.TheguythathiredmewasoutoftownTuesday.'AfterthepoorreceptionforAWalkontheWildSide(1956),a
reworkingofaspectsofhisfirstnovel,hegaveupfiction.SeeBettinaDrew,NelsonAlgren:aLifeontheWildSide,newedn1991.
Allen,Roland
seeAYCKBOURN.
Allende,Isabel(b.1942)
Chileannovelist,wasborn'bychance'inLima,Peru.Herfather'disappearedwithoutleavinganytracesbehind',andhermothersubsequentlymarriedadiplomat'so
wewerealwaysgoingroundtheworldandthatgavemeapermanenthorroroftravelling...'.Shehasworkedsinceshewas17,usuallyasajournalist.Withher
husbandandtwochildren,sheleftChileforVenezuela18monthsafterthemilitarycoupwhichtoppledthegovernmentandwasresponsibleforthedeathofheruncle,
SalvadorAllende(190873),thecountry'sPresident.AfterreceivingadeaththreatshewenttoCalifornia.Herfirstnovel,LaCasadelosEspritus(1982tr.
MagdaBoginasTheHouseoftheSpirits,1985),partsofwhichareautobiographical,coversfourgenerationsagainstabackgroundofnationaleventsinChile
leadinguptothepoliticalpersecutionofthe1970sshetreatsthesamethemewithevenmorebrutalrealisminDeAmorydeSombra(1984tr.MargaretSayers
PedenasOfLoveandShadows,1987).InEvaLuna(1987tr.Peden,1988)andTheStoriesofEvaLuna(1989tr.Peden,1991)romanticloveandloveplay
actasacounterpoisetopain,hardship,andimagesofterror.SheandhersecondhusbandnowliveinCalifornia,thesettingoftheintertwinedstoriesofthepresent
generationoverthepastthirtyyearsinElPlanInfinito(1991tr.PedenasTheInfinitePlan,1993).ShestillwritesinSpanish:'Fictionissomethinginmybelly:it's
organic.InordertowriteinEnglish,Iwouldhavetoprocessitinmymind,andthatwouldbeabarrierforme.'Andshebeginsabookalwaysonthesamedate,8
January.Paula(1994tr.Peden,1995)isaconfessionalautobiographywhichbeganasaseriesofletterstoherdaughter,whodiedin1992aftermonthsinacoma.
AllinghamWilliam(182489)
Irishpoet,wasborninBallyshannon,Donegal,andeducatedatalocalschoolwhereonlyLatinwastaught,andataboardingschoolinCo.Cavan,whichheleftat14
toworkinitiallyintheBallyshannonbranchoftheProvincialBank,ofwhichhisfatherwasthenmanager.Aftersevenboringyearsofbanking,hebecameacustoms
officer(thejobwasofferedfirsttohisbrother,whowastooyoungtoacceptit),inIreland,theninLondon,andfinallyinLymington,Hampshire.InLondonin1849he
metHUNT,towhomhededicatedhisfirstbook,Poems(1850),andPATMORE,whointroducedhimtoTENNYSON,forwhomAllinghamretainedalifelongadmiration,for
allTennyson'soccasionalbrusquenesstohim.OtherLondonfriendsweretheBROWNINGS,CARLYLE,CLOUGH,andtheROSSETTIS.DayandNightSongs(1854)was
followedbyLaurenceBloomfieldinIreland:aModernPoem(1864),alongwork(2300heroiccouplets)intheveinofCRABBEinthatitpaintsarealisticpictureof
countrylifeandthewretchedconditionsoftenantsunderanabsenteelandlord.Allinghamgaveupthecustomsin1870tobeasubeditorandthen(18749)Editorof
Fraser'sMagazine.In1874hemarriedHelenPatterson(18481926),thewatercolouristandillustrator.Theillnesswhichcausedhisdeathwasbroughtonbyafall
fromahorse.Thefrequencywithwhich'TheFairies'('Uptheairymountain/Downtherushyglen...')hasbeenreprintedbelieshisconsiderableabilityasa
composerofshortpoemsdeftlyexpressingatmosphereoranemotionalmoment.SeeSongs,Ballads,andStories,newedn1977ADiary,ed.HelenAllinghamand
D.Radford,newedn1985AlanWarner,WilliamAllingham:anIntroduction,1971.
Amado,Jorge(b.1912)
Braziliannovelist,wasborninIlheus,Bahia,andstudiedattheFederalUniversity,RiodeJaneiro.Asocialandpoliticalcriticwhoseliteraryterritoryisusuallythe
northeasternpartofthecountrywherehewasborn,hewasimprisonedandalsotemporarilyexiledforthesocialistprinciplesheexpressedinhisearlynovels,thefirst
ofwhichwasOPalsdoCarnaval(1932).ThefirsttobepublishedinEnglishwasTerrasdoSemFim(1942tr.SamuelPutnamasTheViolentLand,1945),
abouttheeffectofthecacaophenomenonontheexploitedpopulace.Gabriela,CravoeCanela(1958tr.JamesL.TaylorandWilliamL.GrossmanasGabriela,
CloveandCinnamon,1962)islesspolemicalandmoresubtleinitsamusingexplorationofconflictsbetweentraditionalvaluesandsocialchange.Moresatiricalstill
isOsVelhosMarinheiros(1961tr.HarrietdeOnisasHomeistheSailor,1964).

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Amichai,Yehuda(b.1924)
Israelipoetandnovelist,wasborninGermanyinWurzburg,andin1936emigratedwithhisparentstoPalestine,wheretheysettledinJerusalemandhesubsequently
wenttotheHebrewUniversity.HeservedwiththeJewishBrigadeduringWorldWarIIandintheinfantryduringtheWarofIndependence(194849).Withhisfirst
volumeofverse(1955)heintroducedintoHebrewpoetrymoderntermsfromtechnology,law,andwar,aswellasEnglishformsandmannersofexpressionsuchas
ironyandunderstatement['Myfather...']istheopeningpoemofasonnetsequence.Hewasthusintheforefrontofthosewhohavecreatedanewidiomreflecting
theradicalchangeswhichhaveoccurredintheHebrewlanguage.[NotofThisTime,NotofThisPlace](1963tr.SchlomoKatz,1973)isanovelinwhichthe
IsraeliprotagonistseekstoexactretributionfromtheGermanswhohavedestroyedhisnativetownseealsoTheWorldisaRoomandOtherStories,prefaceby
ElinorGrumet(1984).SeeYehudaAmichai:aLifeofPoetry19481994,ed.andtr.BarbaraandBenjaminHarshav,newedn1995(substantialcollection)The
SelectedPoetryofYehudaAmichai,rev.ednwith40newpoems,tr.ChanaBlochandStephenMitchell,1996.
Amis,(Sir)Kingsley(192295)
novelist,critic,andpoet,wasborninLondonandeducatedatCityofLondonSchoolandStJohn'sCollege,Oxford.HewasalecturerinEnglishatUniversity
College,Swansea194961,andaFellowofPeterhouse,Cambridge196163,fromwhichheresignedlargelybecauseofthebackbitinghefoundthere.Twovolumes
ofpoetryseeCollectedPoems(1979)werefollowedbyhisnovelLuckyJim(1954,dated1953),whichdescribesthetribulationsofJimDixon,lecturerin
historyatanewuniversity.Thoughnotthefirstofthewaveofnovelswhichgavetheirauthors(andthedramatistOSBORNE)thesobriquet'AngryYoungMen',itwasthe
onewhichdidmosttosuggesttheexistenceofsuchamovement.Amis'sfictioniscomicinthat,especiallyintheearlynovels,heroestendtobeaccidentproneandset
piecesarefarcical.Inthelater,moresociallyawarenovelsnotablyTheAntiDeathLeague(1966),EndingUp(1974),Jake'sThing(1978),andTheOldDevils
(1986),whichwontheBookerprizeforfictioncomedygiveswaytosatireofafiercerkind,whichinTheFolksthatLiveontheHill(1990)andTheRussianGirl
(1992)istemperedbysporadicinjectionsofsympathy.Heused,however,avarietyofformstoexpresswhathewantedtosay:TheGreenMan(1969)isaghost
storybasedonlocalfolkloreTheRiversideVillasMurder(1973)isintheformofadetectivemystery.Hewasawriteressentiallyofcomediesofmoralsratherthan
ofmanners,whosepenultimatenovel,YouCan'tDoBoth(1994),setinthe1930sto1950s,hasautobiographicalparallels.CollectedShortStories(1980)was
followedbyMrBarrett'sSecretandOtherStories(1993),sixpieceswhicharemainlyvariationsonliteraryorhistoricalthemes.
WhatBecameofJaneAusten(1970)containsarevealingandreadableselectionofpersonalandcriticalessaysonliteraryandothertopicsseealsoTheAmis
Collection:SelectedNonfiction19541990(1990).Memoirs(1991)isnotsomuchanautobiographyasanacerbic,oftenamusing,sometimesbawdycollectionof
charactersketchesandanecdotes.Afteradivorcein1965hemarriedthenovelistElizabethJaneHoward(b.1923).Theydivorcedin1983,afterwhichuntilhisdeath
helivedinHampstead,London,withhisfirstwifeandherthirdhusband.Hewasknightedin1990.Hiseldestson,Martin(b.1949),wasLiteraryEditoroftheNew
Statesman197779,andhaswrittenseveralpowerfulandoftensatiricalnovelsincludingDeadBabies(1975),LondonFields(1989),andTheInformation(1995)
forwhichheisregardedasoneoftheleadingnovelistsofhisparticulargenerationseeJamesDiedrick,UnderstandingMartinAmis(1995).SeeEricJacobs,
KingsleyAmis:aBiography,newedn1996JohnMacDermott,KingsleyAmis:anEnglishNovelist,1988(criticalstudy)PaulFussell,TheAntiEgotist:
KingsleyAmis,ManofLetters,1996(biographical/criticalstudy).
Amis,Martin
seeAMIS.
Anacreon(560476BC)
classicalGreeklyricpoet,wasborninTeos,Ionia,fromwhichheemigratedtoThracewhenthePersiansinvadedtheterritory.HelivedinSamosatthecourtof
Polycratesuntilthelatter'sassassinationandsubsequentcrucifixionin522atthehandsofthePersians.HethenacceptedaninvitationfromHipparchus,younger
brotherofthetyrantofAthens,tojoinhisliterarycoterie.Hipparchuswasmurderedin514byahomosexualcouple,thesisterofoneofwhomhehadinsultedafter
theyouthhadrejectedhisadvances.AnacreonissaidtohaveendedhisdaysinThessaly,andtohavechokedtodeathonagrapepip.Onlyafewfragmentsofhis
versesurvive,gracefulevocationsofwineandloveinmetricalformslargelyofhisowninvention,butthepublicationinParisin1554ofaspuriouscollectionofsixty
laterimitationsbeganavogueforthecompositionof'anacreontics'.ThetraditionspreadtoEngland,whereitinfluencedDRAYTON,JONSON,HERRICK,andCOWLEY,and
causedAlexanderBrome(162066)tobedubbedthe'EnglishAnacreon'.LANDOR'SImaginaryConversations...containsadialoguebetweenAnacreonand
Polycrates.SeeinSevenGreeks,tr.GuyDavenport,1995.

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Anand,MulkRaj(b.1905)
Indiannovelistandcritic,wasborninPeshawar,thesonofanarmysubadar,andwaseducatedatKhalsaCollege,Amritsar,andatPunjabUniversity,afterwhichhe
wenttoLondontocontinuehisstudies,keepinghimselfbyworkinginIndianrestaurants.HewasinEnglandfor21years,becomingPhDatLondonUniversity,
spendingayearatCambridge,andinterestinghimselfinMarxism.HealsowroteseveralofthebooksforwhichheisregardedasafounderoftheIndiannovelin
English,notablyUntouchable(1935),TheCoolie(1936rev.edn1972),andthetrilogy,TheVillage(1939),AcrosstheBlackWaters(1940),andTheSword
andtheSickle(1942),inallofwhichhischiefcharactersarevictimsofthesystem,andTheBigHeart(1945rev.edn,ed.SarosCowerjee,1980),inwhichthe
traditionalcoppersmithsdemonstratetheirresponsetoindustrialization.In1946hebecameEditorofthequarterlyartsjournalMarg,inBombay.HewasTagore
ProfessorofFineArt,PunjabUniversity196366,andFineArtChairman,NationalAcademyofArt196570.SevenSummers:theStonyofanIndianChildhood
(1951)becameinduecoursethefirstofanautobiographicalnovelsequence,continuedwithConfessionofaLover(1976)andTheBubble(1984).SelectedShort
Stories,ed.M.K.Naik(1977)isadistillationoffortyyearsofpublishingvolumesinthismedium.Hisnumerousnonfictionworksincludestudiesofliterature,art,
humanism,andcurry.SeePilpaliSahab:theStoryofaChildhoodundertheRaj,1985ConversationsinBloomsbury,newedn1996(reminiscences).
Andersen,HansChristian(180575)
Danishnovelist,dramatist,andchildren'swriter,wasborninOdense,thesonofashoemakerandofanilliterate,alcoholicwasherwoman,andat14setoutfor
Copenhagentobeanactor.HebecameassociatedwiththeRoyalTheatre,andcametothenoticeofFrederickVI,atwhoseinstigationhewasputthroughgrammar
school,whereheremaineduntilhewas22.Hisearliestwritingswereverse,travelogues,andplays(includinganadaptationofWALTERSCOTT'STheBrideof
Lammermoor).Travelgrantsoutoftheroyalpurseenabledhimtobroadenhisexperience,andtowritehisfirstnovel,Improvisatoren(1833)inatranslationby
MaryHowitt(17991888)asTheImprovisatore:or,LifeinItaly(1845),itwascalledbyE.B.BROWNING,inalettertoherfuturehusband,'abookfullofbeauty
[which]hadagreatcharmtome'.In1835hepublished,asa64pagebookletcontainingfourstories,thefirstofhiscollectionsofEventyr[FairyTales],ofwhichonly
theinitialsixwereadvertisedas'ToldforChildren'.UnliketheGRIMMS,hewasacreatorratherthanacollectoroftaleseventhoseforwhichhehadasource,suchas
['TheTinderBox'],areenrichedfromhisownexperienceandwithhisownpersonality.NolessthanfourcollectionsofhisstoriesappearedinBritainin1846,of
whichWonderfulStoriesforChildrenwastranslatedbyHowitt,whochangedtheopeningof'Tommelise'(Thumbelina)toobscurethefactthatthewifeinthetale
wasseekinganaidtofertility.Hepublishedafurtherfourvolumesof[NewFairyTales](184347),andcontinuedtowriteplaysandnovels,whileremainingan
inveteratetravellerseeTheDiariesofHansChristianAndersen,ed.andtr.PatriciaConroyandSvenH.Rossel(1990)ifnotalwaysanentirelywelcomeguest.
DICKENS,withwhomhestayedatGad'sHillin1857,putupacardaboveamirror:'HansAndersensleptinthisroomforfiveweeks,whichseemedtothefamily
AGES!'SeeEliasBredsdorff,HansChristianAndersen:theStoryofHisLifeandWork,newedn1994.
Anderson,Sherwood(18761941)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninCamden,Ohio,thethirdofsevenchildrenofaharnessmaker,asaresultofwhosesearchforworkandgeneral
instabilitytheboyhadonlyayearofhighschoolinClyde(thesettingofWinesburg,Ohio),towhichthefamilymovedin1844.Whenhismotherdiedin1895,he
wenttoChicago.AfterservingbrieflyintheUSArmy(heenlistedtofightintheSpanishAmericanWarof1898butarrivedinCubaafteritwasover),hecompleted
hishighschooleducationinoneyearatWittenbergAcademy,Springfield,andthenwentintoadvertising.Hemarriedintoawealthyfamilyin1904,andin1907
startedhisownbusiness,sellingbuildingmaterialsinElyria,Ohio,wherehewasknownasthe'RoofFixMan'.Hewasalso,inhissparetime,writingthetwonovels
laterpublishedasWindyMacPherson'sSon(1916)andMarchingMen(1917),andtwoothers.In1912hehadabrainstorm,walkedoutofhisoffice,andwokeup
severaldayslaterinaClevelandhospital.HelefthisfamilyandwenttoChicago,whereheassociatedwithDREISER,MASTERS,andSANDBURG,andwrotethestoriesand
charactersketcheswhichbecameWinesburg,Ohio(1919).Hecalledhisprotagonists'grotesques',butindepictingthenaturalfrustrationsandpassionsunderlyingthe
outwardordinarinessoftheirlives,hewasrevealinganAmericainthegripofasocialorderwhichwasinherentlydamaging.Hewrotefurthernovelsofanevenmore
experimentalnaturebutlessliterarysignificance,andseveralvolumesofshortstories,includingHorsesandMen(1923),inwhichgenreisthebestofhislaterwriting.
In1925hepurchasedafarmnearMarion,Virginia,andtwoyearslaterboughtthetwopoliticallyopposedweeklynewspapers,toeachofwhichhecontributed
regularcolumns.Hemarriedforthefourthtimein1933,andbecamearovingchampionoftheworkingman.

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Hediedofperitonitis,fromabrokentoothpick,inColon,Panama,enroutetoSouthAmericaasagoodwillenvoyfortheStateDepartment.AStoryTeller'sStory
(1924),Tar:aMidwestChildhood(1926),andtheunfinishedSherwoodAnderson'sMemoirs(1942)arefictionalizedautobiography.SeeKimTownsend,
SherwoodAnderson:aBiography,1987IrvingHowe,SherwoodAnderson,1951(criticalstudy).
Andreev,LeonidNikolaevich(18711919)
Russiannovelist,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninOrelincentralRussia,andafterhisfather'searlydeathstudiedlawatStPetersburgUniversity.Poverty
andhopelessnessledtoathirdattemptatsuicidein1894,afterwhich,andalapseintodebauchery,heobtainedadegreeatMoscowUniversity.Hebecameapolice
courtreporter,andin1898astoryattractedtheattentionofGORKY,whobecameafriend,patron,and,brieflyin1905,fellowprisonerafterarevolutionaryexploit.
Andreev'searlystoriesandnovels,suchas[TheSevenWhoWereHanged](tr.HermanBernstein,1909),tendedtobeunashamedlysensationalinthemebut
progressiveinintent.LatterlyhevergedtowardSymbolism,asinhisbestknownplay,[HeWhoGetsSlapped](tr.GregoryZilboorg,1921),inwhichacircusclown
representstheoppressedintellectual.HedidnotsupporttheRevolutionin1917,andretiredtoFinland,wherehehadbuiltahouseforhimselfandhisfamily.
AndrewofWyntoun(c.1350c.1422)
Scottishpoetandcleric,wasacanonofStAndrews,beingelectedPriorofthemonasteryofStSerf'sInch,anislandinLochLeven.Therehewroteinrugged
coupletsforhispatron,SirJohnofWemyss,aversehistoryofScotlandfromtheCreationto1408,shortlyaftertheboykingJAMESIhadbeencapturedbytheEnglish.
TheOrygynaleCronykilofScotlandsurvivedinmanuscriptformandwasfirstpublishedin1795.ItissignificantinthatitiswrittennotinLatin,butinthedialectof
northernEnglishwhichbecameScots.Thechroniclerisonsafergroundwhenwritingabouteventsnearerhisowntime,butherecognizedthevalueofachronological
account.IntheseventhbookisquotedtheearliestexampleofScottishverse,thelamentforAlexanderIII,aneightlinestanzawhichbegins'QuhenAlexanderour
Kyngewasdede/ThatScotlandledeinluveandle...,andwasprobablywrittenshortlyaftertheKing'sdeathin1286.
Andrewes,Lancelot(15551626)
Englishcleric,wasborninBarking,Essex,thesonofawelltodomerchant,andwaseducatedatMerchantTaylors'SchoolandPembrokeHall,Cambridge,of
whichhebecameaFellowin1567.Hewasordainedin1580,andwasMasterofthecollege15891605.HewasalsoDeanofWestminster160105.Whenin
LondonheusedtowalktoChiswickforrecreation,alwaysaccompanied,accordingtoacontemporarycleric,bytwostudents,'andinthatwayfaringLeisure,hada
singulardexteritytofillthosenarrowVesselswithaFunnel'.UnderJamesIhereceivedroyaladvancement,andbecamesuccessivelyBishopofChichester(1605),
Ely(1609),andWinchester(1618),besidesbeingtheleadinglightofthecommitteeresponsiblefortheportionoftheOldTestamentfromGenesistoKings,andfor
theEpistlesintheNewTestament,inthe'AuthorizedVersion'oftheBible(1611).ApillaroftheAnglicanChurch,andalso(accordingtoT.S.ELIOT)its'firstgreat
preacher',hisXCVISermons(1629)waseditedbytwobishopsandpublishedbycommandoftheKing.AmorepersonalbookineverysenseisPrecesPrivatae
[PrivateDevotions],originallywritteninLatin,Greek,andHebrew,partofwhichwasfirstpublishedin1647.SeeSelectedWritings,ed.P.E.Hewison,1995
'LancelotAndrewes'inSelectedProseofT.S.Eliot,ed.FrankKermode,1975.
Andrzel,Pierre
seeBLIXEN.
Angelou,Maya(b.1928)
Americanpoetanddramatist,wasborninStLouis,Missouri,andwasbroughtupbyhergrandmotherinStamps,Arkansas.ShewenttopublicschoolsinArkansas
andCalifornia,andstudiedmusic,dance,anddrama,beginningherstagecareerin195455onaninternationaltourofPorgyandBess,theoperabyGeorge
Gershwin(18981937).SheperformedoffBroadwayinseveralshows,includingtherevue,CabaretforFreedom(1960),ofwhichshewascoauthor.Atthe
requestofMartinLutherKing(192968),sheservedasNorthernCoordinatoroftheSouthernChristianLeadershipConferencein195859.Shespenttheyears
196366inGhana,whereshewasanadminstratoroftheSchoolofMusicandDrama,UniversityofGhanaInstituteofAfricanAffairs,andalsowroteforthe
GhanaianTimesandforradio.Shehassaid:'TheonlytwothingsI'veeverlovedinmylifearedancingandwriting...butbytwentytwomykneesweregoneso
therewasnochanceofachievingthebestIhadtogivein[dancing]....IstartedtowritewhenIwasmute.IalwaysthoughtIcouldwritebecauseIlovedreadingso
much.IlovedthemelodyofPoeandIlovedPaulLaurenceDunbar.'Thebasisofherpoetry,ofwhichshehaspublishedseveralvolumessinceJustGiveMeaCool
DrinkofWater'foreIDiiie(1971),isrhythm,withitschangesandbreaksreflectinghermanifoldmoods.
Asnationallaureatein1993,AngeloubecamethefirstpoetsinceFROSTtobeinvitedtoparticipateintheinaugurationofthePresi

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dentoftheUSA.In1996shemadealiterarypilgrimagetoScotland,recordedinatelevisiondocumentarydirectedbyherself,tocelebratethebicentenaryofthe
deathofBURNS:he'wroteaboutmypeoplewithouteverhavingleftScotland'.HerdramaticwritingsincludeAjax(produced1974),fromSOPHOCLES,AndStillIRise
(1976,published1978),amusical,andAllDayLong(1974),afilmwhichshealsodirected.Shewasavisitinglectureratseveraluniversitiesbeforetakingupan
appointmentasReynoldsProfessorofAmericanStudiesatWakeForestUniversity,NorthCarolina.InfivevolumesofautobiographyfromIKnowWhytheCaged
BirdSings(1969)toAllGod'sChildrenNeedTravelingShoes(1987),shecoversherlifeasbothblackactivistandfeminist,fromhertraumaticchildhoodand
adolescencetohertimeinGhana,whereshehoped,butfailed,tofindarootedexistence.Wouldn'tTakeNothingforMyJourneyNow(1994)isaslimvolumeof
essaysreflectingonsocialessays.
Angus,Marion(18661946)
Scottishpoet,wasborninAberdeenandspentherchildhoodandyouthinArbroath,whereherfatherwasaminister.Shedidnotbegintowriteseriouslyuntilafter
WorldWarIherfirstbookofverse,TheLiltandOtherPoems(1922),wasfollowedbyfiveothers.ShespentmostofheradultyearsinAberdeen,returningto
Arbroaththeyearbeforeshedied,andherasheswereatherownrequestscatteredintheseaatElliot'sPoint.MuchofherpoetrywaswritteninScots,andsheisthe
bestofthepoetsofnortheastScotlandwhopresagedtheScottishRenaissancewhichwasspearheadedbyMACDIARMID.Sheoftentookherinspirationfromtheballads,
withinafewlinesdevelopingaromanticsituationwithdepthandinsight,asin'Mary'sSong','ThinkLang',and'TheLilt'.In'Alas!PoorQueen',writteninEnglishin
irregularrhymingstanzas,sheappliesthesametechniquetothepredicamentofMary,QueenofScots.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.MauriceLindsay,1950.
Anouilh,Jean(191087)
Frenchdramatist,wasborninCrisole,Bordeaux,ofFrenchBasqueparents,hisfatherbeingacraftsmantailor'scutterandhismotheraviolinist.Hewaseducatedat
thecoleColbert,Bordeaux,andCollgeChaptal,Paris,afterwhichhestudiedlawfortwoyearsattheSorbonne.Hespenttwoyearsasanadvertisingcopywriter
forproductsranging'fromnoodlestoautomobiles',andwhenhewas19wroteincollaborationaoneactfarce.L'Hermine(produced1932tr.MiriamJohnasThe
Ermine,1955)andLeVoyageurSansBagage(1937tr.JohnWhitingasTravellerWithoutLuggage,1959)arenaturalisticdramasofakindhelatercalled
'picesnoires'.Bycontrast,LeBaldesVoleurs(published1938tr.LucienneHillasThieves'Carnival,1952)isa'picerose'.Antigone(1946tr.Lewis
Galantire,1946),fromSOPHOCLES,wasfirststagedin1944inaParisstillunderGermanoccupation,whichgaveanadditionaldimensiontoadramaticconfrontation
betweenidealism(resistance)andrealism(collaboration).L'InvitationauChteau(1948)isalightfantasywhichwasadaptedfortheBritishstagebyFRYasRing
RoundtheMoon(1950).His'picescostumes'includeL'Alouette(1953tr.ChristopherFryasTheLark,1955),astudyofthemythologyofJoanofArc
(c.14121431),andBecket:ou,L'HonneurdeDieu(1959tr.HillasBecket:or,TheHonorofGod,1960).Hiscraftsmanshipextendedtohisworkforthecinema
asdirectorandscriptwriterhewroteMonsieurVincent(1947),AnnaKarenina(1948),andLaRonde(1964).SeeFivePlays,1987Plays,1992,Plays:Two,
1993.
Apollinaire,Guillaume(18801918)
Frenchpoet,dramatist,novelist,andcritic,wasborninRome,wherehewasbaptizedGuillelmusApollinarisAlbertusdeKostrowitsky.HewasthesonofAngelica
(de)Kostrowitsky(18581919)andprobablyofherItalianlover,FrancescoFlugid'Aspermont.Afewmonthslaterhismothermadeaformalactofrecognitionof
himashernaturalson,withthenameofGuillaumeAlbertWladimirAlexandreApollinaire.HewaseducatedatCollgeSaintCharles,Monaco,CollgeStanislas,
Cannes,andfortwotermsatthelyceinNice,whichheleftin1897eitherhavingfailedorwithouttakinghisbaccalaureate.In1901,havinghadsomepoliticaland
financialarticlesandtwopoemspublished,andhavingresortedtowritingpornographicnovelstoearnsomemoney,hewentastutortothedaughterofaGerman
FrenchfamilyinHonnef,intheRhineland.HefellfortheEnglishgoverness,AnniePlayden,whomhepursuedtoLondon.Forconsolationafterherandherfamily's
finalrepudiationofhimin1904,hepiecedtogetherthenarrativepoem,'LeRomanduMalAim',inwhichtheessenceofmodernismfindsexpression.In1911,now
alsoanartcriticandaleaderoftheartisticavantgarde(heiscreditedwithcoiningtheterm'surrealism'),hewasarrestedonachargeofreceivingtwostolenstatues
andofcolludinginthetheftofthe'MonaLisa',butwasprovisionallyfreedafterspendingafortnightinjail.Theexperiencewastraumatic,butduringthefollowingyear
hemanagedtowritesomeofhismostlastingpoems,including'LePontMirabeau'and'Zone'(EnglishtranslationbyBECKETT,1972).
Hiscollectionofcriticalarticles,[TheCubistPainters](1913),ledpeopletoexpectsomethingrathermorefuturisticthanwasthecasewiththeonlycollectionof
versepublishedinhislifetime,Alcools(1913tr.AnneHydeGreet,1965),whichcomprisedlargelyoldermaterialfromwhichatproofstagehehadremovedthe
punctuation.Warserviceandtwo

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concurrentloveaffairsinspiredsomefinepoemsonbothtopicsseeCalligrammes:PoemsofPeaceandWar(19131916),tr.Greet,ed.GreetandS.I.
Lockerbie(bilingualedn1980).InMarch1916hewaspostedtothefrontline,where,whilerelaxinginhistrenchafterthemainattackwasover,hewashitinthe
headbyapieceofshrapnelwhichpiercedhishelmet.Herecoveredsufficientlytodeliverin1917hisfamouslecturedefining'l'espritnouveau',thenewspiritinartand
life.HesuccumbedtotheepidemicofSpanishfluinParis,shortlyaftermarryingJacquelineKolb.FictionisinTheWanderingJewandOtherStories,tr.RmyInglis
Hall(1967).SeeSelectedPoems,ed.andtr.OliverBernard,1986MargaretDavies,Apollinaire,1964(criticalbiography).
ApolloniusofRhodes(fl.c.250BC)
Hellenisticnarrativepoet,wasborninAlexandria,andwhileyoungwroteanepicpoem,Argonautica,whichwasderidedbythepublicandbyotherpoets.Heretired
toRhodesinpique,andeitherthere,orlater,whenhewasdirectoroftheroyallibraryatAlexandria,heproducedarevisedversion,whichwassuchasuccessthathe
wasgrantedthefreedomofRhodes.HisrenderingofthelegendofJasonisthefullestthatwehaveofhisepicjourneyinsearchofthegoldenfleece,andincludesthe
storyoftheloveforJasonoftheprincessMedea,fromwhichVIRGILtookelementsforhisaccountofDidoandAeneas.SeeTheVoyageoftheArgo,tr.E.V.Rieu,
2ndedn1971.
Apuleius,Lucius(fl.c.160)
novelist,whowroteinLatin,wasborninMadauraintheRomanprovinceofAfrica,thesonofawealthyprovincialmagistrateofancientGreekstock.Hewas
educatedinCarthage,Athens,andRome,wherehestudiedoratory,atwhichhelatermadealiving.HemarriedarichwidowinOea(nowTripoli),whosefamilytook
himtocourtforsorcery.Hewittilyconductedhisowndefence(itsurvivesas'Apologia'),andwasacquitted.Hisnovel,Metamorphoses(orTheGoldenAss),the
bareplotofwhichderivesfromaGreekstory,isarollickingtaleofthesupernatural,toldinthefirstperson,ofhowLuciusdabblesinmagic,isgiventhewrong
ointmentbytheservingmaidwhoishisbedmate,andisturnedintoanass.Severalgoodstoriesaresplicedintotheaction,includinganexcellentversionoftheCupid
andPsychelegend.ItisalsoareligiousnovelinthatitsurprisinglyculminatesintheconversionofLuciustothecultofOsiris.Apuleiushimself,aswellasbeingapriest
ofOsirisandIsis,wasadevoteeofAsclepius,godofmedicine,whichhefoundcompatiblewithorganizinggladiatorialshows.SeeTheGoldenAss,tr.Robert
Graves,1950tr.EG.Walsh,newedn1995.
Arden,John(b.1930)
Britishdramatistandnovelist,wasborninBarnsley,Yorkshire,andeducatedatSedberghSchoolandKing'sCollege,Cambridge,afterwhichhestudiedarchitecture.
AVictorianperiodcomedy,AllFallDown,wasstagedbystudentsinEdinburghin1955,butitwasaradioplay,TheLifeofMan(1953),whichbroughthimtothe
noticeoftheEnglishStageCompany.IncontrasttothebleakrealismofJOHNOSBORNEandWESKER,hisearlierplays,TheWatersofBabylon,whichdidnotsurvive
beyondasingleexperimentalperformance,LiveLikePigs,andTheHappyHavenseeThreePlays(1964)appearedtobeamoralsocialfantasies.Serjeant
Musgrave'sDance:anUnHistoricalParable(1960)introducedaneffectivetheatricaltechnique,repeatedinArmstrong'sLastGoodmght:anExercisein
Diplomacy(1965),wherebycontemporaryissuesareinterpretedintermsofthepast,andpoeticproseisinterspersedwithsnatchesofversewhichharkbackto
traditionalballadformsandthemes.Subsequentplays,someincollaborationwithhiswife,theactressMargarettaD'Arcy,havemetwithlesscriticalacclaim,though
TheIslandoftheMighty:aPlayonaTraditionalBritishTheme(1974),apoeticamalgamofthemythicalandthepoliticalKingArthur,whichhadbeenmany
yearsgestating,ismemorable.SilenceAmongtheWeapons(1982),isarich,complex,adventurenovelofthelaterRomanrepublic,withatheatricalbackground.
ThefourstoriesinCogsTyrannic(1991)featureinhistoricaltermsaspectsofcommunicationbymechanicalmeans.JackJugglerandtheEmperor'sWhore:Seven
TallTalesLinkedtogetherforanIndecorousToyTheatre(1995)isamultilayeredhistoricalthrillerwiththeatricalovertones.HehasalsopublishedToPresent
thePretence:EssaysontheTheatreandItsPublic(1977).SeePlays,2vols,newedns1994FrancesGray,JohnArden,1982(criticalstudy).
Ariosto,Ludovico(14741533)
Italianpoetanddramatist,wasborninReggieEmilia,theeldestoftenchildrenofaminornoblemanintheserviceoftheEstesofFerrara,andstudiedlawatFerrara
University,thoughhispreferencewasforclassicalliterature.Havingtoprovideforthefamilyafterhisfather'sdeathin1500,hebecameanambassadorforCardinal
Hippolytus,butlefthimin1517tobecourtpoettotheCardinal'sbrother,nowDuked'Este.Ariostohadwrittentwocomediesandpublishedthefirsteditionofhis
narrativepoem,OrlandoFurioso(1515),whenin1522theDukesenthimtobegovernoroftheturbulentEsteregionofGarfagnana.Afterhisreturnin1525hebuilt
himselfamodesthouseinFerraraandreturnedtohiswriting:twofurthercomedies,includingLena(performed1528tr.GuyWilliamsinFiveItalianRenaissance
Comedies,1978),awittydenunciationofducaladminis

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trationinFerrarasevensatires(published1534)andthethird,definitiveeditionofOrlandoFurioso(1532)in46cantos,eachcomprisingahundredormorestanzas
inottavarima.TowardstheendofhislifehesecretlymarriedAlessandraBenucciStrozzi,nowawidow,whohadbeenhismistressforoverfifteenyears.Hehad
twochildrenbyotherwomen.
OrlandoFurioso(tr.GuidoWaldmanintoprose,1974tr.BarbaraReynoldsintoverseasTheFrenzyofOrlando,2vols1975),wasoriginallyintendedassimplya
completeversionoftheunfinishedverseromanceoftheFrenchheroandChristianknightRoland(Orlando)byMatteoMariaBoiardo(c.143094),itselfan
elaborationofanearlierversionbyLuigiPulci(143284).Itbecameanepicpoemofchivalryinitsownright,whichVOLTAIREdescribedas'theIliadandOdysseyand
DonQuixoteallrolledintoone'.ThefirstEnglishtranslation,into'heroicalverse',wasbySirJohnHarington(15611612)in1591.WilliamStewartRose(1775
1843)producedalaterversion(8vols182331),ofwhich,atoneofROGERS'Scelebratedbreakfasts,thehost,accordingtoWALTERSCOTT(Journal,19October
1826),'madeusmerrywithanaccountofsomepartproposedthattheItalianshouldbeprintedontheothersideforthesakeofassistingtheindolentreaderto
understandtheEnglishandcomplainedofhisusingmorethanoncethephraseofaladyhaving''voidedhersaddle",whichwouldcertainlysoundextraordinaryat
Apothecaries'Hall'!SeealsoCinqueCanti/FiveCantos,tr.AlexanderSheersandDavidQuint,(bilingualedn1966).
Aristophanes(c.450c.385BC)
classicalGreekcomicdramatist,wasprobablyborninAthens,butwastakenasaboytohisfather'sestateintheislandofAegina,thuslaterlayinghimselfopentoa
chargeofnotbeingagenuineAthenian.Hewonasecondprizein427withalostsatiricalplay.TheAcharnians(425),apleaforthecessationofthePeloponnesian
War,wonfirstprizeattheLenaea,underapseudonym.So,underhisownname,didTheKnights(424),asatireonthedefectsandmisusesofdemocracyandin
particularontheruthlessnessofthedemagogue,Cleon(d.422).Asthewarcontinued,hisfantasiesgrewwilderandhistargetsbroaderthenewlearninginThe
Clouds(423),andthelegalsysteminTheWasps(422).Peace(421)andTheBirds(414)aremoredirectlyinhisantiwarvein,whileinLysistrata(411)heplays
hisultimatecard,thatthewomenofAthensshoulddenytheirhusbandstheirconjugalrightsandstageasitinattheseatofgovernment.Bycontrast,in405,the
disastrousyearofthefinaldefeatofAthensbytheSpartans,heproducedTheFrogs,anextendedjokeinvolvingacontestinHadesforsupremacybetween
AESCHYLUSandEURIPIDESwhichincorporatesagooddealofsocialandpolitical,aswellasliterary,criticism.SeePlays,tr.KennethMcLeish,2vols1993.
Aristotle(384322BC)
Greekphilosopher,wasborninStagira,thesonofthephysiciantotheKingofMacedonia.HewenttoAthensin367andwasapupilofPLATO,afterwhosedeathin
347hewenttoAsiaMinor.HewastutortoAlexander(theGreat)untilthelatter'saccessiontothethroneofMacedoniain335,whenhereturnedtoAthens.Herehe
establishedinthegymnasiumintheLyceumhisownschoolofphilosophy,knownasPeripatetic,fromhishabitofteachingwhilewalkingroundtheshadypathsofthe
sacredgrove.IntheantiMacedonianbacklashafterAlexander'sdeathin323,heleftAthensforChalcisinEuboea,wherehedied.Hewroteparticularlyformative
worksinethics,naturalphilosophy(inhisclassificationofwhichhewasfollowedbyBACON)seePhysics,tr.RobinWaterfield,introductionbyDavidBostock
(1996),andpoliticsseeThePolitics,tr.ErnestBarker,rev.anded.R.EStalley(1995).Histreatiseonpoetics(inwhichheincludesdrama)seeinClassical
LiteraryCriticism,tr.T.S.Dorsch(1965)iscitedfrequentlybywritersfromtheElizabethaneraonwards,andwastheauthorityonwhich17thcenturyFrench
classicaldramawasbased,evenifhedidnotspecificallypostulateallthedramaticunitiesofaction,time,andspacewhichareattributedtohim.
Armah,AyiKwei(b.1939)
Ghanaiannovelist,wasbornofaFantespeakingfamilyinSekondiTakoradi,andwaseducatedatAchimotaSchool,GrotonSchool(Massachusetts),Harvard
(wherehereadsociology),andtheGraduateSchoolofFineArts,ColumbiaUniversity.HeworkedasaFrenchtranslatorinAlgiers,atelevisionscriptwriterandan
EnglishteacherinGhana,andfortheParisiannewsjournalJeuneAfrique.Aninscriptiononabusseenbytheanonymousprotagonististhetitleofhisfirstnovel,The
BeautyfulOnesAreNotYetBorn(1968),ametaphysicalstudyofcorruptioninGhana.Fragments(1970)continuesthetheme.In1970hesettledinEastAfrica,
learnedKiswahili,andwrote.HetravelledsouthtoteachAfricanliteratureandcreativewritingattheNationalUniversityofLesotho,andbackagaintotheCollegeof
NationalEducationofChang'ombe,Tanzania.DuringthisperiodhewroteWhyAreWeSoBlest?(1972),asurrealistaccountofthreelostsoulsinaNorthAfrican
capitalTwoThousandSeasons(1973),anexcursionintoathousandyearsofhistoryandfolkmythandTheHealers(1978),apleaforunitythroughthecreative
forceofinspiration,setinthe19thcenturyduringthesecondAshantiwar.AfterteachingattheUniversityofWisconsin,Armahreturnedto

Page18

WestAfricatoliveinDakar,Senegal.Unlikemostauthors,heconsistentlydeclinestobeinterviewedabout,ortodiscuss,hiswork.SeeRobertFraser,TheNovels
ofAyiKweiArmah:aStudyinPolemicalFiction,1980.
Arnold,Matthew(182288)
Britishpoetandcritic,wasborninLaleham,Middlesex,andeducatedatRugbySchool,wherehisfather,DrThomasArnold(17951842),thecelebratededucational
reformerandreligiousleader,wasHeadmaster,andBalliolCollege,Oxford,wherehewontheNewdigatePrizeforpoetrywithapoemaboutCromwell(1843).
OtherwisehisacademicstudiestooksecondplacetohissociallifeadisastrousfinalresultwaspartlycompensatedforbyanappointmentasaFellowofOriel
College.Herehejoinedhisclosefriendandliterary'mate',CLOUGH,incommemorationofwhosedeathhelaterwrote'Thyrsis'(1866),oneofthebestofhisshorter
poemsandaneatblendoftheclassicalandthecolloquial.In1847hebecamesecretarytotheMarquisofLansdowne(17801863),LordPresidentoftheCouncil,
andin1851,theyearofhismarriage,hewasappointedaninspectorofschools,inwhichcapacityhetrailedroundelementaryschools,conscientiouslyupholdinghis
faithintheneedforahumaneandefficientsystemofstateeducation.Heretiredin1883onaCivilListpension,andimmediatelyundertookanarduousAmerican
lecturetourtorepaymoneyhehadborrowedtosettlehisson'sgamblingdebtsatOxford.HewasProfessorofPoetryatOxford185767.
Mostofhispoetrywaswritteninthe1850s.TheStrayedRevellerandOtherPoems(1849)andEmpedoclesonEtnaandOtherPoems(1852)werepublished
asby'A'.Poems(1853)includedthefamous'TheScholarGipsy',whichreflectshisuneasewithcontemporarysociety,andthenarrativepoem'SohrabandRustum',
whoselushstyleandsometimesjerkyrhythmareredeemedbysplendidtouchesofdetailandanendingwhoseimageofstillnightandagentlyflowingstreamrecurs
ofteninArnold'sverse.Poems,SecondSeries(1855)contained'BalderDead',basedonNorsemythology.Themeditative'DoverBeach',thoughfirstpublishedin
NewPoems(1867),waswrittenmuchearlier,alongwithotherpoemsexpressingdespair,anditwasthefeelingthatpoetrycanonlyrecordexperiences,noteffect
reforms,thatledhimtoconcentrateonprose.
Arnold'sliterarycriticisminfluencedhisattitudetothestateofsociety,forwhichhesawaremedyinculture(includingreligion),withliteratureasthekey.Thisandhis
naturalbenttowardstheclassicsledhimtofavourworkswhichhad'highseriousness',aqualitywhichhefoundlackinginCHAUCERforallthathewasasound,
innovative,andeloquentcritic.InEssaysinCriticism,FirstSeries(1865)andSecondSeries(1888)hedrewtogetherrecentlypublishedstudiesonthenatureof
criticismandreligion,andonMILTONandtheRomanticpoets.CultureandAnarchy(1869)ishiscentralstatementonbringingtheforcesofcultureinitswidest
sensetobearontheillsofsociety,representedbyBarbarians(thearistocracy),Philistines(themiddleclasses),andPopulace(theworkingclasses).SeePoems,ed.
KennethAllott,newedn1985SelectedPoemsandProse,ed.MiriamAllott,newedn1995ParkHonan,MatthewArnold:aLife,newedn1983Nicholas
Murray,ALifeofMatthewArnold,1996LionelTrilling,MatthewArnold,newrev.edn1979(criticalbiography)StefanCollini,MatthewArnold:aCritical
Portrait,newedn1994.
Asgham,Roger(151568)
Englishprosewriterandteacher,wasbornatKirbyWiske,nearNorthallerton,Yorkshire,andeducatedatStJohn'sCollege,Cambridge,whereinabout1538he
becameReaderinGreek.Hopingforroyalpatronage,hededicatedtoHenryVIIIapartphilosophical,partinstructionalhandbookonarchery,Toxophilus(1545),
castintheformofadialoguebetweenarcherandsage,forwhichhewasrewardedwithapensionof10ayear.Arecurrenceofaseriousillnessmovedhimto
petitiontheArchbishopofCanterburyforpermissiontoeatmeatinsteadoffishonfastdays:bywhatevercure,hewasfitenoughin1546tobecomePublicOratorof
theuniversity.Whenin1548theprivatetutorofPrincessElizabeth(laterQueenElizabethI)diedoftheplague,hegothimselfappointedtothepost,fromwhichhe
resignedthefollowingyearafteratiffwithhersteward.OntheaccessionofMaryTudor,hebecameherLatinsecretary,inspiteofhisProtestantleanings,and
throughoutherbloodyreignremainedonfriendlytermswithElizabeth.InTheScholemaster,publishedposthumouslyin1570,heoutlineshistheoryandpracticeof
teaching.Aschamwasamostunusualman,whocombinedgreatlearningwithapassionforsport,andwhosemasterlyEnglishstyleisamodelofbothsimplicityand
balance.HediedofachillcaughtwhilesittinguptoolatewritingapoemtoQueenElizabeth.SeeLawrenceV.Ryan,RogerAscham,1963.
Ashbery,John(b.1927)
Americanpoet,wasborninRochester,NewYork,andeducatedatDeerfieldAcademy,Massachusetts,andHarvard,andthentookafurtherdegreeatNewYork
University.In1955,afterfouryearsinpublishing,hewenttoFranceasaFulbrightscholarhereturnedtherein1958andspentsevenyearsasanartcritic,foreign
correspondent,andartsmagazineeditor.HewasthenExecutiveEditorofArtNews,NewYork,andbecameaprofessorofEnglishinthecreativewritingcourseat
BrooklynCollegein1974.Awriterwhosein

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terestinarthasinfluencedhisworkandwhohassuggestedthat'anyoneofmypoemsmightbeconsideredtobeasnapshotofwhateverisgoingoninmymindatthe
time',hepublishedhisfirstbookofversein1953.SomeTrees(1956)waschosenbyAUDENfortheYaleseriesofbooksbyyoungerpoets.TheTennisCourtOath
(1962)largelyconcludeshisperiodofexperimentingwiththecollagemediumofverse.ThestartingpointofthetitlepoemofSelfPortraitinaConvexMirror
(1975),whichwonboththeNationalBookAwardandthePulitzerPrize,isthepaintingofthattitlebytheItalianMannerist,Parmigianino(150340).Alongpoemin
looseiambicpentameters,itexploresthefeelingsofandrelationshipbetweenartistandpoet,withinacomplexwebofsensibilities.Hehascontinuedtopublish
collectionsofakindofwhichDavidShapiroinJohnAshbery:anIntroductiontothePoetry(1979)arguesthat'the"difficulty"ismoreimaginarythanreal....Like
GertrudeStein,JamesJoyce,andotherswhohaveattemptedtoensnarethepsychicprocesseswesocarefullysuppress,Ashberyfocuseshardonthewaythemind
dealswiththerandomstuffthatdriftsintoit.'FlowChart(1991)isalongpoemaboutmakingpoetryamongthedistractionsofmodernlife.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.
DonaldAllen,1994JohnShoptaw,OntheOutsideLookingOut:JohnAshbery'sPoetry,1995.
Ashford,'Daisy'[MargaretMaryJulia](18811972)
Britishstorywriter,wasborninPetersham,Surrey,andeducatedathomeuntilshewas17,andthenforayearatthePriory,Hayward'sHeath.In1889thefamily
movedtoLewes,whereshedictatedtwostoriesandthenwroteinherownhandTheYoungVisiters,orMrSalteena'sPlanandotherstories,including'The
Hangman'sDaughter',allbeforeshewenttoschool.Afterhermother'sdeaththemanuscriptsresurfacedandTheYoungVisiters,asthemosthilarious,wasofferedto
Chatto&Windusandpublishedin1919withaforewordbyBARRIE.Itsrapturousreceptionwasduenotjusttothechild'sviewofhighsocietyandromanticlove,the
unintentionalhumour,andtheerraticspelling,butalsotothemagicofthestoryline,whichaccountsforitscontinuedsuccesstherewasaplay(1920),amusical
(1968),afilm(1984),andasecondillustratedversion(1984).Ashfordmarriedin1920,hadfourchildren,andwithherhusbandranafarm,andforayearahotel,in
Norfolk.Thoughallhersurvivingchildhoodstorieshavebeenpublished,itwasasthough,whensheputawaychildishthings,sheabandonedherliteraryambitions,for
shewrotenothingmore.SeeR.M.Malcolmson,DaisyAshford:HerLife,1984.
AshtonWarner,Sylvia(190884)
NewZealandnovelist,wasborninTaranaki,oneofninechildrenofaninvalidfatherandaworkingprimaryschoolteacher,andwaseducatedatWairarapaHigh
SchoolandAucklandTeachers'TrainingCollege.In1932shemarriedKeithD.Henderson,afellowteacher,andwentwithhimtoaremotesolechargeschool.After
thebirthoftheirsecondchildshereturnedtoteaching,andfortwentyyearstooktheinfantclassinthepredominantlyMaorischoolsofwhichherhusbandwashead.
Shedevelopedherrevolutionary'keyvocabulary'readingscheme,whichtheNewZealandDepartmentofEducationconsistentlydeclinedtorecognize.Teacher,her
accountofhermethods,towhichwasappendedadiary,'LifeinaMaoriSchool',wascompletedin1953butfailedtofindapublisher.Sherewrotetheclassroom
experiencesintoanovel,Spinster(1958),whoseplotandconstructionarelinkedbyreferencestosonnetsandotherpoemsbyHOPKINS.Herindelicatewitandthe
lifestyleofherflamboyantFrenchheroineinIncensetoIdols(1960)'weededoutmyfansovernight',sheobserved.Teacherwasfinallypublishedin1963.InMyself
(1968),herfifthnovel,basedonherowndiaries,sherecreatesaspectsofhermarriageandherstrugglestofindeffectiveconditionsunderwhichtowrite.Afterher
husband'sdeathin1969shesatisfiedherambitiontoescapeabroadshetaughtatAspen(Colorado)CommunitySchoolfrom1970to1971,andthenlecturedin
educationatSimonFraserUniversity,Vancouver,until1973.Three(1971),setinLondon,isafurtherexcursionintofictionalautobiography.Heractual
autobiography,IPassedThisWay(1980),wontheNewZealandBookAwardfornonfiction.InretirementshelivedinNewZealand,stilllargelyunappreciated,
anddevotedherselftopaintingandmusic.SeeLynleyWood,Sylvia!:theBiographyofSylviaAshtonWarner,1988.
Asimov,Isaac(192092)
Americannovelist,prosewriter,andeditor,wasborninPetrovichi,Russia,thesonofarabbi,andin1923emigratedwithhisparentstotheUSA,ofwhichhebecame
acitizenin1928.HewenttoColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,becomingPhDinchemistryin1948.HetaughtbiochemistryatBostonUniversitySchoolofMedicine
from1949,becomingProfessorin1979.HetaughthimselftoreadEnglishatfive,andporedoverthesciencefictionmagazinesinhisfamily'scandystore.Hisfirst
shortstory,'MaroonedoffVesta',waspublishedwhenhewas18.Inhisfirstbookofstories,I,Robot(1950),hepromulgatedhisthree'lawsofrobotics'.Aswellas
publishing467books,heclaimedtohavecontributedto'aboutthreethousandpublications'.Hisfictionincludesanumberofsciencefictionnovels,ofwhichthe
trilogy,Foundation(1951),FoundationandEmpire(1952),andSecondFoundation(1953),haslastedbesthepub

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lishedasecondgroupof'Foundation'novelsinthe1980s,androundedoffthewholewithaseventh,morepersonal,volume,ForwardtheFoundation(1993).The
CompleteStories:Volume1(1993)contains48ofhisearlierpieces,manyofthempropheticVolume2waspublishedin1994.Hisnonfictionembracesahostof
titlesrangingfromtheacademictothepopular:Asimov'sGuidetoShakespeare(2vols1970)andAsimov'sGuidetotheBible(2vols196869),aswellas
Asimov'sNewGuidetoScience(1984),ExploringtheEarthandtheCosmos(1982),andAsimov'sBiographicalEncyclopaediaofScienceandTechnology
(rev.edn1982).Healsopublishedrudeverses,suchasLecherousLimericks(1975).Theunenviable,orenviable,distinctionofbeingthemostprolificauthorof
moderntimesisajustificationofhisskillasacommunicator(towhichchildrenaswellasadultscantestify),andofhissympathywiththeaspirationsofhisreaders.
Afterrecoveringfromaheartattackin1977,andatriplebypassoperationtwoyearslater,heceasedtobegloomilypessimisticaboutthefutureoftheworld:'IfIcan
pullmyselfupbymyownbootstraps,thensocanthehumanrace.'SeeInMemoryYetGreen:theAutobiographyofIsaacAsimov19201954,1979,andInJoy
StillFelt:theAutobiographyofIsaacAsimov19541978,1980MichaelWhite,Asimov:theUnauthorizedLife,newedn1995JamesGunn,IsaacAsimov:
theFoundationsofScienceFiction,rev.edn,1996(criticalstudy).
Astley,Thea(b.1925)
Australiannovelist,wasborninBrisbaneandeducatedatAllHallowsConventandQueenslandUniversity.AfterhermarriagetoE.J.Gregsonin1948,shetaughtin
schoolsinNewSouthWales.ShewasappointedSeniorTutorinEnglish,MacquarieUniversity,Sydney,in1968,subsequentlybeingaFellowuntilherretirementin
1980.Herfirsttwonovels,GirlwithaMonkey(1958)andDescantforGossips(1960),arestudiesofwhatshereferstoas'themisfit'inasmalltownsociety,a
milieutowhichshereturnsinAKindnessCup(1974),basedonarealincidentofracistbrutality,andReachingTinRiver(1990),whoseprotagonist,afteran
unsettledchildhoodandunhappymarriage,searchesforameaningfulexistencethroughanobsessivepieceoflocalresearch.It'sRaininginMango(1988)takesin
aspectsofthehistoryandsocialtragediesofQueenslandoverfourgenerationsofafamily.InAnItemfromtheLateNews(1982),feelingsarefomentedbyananti
nuclearprotest.APacifichurricaneresolvesthefatesofamixedsetofcharactersinABoatLoadofHomeFolk(1968),andanislandrevolutionofthosein
Beachmasters(1985).TheWellDressedExplorer(1962)andTheAcolyte(1972)areportraitsofegotism.Astleyisawitty,sometimessavage,butessentially
compassionatewriter,whodelightsinplungingthereaderintotheaction,asshedoesingeniouslyinthetitlestoryofhercollection,HuntingtheWildPineapple
(1979).ShehaswontheMILESFRANKLINAwardthreetimes.ShewasmadeAOin1992.
Astley,William
seeWARUNG.
Atwood,Margaret(b.1939)
Canadiannovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,andcritic,wasborninOttawa,thesecondchildofanentomologistwhoseresearchintoforestinsectstookhim,andhis
family,onextendedsojournsinthebushcountryofnorthernOntarioandQuebec.HerCanadianrootsaredeeperthanmost,goingback,throughAmerican,Scottish,
Irish,Welsh,andFrenchancestors,tothe17thand18thcenturies.Shewaseducatedathomebyhermother,andatLeasideHighSchool,Toronto,andVictoria
College,TorontoUniversity,graduatingin1961,whenshepublishedabookofverse,DoublePersephone,whichwasawardedtheE.J.PRATTMedal.Herfirst
substantialcollection,TheCircleGame(1966),wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward.ShedidpostgraduatestudyatRadcliffeCollege,Massachusetts,andHarvard
hastaughtEnglishatseveralCanadianuniversitiesanddeliveredtheClarendonLecturesatOxfordin1991,onthethemeof'StrangeThings'.Hermarriagein1967
endedindivorcein1973,afterwhichshewenttolivewiththeCanadiannovelistGraemeGibson(b.1934).
Atwood'sfirsttwonovels,TheEdibleWoman(1969)andSurfacing(1972),arebasicallystudiesofsurvival,athemewhichrunsthroughherfictionandinformsher
majorcriticalwork,Survival:aThematicGuidetoCanadianLiterature(1972).Ofhersubsequentnovels,BodilyHarm(1981)reflectsherconcernabout
modernpoliticaloppressionandhumanitarianissuesTheHandmaid'sTale(1985),whichwontheGovernorGeneral'sAwardforfiction,imaginesafuturenorth
Americaasableak,misogynistdystopia.OntheblightedchildhoodswhichunderliethesinistereventsofTheRobberBride(1993)shecommented:'Thepercentage
ofthetotalpopulationofCanadathatwassenttothewarisprettyhigh....Alotofpeopleofmyageweredislocatedbyit.Andit'sthecentralfactofourcentury...
.MostCanadiansareherebecausetheirancestorsgotkickedoutofsomewhereelse.'ShepickeduporiginallyfromMOODIE'SLifeintheClearinganaccountofa
sensationalmurdercaseinthe1840s,whichinAliasGrace(1996)shereworksintoapsychologicalstudyofGraceMarks,convictedattheageof16.
InDancingGirlsandOtherStories(1977),thefirstofseveralcollections,sheuncoverssomeofthemadnessesaffectingmodernsociety:thestoriesinWilderness
Tips(1991)arecautionarytalesinwhichprivatelivesareexploredinCanadiancontexts.Murderinthe

Page21

Dark:ShortFictionsandProsePoems(1983)isapredominantlyexperimentalworkinwhichsheinvestigatesthecraftinessaswellasthecraftofthewriter.Good
Bones(1992)isapocketsizewriter'ssketchbookofimages,ideas,andstories.Herpoetry,sharp,oftenironic,sometimespersonal,hascontinuedtoreflectsimilar
preoccupationstothoseinherfiction,notablytheplaceofwomeninsocietyseePoems19651975(newedn1990ofSelectedPoems,1976),Poems19761986
(newedn1991ofSelectedPoems2,1986),andMorningintheBurnedHouse(1995).ShehasalsopublishedSecondWords:SelectedCriticalProse(1982)
Conversations,ed.EarlG.Ingersoll(1992),aseriesofdialoguesontheCanadianliterarytraditionandothertopicsrelatedtoherownwritingandStrangeThings:
theMalevolentNorthinCanadianLiterature(1995).SheeditedTheNewOxfordBookofCanadianVerseinEnglish(1982).Canada'smostdistinguished
contemporaryliteraryfigure,andoneofthemostversatilewritersontheinternationalscene,AtwoodwasmadeCompanion,OrderofCanada,in1981.SeeBarbara
HillRigney,MargaretAtwood,1987(criticalstudy)CoralAnnHowells,MargaretAtwood,1995(criticalstudy).
Aubrey,John(162697)
Englishfolkloristandantiquary,wasbornatEastonPiersnearMalmesbury,Wiltshire.HisstudiesatTrinityCollege,Oxford,wereinterruptedfirstbytheCivilWar
andthenbysmallpox.Hisfatherdiedin1652,leavingAubrey(byhisownaccount)2800ofdebts.Aseriesoflawsuitsledtohisbankruptcyin1670,afterwhich,
largelytoavoidhiscreditors,hedidtheroundsofhisfriendsinLondonandinthecountry.In1649hehaddiscoveredthesignificantmegalithicarchaeologicalsiteat
Avebury,andin1663hisliteraryandscientificinterestswonhimelectiontotheRoyalSociety.Hisitinerantexistencewasgoodforresearchbutbadforcollatingand
writinguptheresults.TheonlyworkpublishedinhislifetimewasMiscellanies(1696),acompendiumofsuperstitionsandsupernaturalexperiences.Hisliteraryfame,
however,restsonthemassofnoteswhichheofferedtohiscantankerousfriend,AnthonyWood,otherwiseWood(163295),foradictionaryoflivesofOxford
writersandbishops,AthenaeOxonienses(169192),andwhich,havingquarrelledwithWood,hedepositedintheAshmoleanMuseumin1693.Theeditedversions
ofBriefLivesrevealaneyefordescriptivedetail,anoseforgossip,alivelywit,andanappreciationofthebiographer'sartmuchoftheinformationheassiduously
collectedwasfromfirsthandaccounts.SeeBriefLives,ed.RichardW.Barber,newedn1993BriefLives,ed.OliverLawsonDick,newedn1996Anthony
Powell,AubreyandHisFriends,newrev.edn1988DavidTyldenWright,JohnAubrey:aLife,1991.
Auchincloss,Louis(b.1917)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninLawrence,LongIsland,NewYork,thesonofaWallStreetlawyerdescendedfromaScotwhoarrivedin
1803andfoundedaprofitabletextilebusiness.HewaseducatedatGrotonSchool,Massachusetts,andYale,fromwhich,havinghadanovelrejectedbyaNew
Yorkpublisher,hedroppedoutafterthreeyearstostudyattheUniversityofVirginiaSchoolofLawhegraduatedin1941andwasadmittedtotheNewYorkBar.
HebeganworkwithaNewYorklawfirmbeforeservinginWorldWarII,inwhichhesawactionintheAtlanticandPacificasanavallieutenant.Hereturnedtothe
practicein1946.TheIndifferentChildren,anovelwithautobiographicalelements,appearedin1947,indeferencetohismother'swishesunderthenameofAndrew
Lee.ThestoriesinTheInjusticeCollectors(1950)arethematicallylinkedandhadpreviouslybeenpublishedinmagazines.AfterthepublicationofSybil(1951),he
resignedfromthefirmtobeafulltimewriteronlytolookforajobagainin1954,havingdiscoveredthathedidnotwritemore,orbetter,withoutone.Hewastaken
onbyHawkins,DelafieldandWood,ofwhichhewasapartnerfrom1958untilhisretirementin1986,andpublishedanoveloravolumeofshortstoriesvirtually
everyyearfrom1956to1990.Asanauthorofthenovelofmannerstowhomfictionisanexplorationofcharacter,andaconsciousdescendantofHENRYJAMESand
WHARTON(ofbothofwhomhehaswrittenliterarystudies),Auchinclosswritesaboutthestratumofsocietyinwhichhewasbroughtupasan'insider'.Themosthighly
regardednovelsamongnearlyfortyvolumesoffictionarePortraitinBrownstone(1962),afamilysaga,TheRectorofJustin(1964),astudyofasingleminded
headmasterofaprivatepreparatoryschool,andTheEmbezzler(1966),thebasisofwhichisanactualfinancialscandal.TheeponymousnarratorofTheEducation
ofOscarFairfax(1995)suitablybeginshisaccountofhistimesin1908,whereHENRYADAMSleftoffeachchronologicalepisodeofthenovelcentresonhis
involvementwithadifferentcharacter.TheCollectedStories(1994)isAuchincloss'sownselectionofwhatheconsidershisbestshortfiction.Reflectionsofa
Jacobite(1961),Life,LawandLetters(1979),andStyle'stheMan:ReflectionsonProust,Fitzgerald,Wharton,andOthers(1994)arecollectionsofessays
andreviews.LaGloire:theRomanEmpireofCorneilleandRacine(1997)isacriticalstudyofthetwoFrenchclassicaldramatists.AWriter'sCapital(1974)is
anautobiographyofhisliterarydevelopment,concludingwithhisreturntoWallStreet.SeeDavidB.Parsell,LouisAuchincloss,1988(criti

Page22

calstudy)VincentPiket,LouisAuchincloss:theGrowthofaNovelist,1991(criticalstudy).
Auden,W(ystan)H(ugh)(190773)
poet,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninYork,thesonofadoctor,andwaseducatedatGresham'sSchool,Holt,andChristChurch,Oxford,wherehewasunofficial
leaderofanumberofyoungpoetssuchasBETJEMAN,DAYLEWIS,MACNEICE,andSPENDERseeJuvenilia:Poems19221928,ed.KatherineBucknell(1994).Hewasa
schoolmasterforseveralyears,thentravelledinEuropeandChina.In1935,attheinstigationofISHERWOOD,hemarriedErikaMann(190569),theeldestchildof
MANNandherselfawriter,whomhehadnevermet,toenablehertohaveaBritishpassport.WithotherlikemindedintellectualsheservedintheSpanishCivilWar,
asanambulancedriverontheRepublicanside.HeemigratedtotheUSAin1939andbecameanAmericancitizenin1946.HewasProfessorofPoetryatOxford
195661.
WhileAudenacknowledgedtheinfluenceofsuchdiversepoetsasWYATT,HARDY,andELIOT,andtheinspirationofTOLKIEN'SlecturesonAngloSaxonandMiddle
Englishpoetry,hesaysin'DichtungundWahrheit'(1959),'...ofanypoemwrittenbymyself,myfirstdemandisthatitshouldbegenuine,recognizable,likemy
handwriting,ashavingbeenwritten,forbetterorworse,byme'.Theenergyandobjectivityofhisverse,combinedwithasharpsenseofhumour,adelightinpastiche,
apenchantforpopularspeechandeverydayimages,andasympathywiththefeelingsofordinarypeople,distinguishhisworkthroughoutthetwomainphasesofhis
lifeandpoeticprogress,variouslycalled'theEnglishAuden'and'thelaterAuden',or'theMarxistAuden'and'theChristianAuden'.Hisfirstbook,Poems(1930rev.
edn1933),displayedanextraordinaryvarietyofmoodsandverseforms,andincluded'OnSundayWalks'and'ThisLunarBeauty'.Withothercontemporaries,he
wasinthe1930sconcernedwiththeneedforsocial,political,andspiritualreform,whichheexpressedwithgrowingbitternessandanger,thoughtothisperiodalso
belong'InThisIsland','Lullaby','NightMail',andthetripartite'InMemoryofW.B.Yeats',aswellas'Spain1937'andseveralsardoniccautionaryballads,suchas
'JamesHoneyman'.HisreconversiontoChristianityinthe1940sintroducedareligioustoneandreligiousthemestohiscanon,notablywith'HoraeCanonicae'inthe
collectionTheShieldofAchilles(1955)andtheChristmasoratorio,FortheTimeBeing(1945).HisincreasingfearoflonelinessisreflectedinTheAgeof
Anxiety:aBaroqueEclogue(1947).HomagetoClio(1960)containsagreaterproportionoflighterverse.
Audenwasassociatedwithmanystageperformances.Asadapterorlibrettistheoftencollaboratedwithhishomosexualpartner,ChesterKallman(192175),whom
hehadfirstmetinApril1939,whenKallmanattendedapoetryreadinginManhattanbyAuden,ISHERWOOD,andMACNEICEseealsoTheklaClark,Wystanand
Chester:aPersonalMemoirofW.H.AudenandChesterKallman(1995).Healsowrotetheverseplay,TheDanceofDeath(1933),hismostextreme
statementofMarxism,and,withIsherwood,TheAscentofF6(1937)andtwootherplays.SomeofhiscriticismiscollectedinTheDyer'sHand,andOtherEssays
(1962).SeeCollectedPoems,ed.EdwardMendelson,newedn1994ofrev.edn1991SelectedPoems,ed.EdwardMendelson,1979(100poems)AsIWalked
OutOneEvening:Songs,Ballads,Lullabies,LimericksandOtherLightVerse,ed.EdwardMendelson,1995TheEnglishAuden:Poems,Essays,and
DramaticWritings19271939,ed.EdwardMendelson,newedn1986(includesallthepoemshewroteinthe1930s)Auden'sCompleteProse19261938,ed.
EdwardMendelson,1996(includeshistwotravelbooks)HumphreyCarpenter,W.H.Auden,newedn1992(biography)CharlesOsborne,W.H.Auden:the
LifeofaPoet,newedn1995RichardDavenportHines,Auden,newedn1996(biography)StanSmith,W.H.Auden,1985(criticalstudy)AnthonyHecht,The
HiddenLaw:thePoetryofW.H.Auden,newedn1994(criticalstudy).
Augustine,St(354430)
wasborninThagaste,Numidia,thesonofalocalofficialandofadevoutChristian,andwaseducatedinMadauraandtheninCarthage,wherehehadason,
Adeodatus(d.389),byamistress.AfterteachingoratoryandliteratureinCarthageandRome,hewasin384appointedmunicipalprofessorinMilan,wherethrough
theinfluenceofBishopAmbrose(c.340397)heandhissonwerebaptizedin387.HereturnedtoAfrica,whereinitiallyhelivedamonasticlife.In397hewasmade
BishopofHippo,wherehedealtfirmlyandenergeticallywithhereticsandschisms,anddiedduringtheVandalinvasion.HewroteinLatin.Confessions(tr.Henry
Chadwick,1991),isthespiritualandinstructionalautobiographyofaphilosopherandscholarwho,afterstudyingthewaysofManicheismandNeoplatonism,found
truthandperfectioninChristianity.Amongmanyotherphilosophical,polemical,andreligioustreatises,themostinspirationalisDeCivitateDei[TheCityofGod],a
considerableworkofpersuasiveprose,writtentocombatthetheorythatChristianityhadcontributedtothefallofRomein410.SeeJohnM.Rist,Augustine:
AncientThoughtBaptized,1994.
Aurobindo,Sri(18721950)
Indianphilosopherandpoet,wasborninCalcuttaandeducatedinEnglandatStPaul'sSchoolandKing'sCollege,Cambridge.Onhisre

Page23

turntoIndiahewasacivilservantandthenauniversitylecturerinBaroda,afterwhichheturnedtojournalism.In1910hewentintoseclusioninPondicherry,where
hecontinuedhiscontemplationofthespiritualrevelationsoftheHinduphilosopher,SwamiVivekananda(18631902),anddeliveredhimselfofaconsiderablebody
ofproseandversewhichonlyhoversonthebordersofliteratureandlucidity.SeeCollectedPoemsandPlays,1942OnHimself,newedn1985.
Austen,Jane(17751817)
Britishnovelist,wasbornintherectoryofSteventon,Hampshire,theseventhofeightchildren,andapartfrombeingatboardingschoolinOxford,Southampton,and
Readingbetweentheagesofsevenandnine,waseducatedbyherfatherandelderbrothers.Thefamilyhome,inwhichshelivedallherlife,movedtoBath(1801),to
Southampton(1806),andtotheHampshirevillageofChawton(1809),herfatherhavingdiedin1805.Shewasthefirstofsixbrothersandtwosisterstodie,which
shedidfromaformofanaemiaat42,tragicallyyoungforanovelist.TwoofherbrothersrosetotherankofadmiralintheNavy.Thoughshenevertravelledoutside
thesouthofEngland,andnevermarried,herfamilyandsociallifewasnotuneventful,andshehadtherightenvironmentandupbringingtowrite,whichshedidfrom
childhoodseeCatharineandOtherWritings,ed.MargaretAnneDoodyandDouglasMurray(1993).Allthenovelspublishedduringherlifetimeappeared
anonymously,thoughherbrotherHenry(17711850),whoactedasherliteraryagent,disclosedtheauthorshipofPrideandPrejudicefromwhatshecallsinaletter
'thewarmthofhisBrotherlyvanity&love'.Thesixnovels,intheorderinwhichtheywerefirstpublished,are:
SenseandSensibility:published1811byThomasEgerton(oftheMilitaryLibrary,Whitehall)witharevisededitionin1813.Itwasrewrittenin1797fromanearlier
storyinepistolaryformcalledElinorandMarianne,andfurtherrevisedin1809.
PrideandPrejudice:publishedJanuary1813byEgerton,withasecondeditioninNovember1813.AsFirstImpressions,ithadoriginallybeenofferedin1797to
ThomasCadell,whoturneditdown.
MansfieldPark:finishedinJune1813andpublishedMay1814byEgertonattheauthor'sexpense,asecondeditionbeingpublishedin1816byJohnMurray.Itwas
writtenbetweenFebruary1811andJune1814.
Emma(dated1816):publishedbyMurrayinDecember1815,andwrittenbetweenJanuary1814andMarch1815.
NorthangerAbbeyandPersuasion(dated1818):publishedtogetherinfourvolumesbyMurrayinDecember1817,aftertheauthor'sdeath.NorthangerAbbeyhad
originallybeenwrittenbetween1798and1799asSusan,andwasacceptedinarevisedformin1803byCrosbyandCo.ofBath,whopaid10forthecopyright,
butneverpublishedthebook.Theauthorwrotetothemin1809underanassumedname,demandingactionandofferingtosupplyacopyiftheoriginalmanuscript
hadbeenlost.Crosbysaidthattheywereundernoobligationtopublish,butofferedtoreturnthemanuscriptiftheycouldhavetheirmoneyback.Nothingwasdone
until1816,whenHenryAustenretrievedthecopyrightfromtheunsuspectingpublisher,whowasunawareoftheauthor'sidentity.Itwasnowrevisedforpublicationas
Catherine.PersuasionwaswrittenunderthetitleofTheElliotsbetweenthesummerof1815andAugust1816.Thefinaltitlesofbothbookswerechosenby
Henry.
Othersignificantcontributionstothecanonare:LoveandFreindship,ashortburlesqueinletters,writtenwhenshewas16LadySusan,alongerepistolarynovel,
andthebeginningofTheWatsons,writteninabout1806,whichQ.D.Leavis(190681)arguesinScrutinyVol.X(194142)weresubsequentlyreworkedinto
MansfieldParkandEmmarespectively(ifthistheoryiscorrect,itwouldaccountfortheyearsduringwhichtheauthorappearstohavewrittenvirtuallynothing)and
Sanditon,12chaptersofwhichwerewrittenbetween27Januaryand18March1817.
JaneAustencanclaimtobethemostfrequentlyrereadofallnovelistsinEnglishliterature,adistinctionwhichcallsforqualitiesfarbeyondthoserequiredmerelyto
delineatecharacters,depictsettings,developplots,anddevisedialogue.Inalettertohernephew(16December1816)shedescribeshermediumas'thelittlebit(two
incheswide)ofIvoryonwhichIworkwithsofineaBrush,asproduceslittleeffectaftermuchlabour'.Itisthedepth,drama,andselectionofdetailwithwhichshe
investshersocietyanditsmanners,theacutenessanddeadlyprecisionofherobservation,thedeftnesswithwhichshedevelopsasituationanddisplayshercharacters
andtheirchangingrelationshipswitheachother,andherdevastatingwit,whethersheiswritinginaveinofcomedyorparody,whichbringthereaderbacktoheragain
andagain.ShealsofreedtheEnglishnovelfromitspredominantlyepisodicorepistolaryform,andsetnewboundariesinliterarystyleandnarrativeart.SeeThe
CompleteNovels,biographicalsketchbyNigelNicolson,introductionsbyV.S.Pritchett,PatrickO'Brian,LoretoTodd,andothers,1994JaneAusten'sLetters,
ed.DeirdreLeFaye,3rdedn1995SelectedLetters,ed.R.W.Chapman,1985ParkHoffman,JaneAusten:HerLife,rev.edn1997MaryLascelles,Jane
AustinandHerArt,newedn1995MarilynButler,JaneAustenandtheWarofIdeas,newedn1988(criticalstudy)JocelynHarris,JaneAusten'sArtof
Memory,1989(criticalstudy).

Page24

Austin,Alfred(18351913)
Britishpoet,novelist,andjournalist,wasborninHeadingley,Leeds,andeducatedatStonyhurstCollegeandOscottCollege.HewascalledtotheBar,butin1858,
havingreceivedafamilylegacy,heabandonedthelawforliterature.Hisnovelsandversewerecoollyreceived,andhebolsteredhisapparentcorpusofpoetryby
incorporatingearlierworkineachnewpublication.InThePoetryofthePeriod(1870)hewaswideofthemark,andunnecessarilyrude,inhiscriticismofARNOLD,
ROBERTBROWNING,andTENNYSON.HewasjointEditorandthenEditor(188795)oftheNationalReview.In1894hepublishedTheGardenThatILove,prose
jottingsonthecharmsofhisKentishhome,whichprovedpopularwithacertainkindofreader.Itwaseitherbecauseofthisorhissupportasapoliticaljournalistof
thepartyoftheMarquisofSalisbury(18301903),PrimeMinisteratthetime,thathewasappointedPoetLaureatein1896.Hisofficialpoemsvarybetweenthe
tolerableandtheawfulthatontheJamesonRaidin1896,includesthecouplet:'Theywentacrosstheveldt/Ashardastheycouldpelt'.Hewasonsaferground
withnaturepoetry,evenifwelearn,in'Primroses','NowthatmidMarchblowsandblusters,/Outyoustealintuftsandclusters'.AlapsedCatholic,hewas
convincedtotheendthatitwasspiteonthepartofthecriticswhichpreventedhimfromreceivinghisproperdue.SeeNortonBarrCrowell,AlfredAustin:
Victorian,1955.
Avison,Margaret(b.1918)
Canadianpoet,wasborninGait,Ontario,thedaughterofaminister,andwasbroughtupintheCanadianwest.Shegraduatedin1940fromTorontoUniversity,to
whichshereturnedin1964forpostgraduatestudiesinEnglish.ShealsoattendedcoursesincreativewritingattheuniversitiesofIndianaandChicagobetween1955
and1957.Herpoetrydatesfrom1940andappearedinCanadiananthologieslongbeforeherfirstcollection,WinterSun(1960),whichwontheGovernorGeneral's
Award.Aprofoundspiritualexperiencein1963convertedherfromametaphysicaltoapredominantlyreligiouspoet,whosenewfaithisexpressedinthetitleand
otherpoemsofTheDumbfounding(1966)thetwobookswerecombinedasWinterSun/TheDumbfounding:Poems194066(1982).NoTime(1989)also
wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward.SheworkedfortheCanadianBroadcastingCorporationArchivesDivisionfrom1973to1978,andbecameinvolvedin
PresbyterianmissionaryworkinTorontoin1968,joiningthestaffoftheMustardSeedMissionin1978.ShehasalsotranslatedpoemsfromtheHungarian.See
SelectedPoems,1992DavidA.Kent,MargaretAvisonandHerWorks,1985.
Awoonor,Kofi(b.1935)
Ghanaianpoetandcritic,wasborninhismother'stownofWheta'grewupinatypicalAfricancommunityofrelatives,aunts,uncles,somewhocameasfarafieldas
Togo'andwaseducatedataCatholicmissionschoolinDzodze,aGermanPresbyterianmissionschoolinKeta,andAchimotaSchool.HewentontotheUniversity
ofGhana,Legon,wherehewonthecreativewritingprizeand,withtheencouragementofalecturer,begantotranslateintoEnglishtheEwefolksongsofhis
childhood,towhichheaddedcompositionsofhisown.HelecturedinEnglishandthenAfricanliteratureattheUniversityofGhana,beforebecomingManaging
DirectoroftheGhanaMinistryofEducationFilmCorporation,andafoundermemberoftheGhanaPlayhouse.HestudiedonafellowshipatLondonUniversityin
196768,andin1968establishedacourseinAfricanliteratureattheStateUniversityofNewYork,StonyBrook,wherehewasChairmanoftheDepartmentof
ComparativeLiterature.AfterhisreturntoGhanain1975toteachatCapeCoastUniversity,hewasarrestedduringthepoliticalcrisisandspentayearinsolitary
confinementforallegedlyhelpingtheorganizerofacoupagainstthemilitarygovernmerit.Hewentbacktohispost,andwasProfessorofLiteratureandDeanofthe
FacultyofArts197782.SubsequentlyhewasGhana'sAmbassadortoBrazilandtoCuba,andthenPermanentRepresentativetotheUnitedNations.Hepublished
(asGeorgeAwoonorWilliams)RediscoveryandOtherPoemsinNigeriain1964.NightofMyBlood(NewYork,1971)incorporatessomeofthepoemsfromthe
earliercollection,withothersredolentoftheAfricanspeakingvoice.HisAmericanexperiencesandAmericantraditionsandspeechrhythmsarereflectedinRideMe,
Memory(1973).ThetitleofTheHousebytheSea(1978)isanironicreferencetoUssherFortPrison,wherehewasconfinedin1975thevolumeincludespoems
writtenwhilehewasthere.ThisEarthMyBrother(1971)isaprosepoem/novelofasymbolicquestforthereunificationoftheAfricanself.TheLatinAmerican
andCaribbeanNotebook(1992)isacollectionwhichreflectshisdiplomatictravels.ComestheVoyageratLast:aTaleofReturntoAfrica(1992)isanovel.He
hasalsowrittenTheBreastofEarth:aSurveyoftheHistory,CultureandLiteratureofAfricaSouthoftheSahara(1975),andtranslatedGuardiansofthe
SacredWord:EwePoetry(1974).SeeUntiltheMorningAfter:SelectedPoems19631985,1987inGeraldMoore,TwelveAfricanWriters,1980andin
JaneWilkinson(ed.),TalkingwithAfricanWriters,1992.
Ayckbourn,(Sir)Alan(b.1939)
Britishdramatistandtheatredirector,wasborninLondon.Hisfather,aviolinist,lefthomewhenhewassix,andhismother,a

Page25

writer,subsequentlymarriedaSussexbankmanager,withwhomhedidnotgeton.HewaseducatedatHaileyburyCollege,andattheageof17rescuedhismother
fromhernowdeterioratingmarriage,andwastakenonasastagemanagerby(Sir)DonaldWolfit(190268)forhistouringcompany.Theothergreatinfluenceonhis
careerwasthestagedirectorandadvocateofthetheatre'intheround',StephenJoseph(192167).HeactedinJoseph'sproductionsfrom1961to1964and
succeededhimasArtisticDirectoroftheStephenJosephTheatreinScarborough,wherehehaswrittenallhismorethanfortyplays,whichhavebeenperformedin
fiftycountries,inthirtylanguages.Ofhisassociationwithhistheatrehehassaid:'I'vebeenluckyinthecombinationofpressures....I'vehadtowriteplaysthatdecent
actorswouldcuttheirsalariesinhalftocomeandworkin....OntheotherhandI'vehadtowriteplaysthatthelocalaudiencewillcomeandseethat'ssortof
meantcomedy....Acomedyisjustatragedyinterrupted.Youstoptheactionatthepointwheretheylivedhappilyeverafter.'Fromhisfirstsuccess,Standing
RoomOnly(as'RolandAllen'),producedinScarboroughin1961,hehastendedtodevelopanunusualsituation,withdazzlingdramaticingenuity,oftenexploringthe
variablesaswellashehasdonewiththesameeventsseenfromthreeinterlockingviewpointsintheNormanConqueststrilogy(1975),thefourversionsofSisterly
Feelings(1979),andthemultipleendingsofIntimateExchanges(1982).Thoughhisplaysareoutwardlycomedies,oftenwithfarcicalelements,hetakesa
pessimisticviewofhumannature,whichhepresentsinallitsnastinessinAbsurdPersonSingular(1972)andManoftheMoment(1988),andwithadashof
bitternessinTheRevengers'Comedies(1991).Thedeviceof'Time:past,presentandfuture'inTimeofMyLife(1993),his44thplay,isdevelopedfurtherin
CommunicatingDoors(1995),his49th,acomedythrillerinwhichthemaincharacterisabletoalterthecourseofevents.HewasmadeCBEin1987,andwas
CameronMackintoshProfessorofContemporaryTheatreatOxford199293.Hewasknightedin1997.AnewStephenJosephTheatre,withtwoauditoriums,
openedinScarboroughin1996.SeeMichaelBillington,AlanAyckbourn,2ndedn1990(criticalstudy).
Aytoun,WilliamEdmonstoune(181365)
Scottishpoetandsatirist,wasborninEdinburgh,thesonofalawyer,andwenttoEdinburghAcademyandEdinburghUniversity,wherehereadlaw,whichhelater
confessedhe'followedbutcouldneverovertake'.HepublishedPoland,HomerandOtherPoemsin1832.From1836untilhisdeathhecontributedarticlesand
poemstoBlackwood'sEdinburghMagazine.HewaselectedProfessorofBellesLettresatEdinburghUniversityin1845,andappointedSheriffandLordAdmiral
ofOrkneyandShetlandin1852.SomeofhisparodiesoftraditionalballadsandofcontemporarypoetswereincludedinTheBonGaultierBallads(1845),written
withSirTheodoreMartin(18161909).HisreputationwasmadebyLaysoftheScottishCavaliers(1849),inwhich'TheExecutionofMontrose','TheBurial
MarchofDundee',and'TheWidowofGlencoe',inparticular,havefinefeelingandresoundingrhythms,whilereflectingandhelpingtopopularizethemoreromantic
aspectsofthegrimhistoryoftheScottishHighlands.HismostaudaciousliteraryexploitwastopublishinBlackwood's(1854)aspoofreview(withextracts)of
'Firmilian'by'PercyJones',apoetofthe'Spasmodicschool'.Neitherthepoemnoritsauthorexisted,andtheSpasmodicschoolwasaninventionofAytounto
describetheramblingsofsomecontemporarypoets,notablySydneyDobell(182474)andALEXANDERSMITH,whowereattemptingtowriteinthestyleofBYRONand
GOETHE.Hethenextendedthejokebywritingandpublishingthecompletework,intheformofaburlesque,asFirmilian,orTheStudentofBadajoz:aSpasmodic
Tragedy'ByT.PercyJones'(1854).SeeStoriesandVerse,ed.W.L.Renwick,1964Essays,ed.JohnPitcher,1985.

Page27

B
Babel,Isaak(18941940)
Russiannovelist,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninOdessa,thesonofaJewishshopkeeper,whosethimtostudyYiddish,theBible,andtheTalmud
whilealsoattendingNicholasICommercialInstitute.HegraduatedfromSaratovUniversityandin1915settledinStPetersburg,whereJewswerebannedfromliving.
In1916hemetGORKY,whoprintedhisfirststories(forwhichBabelwasarrested),andencouragedhimtogooutandexperiencelife.In1919hetookpartinthe
defenceofthecityagainsttheWhiteforces,afterwhichhereturnedtoOdessaandmarried.WhenPolandinvadedRussiain1920hesignedupasawar
correspondent,butservedasanofficerintheFirstCavalrysee[1920Diary](1990ed.CarolJ.Avins,tr.H.T.Willetts,1995).Hepublishedavolumeofstories
in1925furthervolumes,oflinkedtales,containedchildhoodimpressions(1926,including['TheStoryofMyDovecot']),andsketchesofaJewishgangsterinOdessa
(1931)seeCollectedStories,tr.DavidMcDuff(1995).Inhisnovel,[RedCavalry],(tr.NadiaHelstein,1926),heusedthefilmtechniqueswhichfascinatedhimto
buildup,bymeansof35situations,apictureofaJewishintellectualinvolvedinbattle.Hewassecretaryofavillagesovietin1930.Afteranabortiveattemptatacycle
ofstoriesaboutcollectivefarming,hewroteMarya(1935),'aplayineightscenes',arealisticbutfragmenteddramaofPetrogradin1920whichoffersmodern
audiencesasmallsliceofSoviethistory.Hecameunderattackin1934duringtheFirstCongressofSovietWriters,atwhichhecommentedthathewasa'grand
master'attheartofsilenceseeNathalieBabel(ed.),IsaacBabel:theLonelyYears19251939,UnpublishedStoriesandPrivateCorrespondence(1964).He
wasarrestedon15May1939,andshoton27January1940.The27foldersofconfiscatedmanuscriptshaveneverbeenseenagain.Foranaccountofhis
interrogationseeVitalyShentalinsky,TheKGB'sLiteraryArchive(inUSAasArrestedVoices:ResurrectingtheDisappearedWritersoftheSovietRegime),tr.
JohnCrowfoot(1995).SeealsoA.N.Pirozhkova,AtHisSide:TheLastYearsofIsaacBabel(1996).
Bachman,Richard
seeKINC.
Bacon,(Sir)Francis(15611626)
Englishprosewriter,essayist,andjurist,wasborninYorkHouse,theStrand,London,theyoungestsonbyhissecondmarriageofElizabethI'sstatesman,Sir
NicholasBacon(150979).HewaseducatedathomeandatTrinityCollege,Cambridge,whichhehadtoleavewhenhewas14becauseofanoutbreakofplague.
AfterlearningdiplomacyinFrance,hestudiedlaw,graduatingin1582,andwaselectedtoParliamentin1584.Aftersomeyearsinsubordinateposts,hewasknighted
byJamesIin1603,andappointedsuccessivelySolicitorGeneral(1607),AttorneyGeneral(1616),andLordChancellor(1618),becomingBaronVerulamin1618
andViscountStAlbansin1621.Inthatyearhewasaccusedoftakingbribesfromthreesuitorswhiletheircaseswerebeingtriedinhiscourt.Thoughhehadfound
againstthem,hewasadjudgedguiltyofcorruptionintheHouseofLords,dismissedfromallhisofrices,andfined40,000.Hespenttherestofhislifewriting.
ThroughoutthewholeofhisprofessionalcareerBaconwrotelegalandpoliticalworkswhich,withhisfrequentspeechesinParliament,formasizableliteraryoutputon
theirown.Yetthisextraordinaryman,ofwhomPOPEsaidinAnEssayonMan(IV,28182),'IfPartsallurethee,thinkhowBaconshin'd,/Thewisest,brightest,
meanestofmankind',alsoproducedseveralmajorphilosophicalandscientifictreatisesinLatin(thelinguafrancaofscholarship),includingtheunfinishedInstauratio
Magna(1620),andfourliteraryworksinEnglishwhichareuniqueinhisage.Thefirstvolumeofhisessays(containingten)waspublishedin1597,andanenlarged
editionin1612.Thedefinitiveedition(1625)contains58essays,includingextendedversionsofonesalreadypublished.Didactic,aphoristic,incisivelyandclearly
written,andoftenhavingstrikingopenings,theyalsopresentashrewdandobjectivepictureofthemannersandmoralsofthetime.'TheAdvancementofLearning'
TheTwooBookesofFrancisBacon:OftheProficienceandAdvancementofLearning,DivineandHumane(1605)isawiderangingandsystematic
investigationintotheknowledgeofhisera.TheHistorieoftheRaigneofKingHenrytheSeventh(1622)isalandmarkinEnglishhistorical

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writinginthatBacondepartsfromtheunselectivechronicleapproachtoproduceacoherentandbalancednarrative,whilebringingpsychologicalinsighttobearonhis
characters.NewAtlantis,leftunfinishedandfirstpublishedwithSylvaSylvarum:oraNaturallHistorie(1627),isaphilosophical,scientificand,insomerespects,
propheticfableoftheconstructionandmethodologyofsociety.
Bacon'senquiringmindwasthecauseofhisdeath.Keentotryrefrigerationasameansofpreservingfood,helefthiscoachtobuyachicken,whichhestuffedwith
snow.Hedevelopedasuddenchillanddiedinthehouseofafriend.SeeTheEssayesorCounsels,CivillandMorall,ed.MichaelKiernan,1985Essays,ed.John
Pitcher,1985[Selection],ed.BrianVickers,1996BrianVickers,FrancisBaconandRenaissanceProse,1968AnthonyQuinton,FrancisBacon,1980
(introduction).
Bagehot,Walter(182677)
Britisheconomist,politicalphilosopher,literarycritic,andjournalist,wasborninLangport,Somerset,thesonofabankerandshipowner,andwaseducatedinBristol
andatLondonUniversity,whereheexcelledatmathematics,philosophy,andpoliticaleconomy.AfterstudyingforandbeingcalledtotheBar,hejoinedhisfather's
business,whilecontributingarticlestoliteraryandeconomicjournalsand,in1855,becomingjointEditoroftheNationalReview.In1858hemarriedadaughterof
JamesWilson(180560),founderoftheEconomist,whomhesucceededasEditorin1860,holdingthepostuntilhisdeath.Bagehot'sTheEnglishConstitution
(1867rev.edn1872)isaclassic,oftencitedstudyofgovernmentinwhich,amongotherrecommendations,headvocatedlifepeerages.InPhysicsandPolitics
(1872)heappliedDARWIN'Stheoryof'naturalselection'toworldpoliticsandinLombardStreet(1873)heexaminedthecurrentfinancialmarket.Collectedvolumes
ofliterary,economic,andbiographicalstudieswerepublished187981,afterhisdeath.Hisarticle'Wordsworth,TennysonandBrowning,orPure,Ornateand
GrotesqueArtinEnglishPoetry'(1864)ismuchquoted,andcontainsthecoinageof'literatesque'todescribe'thatperfectcombinationinthesubjectmatterof
literature,whichsuitstheartofliterature'.SeeTheBestofBagehot,ed.RuthDudleyEdwards,1993NormanStJohnStevas,WalterBagehot:aStudyofHisLife
andThought,withaselectionfromhispoliticalwritings,1959.
Baillie,LadyGrisell(16651746)
Scottishpoet,wasbornatRedbraesCastle,Berwickshire,theeldestofninechildrenofSirPatrickHume(16411724),later1stEarlofMarchmont.At12,shewas
secretmessengerbetweenherfatherandRobertBaillie,imprisonedinEdinburghforhisCovenantingprinciples.AfterBaillie'sexecutionin1684,Humetookrefugein
ahideoutknownonlytohiswifeandGrisell,whosuppliedhimwithfood.AfterhehadfledtoHolland,thefamilyjoinedhim.Grisellmadeallthearrangementsand
thenreturnedtoScotlandtofetchhersicksister,whomshehadtocarryonfootfortwentymileswhentheyreachedtheDutchshore.OntheaccessionofWilliamand
Mary,shewasinvitedtobeMaidofHonourtotheQueen,butpreferredtoreturntoScotlandtomarryherchildhoodsweetheart,GeorgeBaillie(16641738),whom
shehadfirstmetwhenshetookthemessagestohisfather.Hermeticulousdomesticaccounts,withmenusandinstructionstoservants,werepublishedasThe
HouseholdBookofLadyGrisellBaillie,ed.RobertScottMoncrieff(1911).Shewasthefirstofalineofwomenpoetswhoadaptedtraditionalformstotheirown
viewsofpastoralismandnationalism.Herbestknownsong,'WerenaMyHeartLichtIWadDee'was,likeothersofherpoems,publishedinRAMSAY'STheTeaTable
Miscellany.
Bainbridge,Beryl(b.1933)
Britishnovelist,wasborninLiverpooltoafamilyinwhich(accordingtoherstory,'TheLongstop')'MrBaines,whowasmymaternalgrandfather,wasaloverof
cricket.MrBainbridge,myfather,didn'tcareforthegame.Hecaredevenlessformygrandfather.'ShewaseducatedatMerchantTaylors'Schoolandthenata
balletschoolinHertfordshire,afterwhichsheactedinrepertory,marriedapainter(in1954),hadthreechildren,anddivorced(in1959).From1961to1973she
workedforthefirmwhichbecameherpublisherin1972,withacuriousinterludein1970whenshewasacellarwomaninabottlefactory,amilieuwhichrecursin
TheBottleFactoryOuting(1974).HerfirstnoveltobepublishedwasAWeekendwithClaude(1967rev.edn1981)theoneshewrotefirstwasHarrietSaid..
.(1972)reissuedinABainbridgeOmnibus(1989)withTheDressmaker(1973)andTheBottleFactotyOuting.Sheclaimed(in1976),'Iamnotverygoodat
fiction.ItisalwaysmeandtheexperiencesIhavehad':shehasneverthelessinvestedbizarrethemeswithgrimhumour,asinYoungAdolf(1978),andtreated
domesticsituationswithirony,asinAQuietLife(1976).Watson'sApology(1984)isbasedonanactualmurderbyaclergymanofhiswifeinVictoriantimes.InAn
AwfullyBigAdventure(1989),involvingatimelock,thedramadevelopsduringrehearsalsforaChristmasperformanceofBARRIE'SPeterPaninLiverpoolinthe
1950s.SheemploysasimilardeviceinTheBirthdayBoys(1991),anaccountoftheAntarcticexplorationin191012,thestartingpointofwhichwasaletterwritten
toBarriebythedyingCaptainScott(18681912).Afteragapoffiveyears,shepublishedEveryManforHimself(1996),anovelofthedoomedmaidenvoyage

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oftheTitanic.'PeoplelikeScottandthebuildersoftheTitanicknewthattheFirstWorldWarwascoming,buttheydidnotwanttolookoverthehorizon.Theship
islikeasymbolofallthegreatendeavoursthatweredoomedtostrikeicebergswithinacoupleofyears,whetherithadsurvivedornot.'CollectedStories(1994)
containsthenovellaFilthyLucre(1986),whichshebeganwritingwhenshewas13,the12storiesfromMumandMrArmitage(1985),andsixuncollectedpieces.
Baldwin,James(192487)
Americannovelist,dramatist,andessayist,wasborninHarlem,NewYork.Hewasillegitimate.Twoyearslaterhis24yearoldmothermarried,ashissecondwife,
DavidBaldwin,thesonofaslave,whowasalaypreacherwith'ajobonLongIsland'andterrorizedhisfamily.At14,'afraidoftheevilwithinmeandafraidoftheevil
without',he'fledintotheChurch',anexperiencewhichhedescribedlaterintheNewYorkerinhiscelebratedindictmentofsocialprejudice(andalsoofseparatismas
asolution),'LetterfromaRegionofMyMind'(1962)reprintedinTheFireNextTime(1963).Hewasforthreeyearsaboypreacher,describedas'veryhot',until
onedayhewalkedoutofchurchduringaservicetogotoaBroadwaymatine,andneverreturned.HegraduatedfromDeWittClintonHighSchoolin1942,andat
firstworkedasanelevatorboytohelphisnowwidowedmotherraisehereightotherchildren,thelastofthembornonthedayofthedeathofhisstepfather,whohad
becomeinsanewithparanoia.HewenttoliveinGreenwichVillage,whereheattemptedtobecomeawriter,andtocometotermswithhishomosexualityandwith
beingablackAmerican.HisfirstpublishedpiecewasanarticleintheNationonGORKY.Hesoldastory('PreviousCondition')andbegantogetcommissionsfor
reviewsandessays.In1948,havingfailedtoreconcileanypersonalidentitywithprevailingpoliticalandsocialattitudes,andbeingdeterminedtofindhisownwayof
protesting,hefollowedRICHARDWRIGHTtoParis,whereinitiallyhe'livedmainlyamonglesmisrables'.Hereturnedbrieflyin1952,but'whenmyfirstnovelwasfinally
sold,IpickedupmyadvanceandwalkedstraighttothesteamshipofficeandbookedpassagebacktoFrance'.
Thatnovel,GoTellItontheMountain(1953),whichcriticsregardashisbest,isautobiographicalinthatitspointofresolutionisthemysticalconversiontoreligion
ofaHarlemladonthenightofhis14thbirthday(inthestoryin1935),andthatBaldwin'sfamilycircumstancesarereflectedinthoseofhischaracters.Butitalso
incorporates,throughflashbacks,aspectsoftheowner/slave,black/whiteissuessuchashadbroughtaboutthecurrentsituation.Thetitleofhiscollectionofessays
writtenbetween1948and1955,NotesofaNativeSon(1955),referstothenovelbyWright,whosesacrificeofarttothemessageofsocialprotestisacentral
criticismofaworkwhichestablishedBaldwin'scredo.Ignoringhispublisher'ssuggestionthatheshouldsethissecondnovelintheblackcommunity,hewrote
Giovanni'sRoom(1956),whichhasnoblackcharactersandinwhichraceplaysnopart,asanAmericaninParisistornbetweenhisresponsibilitiestohis
homosexualloverandhismoralinstincts.TheonlyblackmaleinAnotherCountry(1962)divesoffabridgetohisdeathearlyon,leavinghissisterandwhitefriends
toresolvetheirlivesandlovesasbesttheycan.WithTellMeHowLongtheTrain'sBeenGone(1968)andIfBealeStreetCouldTalk(1974)Baldwinisfirmly
backintheworldofblackunrestandsocialinjusticeinwhichhegrewup.Inhislastnovel,JustAboveMyHead(1979),thedeathinLondonofahomosexualgospel
singersparksoffatrainofreminiscencesonthepartofhisbrother,whoserelationshipwiththeformerHarlemchildpreacher,Julia,isacontinuingtheme.Itis,
however,inAfricathatJulia,forcedasachildintoincestwithherfather,andthenintoprostitutiontoearnmoneyforherselfandherbrother,finallyfindsliberation.He
alsowrotetwonotableplays.TheAmenCorner,firstproducedin1955inablackcollegeinWashington,D.C.,andin1965inNewYork,London,andEdinburgh
(published1965),exploresthroughthecharacterofawomanministertheconflictbetweenhumanunderstandingandtherigidobservanceofGod'slaw.InBluesfor
MrCharlie(1964),basedontwoactualincidentsofracialinjustice,asecondarythemeisthecollapseunderprovocationofthedeterminationtoeffectsocial
improvementbypeacefulprotest.
Baldwinspentmuchofthe1960sinIstanbul,andlatterlylivedmainlyinthesouthofFrance.Hediedofcancer.HisshortstorieswerecollectedinGoingtoMeetthe
Man(1965).NobodyKnowsMyName:MoreNotesofaNativeSon(1961)wasasecondvolumeofessaysseealsoThePriceofaTicket:Collected
Nonfiction19481985(1986).SeeDavidLeeming,JamesBaldwin:aBiography,newedn1995JamesCampbell,TalkingattheGates:aLifeofJames
Baldwin,newedn1992(criticalbiography)LouisH.Pratt,JamesBaldwin,1978(criticalstudy).
Bale,John(14951563)
dramatist,wasbornofpoorparentsnearDunwich,Suffolk.AtanearlyagehewenttotheCarmeliteconventinNorwich,andwaseducatedthereandatJesus
College,Oxford.Abandoninghisvows,hebecameaProtestant,gotmarried,andwasappointedtothelivingofThorndon,Suffolk.Hewasimprisonedin1536for
makingantiCatholicstatements,andremovedfromhislivingthefollowingyear.In1552hebecameBishopofOssory,inIrelandwithmisgivings,astheIrish
Parliamenthadnotacceptedthenewformofconsecration.When

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MaryTudorcametothethrone,hehurriedlylefthispost,andafteranearshipwreckandseveralspellsinprisonenroute,arrivedinHolland.Hereturnedin1556.
Notfeelinguptohisbishopricagain,hebecameacanonofCanterburyCathedral.Allhisfivesurvivingplayswerewritteninoneburst,underthepatronageofThomas
Cromwell(c.14851540),theProtestantizingLordChancellor,afterhisejectionfromThorndon.InthetrilogyknownasTheChiefPromisesofGod,Johnthe
Baptist'sPreaching,andTheTemptationofOurLord,hedepartedfromtheformofthetraditionalmoralityplaytopresentdramatizedsermonsprojectingthenew
doctrine.TheThreeLawsofNature,MosesandChrist,thefirstEnglishplayinfiveacts,isavitriolicsatire.KingJohn,writteninmostirregularverseandonly
discoveredandpublishedin1838,isthefirstEnglishhistoricaldrama.HealsocompiledthefirstdictionaryofEnglishliterature(1548).SeePeterHappe,JohnBale,
1996(criticalstudy)andinEP.Wilson,TheEnglishDrama14851585,newedn1990.
Ballantyne,R(obert)M(ichael)(182594)
Scottishnovelist,wasborninEdinburgh,thesonoftheyoungerbrotherofthetwoBallantyneswithwhoseprintingandpublishingcompaniesWALTERSCOTTwas
sodisastrouslyinvolved.HewaseducatedbyhismotherandbrieflyatEdinburghAcademy,andwasthenanapprenticeclerkwiththeHudson'sBayCompanyin
Canadafrom1841to1847.Onhisreturnhewasarailwayclerk,andthenapartnerinaprintingfirm,beforebecomingafulltimewriter.Encouragedbytheinterest
inhisfirstbook,Hudson'sBay:or,EveryDayLifeintheWildsofNorthAmerica(1848),afactualaccountbasedonhisdiaries,heproducedforboys
SnowflakesandSunbeams:or,TheYoungFurTraders(1856),theunmanlyfirstpartofthetitlebeingdroppedinsubsequenteditions.AfterUngava:aTaleof
EsquimeauxLand(1857)camethestoryforwhichheisbestknown,TheCoralIsland:aTaleofthePacificOcean(1857).Thisismorethanajollysurvivaltale,
withsomehorrificincidentsandastrongChristianmessage,beingalsoanintroductionto'valuableinformation'aboutgeographyandnaturalhistory.Theresponseto
theformulawassuchthatherepeateditwithendlessvariations,thoughanerrorinTheCoralIslandindescribingthecoconutinthewild,whichhehadneverseen,
determinedhimwhereverpossibletogetfirsthandexperienceofanenvironment.Themoralityinhisworksslowsupthenarrative,butheechoestheimperialisticideals
ofhistimes.HedidforgeographywhatHENTYwastodoforhistory,andhewasastronginfluenceonSTEVENSON.SeeEricQuayle,BallantynetheBrave:aVictorian
WriterandHisFamily,1967.
Ballard,J(ames)G(raham)(b.1930)
Britishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninShanghai,thesonoftheownerofacottonmill('Ispentalotoftimealoneinthehouse,withaboutnineservants,all
Chinese,exceptforapunitiveWhiteRussiannanny...whousedtomakemesituselesslyonawoodenlavatoryseatforhoursthe1930s'equivalentoftelevision,
andprobablyfarmoreeducational.').In1942thefamilywasinternedbytheJapaneseinaprisoncampatLunghua,'absolutelythereverseofeverythingthatIhad
everknown',theexperienceofwhichherecreatesinEmpireintheSun(1984),towhichTheKindnessofWomen(1991)isahighlychargedsequel.AfterWorld
WarIIhewaseducatedattheLeysSchoolandKing'sCollege,Cambridge.Whenhiswifediedin1964hebroughtuphischildreninthe1930s'suburbansemi
detachedhouseinSheppertonintowhichtheyhadmovedin1960.Hehimselfhasacceptedthetagofwriterofsciencefiction,butitisaninner,ratherthanouter,
spacewhichhereflects,andpresent,oftensurrealist,nightmares,notthefuture.SuchinparticulararethethemesofTheDrownedWorld(1962),hisfirstnovel,and
Crash(1973)TheDrought(1965),TheCrystalWorld(1966),andConcreteIsland(1974)offermore,ifstillbizarre,entertainment.RushingtoParadise(1994)
isadystopianvisionoffeminismrundisturbinglywildCocaineNights(1996)isafuturisticwhodunnitsetinanightmareSpanishholidayresort.Hisshortstoriesare
oftentopicalandcanbeferociouslysatiricalhisobsessionwithRonaldReagan(PresidentoftheUSA198189),whorecursinthecollectionWarFever(1990),
resultedatonetimeinhisbeingtemporarilybannedfromAmericanbookshops.OthercollectionssinceTheBestofJ.G.Ballard(1977)includeTheVenusHunters
(1980)andMythsoftheNearFuture(1982).AUser'sGuidetotheMillenium(1996)collectsthebestofhisreviewsandessays.SeeRogerLuckhurst,The
AngleBetweenTwoWalls:theFictionofJ.G.Ballard,1996.
Balzac,Honorde(17991850)
Frenchnovelist,wasborninToursandwasin1807sentawaytoboardattheOratorianCollege,Vendome,wherehismothervisitedhimjusttwiceinsixyears.In
1814thefamilymovedtoParis,wherehebrieflyattendedtwoschoolsandin1816wasarticledtoalawyer.In1819(theyearhisunclewasguillotinedforthemurder
ofamaidhehadseduced)thefamilyaccededtoBalzac'swishtobecomeawriter,andsethimupinitiallyinanunheatedgarretneartheBastille.Duringthenextten
yearshewrotepseudonymousnovels,lostmoneyonunwisepublishingandprintingventures,andhadhisfirstseriousaffair,withMmeLauredeBerny(d.1836),22
yearshissenior,whoalsogavehiminspira

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tionalandfinancialassistance.WithLeDernierChouan(1829rev.ednasLesChouans,1834asTheChouans,tr.GeorgeSaintsbury,1890tr.MarionAyton
Crawford,1972),ahistoricalnovelof1799whosestimuluswasthevogueforWALTERSCOTT,heatlastreceivedliteraryrecognition.LaPeaudeChagrin(1831tr.
asTheMagicSkin,1888asTheWildAss'sSkin,tr.EllenMarriage,1901tr.HerbertJ.Hunt,1977),aphilosophicalfantasy,alsobroughtsuccessandfame,which
hefurtherjustifiedwithEugnieGrandet(1833tr.1859tr.SylviaRaphael,1990)andLePreGoriot(1834tr.asDaddyGoriot:or,UnrequitedAffection,
1860tr.A.J.KrailsheimerasPreGoriot,1991).
Balzacnowconceivedhisgrand,butimpossible,designofpresentinginfictionacompletesocial,philosophical,andanalyticalstudyofmodernFrenchcivilization,with
recurringcharacters.Theninetynovelsandstorieswhichhecompletedof'LaComdieHumaine',asitwascalledfrom1842(andintranslationas'TheHuman
Comedy',ed.GeorgeSaintsbury,tr.ClaraBell,EllenMarriage,JamesWaring,andR.S.Scott,40vols189598),haveacastoftwothousandcharacters,and
include,inadditiontotheearlierworks,LesIllusionsPerdus(2vols183739tr.HuntasLostIllusions,1971)andLaCousineBette(1848tr.RaphaelasCousin
Bette,1992).SeealsoSelectedShortStories,tr.Raphael(1977).Inspiteofhisenormouscreativeenergyandambition,Balzacwasusuallyindebt(hewentinto
hidingfromhiscreditorsin1835),andfrom1841hewasalsoinpoorhealth.InMay1850hewasmarriedinPolishUkrainetohislongtermmistress,Countess
(Evelina)Hanska(d.1882),whomhehadfirstmetin1833aftershehadwrittenhimanonymousfanlettersherhusbandhaddiedin1841.Bythetimethecouple
reachedParis,afteranightmarejourneybycoach,Balzacwasdying.Hehadadaughterin1834byMmeMariaduFresnay(d.1892),theoriginaldedicateeof
EugnieGrandet,andasonin1836byafurthermistress,theEnglishwifeofCountGuidoboniVisconti.SeeV.S.Pritchett,Balzac,newedn1992(biography)
GrahamRobb,Balzac:aBiography,newedn1996.
Banim,John,(17981842)andMichael(17961874)
Irishnovelists,wereborninKilkenny,thesonsofafarmerwhodoubledasasports'outfitter.Michaelwaseducatedlocallyandat16chosethelawashiscareer.
JohnwenttoKilkennyCollegeandthenstudiedartattheRoyalDublinSociety,becomingadrawingteacherinKilkenny.Afterthedeathofhisfiance,hereturnedto
Dublin,tobeawriter.Thesuccessofatragedy,DamonandPythias,stagedatCoventGarden,Londonin1821,encouragedhimtosuggesttoMichael,whohadin
themeantimehadtogiveupthelawtosortoutthefamilybusinesses,thattheyshouldwriteanumberofIrishnationalnovelsandstoriesofIrishlifetogether.Thisthey
did,initiallyintheformoftwoseriesofTales,bytheO'HaraFamily(1825and1826).Ofthe24novelswrittenbythem,MichaelclaimedafterJohn'sdeaththathe
wasresponsiblefor13,butthetruenumbermaybenearertwenty,withJohntakingultimateeditorialresponsibility.Theyrangefromthehistoricallybasedtales,
suchasTheBoyneWater(1826),TheCroppy(1828),andTheDenounced(1830),throughthosewhichareablendofrealismandfolkloreCroohoreoftheBill
Hook(1825),TheFetches(1825),inwhichthereisanaccountofKilkennyCollege,andTheGhostHunterandHisFamily(1831)tostudiesofsituation,such
asTheNowlans(1826),inwhichaCatholicpriestbreakshisvowsandmarries.
Bannatyne,George
seeMAITLANDSCOTT,ALEXANDER.
Baraka,Amiri(b.1934)
Americanpoetanddramatist,wasbornEverettLeRoyJonesinNewark,NewJersey,ofmiddleclassparents.HewaseducatedatBarringerHighSchool,Newark,
andHowardUniversity,Washington,D.C.,bywhichtimehehadadoptedthespellingLeRoi.DishonourablydischargedfromtheUSAirForcein1956,hesettled
withhisfirst(white)wifeinGreenwichVillage,wherehefoundedandeditedapostmodernistliteraryjournal,Yugen(195862).HealsoproducedavolumeofBeat
poetry,PrefacetoaTwentyVolumeSuicideNote(1961),followedbyTheDeadLecturer(1964).BluesPeople(1963)wasapioneeringhistoricaland
sociologicalstudyofAfroAmericanmusic.IntheplaysDutchmanandTheSlave(publishedtogether1964),thestruggleforblackculturalliberationisrepresented
asasourceofcontinuingviolence.In1965helefthiswife(theyweredivorcedthatyear)andtwodaughters,andfoundedtheshortlivedBlackArtsRepertory
TheatreinHarlem.HethenreturnedtoNewarktoregrouptheblackartsmovement,marriedablackwoman,andbecameactivelyinvolvedinnationalistpolitics.
BlackMagic:CollectedPoetry19611967(1969),comprisingthreesections,'Sabotage','TargetStudy',and'BlackArt',waspublishedasbyLeRoiJones,though
hehadnowchangedhisnametoAmeer(laterAmiri)Baraka,towhichheappendedthetitleImamu[SpiritualLeader].Asafurthermarkofhisdedicationtothe
policyofseparation,heestablishedlocallywhatamountedtoanewAfroAmericanculture.In1974heabandonedculturalnationalismforThirdWorldMarxism,and
in1980becameamemberoftheteachingstaffoftheAfricanStudiesdepartment,StateUniversityofNewYork,StonyBrook.SeeTheLeRoiJones/AmiriBaraka

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Reader,ed.WilliamJ.Harris,1991FunkLore:NewPoems19841995,1996TheAutobiographyofLeRoiJones,1996.
Barbauld,AnnaLetitia(17431825)
neAikin,Britishpoet,essayist,andcritic,wasborninKibworth,Leicestershire,theeldestchildofRev.JohnAikin(171380).Itissaidthatshecouldreadfluently
whenshewastwo,andthatherearlyprogressatItalianandFrenchwassuchthatherfatherreluctantlyagreedtoteachherGreekandLatin.In1758hewas
appointedclassicaltutoratthenewNonconformistacademyatWarrington,Lancashire,towhichthefamilymoved.HerfirstpublicationswerePoems(1773),which
included'TheMouse'sPetition'and'Corsica'(aneffusioninblankversewhichwasadmiredbyMONTAGU),andMiscellaneousPiecesinProse(1773),writtenjointly
withherbrotherJohn(17471822),lateraphysician,prosewriter,andtranslator.In1774shemarriedRev.RochemontBarbauld,thesonofaChurchofEngland
clericofHuguenotdescent,whowasstudyingattheacademy.TheysettledinPalgrave,Suffolk,whereheledacongregationandestablishedaboys'school,buthis
instabilitytookthemin1785totheContinentforayearsubsequentlytheylivedinHampsteadandthenStokeNewington,nearherbrother.Theyhadnochildren,but
adoptedhernephew,CharlesRochemontAikin(17751847),lateradistinguisheddoctor,forwhomshewroteLessonsforChildren,fromTwotoThreeYears
Old(1777),LessonsforChildren,fromThreetoFourYearsOld(1778),andHymnsinProseforChildren(1781).Shecampaignedinproseandverseagainst
slavery,war,andprohibitionslimitingtheparticipationofNonconformistsinpolitics,andforfreedomofworshipandspeech.SheeditedthecorrespondenceofSAMUEL
RICHARDSON(6vols,1804),forwhichshewrotealifeofthenovelist.Afterherhusbanddied,insane,in1808,sheundertooktheeditingofTheBritishNovelists(50
vols1810).Herlastwork,EighteenHundredandEleven(1812),alongpoemofsocialcriticism,causedoffenceforitspessimismandwassavagedbySOUTHEYin
theQuarterlyReview.HerWorks(2vols1825)wereeditedbyherniece,LucyAikin(17811864),apoet,critic,andhistoricalwriter.SeeThePoemsofAnna
LetitiaBarbauld,ed.WilliamMcCarthyandElizabethKraft,1994.
Barbour,John(c.132095)
theearliestknownScottishpoet,wasprobablyborninornearAberdeen.Heisfirstmentionedin1357,whenasArchdeaconofAberdeen(aposthehelduntilhis
death)hewasgrantedapassbyEdwardIIIofEnglandtoaccompanythreescholarstoOxford.Inthatyear,too,hewastheBishop'sproxyatthecouncilin
EdinburghtoraisetheransomforthereleaseofDavidIIfromEngland.Heheldvariouspostsintheroyalhouseholdandwasauditoroftheexchequerin1372,1382,
and1383.Twolostpoemsareattributedtohim,TheBrutandTheStewartisOriginal.Hissurvivingwork,TheBruce,13,550lineslong,andwritteninrhyming
coupletsofiambictetrameters,isapatrioticpanegyricofRobertI(RoberttheBruce)andhissuccessfulfighttofreeScotlandfromEnglishdomination(culminatingin
thebattleofBannockburnin1314),andalsooftheordinarypeopleofScotlandwhoplayedtheirpartinthestruggle.Itisremarkableforitsattentiontodetail,its
attempttopresentanauthenticrecord,anditsnarrativepowerandinsight.In1377RobertII(grandsonoftheBruceandthefirstStewartKingofScotland)granted
Barbour10forwritingthepoemandapensionof20shillingsayear,whichthepoetmadeovertothecathedralforamassforhimandhisparentstobesaideach
yearonhisbirthday,whichwasdoneuntiltheReformation.Two15thcenturytranscriptsofTheBrucesurvive:thefirstprintededitionwasin1571.SeeTheBruce,
ed.andtr.GeorgeEyreTodd,newedn1996(prose)inKurtWittig,TheScottishTraditioninLiterature,newedn1978andinR.D.S.Jack(ed.),TheHistory
ofScottishLiteratureVolume1:Originsto1660,newedn1989.
Barker,George(191391)
Britishpoet,wasborninLoughton,Essex,thesonofaformersoldierintheColdstreamGuardsandofanIrishCatholicfromDrogheda,andwasbroughtupina
crampedLondontenement.HewenttoMarlboroughRoadLondonCountyCouncilSchool,Chelsea,andRegentStreetPolytechnic,whichheleftat15,having
realizedthathewasapoetandbeguntodressacccordingly,incloakandhugehat.ThirtyPreliminaryPoemsandanovel,AlannaAutumnal,werepublishedin
1933.WithPoems(1935)hewasmadewelcomeatFaber&FaberbyT.S.ELIOT,whopersuadedfivefriendsanonymouslytopayBarker4aweek.Hewasin
1936theyoungestpoettobeincludedbyYEATSinTheOxfordBookofModernVerse,butitwasnotuntilLamentandTriumph(1940)thatasenseofassurance
enteredhispoeticcanon.HewasProfessorofEnglishLiteratureatImperialTohokuUniversity,Japan193941,afterwhichhespentseveralyearsintheUSA.
SubsequentlyhelivedinRomeforfiveyears,andheldvisitingprofessorshipsatAmericanuniversities.Aprolificwriter,withasensualstreak,hisworkaboundswith
elegiesforlostfriendsandmemoriesoflove,withlyricalpoems,celebrations,satiricalexcursions,personalobservations,andexpressionsofdisgust,mostofwhichare
presentinvariousguisesinthesardonicTheTrueConfessionofGeorgeBarker(1950rev.edn1965).AfurthernovelwasTheDeadSeagull(1950).Hisaffair
withtheCanadianwriter,ElizabethSmart(191386),whohadfourchildrenbyhim,inspiredhercult

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novel,ByGrandCentralStationISatDownandWept(1945).Throughher,hemetElspethBarker(b.1943),neLanglands,sisterinlawofMASSIE,whosefirst
book,OCaledonia(1991),isa20thcenturyGothicnovelintheScottishtradition.Theyhadfivechildren,andmarriedin1989.SeeCollectedPoems,ed.Robert
Fraser,1987StreetBallads,1992(posthumouscollection)SelectedPoems,ed.RobertFraser,1995.
Barlow,Joel(17541812)
Americanpoetandpoliticaljournalist,wasborninRedding,Connecticut,andwenttoYale,fromwhichhetooktimeofftofightfortheAmericanrevolutionaryarmy
atLongIslandin1776.Aftertakingafurtherdegreeintheology,hefoundedanewspaper,theAmericanMercury,andopenedabookshopinHartford,wherehe
wasamemberoftheConnecticutWits.Healsoqualifiedasalawyer(1786),andpublishedTheVisionofColumbus(1787),anepicpoeminheroiccoupletson
America's]greatness,whoserepublicationinanexpandedversionasTheColumbiad(1807)broughthimlatefameasapatriotbutlittleasapoet.In1788heand
hiswifewenttoEurope,wheretheyspentmuchofthenextseventeenyears.HebecameanardentsupporteroftheFrenchRevolutionandofPAINE,andwroteAdvice
tothePrivilegedOrdersintheSeveralStatesofEurope...(1792),aresponsetoBURKE'SReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrance,andALettertothe
NationalConventionofFranceontheDefectsilltheConstitutionof1791...(1792),forwhichhewasmadeanhonoraryFrenchcitizen.Whilecampaigningin
Savoyin1793asacandidatefortheNationalAssembly,heexpressedhisdelightatbeingservedforbreakfastaGallicversionofanAmericanrecipebywritingThe
HastyPudding(1796),amockheroiconwhichhispoeticreputationlargelydepends.HewasAmericanconsulinAlgiersin1795.In1811hewasappointed
MinisterinFrance,tonegotiateatradetreatywithNapoleon.HefollowedtheEmperortoPoland,onlytowitnesstheterribleretreatfromMoscow,onwhichhe
composedthebitter'AdvicetoaRaveninRussia'(December1812).Beforehecouldhimselfturnback,hediedofpneumonia,andwasburiedinavillagenear
Cracow.
Barnard,A.M.
seeALCOTT.
Barnard,Marjorie(18971987)
Australiannovelistandcritic,wasbornandeducatedinSydney,graduatingin1920fromSydneyUniversitywithafirstinhistory.Whenthefamilyrefusedtolether
takeupascholarshipatOxford,shetrainedasalibrarian,andworkedatSydneyTechnicalCollegefrom1920to1932.Afterpublishingabookofchildren'sstories,
TheIvoryGate(1920),shebeganacollaborationwithFloraEldershaw(18971956),lateranindustrialconsultant.AsM.BarnardEldershawtheywrotefivenovels,
ofwhichthefirst,AHouseisBuilt(1929),thesagaofafamilybusiness,sharedfirstprizewithPRICHARD'SCoonardoinacompetitionsponsoredbytheBulletin,in
whichitwasserializedas'TheQuartermaster'.TomorrowandTomorrow(1947),afuturisticpoliticalnovelincorporatingvividdescriptionsofSydneyinthe1930s
and1940s,wasreissuedin1983inanuncutversionwiththeoriginaltitleofTomorrowandTomorrowandTomorrow.TheirEssaysinAustralianFiction(1938)
wasespeciallysignificantforitstime.Barnardreturnedtolibrarianshipin1942,workingattheCommonwealthScientificandIndustrialResearchOrganizationuntil
1950.Onherownaccountshepublishedhistoricalworks,includingthepopularAHistoryofAustralia(1961),acriticalstudyofMILESFRANKLIN(1967),andThe
PersimmonTree,andOtherStories(1943).ShewasmadeAOin1980.
Barnes,Djuna(18921982)
Americannovelistanddramatist,wasborninCornwallonHudson,NewYork,intoabizarrehomeinwhichhernumeroussiblings,alsowithoutlandishnames,were
bornsynchronouslyoftwomothers.Thereshereceivedacuriouseducationfromhereccentricgrandmotherandherindigentfather,andafterwardsstudiedatthePratt
Institute,Brooklyn,andtheArtsStudents'League.ShebeganworkasajournalistontheBrooklynDailyEaglein1913,andin1915hadavolumeofpoemsand
drawings,TheBookofRepulsiveWomen,privatelyprintedinGreenwichVillage.ThreeavantgardeoneactplayswereproducedbytheProvincetownPlayersin
1919.In1920,havingleftherhusbandoftwoyears,CourtenayLemon,shewenttoParis,whereshelivedwithanAmericansculptress.Shelampoonedthelocal
lesbiancoterieintheprivatelyprintedLadiesAlmanack...AsWellasaFullRecordofDiurnalandNocturnalDistempersWrittenandIllustratedbyaLady
ofFashion(1928),inwhichRADCLYFFEHALLappearsasLadyBuckandBalk.Ryder(1928)isasatiricalworkintheformofafamilychronicle.Nightwood(1936),a
denselyplottedsexualroundabout,muchofwhichisnarratedthroughahazeofboozebyasuperannuatedtransvestitedoctor,hadacertainsuccsd'estime,
promptedbyanintroductionbyT.S.ELIOT,whowasadirectorofthefirmwhichoriginallypublisheditinBritainseeNightwood:theOriginalVersionandRelated
Drafts,ed.CherylJ.Plumb(1995)foranaccountofitscomplicatedhistory.In1937shesettledinGreenwichVillage,whereshelivedlargelyinseclusionand
devotedherselftoherwriting,theonlytangiblemanifestationofwhichwasthelatterdayJacobeandramainblankverse,Antiphon,publishedin1958butfirst
performedin1961inStockholm,inaSwedishtranslationthesentenceinEliot'sdraftblurbfortheoriginaledition,'Neverhasso

Page34

muchgeniusbeencombinedwithsolitletalent',wasnotappreciatedbyBarnes.Spillway(1962)isacollectionofshortstoriesextractedfromABook(1923rev.
ednasANightAmongtheHorses,1929).SeeCollectedStories,ed.PhillipHerring,1996PhillipHerring,Djuna:theLifeandWorkofDjunaBarnes,newedn
1997.
Barnes,Julian(b.1946)
Britishnovelist,wasborninLeicester,theyoungerson(hisbrotherisaclassicistandphilosophydon)oftwoteachersofFrench,andvaseducatedatCityofLondon
SchoolandMagdalenCollege,Oxford,wherehereadmodernlanguages.AfterworkinginOxforddatingcoinagesandusagesforthesupplementtotheOxford
EnglishDictionary,hestartedreadingfortheBar,butinsteadbecameajournalistandtelevisioncritic.TheFrenchconnectionisapparentfromhisfirstnovel,
Metroland(1980),inwhichtheconflictinglifestylesoftwofriendsareanalysedandfoundnottobequitesosatisfactory/unsatisfactoryashadappeared.Marital,pre
marital,andextramaritalrelationshipsfeatureinBeforeSheMetMe(1982)andinTalkingItOver(1991),inwhichthreeprotagonists,lockedinalovetriangle,
offerdifferentanglesontheproceedings.Hisdistinctive,epigrammaticapproachparticularlyinformsFlaubert'sParrot(1984)andAHistoryoftheWorldin10
Chapters(1989),zanyfictionalstudiesfromrespectivelyaliteraryandabiblicalstartingpoint.ThePorcupine(1992)isapoliticalparableinacontemporaryEastern
Europeansetting,inwhichanoldstyleCommunistandanewstyledemocratclashincourt.CrossChannel(1996)isacollectionofstories,inavarietyofliterary
styles,abouttheBritishinFranceatdifferentpointsinhistory.LettersfromLondon19901995(1995)comprisesarticleswrittenasLondoncorrespondentofthe
NewYorker.Hehasalso,asDanKavanagh,writtenthrillersaboutabisexualdetective.ForhisliterarylinkswithFrance(hehaswonboththePrixMdicisandthe
PrixFemina)hewasmadeChevalierdel'OrdredesArtsetdesLettresin1989andOfficierin1995.
Barnes,William,(180186)
Britishpoetandphilologist,wasborninRushay,Dorset,thesonofatenantfarmer,andwaseducatedatMullett'sschoolinSturminsteruntilhewas14,whenhe
becameasolicitor'sclerk.In1820hesawJuliaMiles,anexciseofficer'sdaughter,alightingfromastagecoachinDorchester.Theymarriedin1827seeLove
PoemsandLetters18201827,ed.CharlotteH.Lindgren(1986).Bythistimehehadhisownschoolwashavingversespublishedinlocalperiodicalshadlearned
woodengravingandwasstudyingFrench,Italian,Welsh,Russian,Hebrew,andHindustani.HisfirstpoemsintheDorsetdialectwerepublishedintheCounty
Chroniclein1833.In1838heregisteredwithStJohn'sCollege,Cambridge,asatenyearstudent.Hewasordainedin1847andgraduatedasBDin1850.Poems
ofRuralLife,intheDorsetDialectwaspublishedinLondonin1844:'Towriteinwhatsomemaydeemafastoutwearingspeechformmayseemasidleasthe
writingofone'snameinthesnowofaspringday.Icannothelpit.Itismymothertongue,andistomymindtheonlytruespeechofthelifethatIdraw'.Afterthedeath
ofhiswifein1852(seetheelegy'TheWifeALost')andthefailureofhisschool,hegotintochronicfinancialdifficulties,inspiteofhisgrowingreputationasapoet
(HwomelyRhymeswaspublishedin1859),literaryjournalist,andantiquary,andastheauthorofacomparativephilologicalgrammar(1854).Thesituationwassaved
bytheawardin1861ofaCivilListpensionattheinstigationofthePrimeMinister,LordPalmerston(17841865),andtheofferofthelivingandrectoryof
WinterbourneCame.HARDYeditedhisSelectPoems(1908).BarneswasagoodpastoralandromanticpoetinbothStandardEnglishandinDorsetdialecthis
appealisfreshenedbyhisuseofdialectandenhancedbyhisinstinctasaselftrainedlinguistforappositecombinationsofterms,suchasfeaturedalsointheworkof
anotherofhisadmirers,HOPKINS.SeeThePoemsofWilliamBarnes,ed.BernardJones,2vols1962WilliamBarnes:aSelectionofHisPoems,ed.RobertNye,
newedn1988SelectedPoems,ed.AndrewMotion,1994AlanChedzoy,WilliamBarnes:aLifeoftheDorsetPoet,1985.
Barrett,Elizabeth
seeBROWNING,ELIZABETHBARRETT.
Barrie,(Sir)J(ames)M(atthew)(18601937)
Scottishdramatist,novelist,andjournalist,wasborninKirriemuir,Angus,thirdsonandninthchildofahandloomweaver.Afterthedeathofthesecondsonina
skatingaccidentin1867,BarriewenttolivewithAlick,hiseldestbrotherby18years,whopaidforhimtogotoGlasgowAcademy,wherehewasateacher.When
AlickbecameoneofHerMajesty'sinspectorsofschoolsandmovedtoDumfries,hepaidfortheboytogotoDumfriesAcademyandthentoEdinburghUniversity.
BarriewasaleaderwriterontheNottinghamJournalfrom1882to1884,afterwhichhereturnedhometowritearticlesforLondonperiodicals.In1885hemoved
permanentlytoLondon,andin1894,encouragedbyAlick,embarkedonadisastrousmarriagewithayoungactress,MaryAnselltherewasadistressingdivorcein
1909,afterwhichshemarriedherlover,thenovelistanddramatistGilbertCannan(18841955).Barrie'sScottishpieces,publishedasAuldLichtIdylls(1888)and
AWindowinThrums(1889),givehimthedubiousdistinctionofbeingtheearliestmemberoftheKailyardschoolofnovelists,whotended

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topresentcosyaswellasrosyportraitsofScottishrurallife.TheLittleMinister(1891)washugelysuccessfulasanovelandthen(1897)asoneofBarrie'searliest
plays.HewasthefirstmajorScottishbornplaywright,andTheAdmirableCrichton(1902),DearBrutus(1917),andMaryRose(1920)arestillrememberedifnot
oftenperformed.ThereismoreofBarriehisclosenesstohismother,hisnostalgiaforchildhood,andhisloveforthefiveboysforwhomhecaredafterthedeathsof
boththeirparents,forwhichseeAndrewBirkin,J.M.BarrieandtheLostBoys(1979)intheperenniallypopularchildren'splayabouttheboywhonevergrewup,
PeterPan(1904),whichherewroteasastory,PeterPanandWendy(1911).(AspecialprovisionintheBritishCopyrightActof1988ensuresthatroyaltiesfrom
theplayshallcontinueinperpetuitytogototheGreatOrmondStreetHospitalforSickChildren,London.)Barriewascreatedabaronet(1913),awardedtheOM
(1922),andelectedChancellorofEdinburghUniversity(1930).SeePeterPanandOtherPlays,ed.PeterHollindale,1995LeoneOrmond,J.M.Barrie,1987
(criticalstudy)R.D.S.Jack,TheRoadtotheNeverland:aReassessmentofJ.M.Barrie'sDramaticArt,1991.
Barth,John(b.1930)
Americannovelist,wasborninCambridge,Maryland,andaftergraduatingfromhighschoolstudiedbrieflyattheJuilliardSchoolofMusicbeforeenteringJohns
HopkinsUniversity,initiallytomajorinjournalism,'becauseitsoundedeasy'.Hegraduatedincreativewritingin1951,andobtainedafurtherdegreethefollowing
yearonthebasisofanunpublishednovel,'ShirtofNessus'.HewasappointedaprofessorofEnglishattheStateUniversityofNewYork,Buffalo,in1965,andin
1973returnedtoJohnsHopkinsasCentennialProfessorofEnglishandCreativeWriting.TheprotagonistofTheFloatingOpera(1956rev.edn1967),whoaftera
dayofvacillationdecidesagainstsuicide,explainsthetitle:'It'safloatingopera,friend,chockfullofcuriosities,melodrama,spectacle,instructionandentertainment,
butitfloatswillynillyonthetideofmyvagrantprose',whichcouldbeappliedtoBarth'sworkasawhole.ThechiefcharacterinTheEndoftheRoad(1958rev.
edn1967)appearsatitsclosetobetakinganoppositecourse,thusinitiatingacreativephilosophywherebyBarthoftenrefutesinthesecondofapairofnovelsthe
positionhehastakeninthefirst.Inhistwomajorworks,thesprawlingvarietyofthemesandtonesofTheSotWeedFactor(1960rev.edn1967)giveswaytoa
measureofstructuralandmythologicalunityinGilesGoatBoy:or,TheRevisedNewSyllabus(1966).Letters(1979)andSabbatical:aRomance(1982)are
experimentsinautobiographicalfiction.LostintheFunhouse:FictionforPrint,Tape,LiveVoice(1968),Chimera(1972),andOnwiththeStory:Stories
(1996)representcunningattemptstoelucidatetheconfusionbetweenlifeandart.TheScheherazadelegendwhichfeaturesinthelatterrecursasthestartingpointof
thefrolicsomeTheLastVoyageofSomebodytheSailor(1991).Thevoyageinthepartlyfactual,partlyfictionalOnceuponaTime:aFloatingOpera(1994)is
thebasicmythofquestandperilousjourney,leadingtoaneternalreturn,undertakeninthisinstancebytheauthorandhissecondwife,'amiddleaged,uninnocent
AdamandEve'.TheFridayBook:EssaysandOtherNonfiction(1984)andFurtherFridays:Essays,Lectures,andOtherNonfiction19841994(1995)
containmaterialonBarth'sacademicrationale.SeeCharlesB.Harris,PassionateVirtuosity:theFictionofJohnBarth,1983E.EWalkiewicz,JohnBarth,1986
(criticalstudy)HeideZiegler,JohnBarth,1987(criticalstudy).
Barthelme,Donald(193189)
Americanfictionwriter,wasborninPhiladelphia,theeldestchildofanarchitectwhodesignedthehouse('wonderfultoliveinbutstrangetoseeontheTexasprairie')
towhichthefamilymovedin1933.BroughtupasaRomanCatholic,hewenttolocalschools,wroteforandeditedschoolmagazines,andstudiedjournalismat
HoustonUniversity.HewasdraftedintotheUSArmyin1953,andservedinJapanandKorea,afterwhichhewasareporterontheHoustonPost,foundedthe
universityliteraryjournal,Forum,andwasDirectoroftheHoustonContemporaryArtsMuseum196162.HethenwenttoNewYork,editedthemagazineLocation
from1962to1964,andin1963publishedhisfirststory,intheNewYorker.OfthetermscharacterizingcurrentmodesofAmericanfiction,inwhichheisakeyfigure,
hefavoured'postmodernism'as'theleastugly'.InComeBack,DrCaligari(1964)andUnspeakablePractices,UnnaturalActs(1968),hisfirstbooksofshort
stories,heappliedtosocialissueswhathavealsobeencalledtechniquesof'metafiction',which,broadenedintoironyinCityLife(1970)andSadness(1972),and
withtheadditionofparody,areafeatureofthenonfictionpiecesinGuiltyPleasures(1974)seealsoSixtyStories(1981).HisnovelsincludeSnowWhite
(1967),amodernversioninwhichtheheroineisneverrescuedbyanyone,TheDeadFather(1975),averbalcollageincorporatingtechniquesfromothercreative
arts,andTheKing(1990),inwhichheapplieshisprincipleofoverlappingunrelatedframesofreferencetothecourtofKingArthurfightingWorldWarII.SeeLois
Gordon,DonaldBarthelme,1981(criticalstudy)MauriceCouturierandRgisDurand,DonaldBarthelme,1982(criticalstudy).
Barthes,Roland(191580)
Frenchcritic,wasborninCherbourgayearbeforehisfather'sdeathinanavalbattle.In1924he

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wenttoPariswithhismother,withwhomheliveduntilherdeathin1977.HiseducationattheSorbonneandhissubsequentacademiccareeruntil1948were
interruptedbyboutsoftuberculosis.AfterteachingattheInstitutFranaisinBucharest,hewasReaderattheUniversityofAlexandriauntil1950,whenseveralofhis
articlesonliterarycriticismappearedintheleftistjournal,Combat.Thesebecamethebasisofhisfirstbook,LeDegrZerodel'criture(1953tr.AnnetteLavers
andColinSmithasWritingDegreeZero,1967)inwhichheintroducedhistheoryof'criture'asafunctionoflanguageandastheformalsignofliterature.Between
1952and1959hewasengagedinresearchintolexicologyandsociologyattheCentreNationaldeRechercheScientifique.HetransferredtothecolePratiquesdes
Hautestudesin1960,becomingDirectorofStudiesin1962.Hepublishedhisessayon'TheStructuralistActivity'in1963.InS/Z(1970tr.RichardMiller,1975)
hepostulatedachangeinthestructuralist'scienceofreading'toaccommodatetheeffectofanimmediaterereadingofatext.InthearticlesrepublishedasMythologies
(1957ed.andtr.Lavers,1972)heanalysedcontemporaryimagesofmassculture.RolandBarthes(1955tr.RichardHoward,1977)isanautobiographical/critical
studyofhistheories.SeeARolandBarthesReader,ed.SusanSontag,newedn1993LouisJeanCalvet,RolandBarthes:aBiography,tr.SarahWykes,newedn
1996.
Basho(orMatsuoBasho)(164494)
Japanesepoetandprosewriter,wasbornMatsuoMunefusainUeno,thefourthofsevenchildrenofaminorsamurai,andwascalledKinsakuasachild,andthen
Toshichirowhenhecameofage.AtnineheenteredtheserviceoftheTodofamily,ascompaniontothe11yearoldYoshitada,afterwhosedeathin1666heran
awaytoKyoto,wherehestudiedandwroteverse.In1672hemovedtoEdo(Tokyo),nearwhichanadmirerbuilthimanisolatedhouseatFukajawain1680.He
tookhisultimatepennameofBashofromanothergift,astockofthespeciesofbananatreewhichhasthatappellation.Thehouseburneddownin1682,butthougha
newonewasbuiltforhim,in1684hebeganaspectacularseriesoftravels,aboutwhichhewroteseveralworksofproseinterspersedwithverse.Hediedof
dysenteryinOsaka,havingdeterminedonthisoccasiontoreachthesoutherntipofJapan.Fromhaikai,thetraditionalsequenceoflinkedverses,heformulated
haiku,thethreelineformoffive,seven,andfivesyllables,completeinitself,whichbecametherepresentativepoeticmediumoftheTokugawa(orEdo)period
(16031868).SeeTheNarrowRoadtotheDeepNorthandOtherTravelSketches,tr.NobuyukiYuasa,1970Basho's'NarrowRoad':SpringandAutumn
Passages,tr.HiroakiSato,1996TheNarrowRoadtoOku,tr.DonaldKeene,1997(bilingualedn)OnLoveandBarley:theHaikuofBasho,tr.LucienStryk,
newedn1986.
Baudelaire,Charles(Pierre)(182167)
Frenchpoet,critic,andtranslator,wasborninParis.HewasthesonbyhissecondmarriageofJosephFranoisBaudelaire(17591827),aformerpriest,after
whosedeathhis35yearoldwidowmarriedanarmyofficer,whoenteredtheboyasaboarderatCollgeRoyal,Lyons,in1832.HewentontoCollgeLouisle
Grand,Paris,fromwhichhewasexpelledin1839foraminormisdemeanourheobtainedhisdegreelaterthatyearafterprivatetuition.Afterayearatlawschool
duringwhichheattendednolectures,ledabohemianexistence,andcontractedbothsyphilisanddebts,hewasdispatchedonaseavoyagetoIndia.Helefttheshipat
Runion,returnedtoParis,andaftercomingintohisinheritancefromhisfather,settledinahotelontheIleSaintLouis.Hemixedinliterarycircles,hadliaisonswitha
stunningblackwhoreandarefined,butsensuallyemancipated,societycourtesan,bothofwhomwereinspirationsforhisverse,andhadhisfinancialaffairs,athis
family'sinsistence,putinthehandsofatrustee.Hepublishedreviewsoftheannualartexhibitionin1845and1846,andstartedseveralnovels,ofwhichonlyLa
Fanfarlo(1847)waseverfinished.
AtaboutthistimehefirstcameacrossthestoriesofPOE,onthetranslationofwhosefictionheworkedforfifteenyears,publishingfivevolumesofit(185665)aswell
asseverallengthycriticalessays.LesFleursduMal(1857tr.JamesMcGowan,ed.JonathanCuller,asTheFlowersofEvil,bilingualedn1993),anaccumulation
oflyricverseswhichareromanticintheiressence,realisticintheirattentiontothecarnal,criminal,andspiritualproblemsofhisage,andapocalypticintheiranticipation
ofSymbolism,waswithdrawnafteracourthadfoundsixpoemsindecent,thoughhewasacquittedofattackingreligion.Inthesecondedition(1861),thesixwere
replacedby32newpoems.Duringhislastyears(hewasstrickenwithparesisin1866),aswellaspoetryheproducedbothartandliterarystudies,andadiscussion
ofnarcotics,LesParadisArtificiels(185960),whichincorporateshistranslationandadaptationofDEQUINCEY'SConfessionsofanEnglishOpiumEater.See
CompleteVerse,tr.FrancisScarfe,2vols198587SelectedPoems,tr.JoannaRichardson,1975IntimateJournals,tr.ChristopherIsherwood,newedn1990
tr.NormanCameron,newedn1995ClaudePichoisandJeanZiegler,Baudelaire,tr.GrahamRobb,newedn1991(biography)JoannaRichardson,Baudelaire,
1994(biography).
Baxter,JamesK(eir)(192672)
NewZealandpoetanddramatist,wasborninDunedin,thesonofasmallfarmerofScot

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tishdescentwhoforhispacifismsufferedphysicallyinWorldWarIandsociallyduringWorldWarII,andofasomewhatpushy,Cambridgeeducateddaughterofa
universityprofessor.HespentmuchofhischildhoodintheruraltownshipofBrighton,wherecommunitylifewasminimalandculturenonexistentoutsidethe
Calvinisticatmosphereofhisownhome'Itseemstomethatthenegativeaspectsofmygrowthwereinthelongrunofmosthelptomeasawriter.'Hespentthe
years193739atboardingschoolinEnglandandontheContinentwithhisparents.Hebegancomposingversewhenhewasseven,andat13waswriting'fouror
five'poemsaweek.In1944heenrolledatOtagoUniversity,where'Aphrodite,Bacchus,andtheHolySpiritweremytutors,butthegoddessofgoodmannersand
examinationpasseswithheldhersmilefromme.'Afterhavinghadabookofverseacceptedforpublication,BeyondthePalisade(1945,dated1944),hedropped
out,and'aftermuchapparentlyuselessexperienceinvariousfactories,farms,dens,bedrooms,pubsandhovels',wenttoChristchurch,whereheunderwentJungian
therapy,editedaliterarypageforCanta,andassociatedwithCURNOWandGLOVER.In1948hemarriedJ(acquie)C.Sturm(b.1927),whoduringtheensuingchaosof
hislifebroughtuptheirtwochildren,achievedafirstclassdegreeinphilosophy,andmadeareputationforherselfasashortstorywriter.HegraduatedfromVictoria
Universityin1955,havingalsotrainedasateacherandearnedsomemoneybyworkinginanabattoirandsubsequentlyasapostman,losingthatjobfor'beingasleep
deaddrunkwithmyheadOnafullsatchelofletters'.HejoinedAlcoholicsAnonymousin1954.In1958InFiresofNoReturn:SelectedPoemswaspublishedby
OxfordUniversityPressinLondonandNewYorkandbroughthiminternationalrecognitionhisfirstplay,JackWinter'sDream,wasnationallybroadcasthe
becameaRomanCatholicandheundertookaUnescomissiontoJapanandIndiatostudyschoolpublications,anexperiencewhichalsobroughthimfacetoface
withpoverty.
Duringmuchofthe1960shewroteprolificallyproseplaysincludingTheBandRotunda(produced1967)andtwowiththemesfromGreekmythology,TheSore
FootedMan(1967)andTheTemptationsofOedipus(1970),aswellaspoetry.HewasRobertBurnsFellowatOtagoUniversityin1966and1977:'AVarsity
person,withanoffice/Justroundthecornerwhatnonsense!/Ifthereisanyculturehere/Itcomesfromtheblacksouthwind...'.Inadreamin1968hehada
call,'GotoJerusalem!'(aMaorisettlementandmissionstationontheWanganuiRiver).WithonlyachangeofclothesandaMaoriBible,hesetoutalone.Hearrived
inJerusaleminSeptember1969,havingenrouteworkedinAucklandamongjunkies,dropouts,andthehomeless,suchasnowflockedtohim.Afurthercommune,
inWellington,lastedforonlyafewweeksin1971.Inaninterviewin1972hesaid:'Idonotfavourchemicalsolutionsforspiritualandpsychologicalproblems....But
Idorecognizethatsmashedmythshavesomehowtobereplacedorreconstructed.ThatiswhyIhavebecomeaChristianguru,abarefootedandbeardedeccentric,
abadsmellinthenosesofmanygoodcitizens.'JerusalemSonnets(1970),aseriesofpoemsofsevenunrhymedcouplets,andJerusalemDaybook(1971)record
hiswayoflifethere.SodoestheposthumouslypublishedAutumnTestament(1972),which,aswellasthetitlesequence,includes'HeWaiatamoTeKare',
affectionatelyaddressedtohislongsufferingwife.
Inadditiontohisconsiderablecorpusofpoetry,andhisplays,hewroteseveralnotablecriticalworks,includingAspectsofPoetryinNewZealand(1967)andThe
ManontheHorse(1967),acollectionoflecturesseealsoJamesK.BaxterasCritic:aSelectionfromHisLiteraryCriticism,ed.FrankMcKay(1978).See
TheEssentialBaxter,ed.JohnWeir,1994CollectedPoems,ed.JohnWeir,newedn1996SelectedPoems,ed.JohnWeir,1983CollectedPlays,ed.Howard
McNaughton,1983FrankMcKay,TheLifeofJamesK.Baxter,newedn1993CharlesDoyle,JamesK.Baxter,1976(criticalstudy).
Baynton,Barbara(18621929)
Australianshortstorywriter,was,accordingtohergrandson,borninScone,theCastlereaghregionofNewSouthWales,theyoungestchildofCaptainRobert
Kilpatrick,latelyBengalLightCavalry,andPenelopeEwart,whomheseducedfromherhusbandonboardshiponthewaytoAustraliatheymarriedin1859,after
Ewart'sdeath.Selfeducated,shereadtheBibleandherfather'sbooks,mainlyDICKENS,POE,andtheRussiannovelists.In1880shemarriedalocalgrazier,Robert
Fraterheelopedin1887withoneofherowncousins,whowasstayinginthehouse.ShemovedtoSydneywithherthreechildren,andin1890,thedayafterher
divorcecamethrough,marriedDrThomasBaynton,aleisuredgentlemanwithacircleofliteraryacquaintances.Tomakeanameforherself,shebegantowrite,anda
story,'TheTramp',wasprintedintheBulletinin1896.AfterBayntondiedin1900,leavingherawealthywoman,shewenttoEngland,where'TheTramp'(retitled
'TheChosenVessel')waspublishedwithfiveotheruncompromisingstoriesofoutbacklifeinBushStudies(1902)laterreissued,withtwoadditionalstories,as
Cobbers(1917).Shefilledasuccessionoffinehouseswithantiques,andonvisitstoAustraliaboughtblackopals.DuringWorldWarIherhomeinGreat
CumberlandPlace,London,wasopenhouseforAustra

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lianservicemen.In1921,likingtheideaofatitle,shemarriedthecolourful5thLordHeadley(18551935),whotoherdisappointmentturneddowntheofferofthe
throneofAlbania.Theypartedafterafewyears.LatterlyshelivedinahouseshebuiltinToorak,Melbourne.Hereconomicprosestyleandgrimrealism,withstudied
flashesofhumour,giveadistinctiontoherstorieswhichisnotmatchedinherbushnovel,HumanToll(1907).
Beauchamp,KathleenMansfield
seeMANSFIELD.
Beaumarchais,(Caron,PierreAugustin)de(173299)
Frenchdramatist,wasborninParis,thesonofawatchmakercalledCaron,whosetradehefollowedwithsomeskill,beingrecognizedbytheAcademyofSciences
andatthecourtofLouisXV,towhosedaughtershetaughttheharp.Hetookhistitlein1756,fromtheestateofhisfirstwife,awealthycourtwidowwhodiedthe
followingyear.Speculationandafurtherprudentmarriagepaidhandsomedividends.InaseriesofsatiricalMmoires(177478),whichrepresentedhimasa
championoftherightsofthepeople,heturnedthetablesonthosewhointhecourseofalawsuit(whichhelost)accusedhimofcorruption.Heranarmstothe
AmericaninsurgentsduringtheWarofIndependencein1775,buthadtotakerefugeinLondonandHollandfrom1792to1796afterbeingaccusedofdoingthe
sameforthemigrsoftheFrenchRevolution,duringwhichhelosthisfortune.Recentresearchhasrevealedhispartinthepublicationofthe172volumesoftheKehl
editionoftheworksofVOLTAIRE(178589),andhisassociationfrom1776to1788withCourierdel'Europe,ajournalreportingBritishaffairs(including
parliamentarydebates),printedinLondonuntiltheGovernmentbanneditsexport,andtheninBoulognefromcopysmuggledacrosstheChannel.Hehadseveral
farcesproducedduringthe1760s,butnothingthenorlatercomparedwiththesuccessofhistwocomediesofintrigueandsocialcomment,LeBarbierdeSville:ou,
LaPrcautionInutile(1775tr.asTheBarberofSeville,1776)andLaFolleJourne:ou,LeMariagedeFigaro(1783tr.asTheFolliesofaDay:or,The
MarriageofFigaro,1785),whichbecamethebasisrespectivelyoftheoperasbyGioacchinoAntonioRossini(17921868)andWolfgangAmadeusMozart(1756
91).SeeTheFigaroPlays,tr.GrahamAnderson,1994.
Beaumont,Francis(15841616)
Englishdramatist,wasbornatGraceDieu,Leicestershire,thesonofajudge,onwhosedeathin1598heandhistwoelderbrothershadtoleaveOxfordwithout
finishingtheirdegreecourses.HeenrolledasalawstudentinLondon,wasacceptedbyJONSONandhiscircle,andmetJOHNFLETCHER,withwhomhestruckupsucha
rapportthattheysharedthesamelodgingsand,accordingtoAUBREY,'onewenchbetweenthem'.TheonlyplaygenerallyregardedtobebyBeaumontaloneisThe
KnightoftheBurningPestle(c.1608),aboisterousburlesqueinwhichagrocerandhiswifetaketheirapprenticetothetheatreandgethilariouslyinvolvedinthe
plotandintheactionoftheplayonthestage.Between1607and1613,whenBeaumontmarriedaKentishheiress,heandFletchercollaboratedonsometenplays,
usuallymarkedbycomplexplotsandsurprisingrevelations.Theyknewtheirmarketandthepoetryintheirplayssuffersonlyincomparisonwiththatoftheirmore
famouscontemporaries.Phylaster(c.1609)isatragicomedyoffrustratedlove.InTheMaidesTragedy(c.1611)Amintorisforcedbyhiskingtobreakoffhis
engagementandmarryEvadne,whorevealsontheirweddingnightthatsheistheroyalmistress.Thedestiniesofthemaincharactersareresolvedbyviolentdeaths,
buttheplayisnotableforitsinitialsituationandfortheconflictsofloyaltywhichitdepicts.SeeW.W.Appleton,BeaumontandFletcher:aCriticalStudy,1956.
Beaumont,Gustavede
seeTOCQUEVILLE.
Beauvoir,Simonede(190886)
Frenchnovelistandcritic,wasborninParishermotherwasadevoutCatholicandherfatherasceptic.ShewaseducatedattheInstitutSaintesMarie,Neuilly,and
thecoleNormaleSuprieure,whereshegraduatedinphilosophyin1929atthesametimeasSARTRE.Withhimshe'signedatwoyearlease',whichlasteduntilhis
deathin1980anddevelopedintoarelationshipofunimaginablecomplexityandbisexualramificationssee,forexample,BiancaLamblin,ADisgracefulAffair:
SimonedeBeauvoir,JeanPaulSartre,andBiancaLamblin,tr.JuliePlovnik(1996),inthecourseofwhichsheabandonedherjobasalycephilosophy
teacherin1943afterbeingformallyaccusedofcorruptingaminorseeLetterstoSartre,ed.andtr.QuentinHoare(1991)andWitnesstoMyLife:theLettersof
JeanPaulSartretoSimonedeBeauvoir,ed.deBeauvoir,tr.LeeFahnestockandNormanMcAfee(1992).OnherfirstvisittotheUSAin1947sheencountered
ALGREN,her'onlytruepassionatelove'.Herprivatelifebeliedthemilitantfeministstanceshetookinpublic,thenatureofwhichsheexpoundedinLeDeuximeSexe:
lesFaitsetlesMythesandL'ExprienceVcue(2vols1949tr.H.M.ParshleyasTheSecondSex,1953),aseminaltextDRABBLEhasdescribedtheeffectof
readingitat20as'bothalreadyfamiliaranddeeplyshocking....Itwastheunknownknown.'Herfourthnovel,LesMandarins(1954tr.LeonardM.Friedmanas
TheMandarins,1956),

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whichwonthePrixGONCOURT,accuratelyreflectsthesituation,andsociety,inParisin194447.Anintellectualwhosecareerwasherwriting,andwhoseconviction
wastheprimacyofpersonaldecisions,shepouredmuchofherartisticendeavourintofivevolumesofautobiography,fromMmoiresd'uneJeuneFilleRange
(1958tr.JamesKirkupasMemoirsofaDutifulDaughter,1959)toTouteCompteFait(1972tr.PatrickO'BrianasAllSaidandDone,1974).SeeDeirdre
Bair,SimonedeBeauvoir:aBiography,newedn1991MaryEvans,SimonedeBeauvoir,1996(criticalstudy).
Beckett,Samuel(190689)
Irishdramatist,novelist,translator,andcritic,wasborninFoxrock,nearDublin,thesonofaquantitysurveyor,andwaseducatedatPortoraRoyalSchool,Co.
Fermanagh,andTrinityCollege,Dublin,wherehegotafirstinFrenchandItalianliteratureandexcelledatsport.AfterteachinginBelfastandParis,andatTrinity
College,Dublin,hesettledinParis,wherehehadpreviouslymetandbecomecloselyassociatedwithJOYCE.Inthe1930shepublishedtwovolumesofverse,
Whoroscope(1930)andEcho'sBonesandOtherPrecipitations(1935)acollectionofshortstories,MorePricksThanKicks(1934)acriticalstudyofPROUST
(1931)andanovel,Murphy(1938).In193637hespentseveralmonthsinGermany,wherehewasmadeawareofthedangersofNazism.Earlyin1938hewas
stabbedinaParisstreetaftergoingtothecinemawithfriends.Hewasvisitedinhospitalbyaformertennispartner,SuzanneDeschevauxDumesnil,whosharedthe
restofhislifetheymarriedin1961.AttheoutbreakofWorldWarIIhereturnedtoParisfromIrelandandjoinedtheResistance.Whenhisintelligencegathering
cellwasbetrayed,heandSuzanneescapedtoProvence.Thereheworkedasalabourer,wroteasecondnovel,Watt(notpublisheduntil1953),andrejoinedthe
ResistancehewasawardedtheCroixdeGuerrein1945.
InParisafterthewar,between1945and1950hewrote(allinFrench)threenovelsMolloy(Englishtranslationbyhimself,1955),MaloneMeurt(MaloneDies,
1956),L'Innomable(TheUnnamable,1959)andtheplayEnAttendantGodot,whichwasperformedinParisin1953andmadehisreputation.Inhisown
translationasWaitingForGodot,itwasstagedinNewYorkin1954andLondonin1955,andpublishedintheUKin1956.Between1956and1961,aftera
fallowperiodfollowingthedeathofhismother,hewroteinEnglishAllThatFall:aPlayforRadio(1957)Embers(apieceforradio)andtheoneactplayKrapp's
LastTapepublishedtogetherasKrapp'sLastTapeandEmbers(1959)andthetwoactstageplayHappyDays(1962).Hisothermostsignificantdramain
EnglishisNotI(1973),firstperformedinNewYorkin1972.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1969.
EvenifoneincludesWaitingforGodotandtheoneactplayEndgame(translatedbyhimselffromFindePartieandfirstpublishedintheUKin1958),Beckett's
totalcontributiontoliteratureinEnglishcomprisestwoslimvolumesofverse,abookofshortstories,fivenovels(ofwhichthreewereoriginallywritteninFrench),a
handfulofshortplays,andsomeevenbrieferpiecesandtheconcessionsthathemadetohisreaderstendedtodecreaseininverseproportiontothegrowthofhis
reputation.(ADreamofFairtoMiddlingWomen,writtenwhenhewasjust27,hasautobiographicalelementsandmarkstheoriginalappearanceofBelacqua
Shuahitwasfirstpublishedposthumously,ed.EoinO'BrienandEdithFournier,in1992.)Hispoetryhasaninnocenceunderlyingthebitterness,andanAngloIrish
linguisticring.Belacqua(thenameisthatofaFlorentinemusicalinstrumentmakerandfriendofDANTE,whouseshiminDivinaCommediaasasymbolofindolence)
appearsinallthetalesinMorePricksThanKicks,amongwhich'DanteandtheLobsters'standsoutnotonlyasaremarkablestoryinitsownright,withan
unforgettableandthoughtprovokingending,butasdescriptiveproseatitstautestandmostexpressive.AllthesestoriesaresetinDublin.TheprotagonistofMurphy
lives,andintheoddestwayimaginabledies,inLondon,havingjustfoundthementalcontentmenttowardswhichhehasbeenblundering.WithWatt,Beckettreturns
toIreland.Watthimselfisthearchetypalfallguy,whoseroutetomentalsalvationendsinalunaticasylum,notasanurse,asMurphyisbriefly,butasaninmate.The
experimentalstylehadnowbecomemannered,and,asthoughhehadreachedhisparticularphilosophicalperipheryinnarrativeprose,BeckettnowturnedtoFrench
ashismediumforthenovel,andtodrama,whoseintellectuallimitsheredefinedevenmoreprofoundlythanJOHNOSBORNEwastochangethedirectionofitssubject
matter.
Beckett'srelentlessthemeisdepression,oftenvergingondespair.WithWaitingforGodot,heprovedthatitwaspossibledramaticallytoprojectthedesolationand
meaninglessprotractionofexistencethroughcharacterswhorepresentjustthesestatesintheiractionsanddialogue.InEndgameandNotI,heabandonedmovement
andothernormalstageconventionsevenmoreradically.InHappyDays,hisonlymoderatelyoptimisticpiece,themaincharacterisimmobilizeduptothewaistinsand
inthefirstactandtotheneckinthesecond:herhusband,theonlyothercharacter,ishardlyseen.ThoughthetheatricalpresentationofKrapp'sLastTapeis
enhancedbyvisualdevicesbuiltintothescript,Beckett'seconomyandmanipulationoftimingaswellasoflanguagemakethe

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piecejustaseffectiveonradio.SeeTheCompleteDramaticWorks,newedn1990TheBeckettTrilogy,newedn1994CollectedShorterProse19451988,
enlargededn1996AstheStoryWasTold:UncollectedandLateProse,1990CollectedPoems19301989,newedn1997DeirdreBair,SamuelBeckett:a
Biography,newedn1991JamesKnowlson,DamnedtoFame:theLifeofSamuelBeckett,1996LoisGordon,TheWorldofSamuelBeckett19061946,
1996(biography)AnthonyCronin,SamuelBeckett:theLastModernist,1996(criticalbiography)A.Alvarez,Beckett,2ndrev.edn1992(criticalstudy)John
Calder,ThePhilosophyofSamuelBeckett,1996HughKenner,Reader'sGuidetoSamuelBeckett,1996JohnPilling(ed.),TheCambridgeCompanionto
Beckett,1994.
Beckford,William(17591844)
Britishnovelistandprosewriter,wasbornatthefamilyseatofFonthillAbbey,Wiltshire,thesonofawealthyaldermanoftheCityofLondon,andeducatedbya
privatetutor,Rev.DrLettice.At21,heinheritedthefamilyfortune(amassedlargelyfromJamaicanplantations)of1m,plus100,000ayear.At22,inonesittingof
threedaysandtwonights,hedraftedinFrenchVathek,anArabianTale.Apiratedtranslationofthefinishedworkwaspublishedin1786,andanauthorizedEnglish
edition(tr.SamuelHenley)andtheoriginalFrenchversionin1787.Thoughfrequentlyabroadandfrom1796avirtualrecluse,BeckfordwaselectedtoParliament,
forvariousconstituencies,fortheyears178494and180620.HehadFonthillrebuiltbyJamesWyatt(17461813)in1796asahalfruinedGothicmonstrosity,with
a275foottowerwhichcollapsedshortlyafterwardsandwasaspromptlyreplaced.Herehedevotedhimselftoscandalouspursuitsandthecollectionofbooksand
objetsd'art.In1822,hisfortunenowreducedtoamere80,000,hesoldoutandretiredtoBath.Vathekisafantasyadventure,writtenwithenormousgusto,ofa
sadisticcaliphwhosellshimselftoEblis,theDevil,inwhoseundergroundhalls,litwithflamingpyramids,Vathek'sheartandthoseofthenewlydamnedfinallyburst
intoeternalfire.BeckfordalsowrotethesatiricalBiographicalMemoirsofExtraordinaryPainters(1780)andsomewittyandperceptiveaccountsofhistravels.
SeeVathekandOtherStories,ed.MalcolmJack,1995.
Beddoes,ThomasLovell(180349)
Britishpoetanddramatist,wasborninClifton,thesonofthephysicianandphysicistDrThomasBeddoes(17601808)andAnnaMaria(d.1824),theyoungest
sisterofEDGEWORTH,andwaseducatedatCharterhouseandPembrokeCollege,Oxford.Anundergraduateofeccentrictemperament,hepublishedtwoworkswhile
hewasup,TheImprovisatore(1821),threeGothictalesinversewhichhelatertriedtosuppress,andTheBride'sTragedy(1822),aversedramaofsomemerit
muchintheveinofWEBSTER.Thelattermetwithlittlecriticalresponse,andaftertakinghisdegreehewenttoGottingenandWurtzburgtostudy,qualifyingasMDin
1831,havingmadeanameandanunfortunatereputationforhimselfasapoliticalagitator.HespenttherestofhislifemainlyinGermanyandSwitzerland,pursuinghis
medicalcareer,studyingGermanliterature(andwritingproseandverseinGerman),andproducingtwodramaticfragments,'Torrismond'and'TheSecondBrother'.
HewasalsoforeverrevisingDeath'sJestBook(1850),arevengedramainamixtureofverseandprose,withJacobean,Gothic,andGermanRomanticelements,
whichhehadbegunin1825.Thisextraordinary,unfinishedworkmaybepresumedtobetheultimatemanifestationofhisphilosophicalandanatomicalpreoccupation
withdeath,whichishardlyabsentevenfromhisshortpoemsandlyrics,ahandfulofwhicharestillsometimespraised.Hisdeathwasselfinflictedandappropriately
morbid.Beddoes'spaperswereleftbyhisexecutortoBROWNING,afterwhosedeath,andhisson'sdeath,theboxcontainingthemwaslost.Authenticcopies,however,
materializedinthe1930s.SeePlaysandPoems,ed.H.W.Donner,1950SelectedPoems,1980.
Bede(orBda),knownas'Venerable'(c.673735)
prosewriter,historian,andcleric,wasprobablyborninNorthumbriawithinthelandsgrantedtoBenedictBiscop(62890)inwhichtofoundamonasteryatWear
mouth.Attheageofseven,hewasputintothecareofBenedict,andin682wastransferredtothenewsisterinstitutionatBarrow,underAbbotCeolfrid(642716).
Hewasmadeadeaconat19,sixyearsearlierthantheusualage,andapriest11yearslater.Byhisownaccount,hismaintaskfortherestofhislifewastocompose
commentariesonthescripturesforthebenefitofhisfellowmonks,buthewasalsoabletowrite(inLatin)scientifictreatisesonnaturalhistoryandchronology,critical
andgrammaticalstudies,andbiographiesofthethreeabbotsofthemonastery,aswellastheworkforwhichheisjustlyregardedasthe'FatherofEnglishHistory'.
HislastdaysaregraphicallyandmovinglydescribedinalettertoafriendfromCuthbert,oneofBede'spupilswhowaslaterAbbotofWearmouthandJarrow.The
fivebooksofHistoriaEcclesiasticaGentisAnglorum[TheChurchHistoryoftheEnglishPeople]covertheperiodofmassivechangebetweenthearrivalofCAESAR
in55BCtoAD731inhisowntime,writtenwithascholar'seyeforcolourfuldetailandanexperiencedexpositor'sattentiontothebroadersweepsofhissubject.SeeA
HistoryoftheEnglishChurchandPeopletr.andwithanintroductionbyLeoSherley

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Price,newednrevisedbyR.E.Latham,1968BenedictaWardSLG,TheVenerableBede,1990(studyofhisChristianthoughtandwritings).
Beerbohm,(Sir)Max(18721956)
Britishessayist,critic,broadcaster,parodist,andcaricaturist,wasborninLondonandeducatedatCharterhouseandMertonCollege,Oxford,withouttakinga
degree.DubbedbyG.B.SHAWin1898'theincomparableMax',helivedoutwardlyasaleisurelydandy,whileatthesametimedoingmanythingsverywell.Itwasa
signofhisimpishandparadoxicalnaturetocallhisfirstbookTheWorksofMaxBeerbohm(1896),andhisnexttwovolumesofessaysMore(1899)andYetAgain
(1909).In1898hesucceededShawasDramaticCriticoftheSaturdayReview,aposthehelduntil1910.Then,havingmarriedtheactressFlorenceKahn(d.
1951),heretiredtoRapallo,Italy,whereexceptforthetwoworldwarsheremainedfortherestofhislife.Hisonlynovel,ZuleikaDobson:or,anOxfordLove
Story(1911),describesdelicatelybutuproariouslytheeffectonundergraduatepassionsofthebeautifulandpredatorynieceoftheheadofanOxfordcollege.A
ChristmasGarland(1912)isacollectionofdevastatingparodiesofnotableauthorsofthetime(includingHENRYJAMES,KIPLING,HARDY,andCONRAD)onthethemeof
Christmas,whichareasincisivelyobservedandexecutedashispictorialcaricaturesofthefamous,includingmembersoftheRoyalFamilyanewedn(1993)is
illustratedwithrelatedBeerbohmcaricaturesandhasanextensiveintroductionbyN.JohnHall.SevenMen(1919),laterpublishedasSevenMen,andTwoOthers
(1950)actuallyonlyeightisavolumeofshortstories,amongthem'''Savonarola"Brown',whichincorporatesamemorableskitonElizabethandrama,withafew
slydigsatROBERTBROWNING.SeealsoCollectedVerse,ed.J.G.Riewald,1994.Hewasknightedin1939.SeeDavidCecil,Max,newedn1983(biography)
LawrenceDanson,MaxBeerbohmandtheActofWriting,newedn1991(criticalstudy).
Behan,Brendan(192364)
Irishdramatistandnovelist,wasborninDublinwhilehisfather(ahousepainter)wasinprisonforRepublicanactivities.HewaseducatedattheFrenchSistersof
CharitySchool.HejoinedthejuniorbranchoftheIRAwhenhewas14,andwroteproseandverseforitsjournal.In1939,anxiousforapieceofaction,hecrossed
toLiverpool,wherehewasarrested,convictedofpossessingdynamite,andcommittedtoBorstalfortwoyears.In1942hewassentencedto14yearsforfirearms
offences,butwasreleasedin1946.O'FAOLAINpublishedhisarticle,'IBecameaBorstalBoy',inTheBellin1942.InbetweenfurtherspellsinprisonBehanwrote
somelyricsinIrish,severalshortstories,andacrimenovelwhichwasserializedintheIrishTimesin1953andpublishedasTheScarperer(1966).TheQuare
Fellow,publishedin1956,theyearofitsproductioninLondon,revolvesaroundtheexecutionofacondemnedprisoner,whoisneverseen,theprocessbeing
realizedthroughthedialogueandresponsesofotherswhoareaffected,fromtheGovernor,warders,andhangman,totheman'sfellowconvicts.InTheHostage
(1958)Behanexplores,withamixtureofviolentlanguage,highdrama,andtenderness,thepredicamentofaBritishsolidercapturedbytheIRA.BorstalBoy(1958)
isoneofthemostunusualandreadableofliteraryautobiographies.Behan'soutwardpersonatendedtoobscurehisoriginaltalent,whichhisexpansivewayoflifehad
frustratedevenbeforeitkilledhim.In1955,afterabriefcourtshipconductedmainlyinpubs,hemarriedanartist,BeatriceffrenchSalkeld(193193),whodisplayed
thesamedignityinwidowhoodasshehadduringtheirstormymarriage,andwroteMyLifewithBrendanBehan(1973).SeeTheCompletePlaysofBrendan
Behan,ed.AlanSimpson,1978UlickO'Connor,BrendanBehan,newedn1993(biography)ColbertKearney,TheWritingsofBrendanBehan,1977.
Behn,MrsAphra(orAyfara)(164089),
neJohnson,Englishdramatistandnovelist,wasborninWye,Kent.Herearlylifeisanenigma.ShemayhavevisitedSurinamwithamemberofherfamilyorwitha
lover.Ifso,shethenmarriedaDutchmanwhodiedsoonafterwards.ShewascertainlyemployedasaspybytheEnglishgovernmentin1666toobtaininformation
fromaformerloveraboutEnglishdissidentsinHolland,butwaslefthighanddry,andpenniless,byheremployers.Consequently,inabout1670sheneededtoearna
living:indoingsoshebecamethefirstEnglishprofessionalwomanwriter.Hercomediestendtobederivativeandfaintlyindecent.TheRover(1677),ananonymous
picaresqueplayabouttheamorousadventuresinEuropeofabandofCavaliers,washerfirstmajorsuccessshewroteasecondpartin1681underherownname.
TheCityHeiress(1682)ismoretypicalofRestorationdrama,andhasapoliticalmessagetheCommonwealthsympathizerisbestedbyhisTorynephew.Shealso
wrotefiction,ofwhichOroonoko:ortheRoyalSlave(1688)isregardedasthefirstEnglishphilosophicalnovel,inthatwithinanadventurestoryofloveand
treacheryisanexpressionofwhatnoblenessandhonourmeantothoseinwhomthesocietyofthetimeallowedtheretobenone,andanindictmentofthepeoplewho
ran,ormerelytolerated,theslavetrade.SeeTheRoverandOtherPlays,ed.JaneSpencer,newedn1995OroonokoandOtherWritings,ed.PaulSalzman,
1994Oroonoko,TheRoverandOtherWorks,ed.JanetTodd,1992ThePoems:aSelection,ed.JanetTodd,1994MaureenDuffy,ThePassionate
Shepherdess:

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AphraBehn16401689,newedn1989(biography)JanetTodd,TheSecretLifeofAphraBehn,1996(biography)SusanWiseman,AphraBehn,1996(critical
introduction).
Beith,JohnHay
seeHAY,IAN.
Bekerderemo,J.P.Clark
seeCLARK.
BellActon
seeBRONT,ANNE.
BellCurrer
seeBRONT,CHARLOTTE.
BellEllis
seeBRONT,EMILY.
Bellamy,Edward(185098)
Americannovelistandpoliticalphilosopher,wasborninChicopeeFalls,Massachusetts,thethirdoffoursonsinanancientNewEnglandfamilyofministers,andhad
hisstatutory'emotionalexperienceofareligiousconversion'whenhewas14.HavingfailedhisfitnesstestforWestPoint,hestudiedforayearatUnionCollege,
Schenectady,NewYork,andtheninGermany,afterwhichhereadfortheMassachusettsBarexaminations,passingwithsuchdistinctionthathewasoffereda
partnershipbyaWestfieldlawyer.Hepreferredtoopenhisownofficeinhishometown,butcloseditindisgustafterhisfirstcase,whichinvolvedevictingawidow
forarrearsofrent.Hebecameajournalist,andalsopublishedSixtoOne:aNantucketIdyl(1878),andDrHeidenhoff'sProcess(1880),oneoftheearliest
Americanpsychologicalnovels.In1880hefounded,withhisyoungerbrotherCharles,thetriweeklySpringfieldPennyNews,whosesuccessencouragedthemto
transformitintotheDailyNews.Hithertoaconfirmedbachelor,in1882hemarriedEmmaSanderson,tenyearshisjuniorandhisfather'sadopteddaughterhisdeep
friendshiptowardsherhadbecome'anabsurdpassion'whenshegotengagedtosomeoneelse.Marriageconvincedhimoftheneedtocampaignforabetterworldin
whichtheirtwochildrenmightlive,andin1884Charlespersuadedhimtoretirefromtheirnowtroublednewspapertowrite'freshessaysinromance'.Afteranother
psychologicalstudy,MissLudington'sSister:aRomanceofImmortality(1884),heredeployedinLookingBackward:20001887(1887rev.edn1888)the
dreamvisitationtechniqueofsomeofhisshortstories.Thenarratorwakesfromahypnotictranceintheyear2000,andlearnsofthenewsocialistorderwhichhas
resolvedmanyofthepoliticalandeconomicproblemsofhisowntime.Itssuccessallovertheworldwasdramatic,andin1889theBostonBellamyClub,thefirstof
manysuchsocieties,wasinaugurated.Bellamysecuredthesubscriptionlistofitsshortlivedjournal,theNationalist,forhisownNewNation,whichfirstappearedin
January1891.ThroughthishepromotedtheprinciplesofNationalism,advocatingnationalization.InEquality(1897),asecondUtopiannovel,heansweredcriticsof
thefirstandenlargeduponandclarifiedsomeoftheideasitpropounded.Hewasnowsufferingfromtuberculosis,ofwhichhedied.SeeSylviaE.Bowman,Edward
Bellamy,1986(criticalstudy).
Belloc,(Joseph)Hilaire(18701953)
Britishpoet,novelist,travelwriter,andjournalist,wasborninStCloud,France,ofAngloFrenchCatholicparentage,andwaseducatedattheOratorySchool,
Birmingham.HedidmilitaryserviceintheFrencharmybeforebeinghelpedbyhissister,themysterystorywriteranddramatistMrs(Marie)BellocLowndes(1868
1947),togotoBalliolCollege,Oxford.HewasaLiberalMemberofParliament190610,butdidnotseekreelectionaftermakinganantiSemiticremarkinthe
House.HewasLiteraryEditoroftheMorningPost190610,andfoundedthejournalEyeWitnessin1911.Hewasaprolificwriter:hehadtobe,forhiswifedied
in1914leavinghimwithfivechildrentosupport.Hismorelastingworksincludehiscautionarytalesforchildren(e.g.'ThechiefdefectofHenryKing/Waschewing
littlebitsofstring...')somelyrics,amongthem'Tarantella'('Doyourememberaninn,Miranda?...'),'Ha'nackerMill',and'TheSouthCountry'numerousepigrams
(including'WhenIamdead,Ihopeitmaybesaid/Hissinswerescarletandhisbookswereread.')ThePathtoRome(1902),apersonalaccountofajourneyon
footbiographiesofWolsey(1930),Napoleon(1932),Cromwell(1934),andLouisXIV(1938)TheServileState(1912),anattackonbothsocialismandcapitalist
industrialsocietyandsomelightnovels,ofwhichBelinda(1928)wasthemostnotableinhistime.SeeCompleteVerse,newedn1991A.N.Wilson,Hilaire
Belloc,newedn1986(biography).
Bellow,Saul(b.1915)
Americannovelist,wasborninCanadaintheLachineJewishghettoinMontreal,thefourthchildofRussianJewswhohademigratedfromStPetersburgtwoyears
before.HerehelearnedEnglish,French,Hebrew,andYiddish,andhadanearfatalboutofpneumonia,beforethefamilymovedtoChicago.HewentfromTuley
HighSchooltoChicagoUniversity,wherehewas'acontraryundergraduate'andaftertwoyearstransferredtoNorthwesternUniversity,Illinois,whereheread
sociologyandanthropology.In1937heenrolledattheUniversityofWisconsinonagraduatescholarship,butdroppedout('Inmyinnocence,Ihaddecidedto
becomeawriter')andreturnedtoChicago,wherehemarriedasocialworker.Overthenexttenyears,duringwhichhepublishedtwosombrenovels,DanglingMan
(1944)andTheVictim(1947),he

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workedasatutoratthePestalozziFroebelTeachers'College,andwiththe'GreatBooks'editorialteamofEncyclopaediaBritannica,andservedintheUS
MerchantMarine.In1948,havingnowtaughtEnglishfortwoyearsattheUniversityofMinnesota,hegainedaGuggenheimFellowship,onwhichhelivedinParis,
sawEurope,andbeganhisthirdnovel.Hehadalready,asMALCOLMBRADBURYnotesinTheModernAmericanNovel(1983),displayed'ascepticalviewbothof
realismandmodernismthatwouldprovecharacteristicofanumberofhiscontemporaries':henow'movedtowardsanexuberantcomedyamodewhichwould
reachfromthecomedyofsufferingtotheidealofaspirationtowardshumangrandeur'.OrasBellowhimselfputitinaninterview:'Obligedtochoosebetween
complaintandcomedy,Ichosecomedy,asmoreenergetic,wiser,andmanlier.'
TheAdventuresofAugieMarch(1953)isanextravagant,picaresquenovelwhichfollowsitsnarratorfromhisoriginsinaChicagoslumthroughallpartsofAmerica
toAfricaandEurope,withhisgoalofdiscoveringhisraisond'trealwaysbeyondhisgrasp.TheprotagonistofthetitlenovellaofSeizetheDay,withThreeShort
StoriesandaOneActPlay[TheWrecker](1956),theculminationofwhichisasinglemomentoftruth,iscomicalsointheoddityofhisbeinganabjectJewish
failure,whosecatalogueofdisastrousdecisionshasjustbeenincreased.TheseekerafterapurposeinHendersontheRainKing(1959)isadisillusionedmillionaire
whosewanderlusttakeshimtoametaphoricalAfrica,wherehefindsauseforhisinnocencebutlearnsthatthewaystonobilityarefraughtwithviolence.Thesuffering
oftheJewishscholarinHerzog(1964),writtenshortlyafterandreflectingthecircumstancesofthebreakupofhissecondmarriage,isinthemind,detailedina
voluminousseriesoflettersaddressedtothelivingandthedead,butneversent.ThesurvivorinMrSammler'sPlanet(1970)isanelderlyJewwhohasescaped
deathintheHolocaustonlytoexperienceaformoflivingdeathinNewYork'sWestSide,whosesocietyhecannotfathom.Deathisatheme,too,ofHumboldt's
Gift(1975),inwhichthelegaciesofaflamboyantbutfailedpoetultimatelyofferasalvationtoanoverwroughtintellectual.InTheDean'sDecember(1982)
preoccupationsinChicagoandBucharestcauseanacademictoacceptfinaldefeatinhissearchforakeytosocialdisorder.HimwithHisFootinHisMouthand
OtherStories(1984)returnstotheambienceoftheJewishfamily,suchasheimmortalizedinTheAdventuresofAugieMarch.ThetwochiefcharactersinMore
DieofHeartbreak(1987)areeachsearchingfortherevelationwhichwillilluminatedilemmasfacedataturningpointinlife.ATheft(1989)andTheBellarosa
Connection(1989)arenovellasinwhichthepowersrespectivelyoffaithandmemoryhavearestorativeeffect.TheywerereissuedinSomethingtoRememberMe
By(1992),whosetitlestoryisawittybutprofoundstatementaboutrelationswithparents,prefacedwithaforewordinwhichBellowdefendshisnewfound
Chekhovianbrevity.TheActual(1997)isaboutahighschoollovethatsurviveseverything.ItAllAddsUp:FromtheDimPasttotheUncertainFuture(1994)is
acollectionofwiderangingessaysandreminiscences,includinghisNobellecture.
ToJerusalemandBack:aPersonalAccount(1975)isareflectiverecordofatriptoIsraelin1967toreportontheTenDays'War.Bellow'splays,ofwhichthe
onlyfulllengthoneisTheLastAnalysis(1965),acomedyofselfpsychoanalysiswithfarcicalelements,haveattractedlittlepublicresponse.In1962hewas
appointedtotheCommitteeonSocialThoughtatChicagoUniversity,andhewasChairmanfrom1970to1976.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein
1976,'forthehumanunderstandingandsubtleanalysisofcontemporaryculturethatarecombinedinhiswork'.InhisRomanesLectureatOxfordin1990,hepleaded
foran'aestheticbliss'throughwhichonemayunderstand'essencespermanentlyassociatedwithhumanlife',andwhichmaybecommunicatedbythenovelistwhohas
adistinctiveandindividualvoice.In1994,aged79,hewasrushedfromtheCaribbeanintointensivecareinBoston,sufferingfromafurtherattackofpneumoniaanda
rareformofpoisoning,whichhesurvivedthanksalsotoattentionsofhisfifthwife,Janis(b.1958),anacademicandformerstudentofhis.SeePeterHyland,Saul
Bellow,1992(biographical/criticalstudy)RobertB.Dutton,SaulBellow,rev.edn1982(criticalstudy)MalcolmBradbury,SaulBellow,1982(criticalstudy)and
inGeorgePlimpton(ed.),WritersatWork:ThirdSeries,newedn1977.
Bely,Andrei,pseudonymofBorisNikolaevichBugaev(18801934)
Russianpoet,novelist,andcritic,wasborninMoscow,thesonofateacherofmathematics,andstudiedscienceandphilologyatMoscowUniversity.Underthe
influenceofthephilosopherVladimirSoloviev(18531900),hecametoregardhimselfasaphilosopherwhosesearchfortheultimatefusionofartwithmusicand
religionledhimtoproclaimsymbolismasawaynotonlyoflifebutalsoofforeseeingthefutureasheclaimedtohavedoneinhisnovels[TheSilverDove](1909)
and[Petersburg](191314definitiveversion1922tr.RobertA.MaguireandJohnE.Malmstad,1978).In1912hemetRudolfSteiner(18611925),founderof
thespiritualscienceofanthroposophy,withwhomhetravelledinEuropeandwhoseprincipleshepropoundedinRussiaaftertheRevolutionof1917.Threetimes
married,andatonetimethewellpublicizedloverofBLOK'Swife,hebecameasdisappointedin

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thedirectionofthenewRussiaasthenewRussiawasinthecomplexityofhisworks.AfteranequallydishearteningstayinBerlinfrom1921to1923,hereturnedto
Moscow,wasreconciledtotheregime,andbecameaMarxist.Thevolumeofversehepublishedin1921hasbeentranslatedbyGeraldJanacekasTheFirst
Encounter(1979)seealsoCompleteShortStories,ed.RonaldPeterson(1979).SeeRogerKeys,TheReluctantModernist:AndreiBelyiandthe
DevelopmentofRussianFiction19021914,1996.
Bennett,(Enoch)Arnold(18671931)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,dramatist,andjournalist,wasborninHanley,Staffordshire,oneofthefivetownsofthe'Potteries',thesettingofmanyofhisnovels
andstories.Hewaseducatedlocallyandgivenasoundbackgroundintheartsathome.In1893hegaveuphissolicitor'straininginLondontobeAssistantEditorof
theweeklyjournal,Woman,becomingEditorin1896.Hisfirstnovel,AManfromtheNorth,wasreadinmanuscriptbyBUCHAN,onwhoseadviceitwaspublishedin
1898,followedbyAnnaoftheFiveTowns(1902).HethenspenttenyearsinParis,wherehegottheinspirationforTheOldWives'Tale(1908),anintricatesaga
oftwosistersfromthePotterieswhoseinclinationstaketheminseparatedirections,butwholiveouttheirfinalyearstogether.Clayhanger(1910)hasthesame
regionalandsocialbackground,butitsqualityisnotmatchedinitssequels,HildaLessways(1911)andTheseTwain(1915inUSA,1916inBritain).DuringWorld
WarI,BennettgavevaluableservicetotheMinistryofInformation.Thepostwaryears,duringwhichhelivedinLondoninsomestyle,wereonesofincreasedactivity
butwaningcreativity,thoughthegrimstoryofaLondonbookseller,RiceymanSteps(1923),wonhimhisfirstliteraryaward.Hewasatirelesspatronofthearts,and
introducedmanypeopletonewandoftenunknownwritersthroughhisreviewsintheLondonEveningStandard.Hislastingcontribution,however,isasaregional
novelistwhoreflectedmagneticallyandinmeticulousdetailawholewayoflife.HisowndoingsaresimilarlyrecordedinJournals,ofwhichthatfor1929was
publishedin1930,andthosefrom1896to1928inthreevolumes,ed.NewmanFlower(193233)thewholeinonevolume,ed.FrankSwinnerton(1954).See
MargaretDrabble,ArnoldBennett,newedn1985(biography).
Bennett,Louise(b.1919)
Jamaicandialectpoet,wasborninKingstonandeducatedatExcelsiorHighSchool.SheperformedherownpoemsinCreolewhenshewasinherteens,havingasa
schoolgirlbegun'towonderwhynoneofourpoetsandwriterswerenottakingmoreofaninterestinthekindoflanguageusageandthekindofexperienceofliving
whichwereallaroundus'.ShewenttoLondonin1945onaBritishCouncilscholarshiptostudyattheRoyalAcademyofDramaticArt,afterwhichsheworkedwith
provincialrepertorycompaniesandinintimaterevue.ShereturnedtoJamaicain1955toteachdramatoadultandyouthgroups,andwasalecturerindramaand
Jamaicanfolklore,UniversityoftheWestIndiesExtraMuralDepartment195961.Farmorethanamereentertainer,shehasresuscitatedtheoraltraditionandhas
developedthelanguageofJamaicaintoavalidmediumofliteratureandavehicleforsocialsatireaswellassocialrevelation:'MissJanejushearfrom'Merica,/Her
daughtaproudlywrite/Feseyshefailherexam,but/Shepassin'derefewire!'ShehasbeenmadeMBE.SeeJamaicaLabrish,introductionandnotesbyRex
Nettleford,1966SelectedPoems,ed.MervynMorris,1982.
Benson,E(dward)F(rederic)(18671940)
Britishnovelistandprosewriter,wasbornatWellingtonCollege,Berkshire,ofwhichhisfather,EdwardWhiteBenson(182996),afuture(andsingularlyunpopular)
ArchbishopofCanterbury,wasthefirstMaster.Twoofhisbrothers,A.C.(18621925),MasterofMagdaleneCollege,Cambridge,andR.H.(18711914),a
ChurchofEnglandclericwhoconvertedtoCatholicism,werealsowritersA.C.'sverseincludes'LandofHopeandGlory',wordstobesungtothemusicby(Sir)
EdwardElgar(18571934).E.EwaseducatedatMarlboroughCollege,whereheeditedtheschoolmagazine,andKing'sCollege,Cambridge,wherehegotafirstin
classics,afterwhichheworkedfortheBritishSchoolofArchaeologyinAthens,andforayearinEgyptfortheSocietyforthePromotionofHellenicStudies.He
becameafulltimewriterin1895,livingmuchofthetimeinHENRYJAMES'ShouseinRye,ofwhichhewasMayor193437.Hepublishedoverahundredbooks,a
quarterofwhichwerenonfiction,mostlypopularbiographyandhistory,sport,andwellobserved(andsometimesmalicious)familyandpersonalreminiscences.The
rest,apartfromahandfulofplays,werenovels,ofwhichthefirst,Dodo(1893),alightsocietytale,wassuccessfulenoughtolureorlullhimintotryingtoreproduce
toomuchofthesamethingseealsoDesirableResidencesandOtherStories,ed.JackAdrian(1992).OnlyinhisnovelsaboutLucia,beginningwithQueenLucia
(1920),andofMissMapp(1922)twosmalltowncomiccharacterswhocometogetherinMappandLucia(1931)doestheparticularprewarsocietythathe
triedtoportray,andsatirize,survivewithcompleteassurance.Ofequalsignificancearehistalesofthesupernatural.SeeBrianMasters,TheLifeofE.EBenson,
newedn1993.

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Bentham,Jeremy(17481832)
Britishphilosopherandpoliticaleconomist,wasborninHoundsditch,London,ofaprosperousfamily(hisgreatgrandfatherwasapawnbroker,andhisgrandfather
andfatherwerebarristers).HewaseducatedatWestminsterSchoolandTheQueen'sCollege,Oxford,afterwhichhestudiedlaw,butcouldnotbebotheredto
practiseit,preferringtousehisknowledgeofittorethinktheprinciplesuponwhichgovernmentandman'sconductwerebased.Heopenedhispubliccampaignwith
theanonymousAFragmentonGovernment(1776).AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationwaspublishedin1789.WhilestayinginRussia
withhisyoungestbrother,thenavalengineer(Sir)SamuelBentham(17571831),hehaddevelopedanideaforanimaginativepenalsystemwhichwasprintedfor
circulationtogovernmentofficialsasPanopticon:aSeriesofLetters(1791).Hispersonalphilosophywas'utilitarianism',broadlythegreatesthappinessofthe
greatestnumberofpeople,whichhecertainlypractisedwhenin1814hemovedtheparents,brothers,andsistersoftheyoungMILLfromtheirovercrowdedquarters
inNewingtonGreentoQueenSquare,wherehelived,payinghalftheirrentandgivingthechildrentherunofhisgarden.In1823heestablishedathisownexpensethe
WestminsterReview,asaradicalresponsetotheconservatismoftheQuarterlyReview(founded1809)andtheliteraryexclusivenessoftheEdinburghReview
(founded1802).Intheevent,Benthamwasnotsomuchhimselfareformerasonewhoinfluencedthedevelopmentofsocietythroughhisfollowers,amongthemost
prominentofwhomwasMillhimself.Heisalsocreditedwiththecoinageofthewords'international','codify',and'minimize'.Helefthisbodytoscience.After
dissection,theskeletonwasdressedinhisclothesanddepositedinUniversityCollege,London,whereitisonview9am5pmdaily.SeeJohnDinwiddy,Jeremy
Bentham,1989(introductiontohisthought).
Bentley,E(dmund)C(lerihew)(18751956)
Britishpoetandnovelist,wasborninLondonandeducatedatStPaul'sSchoolandMertonCollege,Oxford.HewascalledtotheBarin1901,butbecamea
journalistthefollowingyear,beingaleaderwriterontheDailyTelegraphfrom1912to1934.Atschool,byhisownaccountwhenhewas16,butprobablyayearor
twolater,heinventedanewverseformbywritingthefirstknownclerihewthefirstcollection,composedbyBentleyandhisschoolfriendsandwrittenoutbyhimin
anotebook,withillustrationsbyCHESTERTON,isdatedSeptember1893.HisownfirstpublishedcollectionwascalledBiographyforBeginners(1905).FromMore
Biography(1929)comesthisliteraryexampleoftheform(tworhymingcoupletsoflinesofanylength):'OnoneoccasionwhenBrowning/Savedadbutantefrom
drowning/Sheenquiredfaintlywhathemeant/BythatstuffaboutgoodnewsfromGhent.'Trent'sLastCase(1913),regardedastheprototypeofthemodern,
realisticdetectivestory,wasaconsciousandsuccessfulattempttogivereadersofthegenreasubstitutefortheeternalinfallibilityofDOYLE'SSherlockHolmes.SeeThe
CompleteClerihewsofE.ClerihewBentley,introductionbyGavinEwart,2ndedn1983ThoseDays,1940(autobiography)NicolasBentley,AVersionofthe
Truth,1960(son'sreminiscences).
Branger,PierreJeande(17801857)
Frenchpoet,wasborninParisandbroughtupbyanauntinPronne,whereheworkedinaprinter'sshop.Afterafinalquarrelwithhisfather,whowantedhimto
enterarespectabletrade,hesethimselfupin1802inaParisgarret,wherehetriedtowriteforaliving.PoemshesenttoLucienBonaparte(17751840),brotherof
Napoleon,resuitedinasmallpensionand,in1809,aclericalpostattheuniversity.Thesatirical'LeRoid'Yvetot'wasoneofthelivelyversesinChansons(1815).
AfterthefalloftheEmpirein1815heturnedtoglorifyingtheNapoleonicageandtoridiculingtheBourbonregime.Thecollectionspublishedin1821and1828
earnedhimrespectivelythreeandninemonthsinjailonthelatteroccasiontheaccompanyingfinewaspaidbypublicsubscription.Aftertherevolutionof1848hewas
electedamemberoftheAssembly,butresignedonthegroundsthatmakingspeecheswasnothismtier.Onhisdeath,NapoleonIIIorderedalavishstatefuneralin
hishonour.DICKENSisattributedwithobservingthathiswork'ismostpopularwithourenlightenedworkingclass'.EditionsofhissongsinEnglishappearedfrom
1837(inAmerica1844),themostnoteworthyofthembeingSongsofBranger,'doneintoEnglishversebyWilliamYoung'(1878),revisedfromthefourth
AmericaneditionandpublishedbyBlackwood's.
Berkeley,George(16851753)
Irishphilosopherandcleric,wasbornatDysartCastle,Co.Kilkenny,andeducatedatKilkennyCollegeandTrinityCollege,Dublin,ofwhichhebecameaFellowin
1711.In1707hebeganaseriesofcommonplacebooks(nowreferredtoasPhilosophicalCommentaries)inwhichheincorporatedhisbeliefsaboutexistenceand
perception.HisfirstpublishedworkswereAnEssaytowardsaNewTheoryofVision(1709)andATreatiseconcerningthePrinciplesofHumanKnowledge
(1710).HewasinEnglandin1713,wherehejoinedthecircleofADDISON,POPE,andSTEELE,andthentravelledabroaduntil1721,whenhereturnedtoTrinityCollege.
In1724hewasappointedDeanofDerry.Areformeraswellasavision

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ary,hesailedforAmericain1728withthepromiseofgovernmentsponsorshipforacollegeinBermuda'fortheChristiancivilisationofAmerica'onlytoreturnin
1731whenthegrantfailedtomaterialize.Whilehewasthere,hewroteAlciphron:or,TheMinutePhilosopher(1732),adialoguewhichisPlatonicinbothform
andthought.HewascreatedBishopofCloynein1734,retiringin1752becauseofillhealth,whichhadearliermovedhimtowriteSiris(1744),atreatiseonthe
medicalpropertiesoftarwater.Thebasisofhisphilosophyisimmaterialism:thebeliefthatobjectsdonotexistexceptinthemind,andthatknowledgeisconfinedto
whatcanbeperceived.Hisworksaremarkedbyclarityanddignityofstyleaswellasofthought.SeeA.A.Luce,TheLifeofBerkeley,1949J.O.Urmson,
Berkeley,1982(introductiontohisthought).
Bermant,Chaim(b.1929)
Britishnovelist,essayist,andcritic,wasborninBreslev,Poland,andbroughtupinGlasgow.HewaseducatedatQueen'sParkSchool,GlasgowRabbinicalCollege
(hedescribeshimselfasa'rabbimanqu'),andGlasgowUniversity,withtwoyearsinbetweenattheLondonSchoolofEconomics.Hewasatelevisionscriptwriter
beforebeingFeaturesEditoroftheJewishChronicle196466.Hisfirstnovel,JerichoSleepAlone(1964),agenuinelyfunnystudyofgrowingup,isbothJewish
andScottishinitshumour.Inhismanysubsequentnovels,punctuatedbyDiaryofanOldMan(1967),ashort,movingacountofamonthinthelifeofanelderlyman,
hehasunerringlyandinanoftenrichlycomicveindissectedmetropolitanandprovincialJewishandupperclassEnglishattitudes,notablyinNowDowager(1971)
andTheHouseofWomen(1983).HiscommitmenttoanunderstandingofJewishassimilationisreflectedinseveralsociologicalworks,includingTroubledEden:an
AnatomyofBritishJewry(1969)andTheCousinhood:theAngloJewishGentry(1971).What'stheJoke:aStudyofJewishHumourthroughtheAges
(1986)bringsintofocusthiswidelyappreciatedbutseldomfullyunderstoodliterarygenre.ForoverthirtyyearsBermanthascontributedaregularcolumntothe
JewishChronicle,withitscirculationofahundredthousand.MurmuringsofaLicensedHeretic(1990)isacollectionofessayswhicharetypicalofhistrenchant,
passionate,andcompassionatestyleofjournalism.
Berrington,John
seeBROWNJOHN.
Berryman,John(191472)
Americanpoetandcritic,wasbornJohnSmithinMcAlester,Oklahoma,theeldersonofabankerwhoshothimselfoutsidetheboy'swindowin1926.Hismother
marriedJohnBerryman,whosenamehetook.HewaseducatedatSouthKentSchool,Connecticut,andColumbiaCollege,fromwhichhegraduatedin1936(after
beingsuspendedforonesemesterforfailingacourse)andwonafellowshiptoClareCollege,Cambridge,wherehewasOldhamShakespeareScholarin1937.His
lifewasfraughtwithpersonal,professional,andcreativeturmoil.Hewasthreetimesmarried(1942,1956,1961),onthelastoccasiontoayoungwoman25yearshis
junior,whooutofdeferencetohiswisheslegallychangedherfirstnamefromKathleentoKate.Thoughprofessinghimselfascholarwhoonly'masquerade[d]asa
writer',andinspiteofhisdedicationasateacher,hisinsecuritywassuchthatevenafterhavingbeenastaffmemberattheUniversityofMinnesotasince1954,and
giventhetitleofRegents'ProfessorofHumanitiesin1969,hecouldin1971placeananguishedpersonalad.intheNewYorkReviewofBooksofferingto'contribute
radiance&thefactstoanoccasionalchangeofscene'.
Berrymanwrotehisfirstseriouspoetry(foursonnetsforhismother)whenhewas'aboutnineteen',hadanelegypublishedintheNationin1935,andwasinFive
YoungAmericanPoets(1940).Poems(1942)owedmuchtotheinfluenceofYEATSandAUDEN,butinTheDispossessed(1948)hisownexperimentalstyleemerged
toreflectadualconcernwithbeing'putoutofone'sown'andrelievedofmisery.HispreoccupationwiththesufferingsofthePuritanpoetBRADSTREETandwithwhathe
sawastheinhibitionswhichpreventedherfromvoicinghertruest,wildestinstincts,ledhimtocomposea50lineode,whichbecamethe57stanzasofadramatic
dialoguebetweenthem:HomagetoMistressBradstreet(1959).Inabout1955hebegantowritehis'DreamSongs',informedby'animaginarycharacter...named
Henry,awhiteAmericaninmiddleagesometimesinblackface[who]hasafriend,nevernamed,whoaddresseshimasMrBonesandvariantsthereof'.Afirst
collectionofthesesemiautobiographical,colloquiallyphrased,uniquepoeticfragmentswaspublishedas77DreamSongs(1964),andasecondasHisToy,His
Dream,HisRest:308DreamSongs(1968)combinedasTheDreamSongs(1969inUK1990).
InJanuary1972hecommittedsuicidebyjumpingoffabridgeinMinneapolisontothefrozenbankoftheMississippibelow.Thecompulsive,selfdestructiveenergy
whichhelavishedonhiscriticalbiographyofSTEPHENCRANE(1950),onanunpublishededitionofSHAKESPEARE'SKingLear,andonRecovery(1973,withaprefaceby
hisfriendBELLOW),hisunfinishednovel('Itwillhavethegreatestnumberoftechnicaldetailsaboutalcoholismevertoappearinabook.Iknow.I'manexpert.'),stifled
hiscreativeoutputasmuchasdidhisfateinthematterofliteraryawards:'Somehowtheprizes/comeatthewrongtimestotheproperpeople/&viceversa'

Page47

(DreamSong361).TheFreedomofthePoet(1976),acollectionofcriticalessaysandstories,wasfinallyputtogetherbyRobertGiroux.SeeCollectedPoems
19371971,ed.CharlesThornbury,newedn1991JohnHaffenden,TheLifeofJohnBerryman,1982J.M.Linebarger,JohnBerryman,1974(criticalstudy).
Besany,(Sir)Walter(18361901)
Britishnovelist,historian,andcritic,wasborninPortsea,Hampshire,andeducatedatStPaul'sGrammarSchool,Portsea,King'sCollege,London,andChrist's
College,Cambridge.HebegantostudyfortheChurch,butinsteadbecameSeniorProfessor,RoyalCollegeofMauritius186167.OnhisreturntoLondonhewas
Secretary,PalestineExplorationFund186886,afterwhichhebecameafulltimewriter.AnaltercationoveranarticlehehadsubmittedtoOnceaWeekended
amicablywithBesantanditseditor,JamesRice(184382),collaboratingonaseriesofpopularnovelswhichbeganwithReadyMoneyMortiboy(1872)and
continueduntilRice'sdeath.Besantwentontoproduceanovelayear,ofwhichAllSortsandConditionsofMen(1882),athinlydisguisedpleafortheregeneration
ofLondon'sEastEnd,succeededinitspurposeinthatthefictional'PalaceofDelight'actuallymaterializedasthePeople'sPalace,openedbyQueenVictoriain1887.
In1894hebeganamultivolume,systematicsurveyofthehistoryandtopographyofLondon,whichremainedunfinishedathisdeath.Asacritic,hismostinfluential
contributionisprobablythepaperontheartoffictiondeliveredattheRoyalInstitutionin1884,whichinspiredHENRYJAMEStorespondwithhisclassicessay,'TheArt
ofFiction'(1884).Besantwasanenergeticadvocateoftherightsofauthorsandatirelesspropagandistagainsttheiniquitouspracticesofpublishers.Hewasafounder
oftheSocietyofAuthorsin1884,ChairmanofitsManagementCommittee188485and188792,andwasknightedin1895.SeeAutobiography,1902.
Betjeman,(Sir)John(190684)
Britishpoetandsage,wasborninHighgate,London,theonlychildofasuccessfulfurnituremanufacturer.HewaseducatedatMarlboroughCollegeandMagdalen
College,Oxford,whereheantagonizedhistutor,c.s.LEWIS,andwassentdownafterfailinghispreliminaryexaminations.Anearlyinterestinarchitecturebecamea
lifetime'spreoccupationwiththeGothicrevival,churches,andthesocialhistoryofurbanandruralEnglandasitisillustratedbybuildingslargeandsmallitinspired
manyelegantlywrittenandeffectivelyarguedarchitecturalandtopographicalworksfromGhastlyGoodTaste(1933rev.edn1970)toLondon'sHistoricRailway
Stations(1972).Hisfirstbookofverse,MountZion(1932),comprisedjust11shortpoems:ContinualDew(1937)wasmoresubstantial.Hispoetrywasregarded
bysomecriticsatthetimeasfacile,withitsjauntyrhymesandrhythms,suburbanmiddleclasssettings,muscularmaidens,andexpressionsofinnocentlove.Itwas,
however,hugelyenjoyedbythepublicforitsaccessibilityandwit,andforitsevocationofplaces,pasttimes,andsituations.Betjemanisapoetofcompassion,whose
fearofultimateinfirmityanddeathwascounterbalancedbyhisChristianbelief,andwhoseinsightintosucharangeofthemesrepeatedlycausesthereadertorespond
withrecognition,andoftenwithsurprise.'HowtoGetoninSociety',publishedinAFewLateChrysanthemums(1954),anticipatedthe'U/nonU'controversy
stirredupbyNANCYMITFORD.Hewasknightedin1969,andappointedPoetLaureatein1972.SeeCollectedPoems,ed.EarlofBirkenhead,newedn1989The
BestofBetjeman,ed.JohnGuest,1978(includesprose)SummonedbyBells,newedn1989(verseautobiography)Letters,ed.CandidaLycettGreen,Volume1
19261951,newedn1995,Volume219511984,newedn1996BevisHillier,YoungBetjeman,newedn1989(earlybiography).
Bhattacharya,Bhabani(190688)
Indiannovelist,wasborninBhagalpur,Bihar,thesonofacivilservantwholaterbecameajudge.WhileatPatnaUniversityhewrotearticlesonworldliteraturefora
Bengalijournal,literarycriticismandsketchesinEnglishforCalcuttanewspapers,andtranslatedintoEnglishpoemsofTAGORE,whogavehimpersonalencouragement
asawriter.AfterbeingcoollyreceivedbytheEnglishdepartmentatLondonUniversity,heswitchedtohistory,inwhichhebecamePhDin1934.Havinginthe
meantimetravelledwidelyinEurope,henowsettledinCalcutta,embarkedonanarranged(butcreativelyinspirational)marriage,andworkedasajournalist.Thegreat
famineinBengalin194243stimulatedhimtobeginhisfictionalaccountofhumansufferingandnationalaspirations,SoManyHungersthecollapseatthetimeof
PartitionoftheinvestmentshehadinheritedfromhisfatherspurredhimtofinishitforpublicationinBritainin1947.Itsoldinmanycountriesandlanguages.Musicfor
Mohini(1952),begunsoonafterhisownmarriage,isacelebrationofwhatcanbeachievedthroughjustsuchanarrangement.HeWhoRidesaTiger(1960)isa
socialsatireoncasteandwealthinaruralsetting.AftertwomorenovelsofcommentontheIndianscene,heventuredfartherafieldwithADreaminHawaii(1979),
anexplorationofreligiousfervourandintegrityinasettingheknewfromhavingspentayearteachingattheUniversityofHawaii.LatterlyhelivedintheUSA,where
hewasVisitingProfessor,UniversityofWashington,Seattle.SeeDorothyBlair

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Shimer,BhabaniBhattacharya,1975(criticalstudy).
Bierce,Ambrose(18421914)
Americanshortstorywriter,satirist,andjournalist,wasborninMeigsCounty,Ohio,thetenthof13children,andgrewuponafarminIndiana,fromwhichhewalked
toschoolinWarsaw.Havingbeenaprinter'sdevilonanantislaverypaperfortwoyears,hespentayearatKentuckyMilitaryInstitute.AtthebeginningoftheCivil
Warin1861,heenlistedasaprivateintheUnionArmy,inwhichheservedthroughoutthehostilities,evenafterbeingwoundedintheheadatKennesawMountain,
Georgia,andbecamealieutenantseeAmbroseBierce'sCivilWar,ed.WilliamMcCann(1996).HethentrainedhimselftobeawriterwhileworkingintheSub
TreasuryinSanFrancisco,andcontributedtotheNewsLetter,whoseeditorhebecamein1868.Hespenttheyears187275inEngland,wherehepublished,as
DodGrile,TheFiend'sDelight(1873)andtwoothercollectionsofjournalism.BackinAmerica,hewasbrieflyassociatedwiththenewArgonaut,dabbled
disastrouslybutnotfatallyinaminingoperationinDakota,andin1887beganwritinghis'Prattle'columnfortheSanFranciscoExaminer,foundedbyWilliam
RandolphHearst(18631951),whilealsocontributingregularlytotheNewYorkJournal.In1888helefthiswifeafterfindingcompromisingletterstoherfroman
admirerin1889his16yearoldsonwaskilledinagunfightoveragirl.Thesecalamitiesnettledhimintowriting,between1888and1891,aseriesofadmirableshort
storiesofpassion,terror,andtragedy,someofwhich,suchas'AnOccurrenceatOwlCreekBridge'andthedisturbing'Chickamauga',reflecthisCivilWar
experiences.
In1900,havingspentmostofthepreviousdecadeinplacesinCaliforniaforhisasthma,hemovedtoWashington,wherehewascaredforbyhisGirlFriday,Carrie
Christiansen,whomhehadknownasaschoolgirl.TheCynic'sWordBook(1906),latercalledTheDevil'sDictionary,isaglossaryoftimelessaphorisms:e.g.
'APOLOGISE,Tolaythefoundationforafutureoffence''INSURANCE,Aningeniousmoderngameofchanceinwhichtheplayerispermittedtoenjoythecomfortable
convictionthatheisbeatingthemanwhokeepsthetable''MARRIAGE,Thestateorconditionofacommunityconsistingofamaster,amistressandtwoslaves,making
inall,two'.AfterspendingseveralyearspreparingTheCollectedWorksofAmbroseBierce(12vols190912),heexpressedawishtovisithisoldCivilWar
battlefields,andthencrosstheborderfromTexasintoMexico,whichwasinthethroesofarebellion.Hislastletter(26December1913)stateshisintentionofgoing
thenextdaytoOjinaga,ontheRioGrande.ThetownwasbesiegedbytherebelforcesfromIJanuaryto11January1914,whenitfell.The71yearoldjournalistis
believedtohavediedinbattle.SeeM.E.Grenander,AmbroseBierce,1971(biographical/criticalstudy).
Binyon,Laurence(18691943)
Britishpoetandartcritic,wasborninLancasterofaQuakerfamilyandeducatedatStPaul'sSchoolandTrinityCollege,Oxford,wherehewontheNewdigateprize
forpoetryand,withMANMOHANGHOSE,contributedtoPrimavera:PoemsbyFourAuthors(1890).HebecameamemberofthestaffoftheBritishMuseumin1893,
andwasKeeperofOrientalPrintsandDrawings191333.HewrotestudiesofthewatercolouristsThomasGirtin(1900)andJohnSellCotman(1903),andseveral
worksontheartandfollowersofBLAKE,inadditiontoLandscapeinEnglishArtandPoetry(1931).WhilehewasatOxfordhehadbeenintroducedbyBRIDCESto
theasyetunpublishedpoetryofHOPKINS,whoseinfluencecanbedetectedinmuchofBinyon'ssubsequentvariationsontraditionalformsofverse,notablyin'Forthe
Fallen'inTheFourYears(1919).Whilehealsowrotepoeticaldramasandnarratives,hismostlastingcontributionisintheformoflyricsandshortelegies,ofwhich
'TheLittleDancers','TheBurningofLeaves','OSummerSun',and'InMistyBlue'arefineexamples.HisCollectedPoemswaspublishedin1931.WhenBinyon's
publisher,Macmillan,refusedtoallowT.S.ELIOT,PoetryEditoratFaber,topublisha'SelectedPoems',Eliotproposedthatheprintanewcollectioninstead.It
appearedasNorthStarandOtherPoems(1941).BeforehediedBinyonremodelled,withEliot'sQuartetsinmind,awartimesequence,'TheRuins',asThe
BurningoftheLeaves(1944).HealsodidapleasingtranslationoftheInfernoofDANTE(193343)intotheoriginalmetre,whichtookhim12yearstocomplete.He
wasmadeCHin1932.SeeJohnHatcher,LaurenceBinyon:Poet,ScholarofEastandWest,1996(criticalbiography).
Bion
seeTHEOCRITUS.
Birney,(Alfred)Earle(b.1904)
Canadianpoet,novelist,andcritic,wasborninCalgaryofScottishdescent(see'TeaatMyShetlandAunt's'),theonlychildofafarmerwhoafterwarservicesetup
in1916asafruitrancheratErickson,BritishColumbia.Here,at15,Birney'jotteddownthesubstance'of'KootenayStillLife',theonlypoemtosurvivethebonfire
ofhisjuveniliawhichhemadein1940.Afterhighschoolheworkedasabankclerk,farmworker,andnationalparks'labourerbeforegoingtotheUniversityofBritish
Columbiatoreadchemistry.HeswitchedtoEnglishinhissecondyear,andeditedUbyssey,thestudentjournal.Hisfurthereducationwasfraughtbyfinancial
problems,whichhealleviatedbyteachingin

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UtahandbyworkinginNewYorkfortheTrotskyitebranchoftheCommunistParty.HewasthusabletodopostgraduatestudyattheuniversitiesofTorontoand
California,andatQueenMaryCollege,London,wherehecompletedadissertationonCHAUCER'SironyseehisEssaysonChaucerianIrony,ed.BerylRowland
(1985).HethenlecturedinEnglishatTorontoUniversity,andwasLiteraryEditorofCanadianForum193640.Hisfirstvolumeofpoetry,DavidandOther
Poems(1942),wontheGovernorGeneral'sAwardasdidhissecond,NowIsTime(1945).Havingbeenanarmyreservist,hewaspostedtoEuropein1943(see
'ConferenceofHeads'),servinginEngland('InvasionSpring','DDay')andinactioninEurope('TheRoadtoNijmegan'),andbeingresponsible(withtherankof
major)forpersonnelselectioninBelgiumandHollandin194445.Someofhisarmyexperienceisreflectedinhisnovel,Turvey:aMilitaryPicaresque(1949rev.
edn1976),theeffortsofaninnocentCanadianinthefaceoftheabsurditiesofthearmycommand,whichwontheStephenLEACOCKMedalforhumour.Afterthewar
heeditedCanadianPoetryMagazine(194648),andtaughtmedievalliteratureattheUniversityofBritishColumbia,whereheestablishedtheDepartmentof
CreativeWriting,ofwhichhewasChairman196365.Subsequentlyhewasuntil1984writerinresidenceatseveralCanadianuniversities.
InTheCreativeWriter(1966)hesuggests:'Theeffectivewriterisonewhoisinwardlysureoftheentirenaturalnessofhiscreativeart.Forinstance,hemustbe
awarethatheiswritingnotmerelybecauseheisneurotic.'His'naturalness'hasgeneratedpoemsofoutrage,poemsofcompassionandguilt('David','Arrivals
Wolfville...','ForGeorgeLamming',whichrecallsaconvivialpartyinJamaicain1962),poemsofcommentaryonhistravelsinEurope,thePacific,theCaribbean,
SouthAmerica,Australia,NewZealand,India,andtheFarEast,andlatterlyseeLastMakings(1991)tenderanderoticlovepoems.Ithasalsoenabledhim
effectivelytoignoreconventions(thedeviceofsubstitutingspacesforpunctuationoccursasearlyas1940),andplayfullytoexperimentwithlanguage,concreteforms,
andsounds,inhisbeliefthat'poetryisbothanoralentertainmentandavisualnotation'.HisothercriticalworksincludeSpreadingTime:RemarksonCanadian
WritingandWriters1:19261949(1980).Hehasalsopublishedasecondnovel,DowntheLongTable(1955),basedonhisTrotskyitedays,BigBirdinthe
Bush:SelectedStoriesandSketches(1978),andWordsonWaves:SelectedRadioPlays,ed.HowardFink(1985).HewasmadeMember,OrderofCanada,in
1970,andOfficerin1981.SeeCollectedPoems,2vols1975TheRuggingandtheMovingTimes:PoemsNewandUncollected,1976FallbyFuryand
OtherMakings,1978PeterAichinger,EarleBirneyandHisWorks,1985ElspethCameron,EarleBirney,1995(criticalstudy).
Bishop,Elizabeth(191179)
Americanpoet,wasborninWorcester,Massachusetts,ofCanadiandescentonbothsides.Afterherfather'sdeathwhenshewaseightmonthsold,sheandher
motherlivedwithhermaternalgrandparentsinGreatVillage,NovaScotia,thesceneofseveralofhershortstories.In1916hermotherbecamepermanentlyinsane
andwasinstitutionalized.Bishopneversawheragain.ShewasbroughtupbyherothergrandparentsinWorcester,andthenbyamarriedbutchildlessauntinBoston,
andsufferedanaccumulationofdiseaseswhichincludedasthma,bronchitis,eczema,andirregularspasms.Shealsohadtocometotermswithherlesbianism,which
shefeltisolatedher:'Ifeelaboutasmuchathomeasanelephantinaneglige,'shewrotetoacollegefriendwhilestayingwithrelatives.At16shewasabletoboard
atWalnutHillSchool,Natick,afterwhichshewenttoVassar.ShegraduatedinEnglishliteraturein1934,havingbegunafriendshipwithMARIANNEMOORE,whose
poeticprotgeshebecame,inmuchthesamewayasfrom1946ROBERTLOWELLwashers.Between1935and1938shetravelledinEurope,andformostof1943she
livedinMexico,whereshemetNERUDA.Herfirstvolumeofverse,NorthandSouth,waspublishedin1946.In1951,onavisittoBrazilatthestartofaSouth
Americantour,shehadaviolentallergicreactiontocashewfruit.ShewasinvitedtorecuperateatthehomeofLotadeMacedoSoares,aBrazilianaristocrat,who
becametheloveofherlife,andonwhoseestateatPetropolisshewaswhensheheard,fromanewsmanintheAmericanembassy,thatshehadwonthePulitzerPrize
forhersecondcollection,Poems:North&SouthAColdSpring(1955),whichincorporatedherfirstvolume.ShestayedinBrazilfor15years,onlyreturning
permanentlytotheUSAafterLotacommittedsuicidein1967inNewYork.ShesettledinLewisWharf,Boston,in1974,andtaughtfulltimeatHarvarduntil1977.
Shediedofastroke.
QuestionsofTravel(1965)containsasequenceofpoemsinitiatingthetravellerintothelifeandtraditionsofBrazil.ThetitleofTheCompletePoems(1969),which
wontheNationalBookAward,wasamisnomer,foritwasfollowedbyGeographyIII(1976),whichincludedthecrucial'IntheWaitingRoom',inwhichshe
identifiesthesourceofherinterestinobserveddetail,andotherpoemswhichepitomizeherpoeticphilosophy.ShetranslatedBrazilianpoetry,andalsotheprose
work,MinhaVidadeMeninaTheDiaryof'HelenaMorley'(1957)writtenbyateenagerinthe1890s.SeeTheCompletePoems19271929,newedn1991
ofrev.edn1983Collected

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Prose,ed.RobertGiroux,newedn1994OneArt:theSelectedLetters,ed.RobertGiroux,newedn1996BrettC.Millier,ElizabethBishop:Lifeandthe
MemoryofIt,newedn1995(biography)GaryFountainandPeterBrazeau,RememberingElizabethBishop:anOralBiography,newedn1996DavidKalstone,
BecomingaPoet:ElizabethBishopwithMarianneMooreandRobertLowell,ed.RobertHemenway,newedn1991(biographicalstudy)ThomasJ.Travisano,
ElizabethBishop:HerArtisticDevelopment,newedn1989.
Blackmore,R(ichard)D(oddridge)(18251900)
Britishnovelist,wasborninLongworth,Berkshire,thesonofthecurateoftheparish.Threemonthsafterhisbirth,hismotherdiedinatyphusepidemic.Educatedat
Blundell'sSchool,Devon,andExeterCollege,Oxford,hewascalledtotheBarin1852,butgaveupthelawin1855becauseofattacksofepilepsy.Hewasbrieflya
schoolmaster,butwithalegacyfromanunclewasablein1858tobuildacountryhouseinTeddington,Middlesex,wherehedevotedtherestofhislifetowritingand
tomarketgardening.In1855hehadtwovolumesofpoetrypublishedanonymously,PoemsbyMelanterandEpullia.Aversetranslationofthefirsttwobooksof
VIRGIL'SGeorgics,infelicitouslyentitledTheFarmandFruitofOld,appearedin1862,andconvincedhimthattherewasnomoneyinpoetry.Hethenwrote15
novels,ofwhichthefirst,ClaraVaughan(1864),waspublishedanonymously,andTheMaidofSker(1872)washisfavourite.Hisliterarydistinction,however,
restsentirelyonhisthird,LornaDoone(1869),aregionalnovelsomewhatintheveinofWALTERSCOTT,setonandaroundExmoorandcoveringtheeventsand
aftermathoftherebellionoftheDukeofMonmouthin1685.Itwasnotwellreceivedbythecritics,butitsoonwonenormousandcontinuingpopularacclaimforits
melodramaticplotandforthelyricalintensitywithwhichheevokestheromancebetweenJohnRiddandLornaDoone,thebloodfeudbetweentheirfamilies,andthe
ruggedDevonlandscape.SeeKennethBudd,TheLastVictorian:R.D.BlackmoreandHisNovels,1960.
Blackwood,Algernon(18691951)
Britishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninShootersHill,Kent,thesecondsonof(Sir)ArthurBlackwood,laterSecretaryofthePostOffice,andSydney,
widowofthe6thDukeofManchester.HewaseducatedattheMoravianschoolintheBlackForest,atWellingtonCollege,andatEdinburghUniversity,afterwhich
hewasdispatchedtoCanadatoliveonasmallallowance.Hedescribesthenexttenyears,duringwhichhehadmanydifferentjobsandexperienceddesperationand
povertyuntilhebecameajournalistinNewYork,inEpisodesBeforeThirty(1923).BackinEngland,hefeltabletogiveupworkinginthedriedmilkbusinessafter
thepublicationofhisbookofstories,TheEmptyHouse(1906).Thiswasthefirstofanumberofcollectionsinwhichheexplorestheborderbetweenrealityandthe
supernaturaltoevokearesponseofterror.Thisline,continuedinStrangeStories(1929)andTheTalesofAlgernonBlackwood(1938),provedhismosteffective,
butheextendedhisrangebeyondtheghoststorytothepsychologicalmystery,andtonovelsoffantasyandofmysticalcommunionwiththepast.HewasmadeCBE
in1949.SeeTalesoftheMysteriousandMacabre,newedn1989TheEmptyHouseandOtherGhostStories,1993.
Blair,Eric
seeORWELL
Blais,MarieClaire(b.1939)
FrenchCanadiannovelist,wasborninQuebecCityandeducatedatthePensionnatStRoch,whichsheleftat16toworkinashoefactory,determinedtobeawriter.
Shehadeightotherjobsduringthenextthreeyears,andattendedcoursesinFrenchliteratureatLavalUniversity.Shewasjust20whenshepublishedherfirstnovel,
LaBelleBte(1959tr.MerloydLawrenceasMadShadows,1961),which,likeherlessluridsecond,TteBlanche(1960tr.CharlesFullman,1961),isabouta
troubledadolescent.ACanadaCouncilFellowshipenabledhertospendayearinFrance,andaGuggenheimFellowship,sponsoredbyEDMUNDWILSON,togoto
Cambridge,Massachusetts.ShelivedinNewEnglanduntil1971,andinBrittanyuntil1975,whenshereturnedtoQuebec.Herconstantexperimentationwithformis
afeatureofhernovels,ofwhichtheearlieronesespeciallyreflectableakoutlookonlifeandonunderlyingstrandsofMontrealsociety.Amonghermorenotable
worksarethetrilogy,LesManuscritsdePaulineArchange(1968),winneroftheGovernorGeneral'sAward,Vivre!Vivre!(1969)translatedtogetherbyDerek
ColtmanasTheManuscriptsofPaulineArchange(1969),andLesApparences(1970tr.DavidLodbellasDurer'sAngel,1974)LesNuitsde
l'Underground(1978tr.RayEllenwoodasNightsintheUnderground,1979),anexplorationoflesbianloveandLeSourddanslaVille(1979tr.CarolDunlop
asDeaftotheCity,1987),forwhichshewonhersecondGovernorGeneral'sAward.Visionsd'Anna(1982tr.SheilaFischmanasAnna'sWorld,1983)offersa
societyinwhichlovingrelationshipsandawilltosurvivecanexist.BlaiswasmadeMember,OrderofCanada,in1980.SeeMaryJeanGreen,MarieClaireBlais,
1995(biographical/criticalstudy).
Blake,Nicholas
seeLEWIS,C.DAY.
Blake,William(17571827)
Britishpoet,painter,illustrator,andengraver,was

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borninLondon,thesonofahosier.Heattendedadrawingschoolandat14wasapprenticedtoJamesBasire(17301802),engravertotheSocietyofAntiquities,
afterwhichhestudiedattheRoyalAcademy.Atanearlyagehewasgiventovisionaryexperiences,someofwhichheexpressedinversesincludedinPoetical
Sketches(1783).ForSongsofInnocence(1789)hedevisedanovelmethodofbookproductionbyetchingtextandillustrationintoaplate,andcolouringtheprinted
sheetsbyhand,withhiswifeashelper.In1794headdedfurtherpoemssothatthebookcoulddemonstrate'thetwocontrarystatesofthehumansoul',andpublished
itasSongsofInnocenceandExperience.Only24copiesoftheoriginaleditionarerecorded.Inoppositiontotheradicalthinkingoftheday,hehadbeguntoissue
his'PropheticBooks',includingTheFrenchRevolution(1791),VisionsoftheDaughtersofAlbion(1793),andAmerica:aProphecy(1793),inallofwhichthe
differentforcesofrevolutionareinterpretedinmoralandcosmictermsinTheFirstBookofUrizen(1794),TheBookofAhania(1795),TheBookofLos(1795),
andTheSongofLos(1795),thetoneandthevisionbecomeevenmoreturbulent.Theyears17991803werespentontheestateoftheminorliteraryfigure,William
Hayley(17451820),atFelpham,Sussex,andwerefrustratingratherthanfruitful,culminatinginBlakebeingunsuccessfullyprosecutedforseditionontheevidenceof
adrunkensoldierwhomhehadremovedfromhisgarden.Between1804and1808hewroteandetchedMilton,acomplexworkinspiredbyandrelatedtoParadise
Lost.Intheprefaceoccursthehymn'Anddidthosefeetinancienttime...'.Jerusalem:theEmanationoftheGiantAlbionwaswrittenandetchedbetween1804
and1820.In1809,havingbeenthwartedbytheRoyalAcademy,wherehehadexhibitedsince1780,andwhichnowrefusedtoexhibitwhathetermedhis'portable
frescos'(doneinawaterbasedmedium),heheldhisownshow,'AtNo28,CornerofBroadStreet,GoldenSquare....AdmittancetotheExhibition1Shilling'.The
enterprisewasafinancialfailure,butADescriptiveCatalogueofPictures,PoeticalandHistoricalInventions,'Price2s6d',isafineexampleofevocativeand
expositoryprose.
InJerusalem(I.5,1719)Blakewrites,'...Irestnotfrommygreattask!/ToopentheEternalWorlds,toopentheimmortalEyes/OfManinwardsintothe
WorldsofThought...'.AnearlyandparticularlyintensebutlargelyunheededRomantic,hispersonalsatisfactioncamefromtheknowledgeofhisowneccentric,
mysterious,andmysticalgenius,whichhedisplayedinhisearlylyrics('TheLittleBlackBoy','TheChimneySweeper','TheTyger')asclearlyashedid,withenhanced
symbolismandamythologybasedonadualvisionofGodandman,inhislaterworks.SeeCompletePoetryandProse,ed.GeoffreyKeynes,newedn1989
SelectedPoetry,ed.MichaelMason,1996PoemsofWilliamBlake,ed.PeterAckroyd,1995MonaWilson,TheLifeofBlake,ed.GeoffreyKeynes,newedn
1978of3rdedn,1971JamesKing,WilliamBlake:HisLife,newedn1992PeterAckroyd,Blake,1996(criticalbiography)MartinK.Nurmi,WilliamBlake,
1975(criticalstudy).
BlindHarry(orHarrytheMinstrel)(fl.c.147592)
Scottishpoet,isdescribedasablindwanderingminstrelintheHistoriaMajorisBritanniae(1521)oftheScottishhistorianJohnMajor(14691550)ispossiblythe
'BlinHary'listedashavingdied,inDUNBAR'S'LamentfortheMakaris'(printed1508)anddisappearsfromthetreasuryaccountsofScotlandin1492.Whoeverhe
was,andifhewasblindthisissomethingwhichismorelikelytohavehappenedtohimlaterinlife,heisregardedastheauthorofTheActisandDeidisoftheIlluster
andVailyeandCampioun,SchirWilliamWallace,KnichtofEllerslie,ofwhichamanuscriptof1488,writtenbyaJohnRamsay,survives.Itwasfirstprintedin
1508.ViolentlyantiEnglish,asbefitsthetimesinScotlandandthushisScottishaudience,this12,000linehistoricalromanceofthelifeofSirWilliamWallace(1274
1305),presentsitsheronotonlyasalustyfighterbutalsoasaladies'man,whoinoneoftheoutandoutfictitiousepisodesmakesaconsiderableimpressiononthe
QueenofEngland.Thereisagreatdealofviolence,butalsotenderness,asinWallace'slamentforSirJohnGraham,ahistoricalpersonagewhowaskilledatthe
battleofFalkirkin1298,andinthejoyfulpanegyriconWallace'salltoobriefmarriage.PossiblythefirstexampleoftheuseoftheheroiccoupletinScottishliterature,
itisalsoanearlybloodandthunderadventurestory,withaherowhosecliffhangingexploitsparallelthoseofIANFLEMING'SJamesBond,fivecenturieslater.Seein
RoderickWatson,TheLiteratureofScotland,1984.
Blixen,Karen(18851962),
neDinesen,Danishnovelist(asIsakDinesen)andprosewriterinEnglish,wasbornontheestateofRungstedlund,nearRungsted,andwaseducatedathomeandat
theRoyalAcademy,Copenhagen,withafurtherperiodstudyingpaintinginParis.Whenherloveforadashingcousinwasnotreciprocated,sheacceptedaproposal
fromhistwinbrother,BaronBrorBlixenFinecke,andfollowedhimtoKenya,wheretheyweremarriedinMombasain1914.TheysettledonafarmnearNairobi,
intendingtoproducemaizeandcoffee,andraisecattle,buthepreferredhunting,andafterayearshewenthomefortreatmentforsyphilis,whichshehadcontracted
fromhim.Theyweredivorcedin1921:hediedinacaraccidentin1937.Withthehelpof

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moneyfromherfamily,shecontinuedtotryandrunthefarm,andfellinlovewithDenysFinchHatton,aculturedsafariconductor.Shewasforcedtosellupin1931,
onlyweeksbeforeFinchHattondiedwhenhislightplanewentoutofcontrolandcrashed.ShereturnedtoRungstedlund,whereslowlyshebegantowrite:firstSeven
GothicTales(1934)thenOutofAfrica(1937),anaccountofherstruggleswiththefarmwhichisalsoastoryofdoublelove,forAfricaandforFinchHatton.The
manuscriptofWinter'sTales(1942)wassmuggledoutofthecountryduringtheNazioccupationinWorldWarII,whenshealsopublishedinCopenhageninDanish,
underthepseudonymofPierreAndrzel,athriller,GengldelsensVeje(1944asTheAngelicAvengers,1946).LastTales,afurthercollectionofstoriesoutofan
essentiallyromantic,butintellectual,imagination,waspublishedin1957,whenshewasnominatedfortheNobelPrizeforLiterature,whichwentinsteadtoCAMUS.See
JudithThurman,IsakDinesen:theLifeofaStoryteller,newedn1995.
Blok,Alexander(18801921)
Russianpoet,wasborninStPetersburg,thesonofascientist,andstudiedlawandthenphilologyatStPetersburgUniversity.Whenhegraduatedin1906hehad
alreadypublishedavolumeofeighthundredromanticsongs'AbouttheBeautifulLady',anidealisticcharmerwithsomeofwhoseattributes,especiallywisdom,he
investedhiswife,thedaughterofthechemistDimitriIvanovichMendeleyev(18341907),whomhemarriedin1903.Theconfusionandgloomheexperiencedafter
thefailureofthe1905Revolutionisapparentinthepoetryofhisnextperiod,duringwhichhealsowroteatrilogyofplaysbitterlyandsatiricallyreflectingonhisown
earlymysticism.HebrieflyreturnedtoromanticismafterthesuccessfulRevolutionof1917initsaftermathhewrote['TheTwelve'](1918),inwhichabandof
maraudingRedsoldiersbecometheApostles,withChristastheirleader,and['TheScythians'](1918),anacceptanceofthepassingoftheoldworld.Thereafter,
thoughheheldminorpostsinculturalaffairs,hewrotenomorepoetry.SeeSelectedPoems,tr.JonStallworthyandPeterFrance,1974NinaBerberova,Aleksandr
Blok:aLife,tr.RobynMarsack,1996.
Blunden,Edmund(18961974)
Britishpoetandcritic,wasborninLondon,thoughthefamilyshortlyafterwardsmovedtoYalding,Kent.HewaseducatedatChrist'sHospital.Hisfirstbook,
Poems,1913and1914,wasprivatelypublishedin1914,theyearhejoinedtheArmy.Heservedasalieutenantatthefrontfrom1916to1918,winningtheMilitary
Cross.AfterthewarhespentayearatTheQueen'sCollege,Oxford,andwasProfessorofEnglishLiterature,TokyoUniversity192427.Hewasappointeda
FellowofMertonCollege,Oxford,in1931.In1943hejoinedtheeditorialstaffofTheTimesLiterarySupplement,butreturnedtotheFarEastafterWorldWarII,
firstasaspecialForeignOfficeculturalenvoyinJapan,andthenasProfessorofEnglishatHongKongUniversity195364.HewaselectedProfessorofPoetryat
Oxfordin1966,butresignedtwoyearslaterbecauseofillhealth.Blunden'squietandreflectivenatureismirroredinhiswork.Eveninhisclassicproseaccount,
UndertonesofWar(1928),hispersonalreminiscencesoftheghastlybusinessconductedinFlanders,andinhiswarpoemswrittenatthetimeandafterwards,thereis
moreexpressionofpityandironicobservationthanofangeroroutrage.Muchofhispoetryisoccasional,orpastoral,asissuggestedbythetitlesofsomeofhisearlier
volumes:Pastorals(1916),TheWaggoner(1920),TheShepherd(1922).HisexperiencesinWorldWarI,duringwhichheprobablyspentlongerinthetrenches
thananyotherrecognizedwarwriter,continuedthroughouthislifetocolourhispoeticimpulseandtohaunthisimagination.Hewasaferventcricketer,whoseCricket
Country(1943)isanotableandnobleattempttoassessthenatureandappealofthegame.HewrotedeftcriticalbiographiesofHUNT(1930),LAMB(1932),andP.B.
SHELLEY(1946),andnearlyathousandarticlesandreviewsinTheTimesLiterarySupplementalone.SeePoemsofManyYears,ed.RupertHartDavis,1957
SelectedPoems,ed.RobynMarsack,1982OvertonesofWar:PoemsoftheFirstWorldWar,ed.MartinTaylor,1996Barry,Webb,EdmundBlunden:a
Biography,1990.
Blunt,WilfredScawen(18401922)
Britishpoetandtraveller,wasbornatPetworthHouse,Sussex,andeducatedatStonyhurstCollegeandOscottCollege,afterwhichhejoinedtheDiplomaticService,
officiatinginseveralcountriesassecretaryoflegation.In1869helefttheserviceandmarriedLadyAnneIsabellaNoel(18371917),agranddaughterofBYRON.Three
yearslaterheinheritedthefamilyestates,andheandhiswifewenttravellingintheMiddleEastbyoutofthewayroutes,andthenvisitedIndia.Outofhisexperiences
cameaconvictionoftheiniquitiesofimperialismandofBritaininparticular,andseveralbooks,includingTheFutureofIslam(1882)andIdeasaboutIndia(1885).
HealsoactivelysupportedtheIrishcause,andwasarrestedinGalwayandimprisonedfortwomonthsin1887,onwhichhereflectedinasonnetsequence,In
Vinculis(1889).HelivedpartlyinSussex,whereheentertainedleadingliteraryandpoliticalfiguresandbredracehorsesfromthestockhehadacquiredonhistravels
fromtheEmirofHail,andpartlyonhisestateinEgypt,wherehedressedasanArabandspoketheBedouinlanguage.SonnetsandSongs,byProteus(1875)

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included'AWoman'sSonnets',writtenbyGREGORY,withwhomhehadanaffair.Itwasrevisedseveraltimes,andtheinterestinthatandinasecondpoeticsequence,
Esther(1892),isinindividualpoemsratherthaninthewhole.Healsohadanaffair,inabout1884,withJane,wifeofMORRIS.Bluntwasapoetoflove,andalsoof
countrypursuits(especiallyriding),tragicexperienceanddesolation,andsometimesofpolitics,too.MyDiaries(191920)isconsiderablylessreliablethantwo
booksabouttheirtravelsbyhiswife:LadyAnneBlunt,TheBedouinTribesoftheEuphrates(1879)andAPilgrimagetoNejd(1881).SeeThePoeticalWorks,
1914ElizabethLongford,APilgrimageofPassion:theLifeofWilfredScawenBlunt,1979.
Bly,Robert
seeWRIGHT,JAMES.
Blyth,Oliver
seeMACNAMARA.
Blyton,Enid(18971968)
Britishchildren'swriter,wasborninEastDulwich,London,andeducatedatStChristopher'sSchool,andafterwardsinFroebelandMontessorimethodsofteaching.
Shecontributedverses,stories,andarticlestoTeachers'WorldandtoliteraryjournalswroteandeditedthemagazineSunnyStoriesandbythebeginningofWorld
WarIIhadbecomearespectedandpopularauthorofchildren'sadventure,mystery,andschoolstories.Theprioritygivenduringthewartonewbooksbyestablished
authorsworkedtoheradvantage,andherunchangingformulae,abilitytoappealtochildrenatalllevelsofreadingattainment,andphenomenaloutput(shewroteevery
wordofherbooksherself,straightontoaportabletypewriter),helpedhertoanunassailableposition.Tenyearsafterherdeath,andinspiteoforbecauseofthefact
thatmanypubliclibrarieswouldnotbuyherbooks,herEnglishlanguagesaleswere(accordingtoherliteraryagent)increasingattherateoffivemillioncopiesayear,
andafterLenin(18701924),MARX,andVERNE,shewasthefourthmosttranslatedauthorintheworld.Herpopularitywithchildren,thoughnotwithadults,isdueto
herinnateunderstandingofchildishtastes,whichshewasabletoexploitbyherabilitytothinklikeachild(andinsomewaysshewaspermanentlychildlike),while
writingwiththeskillandexperienceofanadult.Theverypredictabilityofherplotspanderstothechild'sneedforsecurity.In1996theresidualcopyrightsinthemore
thansevenhundredbooksthatshewrotewerepurchasedbyaBritishproperty/leisurecompanyfor14.25m.SeeSheilaG.Ray,TheBlytonPhenomenon:the
ControversySurroundingtheWorld'sMostSuccessfulChildren'sWriter,1982(criticalstudy).
Boccagcio,Giovanni(131375)
Italianprosewriterandpoet,wasbornineitherParisorFlorence,theillegitimatesonofamerchant,BoccacciodiChellinodaCertaldo,whomarriedshortly
afterwards.HewasbroughtupinTuscany,andsenttoNaplesin1327tolearnbusiness,whichhegaveupin1331withhisfather'sconsenttostudycanonlaw.He
returnedtoFlorencein1341afterthecollapseofhisfather'sbusiness,andsetaboutfinishingtheseveralliteraryworkshehadbegun,allinspiredby'Fiammetta',the
Neapolitanladyofnoblebirthwithwhomhewasutterlysmitten:'Filocolo',aproseromance'Filostrato',apoeminottavarimawhichisthesourceofCHAUCER'S
TroilusandCriseydeand'Teseida',averseepicwhichChaucerusedinboth'AnelidaandArcite'and'TheKnight'sTale'.Totheseheadded'Ameto',anallegorical
romance'NinfaleFiesole'(tr.DanielJ.DonneasTheNymphofFiesole,1960),apastoraland'Fiammetta',aproseworkwithaffinitiestothepsychologicalnovel,
inwhichtheheroinerecountsherpassionforaloverwhobetraysher.TherealFiammetta,itappears,wentoffwithanotherman,anddiedin1348intheBlackDeath,
theterrorsofwhichBoccacciographicallydescribesfromfirsthandexperienceintheintroductiontoDecameron.Theworkcomprisesonehundredstories,teneach
toldbytenyoungprotagonists(sevenfemale,threemale)duringthetendaysthattheyshelterfromtheplagueonahillsideestatenearFlorence.ThoughChauceralso
usedtheformatof'taleswithinatale'forTheCanterburyTales,itisunlikelythatheknewDecameron,whoserealisticstoriesareallrootedinthecontemporary
worldofprofessionalpeopleaswellasofprinces,priests,andpeasants.
Inabout1350BoccacciobecameacivicdiplomatforFlorence,inwhichcapacityheinvitedPETRARCHtovisitthecity.Thiswasthebeginningofalongfriendshipand
correspondence,andtohisabjuringfictionandthevernacularforsolidworksofreferenceinLatin:DeGenealogiaDeorumGentilium[GenealogiesofPaganGods],
asectionofwhich(tr.C.G.Osgood)hasbeenissuedasBoccaccioonPoetry(1930)DeClarisMulieribus[FamousWomen]DeCasibusVirorumIllustrium
[TheDownfallsofFamousMen],thesourceofLYDGATE'STheFalleofPrincisandtheinspirationfortheenormouslypopularAMyrroureforMagistrates(1559).In
1373BoccacciowaselectedtothefirstchairofDANTEstudiesinFlorence,butafterdeliveringlecturesonthefirst17cantosofInfernohefellillandhadtoreturnto
Certaldo,wherehedied.ThefirstEnglishtranslationofDecameronwasin1620,probablybyJohnFlorio(15531625),translatorofMONTAIGNE.DRYDENtranslated
threetalesintoverseinFablesAncientandModern.KEATStookhisIsabellafromDecameron,andplannedwithhisfriendJohnHamiltonReynolds(17961852)a
completevolumeofnarrativepoemsbasedonit.GEORGEELIOTturnedoneofitsstoriesintorhymedverse:TENNY

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SONwroteaplay(TheFalcon)fromanother.SeeTheDecameron,tr.G.H.McWilliam,2ndedn1995TheDecameron,tr.GuidoWaldman,ed.Jonathan
Usher,1993.
Boece(orBoethius),Hector(c.14651536)
Scottishhistorian,wasborninDundeeandeducatedatStAndrewsUniversityandattheuniversityinParis,afterwhichhewasuntil1498ateacherattheconstituent
CollgeMontaigu,wherehewasacontemporaryofERASMUS.HethenassistedWilliamElphinstone(14311514),BishopofAberdeen,intheestablishmentofKing's
College,Aberdeen,ofwhichhewasthefirstprincipal.Hismajorliterarywork,forwhichhereceivedfromJamesVapension,fromtheuniversityadoctorate,and
fromthecityofAberdeentheofferofatunofwineor20(Scots)withwhichtobuybonnets,wasHistoriaeGentisScotorum,printedinParisin1527.Writtenin
LatininthestyleofLIVY,withemphasisondirectspeechandvigorousactionratherthanonhistoricalaccuracy,itwastranslatedintoScotsattheKing'srequestby
JohnBellenden(1495c.1550),ArchdeanofMorayandaminorcourtpoet,asTheHystoryandCroniklisofScotland(1536)andfromScotsintoEnglishfor
HOLINSHED'SChronicles,whereitwasthesourceofthestoryofSHAKESPEARE'Stragedy,Macbeth.
Boethius,AniciusManliusSeverinus(c.480524)
Romanscholar,wasofhighbirth,andwastakenonthestaffofTheodorictheOstrogoth,whoruledItalyfrom493to526.Hewasappointedconsulin510,andhead
oflegalandotherservicesin520.Inthiscapacityheundertookthedefenceofasenatoraccusedofbeingincontactwiththeruleroftheeasternempire,washimself
chargedwithtreason,anddiedundertortureafteraperiodofimprisonment.DeConsolationePhilosophiae[TheConsolationofPhilosophy](tr.V.E.Watts,1969),
writteninprison,isabeautifulworkinproseandverse,inwhichthephilosopherwhowasalsoaChristianargues,throughanexaminationofgoodandevil,towards
theexistenceofanomniscientbeing.ItwasoneofthefirstbookstobetranslatedintoEnglish,byALFRED.SubsequenttranslatorsincludeCHAUCERandElizabethI,who
tooktimeoffinhersixtiesfortheselfappointedtask.Boethiusalsowrotedoctrinalandmathematicalcommentariesandtreatises,andtranslatedARISTOTLEintoLatin.
Boethius,Hector
seeBOECE.
Bogan,Louise(18971970)
Americanpoetandcritic,wasborninLivermoreFalls,Maine,ofIrishdescentonbothsides,andwenttotheGirls'LatinSchool,Boston.SheleftBostonUniversity
afterayearandmarriedarmyofficerCurtAlexander(d.1920),fromwhomsheseparatedafterthebirthoftheirdaughterin1917.Sheleftthechildwithherparents
andsettledinGreenwichVillage,NewYork.Herfirstcollection,BodyofThisDeath(1923),largelyaselectionfromwhatshehadpublishedsincetheageof18,
confirmedherasalyricpoetbeneathwhoseemotionslurkedasenseoftragedy.Ofherchosenpoeticform,sheexplainedinaletter(1969):'Lyricpoetryisthemost
difficultgiftthereis:themostexigent.Anditcannotbefaked,likeagooddealofotherwriting.'In1925shemarriedRaymondHolden(18941972),poetand
novelist.DarkSummer,amoremetaphysicalvolumebulkedoutbytenpoemsfromtheearlierbook,waspublishedin1929.Laterthatyear,whiletheywereaway,
firedestroyedtheirhouseinHillsdale,withalltheirpossessionsandmanuscripts.Thistragedy,compoundedbyHolden'slossesintheWallStreetcrash,was
instrumentalinalossofcreativityandanincreaseinmentalinstability,thoughin193135shehadshortstoriesofapsychologicalnaturepublishedintheNewYorker,
andestablishedherselfasacriticseeSelectedCriticism:PoetryandProse(1955).SheandHoldenseparatedin1933(divorced1937).Boganmanagedtoput
togetherenoughpoemsforherlastcollectionofnewverse,TheSleepingFury(1937).SubsequentvolumeswerePoemsandNewPoems(1941),Collected
Poems19231953(1954),andTheBlueEstuaries:Poems19231968(1968).ShewasConsultantinPoetrytotheLibraryofCongress194546.Hermain
influenceswereAUDEN,RILKE,andYEATS,whilethosewhobenefitedfromherinspirationincludedROETHKE,withwhomshehadacloserelationship.SeeRuthLimmer
(ed.)JourneyAroundMyRoom:theAutobiographyofLouiseBogan,aMosaic,1980JacquelineRidgeway,LouiseBogan,1984(criticalstudy)Elizabeth
Frank,LouiseBogan,newedn1986(criticalbiography).
BoganofBogan,Mrs
seeNAIRNE.
Boiardo,MatteoMaria
seeARIOSTO.
Boileau,Nicolas(16361711)
Frenchpoetandcritic,wasborninParis,wherehewaseducatedatCollgedeBeauvaisandthenstudiedlaw,beingcalledtotheBarin1656.In1666hebegan
publishinghis'Satires'(whichwereadmired,andtranslatedorimitated,byROCHESTERandotherwitsofthecourtofCharlesII),andin1670his'Epistles',someof
whichwereaddressedtoLouisXIV,whoappointedhimHistoriographerRoyalin1677.ThemockheroicLeLutrin[TheLectern](167483),whichDRYDENsaid
had'themajestyoftheheroic,finelymixedwiththevenomoftheother',wastranslatedintoEnglishbyROWE(1708).L'ArtPotique(1674),apoeticsketchinfour
cantosoftheliteraryaestheticsofneoclassicism,wasinfluentialon

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Englishletters,itspreceptsbeingrespectedbyADDISON,POPE,RYMER,andothers,aswellasbyDryden.
Boldrewood,Rolf,penname(fromtheIntroductiontoCantoIofWALTERSCOTT'SMarmion)ofThomasAlexanderBrowne(18261915)
Australiannovelist,wasborninLondonandin1831wasbroughtbyhisfathertoSydney,wherehewaseducatedatT.W.Cape's'SydneyAcademy'andSydney
College.At18hesethimselfupasasquatter(grazier)onastationinthePortFairydistrictofVictoria,whichhecalledSquattleseaMere(alsofromScott).In1862
hemovedtoSwanHill,andfromtheretoNarrandera,NewSouthWales,wherehewrotehisearliestsketches.ThesewerepublishedinCornhillMagazine,and
laterreprinted,withotherpiecesincluding'HowIBegantoWrite',inInBadCompanyandOtherStories(1901).Thedroughtof1869finallyforcedhimoffthe
land,andin1871hebecamePoliceMagistrate,andlateralsoGoldfields'CommissionerandDistrictCoroner,inGulgong,NewSouthWales.Hesubsequentlyheld
similarpostsinArmidaleandAlburyuntil1895,whenheretiredtoMelbourne.Hewrotetosupplementhisincome,andhecametowritinglate.Of16romancesand
adventurenovels,hissecond,RobberyUnderArms(1888rev.edn1889),survivesforitsvigoroustellingandrecreationofsensationalevents,asabushranger
narratesthecircumstanceswhichfinallylandedhiminthecondemnedcell.
Bolingbroke,(SaintJohn,Henry),1stViscount(16781751)
Britishhistorian,politicalphilosopher,andstatesman,wasborninBatterseaandprobablyeducatedatEton,afterwhichhespentseveraldissoluteyears,visitedthe
Continent,andacquiredexcellentFrench.In1701hewaselectedToryMemberofParliamentforthefamilyboroughofWoottonBassett,Wiltshire.Hisablemind
andconsiderableeloquencesecuredforhimthepostsofSecretaryforWar(1704),SecretaryofStateforForeignAffairs(1710),andin1711theleadershipofhis
partyintheHouseofCommonswhenRobertHarley(16611724)wasmadeEarlofOxford.Hewashimselfelevatedin1712,becomingViscountBolingbroke,and
in1713waslargelyinstrumentalinsecuringtheTreatyofUtrecht,whichendedtheWaroftheSpanishSuccession.Heappearstohavebeenincommunicationwith
JamesEdwardStuart(16881766)aboutthesuccessiontothethroneofBritainwhenQueenAnneshoulddie.WhenGeorgeIsucceededin1714,Bolingbrokewas
dismissedfromoffice.Believingthathislifewasindanger,hefledindisguisetoFrance,wherehebecameSecretaryofStatetoJames.Forthishewasimpeachedin
hisabsence,andlosthispeerage.HewaseventuallypardonedandreturnedtoEnglandin1723,thoughhewasnotallowedtotakehisseatintheHouseofLords.He
intriguedunsuccessfullyforpowerbybribingtheKing'smistress,andhadtobesatisfiedwithcontributing,tothejournalCraftsman,lettersattackingthegovernment
ofRobertWalpole(16761745),whichwerereprintedasADissertationuponParties(1735).Hespenttheyears173542inFranceandthenreturnedto
Battersea,wherehewroteLettersontheSpiritofPatriotism:ontheIdeaofaPatriotKing.....(1749).WritteninFrancebutonlypublishedposthumouslyin
1752wasLettersontheStudyandUseofHistory,inwhichhedelvedrathermoredeeplythanhadbeendonebeforeinEnglishintothecausesofchangesinthe
'scalesofpower'andtheprecisepointsatwhichtheireffectswerefelt.Hewastwicemarried,in1700toFrancesWinchcombe,heirtoaBerkshireestate,whodied
in1718leavingnothingtohimandin1720tothe42yearoldMmedeVillette(d.1750),withwhomhehadbeenontermsofsomeintimacyforseveralyears.See
HarryT.Dickinson,Bolingbroke,1970(biography).
Bll,Heinrich(191785)
Germannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninCologneofdevoutCatholicparents,andwaseducatedatKaiserWilhelmGymnasium,afterwhichhewas
apprenticedtoabookdealeruntilhiscompulsorylabourservice.ShortlyafterenrollingatCologneUniversityhewascalledupforamilitarytrainingcourse,onwhich
hewaswhenWorldWarIIbegan.Byavarietyofsubterfugeshesurvivedthewar,inwhichhewaswoundedfourtimes,andreturnedtoadevastatedCologneandto
hiswife,totryandbuildacareerasawriterthemanuscriptsofsomesixnovels,writtenbeforethewar,hadbeendestroyedinthebombing.Thesalesofanovella
(1949),avolumeofstories(1950),andanovel,Wowarstdu,Adam?(1951tr.MervynSavillasAdam,WhereArtThou?,1955),allthreedealingwiththewar,
weresounpromisingthathispublisherlethimgobetween1949and1950heattemptedalongernarrativeaboutrebuildingalifeafterWorldWarI,firstpublishedin
1992asDerEngelSchwieg(tr.BreonMitchellasTheSilentAngel1994).AnewpublishervigorouslyandsuccessfullypromotedUndsagtekeineinzigesWort
(1953tr.RichardGravesasAcquaintedwiththeNight,1954),thefirstofseveralnovelsexploringproblemsofpostwareconomicrestoration.InHausohneHter
(1954tr.SavillasTomorrowandYesterday,1957)andBillardumHalbzehn(1959tr.PatrickBowlesasBilliardsatHalfPastNine,1962)theconcerniswith
waysoflivingwiththepast.SatireisthemediumofsocialcriticisminAnsichteneinesClowns(1963tr.LeilaVennewitzasTheClown,1965),andironyinEnde
einerDienstfahrt(1966tr.VennewitzasEndofaMission,

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1968).ThepublicationofGruppenbildmitDame(1971tr.VennewitzasGroupPortraitwithLady,1973),inwhichheaimed'todescribeortowritethestoryof
aGermanwomaninherlatefortieswhohadtakenuponherselftheburdenofhistoryfrom1922to1970',mayhaveinfluencedhisawardoftheNobelPrizefor
Literaturein1972.AvarietyofnarrativetechniquesareusedinDieverloreneEhrederKatharinaBlum(1974tr.VennewitzasTheLostHonorofKatharina
Blum,1975)topiecetogetherthebackgroundtoamurderwhichissymptomaticofthedefamatorytacticsofthecontemporarypress.Shortstoriesarecollectedin
AbsentWithoutLeaveandOtherStories(1963)andChildrenAreCiviliansToo(1973),bothtr.Vennewitz.Withhiswifehetranslatedmanyauthorsinto
German,includingBEHAN,MALAMUD,SALINGER,G.B.SHAW,andSYNGE.
Bolt,Robert(192495)
Britishdramatist,wasborninSale,Manchester,andeducatedatManchesterGrammarSchool,afterwhichheworkedasanofficeboybeforegoingtoManchester
University.Hecompletedhisdegreeinhistoryin1949,havinginthemeantimeservedinboththeRoyalAirForceandtheRoyalWestAfricanFrontierForce.Hewas
HeadoftheEnglishDepartmentatMillfieldSchool,Somerset195258.Hisfirststageplay,TheCriticandtheHeart,aconventionaldramawithaffinitieswith
MAUGHAM'STheCircle,wasproducedin1957,followedbyFloweringCherry(published1958),whichwasChekhovianinitsthemeandmorepoeticinitslanguage.
AManforAllSeasons(1961,butoriginallyaradioplay,broadcastin1954),aboutthepredicament,imprisonment,anddeathofTHOMASMORE,hasstrongstylistic
echoesofBRECHT,butBolt'slinkingcharacter,theCommonMan,playsseveralparts,andtheobviousstagedevicesareuseddeliberatelytoenhancetheatmosphere
oftheartificialandtoactasacontrasttothehistoricalreality.HereturnedtoTudorpoliticsandtoconflictsofcharacteraswellasofconscienceandpowerwith
Vivat!VivatRegina!(1971),inwhichElizabethIandMary,QueenofScots,aretheprotagonists.Thebalancebetweentheromanticandthemelodramaticisneatly
maintained,evenifthecolourfulclimaxisnotsomuchtheatricalgestureashistoricalfact.Boltalsowrotescreenplays,includingLawrenceofArabia(1962)andDr
Zhivago(1965),forbothofwhichhewonOscars.Afteradivorcein1967hemarriedtheactressSarahMiles,whowas17yearsyoungerthanhewas.They
separatedin1973andweredivorcedin1976.Havingpartiallyrecoveredfromaseverestroke,hewasbrieflymarriedtoAnnZane,formerlyMarchionessof
Queensberry.HeandMilesremarriedin1988heraccountoftheirmarriagesisinherthirdautobiographicalvolume,BoltfromtheBlue(1996).SeeRonald
Hayman,RobertBolt,1969(criticalstudy).
Bond,Edward(b.1934)
Britishdramatist,wasborninHolloway,London,wasevacuatedduringWorldWarII,andwasafterwardseducatedatCrouchEndSecondaryModernSchool.He
usedtogotomusichallshows(oneofhissistersworkedasthegirlsawninhalfbythemagician)andattheageof14saw(Sir)DonaldWolfit(190268)asMacbeth,
whichinspiredhisambitiontowriteforthestage.Twoyears'NationalServiceinthearmyfocusedhisdramaticcreativity,andin1958hesubmittedtwoplaystothe
RoyalCourtTheatre,whichinvitedhimtojoinitsWriters'Group.AfterThePope'sWeddinghadbeenperformedsuccessfullyin1962,thetheatrecommissioneda
newplay.SavedfellfouloftheLordChamberlain,whosecutsBondrefusedtoaccept.In1966itwasputonattheRoyalCourt,whichwasconvictedofpresenting
anunlicensedplay.EarlyMorning,havingbeenconclusivelybannedbytheLordChamberlain,wasperformedbeforemembersoftheEnglishStageSocietyin1968
twomonthslaterNarrowRoadtotheDeepNorthopenedinCoventry,withamendmentstowhichBondhadagreed.ThenewTheatresBillbecamelawon28
September1968,andin1969allthreeplayswerepubliclyperformedattheRoyalCourtinrepertory.WithTheSea(1973)heroundedoffhisoriginalplanfora
seriesofextremelydarkandoftenviolentcomedieswhosemainthemeiscomingtotermswithreality.Bingo:ScenesofMoneyandDeath(performed1973)and
TheFool:ScenesofBreadandLove(1975)begananother,inwhichsocialproblemsofthepastareusedtohighlightdisordersofthepresent.Ithasbeenfollowed
byarangeofwarparablesseeTheWarPlays:aTrilogy(1985).HehasalsopublishedPoems197885(1985).SeePlays,6vols197797TonyCoult,The
PlaysofEdwardBond:aStudy,2ndrev.edn1980.
Borges,JorgeLuis(18991986)
Argentinianshortstorywriter,poet,andcritic,wasborninBuenosAires.Hisfatherwasalawyerofanancientfamilyhismotherwasthedaughterofacolonelwho
diedinactionduringcivilwarin1874,andofanEnglishwomanwhowasborninStaffordshire.AsachildhereadKIPLINGandSTEVENSON,and'atabouttenoreleven'
GEORGEDOUGLAS'STheHousewiththeGreenShutters.HegrewupinSpainandSwitzerland,whereheattendedCollgedeGneve,andin1921returnedtoBuenos
Aires,whereheeditedandcontributedtoliteraryandintellectualjournals,andbytheendofthedecadehadpublishedseveralvolumesofverseandcriticalessays.
HistoriaUniversaldelaInfamia(1935tr.NormanThomasdiGiovanniasAUniversalHistoryofInfamy,1973),hisfirstcollection

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ofstories,waswritteninthestyleoffantasywhichbecameknownas'magicrealism'.
In1946,havingpubliclyexpresseddoubtsaboutthedemocraticprinciplesofthenewlyelectedPresident,JuanPern(18951974),Borgeswastransferredfromhis
postasathirdassistantinamunicipallibrarytothatofinspectorofpoultryandrabbitsinalocalmarket.OnPern'sremovalfrompowerin1955hewasappointed
DirectoroftheNationalLibrary.AfterhehadsharedwithBECKETTtheinauguralPrixFomentor(awardedbyaninternationalpublishinggroup)in1961,hisreputation
abroadwasfurtherconfirmedbythepublicationinEnglishofFicciones(1944trAnthonyKerrigan,1963)andElAleph(1949tr.diGiovanniasTheAlephand
OtherStories19331969,1970).HeheldhispostattheNationalLibraryuntil1973,whilealsoteachingEnglishliteratureattheUniversityofBuenosAires,
intensifyinghisstudyofOldEnglishandOldNorse,lecturingtoaudiencesintheUSAandEurope,andcontinuingtowrite:allthisdespitetheonsetin1955ofa
congenitaleyeconditionwhichmadehimvirtuallyblind.Forthirtyyearsuntilherdeathin1975attheageof99,helivedwithhismotherinasmallsixthfloor
apartmentindowntownBuenosAires.MariaKodama(b.1945),whohadbeenhiscompanionforseveralyears,becamehisthirdwifeeightweeksbeforehedied.
HewasawardedanhonorarydoctorateatOxfordin1971,andwasappointedHonoraryKBE.SelectedPoems19231967,ed.diGiovanni(1972),contains
translationsbyseveralpoets.SeealsoLabyrinths:SelectedStoriesandOtherWritings,ed.DonaldA.YatesandJamesE.Irby(1972).SeeJamesWoodall,The
ManintheMirroroftheBook:aLifeofJorgeLuisBorges,1996(biography)BeatrizSarlo,JorgeLuisBorges:aWriterontheEdge,ed.JohnKing,1993
(criticalessays)NormanThomasdiGiovanni(ed.),TheBorgesTradition,1995(criticalessays).
Borrow,George(180381)
Britishlinguist,prosewriter,andtraveller,wasborninEastDereham,Norfolk,thesonofaregimentalstaffofficer,andwaseducatedattheHighSchoolofEdinburgh
andNorwichGrammarSchool.Hewasarticledtoasolicitor,butwenttoLondononhisfather'sdeathandworkedasapublisher'seditorandhackwriter.
Disillusioned,hespenttheyears182532wanderingthroughEngland,oftenwithgypsiesascompanions.In1833hebecameanagentoftheBritishandForeignBible
Society,andfortwoyearstravelledtoRussia,Spain,Portugal,andMorocco,gratifyinghisgiftforlanguageswhilehewasinStPetersburgin1835hepublished
Targum:orMetricalTranslationsfromThirtyLanguagesandthefirstEnglishtranslationofPUSHKIN.Onhisreturnin1835hemarriedawidowwhomhehadmet
inSpain,andsettledwithherinOultonBroad,Norfolk.HebeganhisfulltimeliterarycareerwithTheZincali,oranAccountoftheGypsiesofSpain(1841).He
thenusedthelettershehadwrittentotheBibleSocietyasthebasisofTheBibleinSpain(1843),whichwasaninstantsuccess.Thisledhimtowritetwoaccountsof
hisearlierlife:Lavengro(1851)theRomanyfor'wordmaster'andasequel,TheRomanyRye(1857)raimeans'gentleman'.Moreprofitablyreadas
picaresquefictionthanasautobiography,theyarediscursive,racy,oftencomic,withsharpdialogue.Borrow'sattitudetogypsieswasoverromantic,butheinfluenced
laterRomanyscholarssuchasJohnSampson(18621931)andDoraYates(18791974).SeeDavidWilliams.AWorldofHisOwn:theDoubleLifeofGeorge
Borrow,1982.
Bosman,HermanCharles(190551)
SouthAfricanjournalistandshortstorywriter,wasanAfrikanerborninKuilsRiver,nearCapeTown,andhadanEnglisheducationinJohannesburg.Hewasa
teacherwhenin1926hewascondemnedtodeathafterashootingincidentinwhichhisstepbrotherwaskilled.Hewasreprievedanddid41/2years'hardlabour.
Hisunfailingsenseofhumour,aswellashiscourage,arereflectedinhisaccountofprison,ColdStoneJug(1949).OnhisreleasehewasajournalistinEuropeand
SouthAfrica.Hewroteessaysandsketches,romanticverse(asHermanMalan),andtwonovels.HisplaceinSouthAfricanliteratureisduetohisruralshortstories
narratedbytheAfrikaner,OomSchalkLourens.CollectedinMafekingRoad(1947)andUntoDust(1963),theypresentsympatheticallyandwittilyawholerange
ofpassionsandhumancircumstances.SeeCollectedWorks,newedn1992.
Boswell,James(174095)
Scottishprosewriterandbiographer,wasborninEdinburgh,thesonofabarrister,whoin1754becameajudgeoftheCourtofSessionwiththecourtesytitleof
LordAuchinleck.HewaseducatedatMundell'sSchool,Edinburgh,andbyprivatetutors,beforegoingtoEdinburghUniversity,wherehetookanartsdegreeand
indulgedhispassionsforpoetryandthetheatre.Hissubsequentfreelivingledtothefirstofseveralbreacheswithhisfatherandtohisbeingenrolledforacourseinlaw
atGlasgowUniversity,fromwhichhequicklyescapedtoLondonin1759.AfterfailingtogetacommissioninaGuardsregiment,hewaspersuadedtorenewhislaw
studiesinEdinburgh.In1762,havingattainedhismajority,heleftagainforLondon,whereforthefirsttimehemethisliteraryidolJOHNSONseeBoswell'sLondon
Journal176364,ed.EA.Pottle(1950)forafullaccountofthismomentousincident.AfterfurtherstudiesinUtrechtandmakingtheGrandTourofEurope
(includingCorsica),hewascalledtotheScottishBarin1766,andin

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1768publishedAnAccountofCorsica,anadmirabledescriptiveworkandaneloquentjustificationofCorsicannationalism.Afternumerousrebuffs,changesofheart
andmind,andseveraltorridaffairs,hemarriedin1769MargaretMontgomerie,acousintwoyearshissenior,whomhehadknownforsomeyearsshediedin
1789,havingbornehimfourchildren.Alsoin1769,heboughtaninterestintheLondonMagazine,towhichas'TheHypochondriack'hecontributedaregularseries
ofessaysonpopularphilosophicalandpracticalissuesbetween1777and1785.
In1773hemanagedtopersuadeJohnson,whowasnotoriouslyaversetoanythingScottish,toaccompanyhimonanexhaustingbutsuccessfulthreemonths'trip,
takinginEdinburgh,Aberdeen,andGlasgow,aswellastheWesternIsles,whichhewroteupinaclassictravelogue,TheJournalofaTourtotheHebrides,with
SamuelJohnson,LL.D.(1785),amuchsuperioraccounttothatofhistravellingcompanion.AfterJohnson'sdeath,BoswelllefthisfamilyinScotlandin1786,and
wenttoLondontopreparehisfriend'sbiography.HewasadmittedtotheEnglishBar,atwhichheperformedwithevenlesssuccessthanhehadinScotland.His
monumentalTheLifeofSamuelJohnsonwaspublishedin1791,andreflectsnotonlyhisdedicationtohistaskandtohissubject,buthisbrillianteyeforatelling
detail,hisskillasaninterviewer,hisrecallofdialogueandabilitytoreconstructaconversation,andhisflairforthedramaticsituation.Boswell'sdeathwashastenedif
notcausedbyhiscompulsiveconcupiscence.Hewasafailureatthelawandwasconsistentlyrejectedinhispursuitofpublicofficeyetthroughhisbooks,journals,
andotherwritings,manyofwhichwereonlydiscoveredinIrelandandScotlandbetween1926and1950,heisthemostvividpersonalityofhisage.SeeThe
JournalsofJamesBoswell17611795,ed.JohnWain,newedn1994IainFinlayson,TheMothandtheCandle:aLifeofJamesBoswell,1984.
Boucicault,Dion(1820or182290)
Irishactor,dramatist,theatremanager,anddirector,wasbornDionysiusLardnerBoursiquotinDublin,nominallythesonofawinemerchantandhiswife(asisterof
DARLEY),butmoreprobablyofthewifeandDionysiusLardner(17931859),theacademicandencyclopedist.HewaseducatedinandnearLondon(fortwoyearsat
UniversityCollegeSchool),andbecameanactorin1838,whenhealsohadamelodramaperformedinBrighton.LondonAssurance,arealisticcomedyof
contemporarymetropolitanlife,wasproducedatCoventGardenin1841andwasabrilliantsuccess(itranforanunprecedented360nights).InAmericabetween
1853and1860hewroteandproducedanumberofpopularmelodramasnotablefortheirsensationalclimaxes.TheColleenBawn:or,TheBridesofGarryowen,
thefirstofhisIrishdramas,openedinLondonin1860.This,ArrahnaPogue:or,TheWicklowWedding(1864),andTheShaugraun(1874),constitutehismost
originalandsignificantcontributionstothestageandhadsomeinfluenceonSYNGE,G.B.SHAW,andO'CASEY.TheinitialsuccessofTheColleenBawnencouragedhimto
establishhisowntouringcompany,aninnovationwhichrevolutionizedtheAmericanprovincialtheatre.Hewasaprolificdramatistwhoseaimwastosatisfythetaste
ofthepublichealsoadaptedmanycomediesandthrillersfromtheFrench,aswellasnovelsbyAINSWORTH,DICKENS,IRVING,READE,andWALTERSCOTT.Boucicaultwas
saidtohavebyvariousmeansacquired,andbyilljudgmentandextravagancelost,severalfortunes.Hewasmarriedthreetimes,hissecondwifebeingAgnes
Robertson(18331914),theScottishbornactress,whostarredinmostofhisplays.In1885,hemarriedinAustraliaayoungmemberofhiscompany,Louise
Thorndyke,claimingthatheandAgneshadneverlegallybeenmarried.AgnesobtainedaformaldivorceinEnglandin1889,thusrelegitimizingtheirsixchildren,the
eldestofwhom,Dion(18591929),wasalsoanactor,dramatist,anddirector.SeeRobertHogan,DionBoucicault,1969(criticalstudy).
Bowen,Elizabeth(18981973)
Irishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninDublin,spentherearlysummersatthefamilyestateofBowen'sCourt,Co.Cork,andwaseducatedatDowne
House,Kent.OfAngloIrishdescent,sheisregardedascombiningthesubtleobservationofmannersofAUSTENandtheclassawarenessofEDGEWORTH,withtheIrish
socialcomedyofthecousinsSOMERVILLEandRoss.Thecarefullybuiltupandsustainedsituationsandsettingsofhernovelsspanbothmilieus.TheLastSeptember
(1929)centresonabighouseinIrelandduringthe1920'Troubles'.WartimeLondonandtheblitzarethebackgroundtoTheHeatoftheDay(1949),ahighly
intelligentnovelofromanticloveandsuspectedtreachery.Thelonelinessandvulnerabilityoftheyoungarerecurrentthemes,areflectionofherowninsecuritycaused
byherfather'smentalillnessandhermother'sdeathwhenshewas13.ThesearemostevidentinTheHouseinParis(1935),TheDeathoftheHeart(1938),and
EvaTrout:or,ChangingScenes(1969).Herfirstbookwasthevolumeofshortstories,Encounters(1923),andthroughouthercareersheinvestedhershort
storieswithsimilarthemesandsettingstothoseofhernovels,withtheaddeddimensionofthesupernatural.ShewasmadeCBEin1948.SeeCollectedStories,new
edn1994Bowen'sCourt,newedn1984(earlyautobiographyandfamilyhistory)PicturesandConversations,1975(unfinishedautobiography)Victoria
Glendinning,ElizabethBowen:PortraitofaWriter,

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newedn1993EdwinJ.Kenney,ElizabethBowen,1975(criticalstudy)PhyllisLassner,ElizabethBowen,1991(biographical/criticalstudy).
Bowering,George(b.1935)
Canadianpoet,novelist,andcritic,wasborninPenticton,BritishColumbia,andeducatedatSouthOkanaganHighSchool,Oliver,andforayearatVictoriaCollege,
afterwhichhewasanaerialphotographerintheRoyalCanadianAirForce.HethenstudiedattheUniversityofBritishColumbia,becomingBAinhistory(1960)and
MAinEnglish(1963)withfourothershefoundedinVancouverin1961thewestcoastliterarymagazine,Tish,whichsurviveduntil1969.HetaughtEnglishatthe
UniversityofCalgaryandSirGeorgeWilliamsUniversity,goingontoSimonFraserUniversityin1972.HewasfounderEditorofthejournalImago196474.His
firstofoverthirtybooksofversewasSticksandStones(1963).HewontheGovernorGeneral'sAwardforRockyMountainFoot:aLyric,aMemoir(1969)and
TheGangsofKosmos(1969)hewasawardedanotherforhisthirdnovel,BurningWater(1980),abouttheexplorationoftheNorthwestPassagebyCaptain
Vancouver(175898),whoisthesubject,too,ofBowering'slongpoem,GeorgeVancouver(1970).Hehasalsopublishedseveralbooksofshortstories,astudyof
PURDY(1970),andImaginaryHand:EssaysbyGeorgeBowering(1988).SeeParticularAccidents:SelectedPoems,ed.RobinBlaser,1980.
Bowles,Jane
seeBOWLES.
Bowles,Paul(b.1910)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,translator,travelwriter,andcomposer,wasborninNewYorkCity,thesonofadentistwhohadapassionforgolf.After
highschoolandatasteofartschool,hewenttotheUniversityofVirginia(becauseofPOE),fromwhichhedisappearedduringhisfirstyeartoParis,wherehehadhad
poemspublishedinthejournaltransitions.HereturnedtotheUSAtofinishthecollegeyear,thenstudiedmusicunderthecomposersAaronCopland(190090)and
VirgilThomson(18961989).InspiteofdiscouragementfromSTEIN,hecontinuedtowriteverseseeNexttoNothing:CollectedPoems19261977(1981).He
wasMusicCriticfortheNewYorkHeraldTribune194246.SincethenhehaslivedmainlyinTangier,Morocco.Hismusicalcompositionscompriseoperas,
includingTheWindRemains,performedinNewYorkin1943withalibrettobyGARCALORCA,balletssuchasPastorella(1941),chambermusic,orchestralworks,
songs,andincidentalmusicforplaysandfilms.Hisnovels,beginningwithTheShelteringSky(1949),areparticularlyconcernedwithconflictingculturesinNorth
Africansettings.CollectedStories19391976waspublishedin1979.HisfirsttranslationwasSARTRE'SHuisClosforBroadway(published1946).Latterlyhehas
concentratedoneditingandtranslatingworksbycontemporaryNorthAfricans.HiswifeJaneBowles(191773),neAuer,whomhemarriedin1938,wasanovelist,
shortstorywriter,anddramatist,whoseexplorationsoffemalemysteriesandrealitieshaveearnedherafollowingsinceherdeath.SeeWithoutStopping:an
Autobiography,1972InTouch:theLettersofPaulBowles,ed.JeffreyMiller,newedn1995SimonBischoff(ed.),PaulBowles:Photographs'HowcouldI
sendapictureintothedesert?',1995(visualrecordofhislifeinMoroccowithintroductionandinterview).
Box,Edgar
seeVIDAL.
Boyd,MarkAlexander(15631601)
Scottishpoet,wasborninGalloway,thesonofRobertBoydofPenkillCastle,Ayrshire.Hewaseducatedbyhisuncle,JamesBoyd,ArchbishopofGlasgow1572
81,andatGlasgowUniversity,whereheattackedhisteachers,burnedhisbooks,andrefusedtostudy.Afterfightingaduelatcourt,hewasadvisedtobecomea
mercenaryontheContinent,whichhedidinintervalsbetweentheseriousstudyofliteratureandlawatvariousacademiccentresofexcellence.In1592hepublishedin
AntwerpavolumeofelegantLatinverses,EpistolaeHeroides,etHymni,dedicatedtoJAMESVI,towhichwasaddedaselectionofhisletters,writtenonhistravels.
HereturnedtoScotlandin1595.AmongthepapershelefttotheAdvocates'Library,Edinburgh,ishisonlysurvivingpoeminScots,thelovesonnet'Frabancto
banc,frawodtowod,Irin...',assignificantforitstimeinitsdirectnessandsimplicityoflanguageasitisinitsintensityandexpressionofpersonalfeeling.
Boyd,Martin(18931972)
Australiannovelist,wasborninLucerne,Switzerland.Hecameofadistinguishedcolonialfamilyonbothsides,andwasthethirdofthreeartisticsonsofArthurMerric
Boyd(18621940),thewatercolourlandscapist,andE(mma)M(innie)Boyd(d.1936),nea'Beckett,painteroflandscapeandgenre.HewaseducatedatTrinity
GrammarSchool,Kew,Victoria,andStJohn'sTheologicalCollege,Melbourne,afterwhichhetrainedinanarchitect'soffice.HetravelledtoEnglandin1915to
enlistasanofficerinWorldWarI,andservedatthefrontintheBuffs,beforetransferringtotheRoyalFlyingCorps,inwhichhebecameapilot.Afterthewarhe
returnedforatimetoAustralia,wherehepublishedabookofpoems,Retrospect(1920),athisownexpense.HethentravelledinEurope,andjoined,onimpulse,a
somewhatchaoticFranciscancommunityinDorset,

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whichprovidedthesettingforhisfirstnovel,LoveGods(1925).This,Brangane:aMemoir(1926),andTheMontforts(1928rev.edn1963),anambitiousnovel
basedonfamilyhistorywhichwontheinauguralAustralianLiterarySocietyGoldMedal,werepublishedunderthepennameofMartinMills.
HewasnowlivinginLondon,wherehewroteunderhisownnamefournovelswithwhichhewaslaterdissatisfied,'becauseIdidnotknowthesortofpeopleIwas
writingabout'.NunsinJeopardy(1940)waswrittenas'asymbolofthetransmutationofthehumansoul,toldinphysicalterms'.InCambridgeduringWorldWarII
hewroteLucindaBrayford(1946),aquadripartiteexpressionofhisattitudetowardstheBritishEstablishment,ofhissupportof'thelandedgentry,thecreativeartist
andtheChristianreligion',andofhispacifism.Theyears194851werespentrestoringandlivinginhismaternalgrandfather'scountryhousenearBerwick,Victoria,
whichhegaveupafterfallingillinEngland.DuringhisrecoveryhebeganTheCardboardCrown(1952),which,withADifficultYoungMan(1955),Outbreakof
Love(1957),andWhenBlackbirdsSing(1962),constitutethe'Langtontetralogy',afurtherbutmorestrikingexcursionintofamilyhistoryinEnglandandAustralia.
In1958hesettledinRome.SeeASingleFlame,1939,andDayofMyDelight,newedn1986(autobiography)BrendaNiall,MartinBoyd:aLife,newedn1989.
Boyd,Nancy
seeMILLAY.
Boyle,Kay(190394)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,andpoet,wasborninStPaul,Minnesota.ShewaseducatedathomeandinEuropewhiletravellingwithherparents,andat
schoolsintheUSA.ShethenattendedtheCincinnatiConservatoryofMusicandstudiedarchitectureattheOhioMechanicsInstitute.In1922shemarriedRichard
Brault,aFrenchgraduateinengineering,withwhomshewenttoliveinFrance.InParisshemixedwithwhatSTEINcalledthe'LostGeneration'ofexpatriatewriters
Boyleaddedamemoirtothe1968editionofBeingGeniusesTogether19201930,anautobiographicalstudyofthatmilieubyRobertMcAlmon(18961930).She
alsowrotepoetryforlittlemagazines,publishedherfirstbook,ShortStories(1929),andmadearemarkablerecoveryfromtuberculosisshortlybeforehavingherfirst
child.Afteradivorcein1931,shemarriedLaurenceVail,anAmericanexpatriatewriterandpainter,withwhomsheboughtahouseintheFrenchAlps.While
bringingupchildren,shecontinuedtowrite:poetry,bothofapersonalnatureandoutofapoliticalandsocialconsciousnesswhichmanifesteditselfalsoinher
activitiesseeCollectedPoems(1991)shortstories,ofwhichtherewerefourfurthervolumesbetween1932and1940seealsoFiftyShortStories(1980)and
novelswithstrongcharacters(American,German,orFrench)andtragicovertones,reflectingsettingsandsituationsfromherownexperience,suchasPlaguedbythe
Nightingale(1931),YearBeforeLast(1932),andDeathofaMan(1936).In1941thefamily(includingsixchildren)wasairliftedbyClipperfromLisbontothe
USA.In1943,havingobtainedadivorce,shemarriedBaronJosephvonFranckenstein(d.1963),anAustrianrefugeeworkingintheUSA.Asaforeign
correspondentfortheNewYorker,BoyleaccompaniedhimtohispostinginoccupiedGermanyin1945herexperiencesarereflectedinTheSmokingMountain:
StoriesofPostWarGermany(1951)andhernovelGenerationWithoutFarewell(1960).In1953theyreturnedtotheUSA,whereshetaughtEnglishatSan
FranciscoStateUniversity196380,beingappointedProfessorEmeritaonherretirement.Inthe1960sshewastwiceimprisonedforprotestingagainsttheVietnam
War,asistheprotagonistofherlastnovel,TheUndergroundWoman(1975).WordsThatMustSomehowBeSaid:SelectedEssaysofKayBoyle19271984,
ed.ElizabethS.Bell(1985)illustratesbothherpoliticalandherartisticsensibilities.SeeSandraWhippleSpanier,KayBoyle:ArtistandActivist,newedn1987
(biography).
Brackenridge,HughHenry(17481816)
Americannovelist,prosewriter,andpoet,wasbornHughMontgomeryBreckenridgeinthewesternHighlandsofScotland,nearCampbeltown,Kintyre.Hewasthe
sonofanimpoverishedfarmer,whoin1753sailedwithhisfamilytoPhiladelphia,fromwhichtheywalkedmostofthewaytotheScottishsettlementoftheBarrens,
YorkCounty.Hewenttothecountyschool,andat15offeredhimselfasapupilteacheratthefreeschoolatGunpowderFalls,Maryland,afterwhichhemadea
similararrangementwiththeCollegeofNewJersey,Princeton.HegraduatedasBAin1771,havingwithFRENEAUwrittenafantasticadventurestory,'FatherBombo's
PilgrimagetoMecca',possiblythefirstprosefictionwritteninAmerica.In1772hewasappointedheadofanacademyatBackCreek,Maryland,forwhosestudents
hewroteaversedrama,TheBattleofBunkersHill(1776).In1776hejoinedthearmyofGeorgeWashington(173299)asachaplain,inwhichcapacityhe
deliveredpoliticalsermonstothetroops,publishedinSixPoliticalDiscoursesFoundedontheScripture(1778).AftertheBritishevacuationofPhiladelphiain
1778,hefoundedandeditedtheUnitedStatesMagazine.HewasadmittedtothePhiladelphiaBarin1780,andthensetoutforthefrontiertownofPittsburgh,
wherehepractised,married,andwasinstrumentalintheestablishmentin1785ofthePittsburghGazette,havingpersuadedtwoprinterstobringapressoverthe
mountains.Heusedthe

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papertopromotehispoliticalcareer,andalsotocampaignforcivicculturalandeducationalamenities,includingabookshopandalendinglibrary.In1786hewas
electedtotheStateAssemblyofPennsylvania,whereheobtainedalandendowmentforthePittsburghAcademy(UniversityofPittsburgh).Afterfailingtobere
electedin1788,hegaveventtosatire,firstwitha(wisely)unfinishedattempttoapplythetechniqueofSAMUEL(HUDIBRAS)BUTLERtoAmericanpolitics,andthenwith
thefirsttwovolumesofamorehappilyinspiredcomicnovel,somewhatafterCERVANTES,ModernChivalry(1792).VolumeIII,publishedinPittsburgh,wasthefirst
literaryworktobewritten,printed,andissuedwestofthemountains.TherefollowedVolumeIV(1797)andPartII(1804),withadefinitiveeditionofthewholein
1815.
AfteranunfortunateattempttomediateintheWhiskeyRebellionof1794,Brackenridgereturnedtopoliticsin1798asleaderinwesternPennsylvaniaofthe
RepublicanpartyofThomasJefferson(17341826)in1799hewasappointedajudgeofthePennsylvaniaSupremeCourt.HewrotesomepoemsinScots,
addressedinkindtoDavidBruce,afellowScottishAmericanpoetandcountrystorekeeper,andalso'AnEpistletoWalterScott'(1811),inpuerileimitationofthe
prosodyofTheLadyoftheLake.Hiseccentricitiesincludedproppinguphisbarefeetonthebarofjustice,andridingnakedintherainwithhisonlysuitunderhis
saddle,becauseitwouldotherwisebespoiled.Shortlyafterthedeathofhisfirstwife,beingattractedtothegirlwhobroughthishorseroundtothedoorafterastopto
haveitfed,heofferedherfather$10ayearforsomeoneelsetoclearhismeadow,marriedher,andpromptlydispatchedhertoPhiladelphiatohavehermanners
polishedandherrusticwaysremoved.SeeAHughHenryBrackenridgeReader17701815,ed.DanielMarder,1970.
Bradbury,Malcolm(b.1932)
Britishnovelistandcritic,wasborninSheffield,spenthisearlyyearsinHarrow,Middlesex(hisfatherworkedfortheLondonandNorthEasternRailwayCompany),
andin1941returnedwithhisparentstoSheffield,wherehesuffered'terrorbynightanddisturbancebyday'duringtheBlitzinWorldWarII.Bornwithaholeinthe
heart,forwhichtherewasnotreatmentuntilhewas26,hecouldnotplaygames,'soIwasalwaystoldtogotoreadinthelibrary.It'swhyIbecameawriter.'Hewas
educatedatWestBridgfordGrammarSchool,Nottingham,andUniversityCollege,Leicester,continuinghisstudiesattheuniversitiesofLondon,Indiana,and
Manchester,beforeteachingatHulland(withDAVIDLODGE)atBirmingham.HebecamealecturerinEnglishattheUniversityofEastAngliain1965,andwasProfessor
ofAmericanStudies19701994.Inhisessay'CampusFictions',heexplains,ofhisarrivalatuniversity:'IhadlittleexpectationofthestrangeworldIwasentering,and
littleconfidenceinmyrighttobethere.Evenso,Ihadhadsomeglimpsesofwhattoexpect,andthesecamefromwhatcanbecalleduniversitynovelsIhadnotyet
graspedthespaceswhichexistbetweenfictionandfact...'.Intothe'spaces'heinsertedthreeofhisfirstfournovels,EatingPeopleisWrong(1959),largelywritten
whilehewasastudent,SteppingWestward(1965),setinthe'moralsupermarket'ofanewAmericanuniversity,andTheHistoryMan(1975),inwhichthecomedy
isnowharsherandtensionsdeeper.AsimilarpsychologicalapproachinformsRatesofExchange(1983),inwhichtheexchangesarelinguisticaswellaseconomic,
inanEasternEuropeansetting.DoctorCriminale(1992)opensataBookerfictionawarddinnerandcontinueswithaliteraryquestwhichisalsoanacademicsatire
onthe1990sandaninvestigationintotheessenceofhistory.HisshortstorieshavebeenpublishedasWhoDoYouThinkYouAre?:StoriesandParodies(rev.edn
1984).HiscriticalworksincludeTheModernAmericanNovel(19832ndedn1992),TheModernBritishNovel(1993),andDangerousPilgrimages:Trans
AtlanticMythologiesandtheNovel(1995).HeeditedClasswork(1995),acollectionofstoriesbythosewhotooktheMAcourseincreativewritingwhichhe
establishedwithANGUSWILSONattheUniversityofEastAngliain1970tocomplementtheprogrammeswhichhadbeentaughtintheUSAsincethe19thcentury.He
wasmadeCBEin1991.SeeinJohnHaffenden,NovelistsinInterview,1985.
Bradbury,Ray(mond)(b.1920)
Americanshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasborninWaukegan,Illinois,thesonofatelephonelinesman,whoinsearchofworkin1934movedhisfamilytoLos
Angeles.WhileatLosAngelesHighSchool('theunhappiestyearsofmylife')heestablishedhimselfasatheatricalallrounder,anddiscoveredtheLosAngeles
ScienceFictionLeague.Aftergraduatingin1938,heworkedasanewspaperboy,publishedfourissuesofhisownsciencefictionmagazine,andattendedHEINLEIN'S
weeklywritingclasses.Hesoldonestoryin1941,twoin1942,and11in1943,whenhegaveupthenewspaperjobtowritefulltime.In1947hepublishedhisfirst
collectionofweirdstories,DarkCarnival,wonanO.HENRYprize,andcelebratedhisliterarycomingofagebyburning'amillionwordsofbadwriting'thedaybefore
hiswedding.WithTheMartianChronicles(1950),astructuredtapestryoffictionalpiecesaboutthecolonizationofMars,andthefuturisticnovel,Fahrenheit451
(1953),hecrossedthedividebetweenpulpmagazinemaestroandwriterofmainstreamnovels,inwhichcategoryarealsohisautobiographicalfantasies,Dandelion
Wine

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(1957),SomethingWickedThisWayComes(1962),andAGraveyardforLunatics(1990),andhisimaginativememoirofatriptoIrelandin1953,Green
Shadows,WhiteWhale(1992).Hismajoreffort,however,hasgoneintotheproductionofshortstories,latterlyofarealisticnature,aswellasfantasyandscience
fictionseeTheStoriesofRayBradbury(1980).HehascontinuedtowriteforthestageseeTheWonderfulIceCreamSuitandOtherPlays(1972)andhas
alsopublishedbooksofverse,collectedinTheCompletePoemsofRayBradbury(1982),whichhasanappealtoBradburybuffs.SeeDavidMogen,Ray
Bradbury,1987(criticalstudy).
Braddon,MaryElizabeth(18351915)
Britishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninLondonofatalentedfamilyherelderbrother,(Sir)EdwardBraddon(18291904),becamePrimeMinisterofTasmania.
Shewaseducatedprivately,andmadesomeappearancesonthestage.In1854,aprinterinYorkshire,whereshewasthenliving,offeredher10towritea
'dramatic'serial,butwentbankruptbeforeitcouldbepublished.Thestory,'ThreeTimesDead'(publishedin1861asTheTrailoftheSerpent),laidthegroundfor
herlaterreputation.Garibaldi,andOtherPoemswaspublishedin1861,andherfirstplay,TheLovesofArcadia,wasstagedin1860.Inthatyearshewenttolive
withthepublisherJohnMaxwell(182595),whosewifewasinanasylum,andtolookafterhisfivechildrentheymarriedin1874afterthewife'sdeath.She
respondedtohisurgentrequestforaserialforanewmagazinebyproducingLadyAudley'sSecret.Itwastransferredtoanotherperiodicalwhenthefirstonefolded,
andthenpublishedinthreevolumes(1862).Thisarchetypalnovelofsensation(somecontemporarycriticsregardeditratherasa'shocker'),withitsthoroughly
poisonous,blondeheroine,soimpressedthepublic(andothercritics)thatsheproduced13furthernovelsinthenextsixyearstheplayofLadyAudley'sSecret
followedin1863,writtennotbyherselfbutbythecomedianandwriteroffarces,C.H.Hazlewood(182375).Inall,shewroteovereightynovels(somewithlurid
titles)shewasstillwritingtheminherseventiesandnineplaysshealsoeditedperiodicals,includingTempleBarandBelgravia.SeeRobertLeeWolff,
SensationalVictorian:theLifeandFictionofMaryElizabethBraddon,1979.
Bradstreet,Anne(161272)
neDudley,thefirstpublishedAmericanpoet,wasborninEngland,thesecondofsixchildrenbyhisfirstwifeofThomasDudley(15761653),stewardtotheEarlof
LincolnandlaterGovernorofMassachusetts,whoensuredthatshehadthebesteducationthattutorscouldprovide.In1628,whenshewas16,shehadsmallpox,
andmarriedSimonBradstreet(160397)withhimandherparentsandashiploadofotherPuritansshesailedforMassachusettsin1630,inthewakeofthePilgrim
Fathers,whohadmadethejourneytenyearsbefore.Afteraterriblethreemonths'voyage,thecouplemovedinquicksuccessionfromSalemtoBostontoCambridge
toIpswich,andfinallytoAndover,wherein1640,after'alongtimewithoutachild,whichwasagreatgreiftome,andcostmeemanyprayersandtearsbeforeI
obtainedone',shehadthefirstofhereightchildren,allbutoneofwhomsurvivedher.HersisterMercy(162191),whoalsowroteverse,hadin1639marriedJohn
Woodbridge(161396),whowasordainedinAndoverin1645andin1647returnedtoEngland,wherehewaschaplaintotheParliamentarycommissionerswho
treatedwithKingCharlesIintheIsleofWight.HetookwithhimamanuscriptofBradstreet'spoems,whichwerepublishedinLondon,withoutherpermissionand
muchtoherembarrassment,asTheTenthMuselatelysprungupinAmerica....ByaGentlewomaninthoseparts(1650).Indeed,'Thyvisagewassoirksome
inmysight/Yetbeingmineown,atlengthaffectionwould/Thyblemishesamend,ifsoIcould'('TheAuthortoHerBook',writteninabout1666).Soshesetabout
revisingthepoems,whichwereposthumouslyreprintedinBostoninSeveralPoemscompiledwithgreatvarietyofWitandlearning....ByaGentlewomanin
NewEngland(1678),withothersthatshehadcomposedinthemeantime.Amongtheseis'Contemplations',inwhichsheexpresses,asmanyAmericanpoetsdid
later,hertrustnotsomuchintheologyasintheevidenceofherowneyes:'Ifsomuchexcellenceabidebelow,/HowexcellentisHethatdwellsonhigh,/Whose
powerandbeautybyhisworksweknow'.Otherwise,herdevotionalverseisoflessimmediateappealthanheroccasionalverses:toherhusband,often'absentupon
PublicEmployment'onfamilybereavementsorrecoveriesfromillnessonherchildrenand'...UpontheBurningofOurHouse,July10th1666'.Herprose
'MeditationsDivineandMorall',writtendownin1664attherequestofhereldestson,wereprintedinfullinthe1867editionofherworks.Shediedofconsumption.
Herhusbandmarriedagain,wastwiceGovernorofMassachusetts(167986and168992),andlivedtotheripestofoldages.SeeTheWorksofAnneBradstreet,
ed.JeannineHensley,1981ElizabethWadeWhite,AnneBradstreet:'TheTenthMuse',1971(criticalbiography).
Brady,Nicholas
seeTATE,NAHUM.
Braine,John(192286)
Britishnovelist,wasborninBradford,Yorkshire,andeducatedatStBede'sGrammarSchool,Bradford,andLeedsSchoolofLibrarianship.Withabreakofthree
yearsasafreelance

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writer,heroseinthelibraryworldtothepostofBranchLibrarianatDarton,Yorkshire,fromwhichheresignedin1957onthepublicationofhisfirstnovel,Roomat
theTop.ThisiconoclasticstoryoftheopportunistYorkshireladfromaworkingclassbackgroundwhomakesit(inbothsenses)tosocialacceptanceandmaterial
prosperitywas,withthehelpofatelevisionfeature,aninstantsuccess,thoughthepublishertowhomthepaperbackrightswerefirstofferedrejecteditasamoral.The
Vodi(1959rev.edn1978),anovelofsupernaturalpossession,wasnotwellreceived(itwasprobablywrittenbeforeRoomattheTop).Hereturnedtohisoriginal
formulaandcharacterswithLifeattheTop(1962),inwhich,andinanumberofsubsequentnovelsincludingStaywithMetillMorning(1970)anditssequel,and
OneandLastLove(1981),hedissectsmiddleclassmarriedlife.TheJealousGod(1964)investigatesthepersonalconflictswhichcanaffecttheCatholic
priesthood.ThePiousAgent(1975)andFingerofFire(1977)arespystoriesinwhichtherightsarequestionedofthosewhocontroltheagents.InWritinga
Novel(1975)Brainediscussesthecraftofthenovelist.
Brasch,Charles(190973)
NewZealandpoetandeditor,wasborninDunedinandeducatedatWaitakiSchoolandStJohn'sCollege,Oxford.Afterthreeseasonsasatraineearchaeologistin
Egyptandmuchtravel,hetaughtatLittleMissendenAbbey,aprogressiveschool.HevisitedNewZealandin193839,andwhenhereturnedtoEngland,viathe
USA,heleftwithGLOVERthemanuscriptofabookofverse,TheLandandthePeople(1939),tobepublishedinhisabsence.Unfitforwarservice,muchtohis
surprise,becauseofalungcomplaint,hewasafirewatcherinLondon,andthendidintelligenceworkfortheForeignOfficeatBletchleyPark.HereturnedtoNew
Zealandin1945,havingwrittenanallegoricalmimeinverse,TheQuest(1946),andanumberofpoemswhichappearedinDisputedGround(1948),including
'WordbyNight',whichcametohimcompleteduringastormonthenightoftheGermancapitulation.In1947hefoundedthequarterlyliteraryandartsreview,
Landfall,whichheediteduntil1967,andinwhichhonestycompelledayouthfulC.K.STEADtogivealukewarmreceptiontoBrasch'sthirdbookofpoetry,TheEstate
(1957)furthervolumesappearedin1964,1969,and1974.Hewasanotablepatronofthearts,wholeftavaluablecollectionofbooksandpaintingstotheHocken
Library,Dunedin.SeeCollectedPoems,ed.AlanRoddick,1984Indirections:aMemoir19091947,1980.
Brathwaite,EdwardKamau(b.1930)
Barbadianpoetandcritic,wasborninBridgetownandeducatedatHarrisonCollege,fromwhich,havingelectedtopursuehistoryandEnglishlanguageonhisown,
hewonanislandscholarshiptoPembrokeCollege,Cambridge.Ratherthanreturnhome,hetookanappointmentasaneducationofricerinGhana,ofwhichhe
wroteinhisautobiographicalessay,'Timehri'(1970):'Obscurely,slowlybutsurely,duringtheeightyearsthatIlivedthere,Iwascomingtoanawarenessand
understandingofcommunity,ofculturalwholeness,oftheplaceoftheindividualwithinthetribe,insociety.'RightsofPassage(1967),Masks(1968),andIslands
(1969),reissuedasTheArrivants:aNewWorldTrilogy(1973),wererevolutionaryinpoeticcontentaswellasformandshape.ThereaderistakenfromtheWest
IndiestotheUSA,thentotheAfroCaribbeanrootsinWestAfrica,andfinallyonanexplorationofmeaningfulexistenceintheCaribbean.OtherExiles(1975)
containspoemswrittenduringtheprevious25years,andillustratesthedevelopmentofhispoeticlanguage.MotherPoem(1977),SunPoem(1982),andXSelf
(1987)compriseafurthertrilogy,inwhichfirstthevoicesofwomen,thenmalerituals,andthenimpressionsfromanintellectualautobiographymarktheconfrontation
betweentheculturesofEuropeandAfrica.MiddlePassages(1992)isbothaselectionandarearrangementintoasequence,includingnewervisualpoetrycreated
withthehelpofacomputer.BrathwaitetaughtattheUniversityoftheWestIndiesfrom1962,beingappointedReaderin1976,andProfessorofSocialandCultural
Historyin1983.HisproseworksincludeTheDevelopmentofCreoleSocietyinJamaica17701820(1971)andHistoryoftheVoice:theDevelopmentof
NationalLanguageinAnglophoneCaribbeanPoetry(1984).SeeStewartBrown(ed.),TheArtofE.K.Brathwaite,1996andinBruceKing(ed.),West
IndianLiterature,2ndedn1995.
Brautigan,Richard(193584)
Americanpoetandnovelist,wasborninTacoma,Washington,andpublishedhisfirstbookofverse,TheReturnoftheRivers,inSanFranciscoin1957.Throughhis
epigrammaticverseThePillVersustheSpringhillMineDisaster:Poems19571968waspublishedin1968hedevelopedaprosestyleforfiction('Iused
poetryasaloverbutInevermadehermyoldlady')whichhefirstexhibitedinAConfederateGeneralfromBigSur(1965),TroutFishinginAmerica(1967),and
InWatermelonSugar(1968),becomingintheprocesstheliteraryspokesmanoftheWoodstockgeneration.Hisexperimentalstyleappealedforthesimplicityofits
language(thoughnotofitsthought),thecomedy,theliteraryandotherallusions,andthequestimagery.SubsequentnovelsincludeTheHawklineMonster:aGothic
Western(1974)andhislast,SotheWindWon'tBlowItAway(1982).Inthemeantime,atriptoJapansatisfiedanearlypreoccupationandinspiredtwosignificant
works.

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At17hehadbeguntoreadBASHOandotherJapanesehaikupoets:'Ilikedthewaytheyusedlanguageconcentratingemotion,detailandimageuntiltheyarrivedat
aformofdewlikesteel',whichisreflectedinhislastvolumeofverse,intheformofapoeticdiary,June30th,June30th(1978).InthenovelTheTokyoMontana
Express(1980),aBasholikespiritofZenBuddhismunderpinsthephilosophy'Ispendalotofmytimeinterestedinlittlethings,tinyportionsofreality.'Hediedfrom
aselfinflictedgunshotwound.
Brecht,Bertolt(18981956)
Germandramatistandpoet,wasborninAugsburg,whereheattendedthegymnasium.HeenteredMunichUniversityin1917tostudymedicineandnaturalscience,
onlytobecalledupforserviceasamedicalorderlyinWorldWarI,afterwhichheworkedasdramaturg(dramaticadviserandeditor)inMunichandBerlin.
Morallyananarchist,butpoliticallyasupporterofCommunismastheonlyvalidalternativetoFascism,hehadhadseveralreactionaryplaysproducedwhenhehit
uponapublicsuccess,DieDreigroschenoper[TheThreepennyOpera](1928),adaptedfromGAY'STheBeggar'sOpera,withmusicbyKurtWeill(190050)in
thecontextofithelaterwrote,'ComplexseeingmustbepractisedThinkingabovetheflowoftheplayismoreimportantthanthinkingfromwithintheflowofthe
play.'PublicperformancesofDieMutter[TheMother](1932),basedonGORKY'Snovel,werebanned,asweremanyofhisbooks,andin1933hefledthecountry,
nottoRussia,asmighthavebeenexpected,buttoDenmark,fromwhichhewenttoSwedenin1939,andthenFinlandin1940.In1941hearrived(viatheUSSR)in
LosAngeles,USA,onimmigrationpapersarrangedbymigrstoHollywood.ThereheworkedonandcontributedtothescreenplayofHangmenalsoDie(1943),
thoughsolecreditaswriterwasawardedtoJohnWexley(190785)afteranenquirybytheScreenWritersGuild.
Duringtheyears193741hewroteMutterCourageundihreKinder[MotherCourageandherChildren](producedZrich1941),LebendesGalilei[TheLife
ofGalileo](Zrich1943),DerguteMenschvonSezuan[TheGoodWomanofSetzuan](Zrich1943),andin194445DerkaukasischeKreidekreis[The
CaucasianChalkCircle](Potsdam1949).Theseweretheplayswhichmostfirmlyestablishedhisreputationabroad,andreflectedhisproposition:'Theillusionofthe
theatremustbeonlypartial,sothatitcanalwaysberecognizedasanillusion.Reality,inallitsperfection,mustbechangedthroughthefactofartisticpresentation,so
thatitmayberecognizedandtreatedaschangeable.'Thushis'epic'(or'open')theatreshowsmenandwomenproducingthemselvesandtheirsituations,ratherthan
discoveringthem.In1949BrechtsettledinEastBerlin,whereheestablishedthetheatrecompany,theBerlinEnsemble,whichhissecondwife,theactressHelene
Weigel(190072),continuedafterhisdeath.HeacquiredanAustrianpassportin1950.Hisverse,thefirstcommerciallypublishedvolumeofwhichappearedin
1927,andwhichcontainsmuchoflastingvalue,isinPoems19131956,ed.JohnWillett,onevolumeedn1987seealsoBadTimeforPoetry:WasIt?IsIt?125
PoemsandSongs,ed.JohnWillett,tr.MichaelHamburgerandothers(1995)andEverythingChanges:EssentialBrechtPoems,ed.JohnWillett(1995).See
CollectedPlays,ed.JohnWillettandRalphManheim,1970CollectedStories,ed.JohnWillettandRalphManheim,newedn1992BrechtonTheatre:the
DevelopmentofanAesthetic,ed.andtr.JohnWillett,newedn1994HansOttoMnsterer,TheYoungBrecht,tr.TomKuhnandK.J.Leeder,1992
(reminiscencesof191722)JohnFuegi,TheLifeandLiesofBertoltBrecht,newedn1994(biography).
Brennan,Christopher(18701932)
Australianpoetandcritic,wasborninSydney,theeldestsonofIrishimmigrantparents,andwaseducatedatStIgnatiusCollege,Riverview,andSydneyUniversity,
wherehegraduatedinclassics.Intendedbyhisfamilyforthepriesthood,hesufferedachangeofheartthroughhisstudyofphilosophy,inpursuitofwhichhewentto
BerlinUniversityin1892onascholarship.InsteadhefellinlovewithAnnaWerth,hislandlady'sdaughter,and,discoveringthepoetryofMALLARM,decidedto'goin
forverse'.HebecameacataloguerintheStateLibraryinSydneyin1895.In1897heissuedforhisfriendseightcopiesofXVIIIPoems,whichheincorporatedin
XXIPoems:TowardstheSource(1897),prefacedwithanelegyprojectinghisemotionsatmeetingAnna,andpublishedshortlybeforeshearrivedtomarryhim.In
1908,aftermanyapplications,hewasappointedtoteachFrenchandGermanatSydneyUniversity.'TowardstheSource'comprisedthefirstoffivepartsofPoems
(dated1913),whichhehaddevisedduringtheyears18971902asasingle,Symbolistpoeticcycle.HebecameAssociateProfessorofGermanandComparative
Literaturein1920.In1922hebegananassociationwithViolet(Vie)Singer,alively34yearold,withwhomhewenttoliveandtowhomhewrotesometender
lyrics.Shewaskilledbyatramin1925,threemonthsbeforehewasdeprivedofhisuniversitypost,mainlybecauseofrevelationsabouttheaffairwhichcametolight
duringAnna'sdivorcesuitagainsthim.Hisremainingyearsweredoggedbyalcoholismandpoverty,partlyrelievedin1931byagrantof1aweekfromthe
CommonwealthLiteraryFund.InthedevelopmentofAustralianliteratureBrennan'spoetryissignificantforitsintellectualaimsandtechnicalinnova

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tion,andhislastingpositionowesmoretohiscriticalsensethantohisbohemianlifestyleandunconventionalattitudes.SeeChristopherBrennan,ed.TerrySturm,
1984(compendium)SelectedPoems,ed.G.A.Wilkes,1973TheProseofChristopherBrennan,ed.A.R.ChisholmandJ.J.Quinn,1962AxelClark,
ChristopherBrennan:aCriticalBiography,1980.
BrentofBinBin
seeFRANKLIN.
Breton,Andr(18961966)
Frenchpoetandcritic,wasborninTinchebrayandeducatedatCollgeChaptal,Paris,andtheFacultdeMdecine,afterwhichheservedinWorldWarIasan
assistantinarmypsychiatricunits.LesChampsMagntiques(withPhilipSoupault,1920),anexperimentinpoetrybymeansofautomaticwriting,wasaprecursorof
theSurrealistmovement,whosemanifestohepublishedin1924.HeeditedLaRvolutionSurraliste(192529),andLeSurralismeauServicedelaRvolution
(193033).AswellaspoetryseePoems,tr.JeanPierreCauvinandMaryAnnCaws(1983)hewrotenarrativeworksinapoeticprose,ofwhichNadja(1928,
tr.RichardHoward,1960)causedacontroversyforitsdenunciationoftheuseofpsychiatryasanaidinenforcingbourgeoisstandardsofconformity.SeeWhatIs
Surrealism?:SelectedWritings,ed.FranklinRosemont,newedn1990MarkPolizzotti,RevolutionoftheMind:theLifeofAndrBreton,1995(biography).
Bridges,Robert(18441930)
Britishpoetandcritic,wasborninWalmer,Kent,theeighthofninechildrenofalandowningfarmer.Hisfatherdiedwhenhewasnine,butleftprovisionforhis
educationatEtonandCorpusChristiCollege,Oxford,whereherowed,playedsoccer,andnarrowlymissedafirstinGreats.Aftertravellingandstudyinginthe
MiddleEastandEurope,hedeterminedtopractisemedicineuntilhewas40,andthenretiretowritepoetry.HebeganhismedicalstudiesatStBartholomew's
Hospitalin1871.Hebroughtouthisfirstvolumeofversein1873,qualifiedasMBin1874,andpublishedthreemorebooksofpoetryinthenextsixyears,whilealso
workingasahospitalphysicianheestimatedthatin1877heexamined30,940casualtypatientsforanaverageof1.28minuteseach.Intheendillnessforcedhimto
giveuphisprofessionwhenhewas37.Twoyearslater,in1884,hemarried21yearoldMonicaWaterhouse,thedaughterofthearchitectoftheNaturalHistory
Museum,London.HisCollectedShorterPoemswaspublishedinfourbooksin1890,withafifthin1894.In1907thecouplemovedtoahousehehadbuilton
Boar'sHill,Oxford,wheretheylivedquietlyandcontentedlytheirthirdchildandonlyson,Edward(18921969),becameadistinguishedcivilservantandwas
createdLordBridgesin1957.
Bridgesaimedpoeticallytouseformandwordstocreateanobjectofbeauty.Hecontinuallyexperimentedwithmetreandlinestress,employingpoeticdictionto
enhancelinguisticprecision.Hewasthefirsttopublishpoemsin'sprungrhythm',aformdevelopedbyhisfriendHOPKINS,whichparticularlysuitshistopographical
poems,notably'LondonSnow'and'TheDowns'.Hislyrics,especially'TheLinnet','CheddarPinks',and'Christmas1913',revealhiscommandofsimplelanguageas
amediumofmelody.Hislastmajorwork,TheTestamentofBeauty(192729),isalongpoem'inlooseAlexandrines'inwhichheattemptstoreconcileidealistic
philosophywithmodernscientificthoughtandtorelatebeautytoreason.Hiscriticismisbestrepresentedbytheessay'Milton'sProsody'(1893rev.1921).Hewas
appointedPoetLaureatein1913onthedeathofAUSTIN,andwasawardedtheOMin1929.SeeAChoiceofVerse,ed.LordDavidCecil,1987CatherinePhillips,
RobertBridges:aBiography,1992.
Bridie,James,pseudonymofO.H.Mavor(18881951)
Scottishdramatist,wasborninGlasgow,thesonofanengineer,andwaseducatedatGlasgowAcademyandGlasgowUniversity,wherehereadmedicineand
generallyhadagoodtime.Hequalifiedasadoctorin1913,andservedintheRoyalArmyMedicalCorpsfrom1914to1919,ashedidagaininWorldWarII.After
WorldWarI,hewasaconsultingphysiciantotheVictoriaInfirmary,Glasgow,andthenProfessorofMedicineatAnderson'sCollege.Hislifechangeddramatically
withtheperformancein1928ofTheSunlightSonata,apreliminaryexcursionintowhatwastobecomehismainmotif,themoralityplayinmodernterms.Tobias
andtheAngel,thefirstofseveralplayswithbiblicalthemes,wasstagedinLondonin1930,andTheAnatomist,abouttheearly19thcenturybodysnatchers,Burke
andHare,andtheirenigmaticmasterDrKnox,in1931.Hewrote42plays,ofwhichMrBolfry(1943)andDaphneLaureola(1949)wereprobablythemost
popular.Hisworksareintricateandwitty,withseverallayersofmeaning.HewasthefirstgenuinelyScottishplaywrightand,likemanyScottishwriters,was
preoccupiedwithquestionsofgoodandevil,withthePresbyterianChurchinitsvariousforms,andwiththecontradictionsofcontemporarylife.HewasChairmanof
theGlasgowCitizen'sTheatreandin1950foundedthefirstScottishcollegeofdrama.HewasmadeCBEin1946.SeeOneWayofLiving,1939(autobiography)
RonaldMavor,DrBridieandMrMavor,1988(biography)J.T.Low,Devils,Doctors,SaintsandSinners,1980(criticalstudy).
Brink,Andr(b.1935)
SouthAfricannovelist,critic,andtranslator,wasborninthevillageofVrede,OrangeFreeState,andedu

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catedatLydenburgHighSchoolandPotchefstroomUniversity.HejoinedtheteachingstaffofRhodesUniversity,Grahamstown,in1963,becomingProfessorand
HeadoftheDepartmentofAfrikaansandDutchLiteraturein1980.AsacounterblasttoAfrikaansnovelswhichhecalled'aliteratureofdroughtandpoorwhites',he
wrotebetween1958and1967sixnovelsinAfrikaansinwhichheexperimentedwithmodernnarrativetechniques.KennisvandieAand(1973),forits
outspokennessonmanyissues,includingapartheid,wasbannedinSouthAfrica,andpublishedintheUKinhisowntranslationasLookingonDarkness(1974).He
hastranslatedintoEnglishallhissubsequentnovels,ofwhichRumoursofRain(1978),astudyofthemoralityofAfrikanernationalism,andAChainofVoices
(1982),apowerfulhistoricalstoryofaslaverevolt,arethemosthighlyregarded.Intheshortnovel(anoriginalpaperback),TheFirstLifeofAdamanter(1993),
CAMESprovidesthestartingpoint,andRABELAISthebasis,ofanallegoricaltaleoftheoriginalencounterbetweenEuropeandsouthernAfrica.ImaginingsofSand
(1996)isapostapartheidnovelexploringanAfrikanerpast.Hismostinfluentialcriticalwork,writteninEnglish,isMapmakers:WritinginaStateofSiege(1983),
anexpressionofhisviewsonliteraryfreedom.HismanytranslationsintoAfrikaansincludeworksbyCAMUS,CHEKHOV,COLETTE,GRAHAMGREENE,HENRYJAMES,SHAKESPEARE,
SIMENON,andSYNGEandchildren'sbooksofCARROLL,GRAHAME,C.S.LEWIS,andWILDE.
Brittain,Vera
seeHOLTBY.
Brodsky,Joseph(194096)
Russianbornpoetandcritic,wasborninLeningrad,leftschoolat15,andthenstudiedliteratureonhisown,readingFAULKNERandKAFKAfirstinPolish.Repeatedly
hauledupbeforetheauthoritiesasa'socialparasite',hewasin1964sentencedtofiveyears'exilewithhardlabourintheArkhangelskregioninthenorth.Heserved
20months,duringwhichhereadAUDEN,T.S.ELIOT,STEVENS,DYLANTHOMAS,andYEATSwithadictionary,makingliteraltranslationsofthefirstandlastversesandthen
imaginingwhatcameinbetween.In1972,havingbeenaskedtoleavethecountry,hewenttotheUSA,ofwhichhebecameacitizenin1977,andwherehetaughtat
ColumbiaandNewYorkuniversities,andlatterlyatMountHolyoke.BeforehelefttheUSSRhehadenjoyedthefriendshipandpatronageofAKHMATOVA,andhad
alreadywrittensomesignificantpoems,including'ElegyforJohnDonne'and'VersesontheDeathofT.S.Eliot'(composedwhileinexilewithin24hoursofhearing
thenews).SelectedPoems,tr.GeorgeL.KlinewithaforewordbyAUDEN,waspublishedin1973,andAPartofSpeech,tr.AnthonyHechtandothers,in1980.A
furthercollection,OnGriefandReason(1996),waspublishedjustbeforehisdeathfromafourthheartattack.HewrotepoetryprimarilyinRussian,oftentranslating
hisownworkintoEnglish,andlatterlyproseinEnglish.AnadmirerparticularlyofLatinpoetry,theMetaphysicals,HARDY,andAUDEN,heacknowledgedthe'moral
purityandfirmness'ofRussianpoetry,whilemakingskilfuluseofGreekmythologyinhisown.ThoughheneverwentbacktoRussia,andhisparentswererefused
permissiontovisithim,hebecameeventuallyabestsellingauthorthere,beingregardedasoneofthefinallinkswithpoetssuchasAkhmatova,MANDELSTAM,and
TSVETAEVAhiscollectionofessays,LessthanOne(1986),includesmasterlystudiesofthem,aswellastwoautobiographicalpieces.HewasawardedtheNobelPrize
forLiteraturein1987,andnamedUSPoetLaureatein1991.SeeToUrania:SelectedPoems19651985,newedn1997SoForth:Poems,1996(final
collection)LessthanOne:SelectedEssays,newedn1987DavidM.Bethea,JosephBrodskyandtheCreationofExile,1994(criticalstudy).
Brome,Alexander
seeANACREON.
Bront,Anne(182049)
Britishnovelistandpoet,theyoungestsisterofCHARLOTTEandEMILYBRONT,wasbornatThorntonVicarage,Yorkshire,andeducatedathomeatHaworth,andfor
twoyearsatMissWooler'sschoolatDewsburyMoor.Shebecameagovernessin1839butwasforcedtoleavehersecondpostin1845,probablybecauseofan
impendingscandalinwhichherbrotherBranwell,tutorinthesamehousehold,wasinvolved.ShediedofconsumptionduringatriptoScarborough.Herfirstnovel,
AgnesGrey(1847),writtenunderthepennameofActonBell,appearedasthethirdvolumeofapublicationwhosefirsttwoconsistedofEmily'sWutheringHeights.
TheTenantofWildfellHallwaspublishedonitsownin1848.Charlottewrote:'Anne'scharacterwasmilderandmoresubdued[thanEmily's]shewantedthe
power,thefire,theoriginalityofhersister...'.Annewasunabletoinvestherlimitedexperienceoflifewiththeimaginationrequiredofagreatnovelist,andthough
AgnesGreyportraysfaithfullyandvividlythetribulationsofagoverness,andTheTenantofWildfellHallthedegenerationofanalcoholic(basedonherobservation
ofBranwell),herplaceinfictionislargelyfoundedonherbeingoneofaremarkablefamilytrio.Thesameistrueofherpoetry.Herreligiousverserevealstheextentto
whichCalvinismdisturbedherconsciousness,andhowshetriedtoreconcilethenotionofretributionwiththatofcompassion.SeePoems,ed.EdwardChitham,
1979EdwardChitham,ALifeofAnneBront,newedn

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1992ElizabethLangland,AnneBront:theOtherOne,1989(criticalstudy).
Bront,Gharlotte(181655)
Britishnovelistandpoet,wasbornatThorntonVicarage,Yorkshire,thethirdchildofRev.PatrickBront(17771861),anIrishborn,Cambridgeeducated,Church
ofEnglandministerwithgenuineliterarypretensionsseeJulietR.V.Barker,TheBronts(1994).In1820hewasappointedtoHaworth.MrsBrontdiedofcancer
in1821,andthechildren,ofwhomtherewerenowsix,werelookedafterbyhersister.In1824CharlotteandEMILYjoinedtheireldersisters,MariaandElizabeth,at
theClergyDaughters'SchoolatCowanBridge.ThefollowingyearMariaandElizabethweresenthomewithtuberculosisanddied.CharlotteandEmilywere
removedfromtheschoolandstayedathomeuntil1831,whenCharlottewenttoMissWooler'sschoolatRoeHeadforeighteenmonthsseeBarbaraWhitehead,
CharlotteBront:andHer'DearestNell':theStoryofaFriendship(1994),thencamehometoteachhertwosisters.Ayearafterthedeathofhistwoeldest
children,MrBronthadbroughthome,forhissonBranwell(181748),aboxofwoodensoldiers,whichweretheimmediateinspirationforafantasyworldcalledthe
GlassTownConfederacy,documentedinprose,drama,andverse,anddevelopedlaterbyCharlotteandBranwellasthekingdomofAngriaseeFannieE.
Ratchford,TheBronts'WebofChildhood(1941),andCharlotteBront'sHighLifeinVerdopolis:aStonyfromtheGlassTownSaga,ed.Christine
Alexander(1995).CharlottereturnedtoRoeHead(theschoolmovedtoDewsburyMoorin1837)from1835to1838,whenshecamehome,illanddispirited.Inthe
nexttwoyearsshehadtwopostsasgovernessandturneddowntwoproposalsofmarriage.ShethentookthemomentousstepofgoingwithEmilytoMadame
Heger'sboardingschoolforyoungladiesinBrussels,whereshedevelopedaprofoundbutunrequitedpassionfortheproprietor'shusband,Constantin(180996).
BackatHaworth,shediscoveredin1845somepoemsbyEmily,whichgavehertheideaofofferingforpublicationabookofversebythethreesisters.Poemsby
Currer,EllisandActonBell(1846),subsidizedbytheauthors,gotthreereviewsandsoldtwocopies.
Meanwhiletheywereeachfinishinganovel.Emily'sandANNE'Swereacceptedforpublicationtogether,butCharlotte'sTheProfessor(anattempttoreconstructher
Brussels'experienceoflovewiththerolesreversed)wasrejectedseventimes.In1847shesentanothermanuscripttoSmith,ElderandCo.,thepublisherwhohad
beenmostconstructiveaboutTheProfessoritwaspublishedasJaneEyre.AnAutobiography.EditedbyCurrerBell(1847).Thisemotionalstory,withthenow
classicingredientsofpennilessorphan,appallingschooldays,lonelymansion,enigmaticandbroodinghero,madwife,alegacy,andaprovidentialfire,wasan
immediatesuccess.BythetimeCharlottehadfinishedhernextbook,Shirley(1849),Anne,Emily,andBranwellweredead.In1850shefirstmetGASKELL,whichled
toaclosefriendshipwithherultimatebiographer.WhenSmith,ElderagainrefusedtobringoutTheProfessor(itwasfinallypublishedposthumouslyin1857),she
beganVillette(1853),afurtherreworkingofherromance,incorporatingcharactersdrawnfromreallife,whichvirtuallyexhaustedherremainingmaterialsforrealistic
fiction.Inadepressedstate,sheacceptedaproposalofmarriagefromherfather'scurate,ArthurBellNicholls(18181906).MrBront,furiousatanimpecunious
parsonmarryinghisnowfamousdaughter,refusedtoattendtheweddinginJune1854.Laterthatyear,CharlottewrotetwochaptersofEmma,whichherhusband
fearedmightbecriticizedasrepetitiousthefragmentwaspublishedin1860inCornhillMagazinewithanintroductionbyTHACKERAY.On31March1855,already
weakenedbyachillcaughtonthemoors,shediedofexcessivepregnancysickness.
CharlotteBront'sfailingsasawriteroutnumberbutdonotoutweighhervirtuesProfessorLordDavidCecilinEarlyVictorianNovelists(newedn1964)
describesherasa'freakgenius'.Herrangewasconstrictedbyherownexperience,exceptinShirley,wheretheLudditeepisodesaredrawnfromherfather's
recollections.Thedevelopmentofthedramaticactionisfrequentlybroken,andtheplotoftenturnsonthemostimprobablecoincidences.Yetshesucceedsthrough
theveryvigourofherstorytelling,thewayshebringsoppositesintoconflictandalsointorelationshipwitheachother,thedepthwithwhichsheexploresfeelings,and
thedramaticunityimposed,asitistosuchadvantageinJaneEyre,byconcentrationontheexperiencesofthemaincharacter.Asapoetshelackedtheintensityof
feelingandexpressionofeitherofhersisters,andshewasinhibitedbytherestrictionsoftheverseformssheusedasachildandasanadult.SeeCompleteNovelsof
CharlotteandEmilyBront,biographicalsketchbyLoretoTodd,introductionsbyEileenDunlop,A.NormanJeffares,HilaryMantel,andothers,1993Winifred
Grin,CharlotteBront:theEvolutionofGenius,newedn1987(biography)RebeccaFraser,CharlotteBront,newedn1989(biography)LyndallGordon,
CharlotteBront:aPassionateLife,newedn1995(biography)HelenMoglen,CharlotteBront:theSelfConceived,newedn1984(criticalstudy).
Bront,Emily(181848)
Britishnovelistandpoet,youngersisterofCHARLOTTEBRONT,wasbornatThorntonVicarageand

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educatedbrieflyatCowanBridge,thenathomebyherfather,andforthreemonthsin1835atRoeHead,wheretherestrictionsmadehersoillthatshewasbrought
home.ThefreedomthatsheenjoyedatHaworthwasembodiedinthemoors,overwhichsheroamedandran,whilethedramaticterrainandskyscapes,andthe
companionshipofanimalsandbirdsinthewild,wereimmediatesourcesofinspirationinherchildhoodliterarypursuitsandaformativeinfluenceonheradultwriting.
BythetimeCharlottewenttoRoeHeadin1831,EmilyandANNEhadabandonedanyfurtherdevelopmentoftheGlassTownsagafortheirowncreation,the
kingdomofGondal.Emilycontributedthroughoutherlifetothegrowthofitsmythology,andthemaincharacters,notablythestrong,wilful,passionate,criminally
inclinedheroine,AugustaGeraldineAlmeda,frequentlyrecurinherverse.HerreestablishmentathomeafterRoeHeadcoincidedwiththeignominiousreturnof
BranwellfromLondon,wherehehadgoneinhopesofmakingamarkinthearts,andhewasastimulustoherreadingandwritingseealsoChristineAlexanderand
JaneSellars,TheArtoftheBronts(1995),astudyofthefamilyasartists.In183738shespentafewdepressingmonthsasateacheratLawHill,Halifax.Her
unhappiness,homesickness,andcontinuoussearchforfreedomofmindandbodyarereflectedinthepoemsshewroteatthetimeorsoonafter,suchas'I'llcome
whenthouartsaddest','Gleneden'sDream','Loudwithoutthewindwasroaring',and'Alittlewhile,alittlewhile...'.
In1841,withBranwellintheunlikelyjobofclerktotherailways,andCharlotteandAnneunsettledasgovernesses,itwasproposedthatthethreesistersshouldopen
aschool.Theschemewasabandoned,orpostponed,infavourofCharlotteandEmily'seducationalsojourninBrussels,whichwascutshortbythedeathoftheirAunt
BranwellinOctober1842.CharlottereturnedtoBrusselsaspupilteacherEmilyremainedatHaworthtolookaftertheirfather.ThediscoverybyCharlottein1845
ofEmily'spoemsandherdecisiontogetthempublishedalongwithhersandAnne'smustbeseenalsointhelightofthefamilyfinancialcircumstances.MrBrontwas
goingblindBranwell,havinglosthisjobontherailways,hadnowalsobeendismissedfromhispostastutortothefamilytowhichAnnehadbeengoverness,andwas
showingsignsofdisintegration.EmilywroteWutheringHeightsbetweentheautumnof1845andJuly1846,butitwasayearbeforeitwasacceptedforpublication
byT.C.Newby.Evenso,Charlotte'sJaneEyre,whichwasthennotevenfinished,waspublishedbeforeWutheringHeights.ANovelbyEllisBellappearedin
twovolumes,withAnne'sAgnesGreymakingthethird.Theywerefullofmisprints,andWutheringHeightsgotsuchabadpressthatNewbydecidedtoboosthis
salesbyencouragingtheprevailingrumourthatallthreenovelswereworkofasingleauthor.WhileEmilystayedathome,hopingtoretainheranonymity,Charlotte
andAnnecaughtthenighttraintoLondonandresolvedtheconfusioninperson.ThesecircumstancescontributedtoEmily'sdecisiontoabandon,andprobablyto
destroy,asecondnovel.BranwelldiedinSeptember1848.Emily,easilythemostathleticandusuallythehealthiestofthefamily,caughtacoldathisfuneral.On19
Decembershediedofconsumption.
WutheringHeightsisanextraordinarybookbyanycriteria.Thatitwaswrittenbyayoungwomanofjust27whoselifewasconstrictedevenbyVictorianstandards
makesitarguablythemostpowerfullyimaginativenovelintheEnglishlanguage.Fromitsbroodingopeningscenes,whichareremarkablefortheirrealisticdomestic
detail,itmovesinexorablythroughthepresentandthedarkandstormypasttotheghostlyreunionofHeathcliffandthelostandillusedloveofhisyouth.Themystical
visionwhichenabledEmilytowriteit,andthestrangepassions,conflicts,andforceswhichmotivateitscharacters,areeasiertocomprehendinthelightofherpoetry,
muchofwhichisconcernedwiththeseelementsinthemythicalworldofGondal.Heathcliff'sandCatherine'sdeathwishhasitsparallel,too,inmanyofherfinest
poems,notably'Nocowardsoulismine...'and'SilentistheHouse...'(sometimescalled'ThePrisoner'),bothwrittenwhileshewasworkingonWuthering
Heights.SeeWutheringHeights,ed.IanJack,1981TheCompletePoems,ed.JanetGezari,1992TheCompletePoemsofEmilyJaneBront,ed.C.W.
Hatfield,newedn1996ThePoems,ed.DerekRoperandEdwardChitham,1996KatherineFrank,EmilyBront:aChainlessSoul,newedn1992(biography)
EdwardChitham,ALifeofEmilyBront,newedn1992.
Brooke,Frances(172489)
neMoore,Britishnovelist,wasborninClaypole,Lincolnshire,theeldestdaughterofthevicar.Shewasorphanedwhenyoung,andwasbroughtupbyrelatives.In
the1750sshewaslivingasawriterinLondoninNovember1755shefoundedand,as'MarySingleton,Spinster',wrotemostofaweeklyperiodicalwithafeminist
slant,theOldMaid,whichranfor37issues.AboutthistimeshemarriedRev.JohnBrooke(170989)sheappearsas'MrsBrooke'onthetitlepageofVirginia
(1756),aversetragedywith'Odes,PastoralsandTranslations'.HesailedforCanada,wherehewasamilitarychaplainin1757.In1760shepublishedhertranslation
fromtheFrenchofthepopularnovel,LettersfromJuliet,LadyCatesby,toHerFriend,LadyHenriettaCampley,byMarieJeanneRiccoboni(171492).Her
ownsentimentalepistolarynovel,

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TileHistoryofLadyJuliaMandeville,appearedin1763,theyearshesailedwithhersontojoinherhusbandinQuebec,seenofffondly,itwasreported,by
JOHNSON.Thewholefamilyreturnedin1768,bywhichtimeshehadwrittenTheHistoryofEmilyMontague(1769),aromancewiththreesetsoflovers.Set
mainlyinCanadainthe1760s,andincorporatinginits228lettersinformedcommentonAngloFrenchrelations,itisthefirstCanadiannovel.AfurtherCanadian
novel,theanonymousAll'sRightatLast:or,TheHistoryofMissWest(1774)mayormaynotbebyher.Inthe1770sshejointlymanagedtheOperaHouse,
Haymarket,withtheactressMaryAnnYates(172887),whoplayedtheleadinherTheSiegeofSinope:aTragedy,stagedatCoventGardenTheatrein1782.
Shealsohadtwocomicoperasperformed,Rosina(1783)andMarian(1788).HerpicaresquenovelofaninnocentcountrygirlsetlooseinLondonsociety,The
Excursion(1777),containedalampoonoftheactormanagerDavidGarrick(171779),whohadrejectedtwoofherplays:sheinsertedanapologyinanexpurgated
secondedition(1785).SeeLorraineMcMullen,FrancesBrookeandHerWorks,1983.
Brooke,Rupert(18871915)
Britishpoet,wasborninRugbyandeducatedatRugbySchool,wherehisfatherwasahousemaster,andKing'sCollege,Cambridge,ofwhichhethenbecamea
Fellow.Hisfirstbook,Poems(1911),revealedasardonicwitaswellasalyricalbent.WhileinBerlininMay1912hewrote,oraccordingtosomesources'dashed
off',aseriesofnostalgicoctosyllabiccoupletswhichappearedthefollowingmonthintheCambridgejournal,BasileonH,as'TheOldVicarage,Grantchester',with
thefinallines:'StandstheChurchclockattentothree/Andistherehoneystillfortea?'ItwasalsopublishedinGeorgianPoetry19111912,thefirstoffive
anthologieseditedby(Sir)EdwardMarsh(18721953),civilservantandliterarypatron,towhomBrookehadsuggestedtheideathe'GeorgianPoets'werenotso
muchamovementasagroupofyoungerpoetswhoseworkneededaforum.In1913BrookewentonaworldtourandinTahitiwrotesomelovepoems,notably
'Retrospect'and'TiareTahiti',whichrankamonghisbest.Ontheoutbreakofwar,hewascommissionedintheRoyalNavalVolunteerReserveandsawactionat
AntwerpinOctober1914,afterwhichhewrotefivejingoisticallyinspiredwarsonnets.Thelastofthese,'TheSoldier'('IfIshoulddie,thinkonlythisofme...'),
earnedhimimmortalityasapoetfigure.In1915hisdivisionwaspostedtotheDardanelles,buthediedenrouteatScyros,ofbloodpoisoning.Hewasafineprose
writerseeespeciallyLettersFromAmerica,prefacebyHenryJames(1916)andalsowroteaoneactplay,Lithuania(1915).SeeCollectedPoems,witha
memoirbyEdwardMarshandintroductionbyGavinEwart,newedn1992SelectedPoems,ed.IanHamilton,1995ChristopherHassall,RupertBrooke:a
Biography,newedn1972.
Brookner,Anita(b.1928)
Britishnovelist,wasborninLondonofaJewishfamilyfromPoland(herfatherchangedhisnamefromBruckner).ShewaseducatedatJamesAllen'sGirls'School,
Dulwich,thenstudiedFrenchliteratureatKing'sCollege,London,andthehistoryofartattheCourtauldInstitute,whereshewasappointedLecturerin1964andwas
Readerfrom1977untilherretirementin1988.ShewasSladeProfessorofFineArtatCambridge196768,thefirstwomantoholdthepost.Shehadwrittenseveral
worksonart,includingWatteau(1968),TheGeniusoftheFuture:StudiesinFrenchArtCriticism(1971),andJacquesLouisDavid(1980),beforeshebegan,
inhermidforties,towritenovels,initiallyasawayofdiscoveringhowitwasdone.AStartinLife(1981)isalsopartlyamirrorofherownexperienceatthetimeas
aresultofwritingitsheconcluded,'selfanalysis...leadsnowhereitisanartforminitself'.Sincethen,inaseriesofstoriesofblightedfemalelives,ofwhichHtel
duLac(1984)wontheBookerprizeforfiction,shehassubtlyandgracefully,andwithaperceptiveeyefordetail,analysedfeminineexperienceandthesearchfor
intellectualandphysicalfulfilmentinanordinaryworld.InAPrivateView(1994),theprotagonistismale,andtheperspectivesubtlydifferent.Theheroineof
IncidentsintheRueLaugier(1995),whichBrooknerhadsaidwasherlastnovel,isadisplacedwomanfromDijon,tryingtomakesenseofherownlifethrough
piecingtogetherthestoryofherparents'marriage.InAlteredStates(1996),theimageandtherealityofaman'spastaffairreturntohaunthim.SeeJohnSkinner,The
FictionsofAnitaBrookner:FictionsofRomance,1992andinGeorgePlimpton(ed.),WritersatWork:EighthSeries,1988.
Brooks,Cleanth
seeWARREN.
Brooks,Gwendolyn(b.1917)
Americanpoet,wasborninTopeka,Kansas,ofparentswhoencouragedherpoetictalent.ShewaseducatedinChicago,transferringfromHydeParktoPhillipsto
Englewoodhighschools,afterwhichshegraduatedfromWilsonJuniorCollegein1936.ShemarriedHenryBlakelyin1939(theyseparatedin1969).Sheattendeda
writers'workshopattheSouthSideCommunityArtCenter,andin1945theNewYorkfirmofHarperrespondedtoherbombardmentof'negropoems'by
publishingAStreetinBronzeville.Withhersecondvolume,AnnieAllen(1949),shebecamethefirstblackwritertowinthePulitzerPrizeforpoetry.Inherearlier
verseseealsoSelectedPoems(1963)she

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usedtraditionalforms(oftenthesonnet)tocapturetheessenceofblackurbanlife.InthevolatileatmosphereoftheSecondBlackWriters'ConferenceatFisk
Universityin1967,atwhichBARAKAwasinparticularlyprovocativeform,sheexperiencedarevelation,whichshehasexplainedasthewishtosendaSOSto'allblack
peopleintaverns,alleys,gutters,schools,offices,factories,prisons,theconsulate,pulpits,mines,farms,thronestoteach,toentertain,toillumine'.ThenewBrooks
speakstoblackreadersaboutissuesespeciallyofidentity,ofteninfreeverseandasameasureofhercommitmentsheswitchedherallegiancefromHarperto
BroadsidePress,Detroit,whichexiststoencourageyoungblackwriters,forthepublicationofRiot(1970)andsubsequentcollections.OnthedeathofSANDBURG,she
wasin1968namedPoetLaureateofIllinois.In198586shewasthefirstblackwomantobePoetryConsultanttotheLibraryofCongress.SeeReportfromPart
One:anAutobiography,1973ReportfromPart2,newedn1993(autobiography)HarryB.Shaw,GwendolynBrooks,1980(criticalstudy).
Brown,CharlesBrockden(17711810)
Americannovelist,wasborninPhiladelphiatoQuakerparents,andwaseducatedatFriends'LatinSchooluntilhewas16,whenhewasapprenticedtoalawfirm.At
21hepersuadedhisparentsofthedubiousmoralityofdefendingawrongcause,andwasinsteadallowedtopursuealiterarycareer.Hisfirstnovel,'SkyWalk',was
finishedin1797butneverappeared,owingtothesuddendeathofthepublisher.WithAlcuin:aDialogue(1798),America'sfirstprofessionalnovelistbeganan
astonishingburstofcreativeactivity.Wieland:or,TheTransformation.AnAmericanTale(1798)waspublishedinNewYorkduringtheyellowfeverepidemicin
whichtheradicalElihuHubbardSmith,Brown'sclosestfriend,died.HethenpublishedinquicksuccessionOrmond:or,TheSecretWitness(1799),Arthur
Mervyn:or,MemoirsoftheYear1793(17991800),EdgarHuntly:or,MemoirsofaSleepWalker(1799),ClaraHoward:InaSeriesofLetters(1801in
BritainasPhilipStanley:or,TheEnthusiasmofLove,1807),andJaneTalbot:aNovel(1801).Allhismajorwritinghadnowbeendone.Fortherestofhis
literarylifehelargelyconfinedhimselftopoliticalpamphleteering.AsanovelistheusedacceptedformssuchastheGothicromanceandthetaleofseductionasthe
basisfortheexplorationofintellectualideasandpsychologicalfactors.SeeDonaldA.Ringe,CharlesBrockdenBrown,rev.edn1991(criticalstudy).
Brown,Christy(193281)
Irishnovelistandpoet,wasborninDublin,oneof13of21childrenofabricklayerwholivedtobeadults.Almosttotallyparalysedfrombirthbycerebralpalsy,
throughhisownandhismother'sdetermination,andtheencouragementandteachingofthedramatistDrRobertCollis(190075),hemanagedtotype,withhislittle
toe,MyLeftFoot(1954),aclassicautobiographywhichisallthemoremovingfortherestraintofitsfeelinganditsspareprose.DownAlltheDays(1970)isa
fictional,moreelaboratelywritten,versionofthesameevents.Hisverse,firstpublishedinComeSoftlytoMyWake(1970),hasflashesofinspiration.SeeCollected
Poems,newedn1990.
Brown,GeorgeDouglas
seeDOUGLAS,GEORGE.
Brown,GeorgeMackay(192196)
Scottishpoet,novelist,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninStromness,Orkney,thesonofapostman,andwaseducatedatStromnessAcademy,going
outsidetheislandforthefirsttimewhenhewas25.Illnesspreventedhimfromcontinuinghiseducationuntil1957,whenhewenttoNewbattleAbbeyCollege(of
whichMUIRwasthenWarden),andagainuntil1962,whenhewenttoEdinburghUniversity.TherestofhislifewasspentinStromness,visitingEnglandjustonce,in
1989,whenhesawthesightsofLondonandOxford,witnessedtheelectionofHEANEYasProfessorofPoetry,andvisitedsomeofthehauntsofCardinalNEWMAN.He
wrote:'Mostislands...havearichtraditionofsongandmusic.ThisisnotsoinOrkney....ArtinOrkneyhasdevoteditselfinthemaintotheproductionofstories:
thenoisesandsoundscomefromthegravemouthofthestoryteller.'OrkneybelongedtoNorwayuntil1468,anditsunusualPictish/Vikinghistoryandfolklore,its
communalandreligiouslife,itsruggedlandscapeandchangefulskies,andthecontinualpresenceoftheseawhichisbothfriendandenemy,providedthethemesfor
hisfournovels,Greenvoe(1972),Magnus(1973),Vinland(1992),andBesidetheOceanofTime(1994),fortwonovellas,publishedtogetherasTheGolden
Birds(1987),forabookofessays,AnOrkneyTapestry(1969),andformanyofhisshortstoriesandpoemshisfirstvolumeofversewasappropriatelycalledThe
Storm(1954)andalateroneTheWreckoftheArchangel(1989).Muchofhispoetryisconcernedtoowiththeritualsandrhythmsoflife,death,andresurrection
hebecameaCatholicin1961.HewasmadeOBEin1974.SeeSelectedPoems19541992,newedn1996FollowingaLark:Poems,1996(finalcollection)
WinterTales,newedn1996(stories).
Browne,Frances(181679)
Irishpoet,novelist,andchildren'swriter,knownas'theblindpoetessofDonegal',wasborninthemountainvillageofStranorlar,theseventhof12childrenofthe
postmaster.Blindedbysmallpoxininfancy,shebribedhersib

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lingstoreadouttheirschoolworktoher,inreturnfordoingtheirshareofthehousework.InthiswayshealsolistenedtothenovelsofWALTERSCOTT,POPE'SIliad,and
BYRON'SChildeHarold.In1840,afterhearingabookofIrishsongs,shecomposedapoem,'TheSongsofOurLand',whichwaspublishedintheIrishPenny
Journal.SubsequentpoemsappearedintheAthenaeum,Hood'sMagazine,andLadyBlessington'sKeepsake,withacompletevolume,TheStarofAttghi,the
VisionofSchwartz,andOtherPoemsbeingpublishedinLondonin1844.Withherearnings,sheeducatedasistertobecomeherreaderandscribe.Havingbeen
awardedasmallCivilListpension,shewentin1847withhersistertoliveinEdinburgh,whereLyricsandMiscellaneousPoems(1848)waspublished,andwhere
shemixedinthesameliterarycirclesasJOHNWILSON.In1852shemovedtoLondon,andreceivedagiftof100fromthe3rdMarquisofLansdowne(17801863).
Thoughshewrotehistoricalnovelsandshortstories,andasentimentalnovelofstruggleandultimatedisillusionment,MyShareoftheWorld:anAutobiography
(1861),sheisrightlyrememberedforGranny'sWonderfulChair,andItsTalesofFairyTimes(1857),whichincorporateseightoriginalfairystories.Thesepresent
Christianmoralsinsuchanimaginativeandcompellingfashionthatin1887BURNETTreproducedmuchofthemfrommemoryinanAmericanmagazineas'Storiesfrom
theLostFairyBookasRetoldbytheChildWhoReadThem'.
Browne,(Sir)Thomas(160582)
Englishprosewriter,wasborninLondon,theonlysonofasilkdealer.HewaseducatedatWinchesterCollegeandPembrokeCollege,Oxford,thenstudied
medicineontheContinent,becomingMDofOxfordUniversityin1637.HesetuppracticeinNorwich,whereheremainedfortherestofhislife,beingknightedby
CharlesIIin1671asthemostdistinguishedcitizenofthetown.Hismajorwork,ReligioMedici,whichhewroteinabout1636,attemptstoreconcilesciencewith
religion,andotherapparentlycontradictoryelementswitheachother.Itwaspublishedinanauthorizedversionin1643.PseudodoxiaEpidemica:orEnquiriesinto
VerymanyreceivedTenetsAndcommonlypresumedTruths(1646),morecommonlyreferredtoas'VulgarErrors',rangeswidelyinscience,medicine,ritual,and
biblicalhistory.Hydriotaphia:UrneBuriall(1658)isatreatiseoncremation,inspiredbythediscoveryinNorfolkofsomeancientfuneraryurns.Itwaspublished
withTheGardenofCyrus,anextraordinaryspeculationabouttheexistenceofthe'quincunx,lozenge,ornetwork'patterninheavenandonearth,usingasastarting
pointthepatterninwhichCyrustheGreatissaidtohaveplantedhistreesinthe6thcenturyBC.ThedistinctionofBrowne'swritingisnotonlyinthebreadthof
thoughtandlearning,butintheproseitself:clausesareskilfullyfashionedlikelinguisticbricksandbuiltupintoresoundingperiods.HisblendofEnglishandclassical
(especiallyLatin)usage,intheexerciseofwhichhecoined'electricity'andotherusefulterms,representstheultimatein17thcenturyintricacyofstyle.SeeTheMajor
Works,ed.C.A.Patrides,1977SelectedWritings,ed.SirGeoffreyKeynes,1968JoanBennett,SirThomasBrowne:'aManofAchievementinLiterature',
1962(criticalstudy).
Browine,ThomasAlexander
seeBoldrewood.
Browning,ElizabethBarrett(180661)
neMoultonBarrett,Britishpoet,wasbornatCoxhoeHall,Co.Durham,theeldestof11childrenofanautocraticownerofWestIndianplantations,whosewifedied
in1827.Initiallyeducatedalongsideherbrother,shebecameaproficientclassicistandacquiredseveralmodernlanguages.Someofherearlyversewasprivately
printed.ThepublicationofPoems(1844),writtenathomeinLondonduringaperiodofseclusioncausedbyillhealth,ledtoacorrespondencewithBROWNINGsee
DanielKarlin,TheCourtshipofRobertBrowningandElizabethBarrett(1985).Fearingaconfrontationwithherfather,thecouplemarriedsecretlyin1846and
elopedtoItaly,wheretheysettledinFlorenceseeJuliaMarkus,DaredandDone:theMarriageofElizabethBarrettandRobertBrowning(1995).Thereshe
tookastronglypartisaninterestinthestrugglefortheunificationoftheItalianstates,whichtookpoeticforminCasaGuidiWindows(1851)andPoemsBefore
Congress(1860).Admiredasapoetinherlifetime,whenshewasmorehighlyregardedthanherhusband,shehassufferedadeclineinreputation,althoughthecase
forareappraisaliswellarguedinAletheaHayter,MrsBrowning:aPoet'sWorkinItsSetting(1962).AuroraLeigh(1856),alengthyromanticnovelinverse,has
receivedattentionasafeministwork,butherreputationrestsmainlyonSonnetsfromthePortugueseinPoems(1850)firstpublishedseparatelyunderthistitlein
1886atechnicallynearperfectcelebrationofherloveforBrowning,andsomelatelyrics,notably'AMusicalInstrument'and'BiancaamongtheNightingales'.See
AuroraLeighandOtherPoems,ed.J.R.G.BoltonandJ.B.Holloway,1995SelectedPoems,ed.MargaretForster,newedn1996MargaretForster,
ElizabethBarrettBrowning,newedn1990(biography)PeterDaily,ElizabethBarrettBrowningaPsychologicalPortrait,1989DorothyMermin,Elizabeth
BarrettBrowning:theOriginsofaNewPoetry,1989(criticalstudy).
Browning,Robert(181289)
Britishpoet,wasborninCamberwell,London,and

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educatedatPeckhamSchooluntilhewas14,andlateratLondonUniversity,fromwhichhedroppedoutaftersixmonths.Hisfather,amildmanwhohadbecomea
BankofEnglandclerkafterbeingunabletostomachadministeringplantationsinStKittswithslavelabour,gavehimafirmgroundinginclassicsandliteratureandthe
runofhislibraryofsixthousandvolumeshismother,towhomhewasdeeplyattached,instructedhiminreligionandmusic.Untilhewas34,helivedathome,
supportedbyhisfather.In1833hisfamily'sfaithinhispoeticdestinywasjustifiedbythepublicationofPauline,apieceofromanticsoulbaring,partsofwhichhe
laterregretted.Paracelsus(1835),aseriesofdramaticdialoguesinwhichheusedsettingsinmedievalEuropeforanexpositionoftheconflictbetweenloveand
knowledge,wasadmiredbythecritics.HispassionforItalyinspiredSordello(1840),anexcursionintothephilosophyofthepoeticsoulagainstabackgroundofthe
warsoftheGuelphsandGhibellines.ThatthepoemisobscureisduetoBrowning'sconvictionthathisaudiencewasaswidelyreadashewasandtohisreluctanceto
revealhisinnerself.InthemeantimehisplayStrafford(1837)hadrunforonlyfivenights.TwomorehistoricaldramaswererejectedbytheactormanagerW.C.
Macready(17931873),whoacceptedABlotinthe'Scutcheonwithmisgivings.Itwasperformedjustthreetimesin1843andmarkedBrowning'sendasa
dramatist(Colombe'sBirthday,writtenatthesametime,hadaweek'srunin1853),butnotasadramaticpoet.
Between1841and1846hepublishedeightbooksofverseundertheseriestitleofBellsandPomegranates.PippaPasses(No.I)comprisesfourItalianatescenes
inwhichevilplotsarecontrastedwiththeinnocenceofthesilkworker,Pippa,whoappearsonthescenebutdoesnotinterveneintheaction.DramaticLyrics(II),
whichmarkedhisgreatestchangeofattitudeandform,includedthemonologues,indifferentmetresandrhythms,'MyLastDuchess'and'SoliloquyoftheSpanish
Cloister''ThePiedPiperofHamelin'(writtentoamuseMacready'ssonWillywhenhewasill)theallusivedialogue'InaGondola'andthegrimstorypoem
'Porphyria'sLover'.DramaticRomancesandLyrics(VII)containedthefinereligiousmonologue'TheBishopOrdersHisTombatStPraxed'sChurch'thelyrics,
'HomeThoughtsfromAbroad'and'MeetingatNight'andthegallopingbutwhollyimaginary'HowTheyBroughttheGoodNewsfromGhenttoAix'.Afterhis
marriagein1846(seeE.B.BROWNING),heandhiswifelivedinFlorenceuntilherdeathin1861duringthistime,inspiteofthedistractionofthehyperactivechildhoodof
theirson,thesculptorRobert'Pen'Browning(18491912)seeMaisieWard,TheTragiComedyofPenBrowning(1972)itwasshewhowasthemore
productive.ApartfromChristmasEveandEasterDay(1850),whichvividlyexploresthethreefoldchoiceofworshipthenexercisingChristians,hisonlynewwork
wasMenandWomen(1855),comprising50poems(plus'OneWordMore:toE.B.B.')whichincludehismostoutspokenstatementsofsexuallove,aswellas'Fra
LippoLippi'and'AndreadelSarto',andtheromance,'ChildeRolandtotheDarkTowerCame'.AfterElizabethdied,hereturnedwithPentoLondon,whereonhis
father'sdeathin1866hisonlysister,Sarianna,cametokeephouseforhimhisproposalofmarriagetoLadyAshburtonin1871wascouchedsoundiplomatically
thatitcouldonlyberefused.DramatisPersonae(1864)containedthelastofhisshorterpoemsofquality,butTheRingandtheBook(186869)placedhimin
popularacclaimsecondonlytoTENNYSONamonglivingpoets.Throughdramaticmonologuesinblankverse,itretellsthecaseofCountGuidoFranceschini,accusedin
1698ofmurderinghisteenagewife.Browningfoundtheluridandthelegaldetailsina'squareoldyellowbook'hehadpickeduponaFlorentinemarketstallin1860.
HediedinVeniceonthedayhislastbook,Asolando:FanciesandFacts(dated1890)waspublished,andwasburiedinWestminsterAbbey.
JustasthespeakerinaBrowningmonologuemasksthepoetfromthereader,soBrowning'souterpersonaobscuredacharacterwhichpuzzledhiscontemporaries.
Hewasconcernedtousegrotesqueaswellasconventionalsubjects,andbrokenrhythms,discordances,andcolloquialisms,aswellaspassagesofbeauty,to
demonstratethedeviousworkingsofthemind,particularlywhenitisunderstress.IndoingsohebroughtVictorianpoetryintothe20thcentury.SeeThePoems,ed.
JohnPettigrewandThomasJ.Collins,2vols1981DonaldThomas,RobertBrowning:aLifeWithinLife,newedn1989PhilipDrew,ThePoetryofRobert
Browning:aCriticalIntroduction,1970JohnWoolfordandDanielKarlin,RobertBrowning,1996(criticalstudy).
Brownjohn,Alan(b.1931)
poet,wasborninCatford,southeastLondon,andeducatedatBrockleyCountySchoolandMertonCollege,Oxford.Hisfirstbookofverse,TheRailings,forwhich
hedevisedthedescriptivelegend,'Poemsconcernedwithlove,politics,culture,time',waspublishedin1961.HewasaboroughcouncillorforWandsworthfrom
1963to1965,duringwhichtimehestoodforParliamentasLabourcandidateforRichmond,Surrey.HewasSeniorLecturerinEnglish,BatterseaCollegeof
Education196579,andTutorinPoetry,NorthLondonPolytechnic198183.HewasPoetryCriticfortheNewStatesmanfrom1968to1976,andhasbeena
memberoftheArtsCouncilLiterature

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PanelandChairmanoftheGreaterLondonArtsAssociationLiteraturePanel.ADCOCKhasdescribedhimashaving'anarrativegiftandasocialconscience',who'can
beafiercesatirist',andhispoemsasbeing'elegantlyandingeniouslymade'.Ofthetwolongerpoemswhicharetheframeworkofarecentcollection,The
ObservatoryCar(1990),'SeaPictures'illustrateshisnarrativetechnique,and'TheAutomaticDays'thesocialcommentary,throughayearintheexistenceofa
departmentstore.IntheCruelArcade(1994)containsreflectionsonchildhoodaswellasoncurrenteventsandtheanomaliesoflife.Anovel,TheWayYouTell
Them:aYarnoftheNineties(1990),isajestful,quasipolitical,fantasyofthefuture.Hehasalsowrittenforchildrenabookofpoems,Brownjohn'sBeasts(1970),
and(asJohnBerrington)anovel,ToCleartheRiver(1964).SeeCollectedPoems19521988,1988.
Brutus,Dennis(b.1924)
SouthAfricanpoet,wasborninSalisbury,SouthernRhodesia(Zimbabwe),bothhisparentsbeingteachers.Hewasbroughtupasa'coloured'inPortElizabeth,
SouthAfrica,andgraduatedfromFortHareUniversityCollege.AfterbeingdismissedfromhisteachingpostatGovernmentHighSchool,PortElizabeth,in1962,he
studiedlawatWitwatersrandUniversity.Hisactiveoppositiontoapartheid,particularlyinsport,ledtohisarrest,tohisbeingshotwhiletryingtoescape,andtohis
beingsentencedto18months'hardlabour,duringwhichhisfirstbookofverse,Sirens,Knuckles,Boots(1963)waspublishedinNigeria.Hehasexplainedthat
'everypoem[init]waswrittenforaparticularpersonortoserveaparticularfunction',inmuchthesamewayasmostofthoseinLetterstoMarthaandOther
PoemsfromaSouthAfricanPrison(1968)werewrittenasletters,sincehewasbannedfromwritingpoetry.HeleftforEnglandonaRhodesianpassportin1966,
andbecamecloselyandvigorouslyinvolvedwithantiapartheidorganizations,beinginstrumental,asPresidentoftheSouthAfricanNonRacialOpenCommitteefor
OlympicSports(SANROC),forSouthAfrica'sexclusionfromtheGames.In1971hewenttotheUSA,wherehetaughtEnglishatNorthwesternUniversity,
Evanston.HebecameChairmanoftheDepartmentofBlackCommunityEducationalResearchandDevelopmentatPittsburghUniversityin1986.Hispoetryreflects
hispersonalconflictwithapartheid,andhasitsowninnertensions,withelementsoflaughter,forasheadmittedinaninterview,'Ienjoythefight.'Laterverse,asin
StubbornHope(rev.edn1991),reflectsabroaderviewofThirdWorldproblemsseealsoStilltheSirens:Poems(1994).SeeASimpleLust:SelectedPoems,
1973andinAlastairNiven(ed.),TheCommonwealthWriterOverseas:ThemesofExileandExpatriation,1976.
Bryan,Michael
seeMoore,Brian.
Bryant,WilliamCullen(17941878)
Americanpoetandnewspapereditor,wasborninCummingtoninthebackwoodsofMassachusetts,thesonofaclassicallyminded,Calvinistphysician.Hehada
poemprintedintheHampshireGazettewhenhewas13,andin1808hisfatherprintedhispoliticallampoon,TheEmbargo,orSketchesoftheTimes:aSatire.He
enteredWilliamsCollegein1810,butleftafterayeartogotoYale,onlytofindthathisfathercouldnotraisethefees.Insteadhestudiedlaw,whichhebeganto
practiseinGreatBarringtonin1816.'Thanatopsis',areflectivedialoguewithNatureinblankverse,waspublishedin1817intheNorthAmericanReview,whose
editorpressedhimformore.Hereplied:'Imayperhaps,sometimeorother,venturealittlecollectioninprintforIdonotwritemuchandshoulditbefavourably
receiveditmaygivememorecouragetodosomethingmore.'Hedulycameupwithaveryslimvolume,Poems(1821enlargededn1832),publishedintheyearof
hismarriage.In1825hemadeamovetoNewYork,whereheeditedtheNewYorkReviewandAthenaeumMagazine,afterwhosefailurein1826hejoinedthe
staffoftheEveningPost,ofwhichhebecamepartownerandEditorinChiefin1829.Thebusinessprospered,andhewenttravelling,aboutwhichhewroteLetters
ofaTraveller:or,NotesofThingsSeeninEuropeandAmerica(1850),andsubsequentvolumes(1859,1869).Hepublishedjusttwomorecollectionsofpoetry
(1846,1864),incorporatedinThePoeticalWorksofWilliamCullenBryant(1878),aworkwhichmarksthetransitionbetweenthetraditionalistsandthe
emergenceofthenewschoolsofpoetry.Hehadadistinguishedpubliclifeandunboundedenergyinhisseventiesheembarkedonaversetranslationofthewholeof
HOMER(187072).HewasamillionairewhenhediedfromtheeffectsofafallafterspeakinginCentralParkattheunveilingofastatuetotheItalianpatriot,
GiuseppeMazzini(180572).
Bryher
seeDoolittle.
Buchan,John(18751940)
Scottishnovelist,biographer,andstatesman,wasborninPerth,thesonofaFreeChurchminister,andwaseducatedatHutcheson'sBoysSchoolandBrasenose
College,Oxford,wherehewontheStanhopehistoricalessayprizeandtheNewdigateprizeforpoetry,wasPresidentoftheUnion,andgotafirstinGreats.Hewas
calledtotheBar,workedinSouthAfricaonthestaffoftheHighCommissionand,onhisreturn,becameajournal

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ist.In1927hewaselectedConservativeMemberofParliamentfortheScottishuniversities,aseathehelduntil1935,when,asLordTweedsmuirofElfield,hewas
appointedGovernorGeneralofCanada.(TheannualGovernorGeneral'sAwardsforLiterature,ofwhichtherearenow14,wereestablishedinCanadain1937with
hisapprovalandencouragement.)Hewrotehisfirstnovel,PresterJohn(1910),becausehewas'appalledbythedullnessofmostboys'books'.Hissubsequent
successasawriterofadventurestories,thefirstofwhich,TheThirtyNineSteps(1915),waswrittenwhilehewasconfinedtobedbyillness,wasduenotonlytohis
plotsandsettings,butalsototherealisticdetailwithwhichhedelineateshisvariousheroesseeTheCompleteRichardHannay(1992).Thesebookshavetended
toobscurehisinfluenceinotherfieldsofliterature.Poems,ScotsandEnglish(1917rev.edn1936)containssomegoodnaturepoetryinScotsseealsoJohn
Buchan'sCollectedPoems,ed.AndrewLownieandWilliamMilne(1996),whilehisanthologyofScottishverse,TheNorthernMuse(1924),wasthefirstofits
kind.Hewroteseveralfinebiographies,ofwhichthatofMONTROSE(1928)istheclassicstudy,andSirWalterScott(1932)containsprecise,ifsometimes
unnecessarilyapologetic,criticism.Hissister,AnnaBuchan(18771948),wroteanautobiographicalstudyofthefamily,Unforgettable,Unforgotten(1945),and(as
O.Douglas)severalnovelsofwhichtheromanticPennyPlain(1920)isstillremembered.SeeTheCompleteShortStories,ed.AndrewLownie,3vols1996
MemoryHoldtheDoor,newedn1984(autobiography)AndrewLownie,JohnBuchan:thePresbyterianCavalier,1995(biography).
Buchanan,George(150682)
Scottishhumanistandhistorian,wasbornintheparishofKillearn,Stirlingshire,andeducatedatthelocalschooluntilhewas14,andthenfortwoyearsinParis.After
servingwiththeFrenchtroopsintheBorders,keepingtheEnglishatbay,hestudiedunderthehistorianJohnMajor(14691550)atStAndrewsUniversity,andthen
returnedtoParisasastudentandthenteacher.In1536hecamebacktoScotlandandwasappointedtutortoanillegitimatesonofJamesV,whoalsocommissioned
himtowritesomesatiresagainsttheFranciscans.Hewrotethese,aswasusualforhim,inLatin,thenormalmediumofacademiccommunicationinScotlanduntilthe
18thcentury,andtheirappealtothelearnedelementresultedinhishavingtoescapetoEuropetoavoidconvictionforheresy.Hecamebacksometwentyyearslater
asLatintutortoMary,QueenofScots,onherreturntohercountry,hisclaimsasascholaroutweighinghisProtestantinclinationstheseheopenlydeclaredbyhis
supportofthenewGeneralAssemblyoftheChurchofScotland,ofwhichhewaselectedModeratorin1567.HisrelationshipwithMarywentsourafterthemurder
ofherhusband,LordDarnley,in1567,andevensourerwhenin1568,aftershehadbeenimprisonedinEngland,hepublishedaviciousattackonher,Detectio
MariaeReginaeScotorum,inwhichhequotedfromsomeofthenotorious'CasketLetters'seeinTheTyrannousReignofMaryStewart,ed.andtr.W.A.
Gatherer(newedn1978).HewastutortoJAMESV!untiltheboyKingwas12.DeJureRegniapudScotos(1579),hismostsignificantpoliticalwork,isatreatise
onmonarchyandajustificationofJames'saccessioninplaceofhismother,athemewhichrecursinBuchanan's20volumehistoryofScotland,publishedin1582.He
alsowrote,inLatin,twoclassicaldramas(translatedintoScotsbyGARIOCH),originalpoetry,andmetricalversionsofthePsalms.Hisonlynotableworkinthe
vernacularofthetimeisTheChamaeleon,anappropriatelytitledproseattackontheexQueen'sunfortunatesecretary,WilliamMaitlandofLethington(c.152573).
SeeI.D.Mcfarlane,Buchanan,1981(biography).
Buck,PearlS(ydenstricker)(18921973)
Americannovelistandnonfictionwriter,wasborninHillsboro,WestVirginia,whilehermissionaryparents,AbsalomandCarolineSydenstricker,wereonleavefrom
China,whereshewastakenafewmonthslater.ShewaseducatedatmissionschoolsandhadaprivatetutorinChineselanguageandculture,beforegoingtoa
boardingschoolinShanghaiin1909,andthentoRandolphMaconWomen'sCollege,Virginia.Aftergraduatingin1914shereturnedtoChinatolookafterhersick
mother,andin1917marriedJohnLossingBuck,anAmericanagriculturistemployedbythePresbyterianMissionBoard.Between1921and1931shetaughtat
universitiesinNanking,andwrotetwonovels,oneofwhichwasdestroyedwhensoldiersenteredherhomeduringtherevolutionin192627.Theother,EastWind:
WestWind,thefirstofmanywithaChinesebackground,waspublishedin1930aftershehad,atthepublisher'srequest,revisedtheliterarystyle.TheGoodEarth
(1931),asagaofapeasantfamilyinanarrativestylewhichisbasicallyChinese,wonthePulitzerPrize.In1934shetookuppermanentresidenceintheUSA,and,
afteradivorce,marriedin1935RichardJ.Walsh(d.1960),PresidentofthepublisherJohnDay,withwhomsheadoptedeightchildren.In1936shepublishedThe
ExileandFightingAngelinonevolumeasTheSpiritandtheFlesh(1944)biographiesrespectivelyofhermotherandfather.Thesewerethedecisivefactorin
herbeingawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1938.Hersubsequentoutputoffictionandnonfictionwasasvastasitwasuneveninqualityshealsowrote
severalnovelsonAmericanthemesasJohnSedges.She

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foundedtheEastandWestAssociationforinternationalunderstandingin1941,WelcomeHouse,anadoptionagencyforAsianAmericanchildren,in1949,andthe
PearlS.BuckFoundation,tocareforAsianchildrenofhalfAmericanparentage,in1964.SeePeterConn,PearlS.Buck:aCulturalBiography,1996PaulA.
Doyle,PearlS.Buck,rev.edn1980(criticalstudy).
Buckler,Ernest(190884)
Canadiannovelist,wasborninDalhousieWest,NovaScotia,andeducatedatDalhousieandTorontouniversities.AfterafewyearsworkingforaTorontoinsurance
companyinthe1930s,hereturnedtoruralNovaScotia,whichisthesettingofmanyofhisshortstoriesseeTheRebellionofYoungDavidandOtherStories,ed.
RobertD.Chambers(1975).Hisfirstnovel,TheMountainandtheValley(1952),alsosetintheAnnapolisValley,isprimarilyastudyofartisticdevelopmentand
unfulfilment.TheprotagonistofTheCruelestMonth(1963)isareclusewhoseawkwardpersonalityisultimatelypurgedthroughaforestfire.Thepleasantrural
sketchesandreminiscenceswhichmakeupOxBellsandFireflies(1968)arelargelyrecreationsofBuckler'sownchildhood.SeeJohnOrange,ErnestBuckler
andHisWorks,1990.
Bulgakov,Mikhail(18911940)
Russiannovelistanddramatist,wasborninKiev,qualifiedasadoctoratKievUniversityin1916,servedatthefront,andthenpractisedinKiev.In1921hegaveup
hiscareerandmovedtoMoscow,whereforseveralyearsheflourishedasajournalist,writerofcomicstories,anddramatist.Headapted[TheWhiteGuard](1927
29tr.MichaelGlenny,1971),anonBolshevikcivilwarnovelreflectingtheexperiencesofhisownfamily,forthestageas[TheDaysoftheTurbins](tr.inEarly
Plays,ed.EllendeaProffer,1972).In1930,bywhichtimenoneofhisworkswerebeingpublishedorperformedanymore,hewrotetoStalinaskingtobeexpelled
withhiswifefromtheUSSR.TheresponsewasanenigmaticphonecallfromStalinhimself,withthesuggestionofajobattheMoscowArtTheatre.ThoughThe
DaysoftheTurbinswasrestoredtothetheatre'srepertoire,andputbackagainatStalin'srequestafterbeingdropped,thebanonhisworkcontinuedandfurther
appealstoStalinwereignored.BulgakovnowworkedintensivelyonhisphilosophicalfantasyoftheDevil'svisittocontemporaryMoscow,[TheMasterand
Margarita],arecurringmotifofwhichisthepostulation,'manuscriptsdon'tburn'.In1939,shortlybeforehewentblindanddied,hewroteinaletter,'nothinghas
everworkedoutasIwished'.TheMasterandMargaritawasfinallyserializedinthejournalMoskvain196667,andappearedinEnglish(tr.Glenny)in1967,two
yearsbeforeitsfullpublicationinitsoriginallanguage.
BulwerLytton,Edward(George)(180373)
Britishnovelist,dramatist,poet,andpolitician,wasborninLondon,thethirdsonofGeneralWilliamBulwer(17571807)andElizabethLytton,onwhosedeathin
1843hesucceededtoherancestralhomeofKnebworth,Hertfordshire,andtooktheadditionalsurnameofLytton.Afteradisjointedearlyeducation,heentered
TrinityCollege,Cambridge,butpersuadedhismothertolethimtransfertoTrinityHall,wherehedidnothavetoattendlectures,onthegroundsthatatutorhad
insultedhim.In1827hepublishedhisfirstnovel,Falkland,andmuchagainsthismother'swillmarriedRosinaWheeler(180282),anIrishwomanofexceptional
beauty.Theywerelegallyseparatedin1836,afterwhicheachpersecutedtheother.Theneedformoneydrovehimtodiversifyandstretchhisliterarytalents.Pelham
(1828)takesalightheartedlookatfashionablesocietyPaulClifford(1830)andEugeneAram(1833)arepsychologicalstoriesofcrimeTheLastDaysof
Pompeii(1834),virtuallytheonlynovelforwhichheisnowremembered,isthefirstofseveralinwhichhistoryandromancetendtoalternateratherthancoalesce.
LaterhebranchedintothesupernaturalwithZanoni(1842),intorealisticstoriesofcontemporarylifewithTheCaxtons:aFamilyPicture(1849),andeveninto
UtopiansatirewithTheComingRace(1871).KingArthur(184849),anepicpoem,isbestforgotten,buttwoofhisthreeplaysarereallyrathergood:Richlieu
(1839),ahistoricalmelodramainblankverse,andMoney(1840),acontemporarycomedyofmannersandchangesoffortune.
HewasaMemberofParliament183141and185266,beingappointedSecretaryfortheColoniesin1858andcreatedLordLyttonofKnebworthin1866.The
DramaticCopyrightActof1833,whichfinallygrantedtotheauthor,foralimitedperiod,therighttoauthorizeaperformance,isknownasBulwerLytton'sAct.In
1856and1858hewaselectedLordRectorofGlasgowUniversity,thefirstEnglishmantoholdtheofficetwice.HediedinthearmsofhissonEdwardRobertBulwer
Lytton(183191),whowasViceroyofIndiafrom1876to1880,whenhewascreatedEarlofLytton.AsOwenMeredith,theEarlofLyttonwrotesomerather
derivativepoetryandseveralversenovels,ofwhichtheposthumouslypublishedKingPoppy(1892)isthemostoriginalandamusing.
Bunin,Ivan(Alekseievich)(18701953)
Russiannovelist,poet,andtranslator,wasborninVoronezhofa'noblebutimpoverishedfamily',hadaprivatetutor,studiedbrieflyatMoscowUniversity,and
publishedhisfirstpoemsin1887andhisfirst

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storiesshortlyafterwards.Heservedhisliteraryapprenticeshipasaprovincialjournalist,andin1903wonthePUSHKINPrizeforhispoetryandforhistranslationsof
BYRON'SCainandLONGFELLOW'STheSongofHiawatha.Hispopularityasashortstorywriterandnovelistwasfoundedonhispseudorealistictreatmentsof
contemporaryrurallife,suchas[TheVillage](1910tr.IsabelHapgood,1923).HetravelledinEurope,NorthAfrica,andtheMiddleEast,fledfromMoscowto
OdessaaftertheRevolutionof1917,towhichhewasfirmlyopposed,andfinallyescapedtoFrance.HisfirstappearanceinEnglishwasTheGentlemanfromSan
FranciscoandOtherStories,translatedbyD.H.LAWRENCE,S.S.Koteliansky,andLEONARDWOOLF(1922).Thefirstpartofhisautobiographicalnovelofthepre
revolutionaryerawaspublishedin1930(tr.GlebeStruveandHamishMilesasTheWellofDays,UK1933,USA1934ed.AndrewBaruchWachtel,withBook5
tr.HeidiHillis,SusanMcKean,andSvenA.WolfasTheLifeofArseniev:Youth,1994).HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1933,thefirstRussian
toreceivetheaward,'forthestrictartistrywithwhichhehascarriedontheclassicalRussiantraditionsinprosewritings'.Heandhiswife,whomhehadmarriedin
1922aftershehadbeenhiscompanionfor16years,escapedtofurtherexileinthesouthofFrancewhentheNazisoccupiedParisduringWorldWarII.Hediedin
Parisinvirtualobscurity,alastvolumeofstories,DarkAvenues,tr.RichardHare,havingappearedin1949.SeeThomasGaitonMarullo(ed.),IvanBunin:a
PortraitfromLetters,Diaries,andFiction,2vols,RussianRequiem18851920,1993,andFromtheOtherShore19201933,1995.
Bunting,Basil(190085)
Britishpoet,wasborninScotswoodonTyne,Northumberland,thesonofadoctor,andwaseducatedatNewcastleRoyalGrammarSchool,AckworthSchool,
Yorkshire,andLeightonParkSchool.In1918hewasjailedasaQuakerconscientiousobjectortomilitaryservice.HewasattheLondonSchoolofEconomicsfrom
1919to1922,withouttakingadegree.In1923heassistedFORDMADOXFORDtoeditthetransatlanticreviewinParis,wherehemetPOUND,andhewasforatime
musiccriticofOutlook.Inthe1930shelivedintheUSA,theCanaryIslands,andItaly,whereRedimiculumMatellarum(1930)waspublished.Hisconscience
allowedhimtoserveinWorldWarII,duringwhichhebecameaPersianinterpreterintheMiddleEastsee'TheSpoils'(1951).Hereturnedthereafterwardsas
PersiancorrespondentforTheTimes,butfor12yearsfrom1952heworkedasasubeditorfortheNewcastleChronicle,andwrotenothing.Hisrecognitionasa
poetfollowedthepublicationoftheautobiographicalBriggflatts(1966),afterwhichhewasPresidentofthePoetrySociety197276,andheldvariousteachingposts
intheUSA,withoutevermanagingtomakeacomfortableliving.InthePrefacetoCollectedPoems(rev.edn1978),hewrote:'Ihavesetdownwordsasamusician
prickshisscore,nottobereadinsilence,buttotraceintheairapatternofsoundthatmaysometimes,Ihope,bepleasing.'Inwiththesoundsareallusionstoand
echoesofolderpoets,includingHORACE,DANTE,VILLON,SPENSER,WORDSWORTH,WHITMAN,andPOUND.SeeTheCompletePoems,ed.RichardCaddel,1994PeterMakin,
Bunting:theShapingofHisVerse,1992(criticalbiography)VictoriaForde,ThePoetryofBasilBunting,1991.
Bunyan,John(162888)
Englishpreacherandprosewriter,wasborninElstow,nearBedford,thesonofatravellingtinker,andlearnedtoreadandwriteatalocalschool.Hewasconscripted
intotheParliamentaryarmyin1644,servingmainlyongarrisondutyuntilhewasdischargedin1647.In1655hebecameafullmemberoftheNonconformistchurch
atBedford,shortlybeforethedeathofitsfounder,JohnGifford(aformerroyalistofficerintheCivilWar),andfrom1656hewaspreachingandpublishingtractsand
pamphlets.Hisfirstwifediedin1658,leavinghimwithfourchildren,theeldestofwhomwasblind.Hemarriedagainin1659.AttheRestorationoftheMonarchyand
thereturnofthebishopsin1660,hewaschargedwithpreachingillegally,andwasofferedthechoiceofstoppinghisreligiousactivitiesorgoingtojail.Hechosethe
latter,andwassentencedto12years,duringwhichhewroteaspiritualautobiography,GraceAboundingtotheChiefofSinners(1666),andmuchifnotallofthe
firstpartofThePilgrim'sProgress,FromThisWorldtoThatWhichistoCome(1678).ThisrehearsesBunyan'sownspiritualstrugglesinallegoricalform,as
Christian,intheauthor'sdream,setsoutfromtheCityofDestruction,havingfailedtoconvincehisfamilytoaccompanyhim.HeextricateshimselffromtheSloughof
Despond,andjourneysthroughvarioushazards,includingtheValleyoftheShadowofDeath,VanityFair,andDoubtingCastle,totheGatesofHeaven,meetingon
thewayObstinate,Pliable,MrWorldlyWiseman,themonsterApollyon,GiantDespair,Ignorance,andothers,andbeinghelpedalongbysundrymorepleasing
qualities.ThePilgrim'sProgressismorethanjustanallegoricalquestromanceorevenanexpressionofPuritanism.Itisastatement,foundedontheauthor's
experienceaswellasonhisbeliefs,ofsupportfortheEnglishpoor,writteninastraightforward,basicallymonosyllabicbutbeautifullyexpressiveprosewhichthe
Englishlabouringman,andhiswife,couldreadilyappreciate.
TherestofBunyan'slifewasoneofheavypastoralduties(hewaselectedtoleadthecongregationin1671),butincludedafurthershorttermofimprisonmentin1677
andperi

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odsspenthidingfromarrest.In1685,fearingafurthertermorperhapsevenasentenceofdeath,hemadeoverhismeagrepropertytohiswife.Hestillfoundtime,
however,forseveralfurtherliteraryworks.TheseincludedTheLifeandDeathofMrBadman,PresentedtotheWorldinaFamiliarDialoguebetweenMr
WisemanandMrAttentive(1680),whichcanalmostbeclassedalsoasarealisticnovelofsociallifeTheHolyWar(1682),inwhichthefieldofbattleisatown
ratherthanthemindofmanandthesecondpartofThePilgrim'sProgress(1684),inwhichChristian'sagedwifeandherchildrenmaketheirownjourney.He
probablydiedfrompneumonia,caughtwhilepreachinginLondon.Ofhisposthumouslypublishedworks,OfAntichristandHisRuin(1692)isthemostnotable.See
TheBestofJohnBunyan,ed.RobertBackhouse,1996ChristopherHill,ATurbulent,SeditiousandFactiousPeople:JohnBunyanandHisChurch,newedn
1989RogerSharrock,JohnBunyan,newedn1984(criticalstudy).
Burgess,AnthonypseudonymofJohnAnthonyBurgessWilson(191793)
Britishnovelistandcritic,wasborninManchester,andeducatedatXaverianCollegeandManchesterUniversity.HewasintheArmyEducationCorpsfrom1940to
1946,becomingasergeantmajor,andservinginGibraltar,thesettingofAVisionofBattlements,hisfirstnovel(notpublisheduntil1965).Afterseveralteaching
postsinEnglishandphonetics,hewasSeniorLecturerinEnglishattheTeacherTrainingCollegeinMalaya195457,fromwhichexperiencehewrotehisseriocomic
TheMalayanTrilogy(1964),theindividualtitlesbeingpublished195659.WhileworkingfortheBruneiDepartmentofEducationin1959,hecollapsedinthe
classroom.Aninoperablebraintumourwasdiagnosed,andhewasgivenoneyeartolive,duringwhichhewrote5novels,toleavetohiswidow,Llewela(Lynne)
IsherwoodJones,whomhehadmarriedin1942.Helivedshediedin1968.HewasnowcontactedbyayoungItalianwomanofaristocraticdescent,Liliana
Macellari,whosefouryearoldsonhadbeenconceivedasaresultofaboutofamorousdallianceduringaninterviewwithBurgessabouthiswriting.Theymarried,
andspentseveralyearstravellingEuropebyvan,beforesettlinginMonaco.Ofthenovelshewrotewhileundersentenceofdeath,thehalf,whencompletedand
publishedasInsideMrEnderby(1963),by'JosephKell'(soasnottoglutthemarket),introducedaneuroticpoet,whoseunusualadventurescontinueinEnderby
Outside(1968)andTheClockworkTestament:or,Enderby'sEnd(1974)seealsoTheCompleteEnderby(1995).Ofmanyotherinventivenovels,thefuturistic
AClockworkOrange(1962)theoriginalversionpublishedinEnglandhadanadditionalfinalchapterachieveddistinctionforitsdazzlingmanipulationoflanguage
andnotorietyfortheviolenceofitstheme.NapoleonSymphony(1974)hasamusicalstructure,befittinganauthorwhowasalsoacomposer.
TheposthumouslypublishedByrne(1995)itwastohavebeencalledTheHuntersAreUpinAmericaisapanoramicnovelofthe20thcenturyinmorethansix
hundredstanzas,modelledonBYRON'SDonJuan.HiscriticalworksincludeanintroductiontoJOYCE(rev.edn1982)andastudyofhislanguage(1973),anda
biographyofSHAKESPEARE(1970).UrgentCopy(1968)isaselectionfromhisnumerousreviews.AMouthfulofAir:LanguageandLanguages,Especially
English(1992)isalivelyintroductiontolinguisticsandphonetics.SeeLittleWilsonandBigGod,newedn1988(autobiographyto1959)You'veHadYourTime:
BeingtheSecondPartoftheConfessionsofAnthonyBurgess,newedn1991.
Burke,Edmund(172997)
Irishpoliticalphilosopher,wasborninDublin(hisfatherwasaProtestantattorneyandhismotheraCatholic),andwaseducatedataQuakerschoolinCo.Kildare
andatTrinityCollege,Dublin.In1750hebeganstudyinglawinLondon,butgaveitupforliteratureagainsthisfather'swill.Hisfirsttwobookswerepublished
anonymously.AVindicationofNaturalSociety(1756)isanironicattackontheviewsofBOLINGBROKE.InAPhilosophicalEnquiryintotheOriginofourIdeasof
theSubhmeandBeautiful(1757)hedistinguishesbetweenthesublime(whichcanbebornofmysteryorevenofhorror)andbeauty(whichisfoundedonlove).He
enteredParliamentin1765,andwasaleadinglightoftheWhigsuntilhisretirementin1794.Ahaltingdeliverymadehimapoorspeaker,butthereislittlewrongwith
hiseloquenceorhisidealswhencastinprint.HebelievedintheconstitutionalrightofParliamenttogovernseeThoughtsontheCauseofthePresentDiscontents
(1770)inaunifiedAmericainfreetradewithIrelandandtolerationofCatholicisminreformoftheIndianadministrationwithSHERIDANheformulatedandpresented
thecasefortheimpeachmentoftheGovernorGeneral,WarrenHastings(17321818)andinpeaceandchange,notrevolution,inFrance,whichheadvocatedin
ReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrance(1790).SeeConorCruiseO'Brien,TheGreatMelody:aThematicBiographyandCommentedAnthology,newedn
1994StanleyAyling,EdmundBurke:HisLifeandOpinions,newedn1990.
Burnett,Frances(Eliza)Hodgson(18491924)
novelistandchildren'swriter,wasborninManchester,theeldestdaughterofEdwinHodgson,ahardwarewholesaler.Afterhisdeathin1854,thebusinesswas
lookedafterbyhiswidowuntil1865,whenshetookthechildrentoher

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brother'slogcabininKnoxville,Tennessee.Afterafailureatrunningaprivateschool,'Fanny'turnedtowritingforaliving.In1873shemarriedDrSwanMoses
Burnett.WithThatLasso'Lowrie's(1877)andHaworth's(1879),novelsofindustrialLancashirewithafairsprinklingoflocaldialect,sheachievedaconsiderable
followingasaseriousnovelist.LittleLordFauntleroy(1886),thecharacteristicsandoutfitsofwhoseherowerebasedonthoseofhersecondson,Vivian(1876
92),changedthecourseofhercareerandthesourceofherreputation.Afteradivorcein1898,shemarried,apparentlyonimpulse,StephenTownsend,ayoung
Englishphysicianwithaspirationstowardsthestage,withwhomshehadcollaboratedinwritingtwoplaysfromherownnovels.Theyweredivorcedin1901.She
becameanAmericancitizenin1905,andtravelledinstylebetweentheUSAandEngland,whereforsomeyearsshemaintainedahouseinKent.Shefinallysettledin
LongIsland,whereshewasknowntoherfriendsas'Fluffy'andsportedaTitianwig.TheSecretGarden(1911),whichmadelittleimpactduringherlifetime,has
becomeaclassicforitsdepictionofrealchildren,inarealworld,achievingworthwhileaims.HereffectiveactiontopreventanunauthorizeddramatizationinEngland
ofLittleLordFauntleroywasinstrumentalinchangestothelawintheCopyrightAct(1911)togiveprotectiontoAmericanauthors,theUSAnotbeingasignatory
totheinternationalBerneConvention.SeeTheOneIKnowBestofAll:aMemoryoftheMindofaChild,newedn1980(earlyautobiography)AnnThwaite,
WaitingfortheParty:theLifeofFrancesHodgsonBurnett,2ndrev.edn1994.
Burney,Fanny[Frances](17521840)
Britishnovelistanddiarist,wasborninKing'sLynn,thethirdofsixchildrenofadistinguishedmusicalscholar,whosewifediedin1761seeRogerLonsdale,Dr
CharlesBurney:aLiteraryBiography(1965).ShewaslargelyselfeducatedathomeinNorfolkandLondonthroughreading,writing,andmeetingherfather's
acquaintances.Evelina:or,TheHistoryofaYoungLady'sEntranceintotheWorld(1778),writtenintheformoflettersandsetinthesocialclimatewhichits
authorhadsoacutelyobserved,washighlypraisedandenormouslysuccessful.Shewasinvitedtojointheformidableliterarycoterieofbothsexes,theBlueStocking
Circle,aboutwhosemembersshewroteasatiricalplay,'TheWitlings',whichherfatherrefusedhertoallowtobeperformedovertheyearsshewroteatleasteight
plays,ofwhichonlyEdwyandElgiva(1795)wasperformed.BycontrastwithEvelina,theheroineofCecilia(1782)startsasanheiress,butachieveshertruelove
onlyaftersomeextraordinaryadventures.MoredramaticandlesscomicthanEvelina,itwasequallywellreceived.Fannyhadapositionatcourtfrom1786to1791,
andin1793shemarriedaFrenchrefugee,GeneralAlexandred'Arblay(17531818).Camilla(1796)revealedthatshehadlosthertouchasanovelist,butearned
herenoughtobuildacottageforthemandtheirson,Alexander(17941837).In1801d'ArblayreturnedtoFrancetotryandrecoversomeofhispossessions.She
followedwiththeirsonin1802,andstayedfortenyears,duringwhichherhusbandworkedasaclerkinagovernmentoffice.Theyreturnedin1812inanAmerican
ship,whichwascapturedatseabyBritishofficers,warbetweenBritainandtheUSAhavingbrokenout.TheWanderer(1814),enormouslylongandunevenly
written,whichshehadbeenworkingonsinceleavingEngland,wassavagelytreatedbythecriticsbutmadehersomewelcomemoney.TheDiaryandLettersof
Madamed'Arblay17781840(184246),editedbyhernieceCharlotteBarrett,andTheEarlyDiaryofFrancesBurney176878(1889),ed.AnnieR.Ellis,
demonstrateherdiscerningeyeandcommandofdialogue.SeeSelectedLettersandJournals,ed.JoyceHemlow,newedn1987MargaretAnneDoody,Frances
Burney:theLifeintheWorks,1989EvelynFarr,TheWorldofFannyBurney,1993.
Burns,Robert(175996)
Scottishpoet,wasborninAlloway,Ayrshire.Theeldestsonofapoorfarmer,hewenttoschoolattheageofsix,andwaslatereducatedathomebyateacherhired
bythefamiliesinthedistrict.At15hewasthefarm'schieflabourer.Hesupplementedhiseducationwithvoraciousreading,wrotepoetry,andindulgedenthusiastically
intheruralpursuitsofdrinking,dancing,andfornication.Whenhisfatherdiedin1784,heandhisbrotherGilbertrentedafarmatMossgiel,whichfailed.By1786he
hadsomanyfinancialanddomesticproblemsthatheseriouslyconsideredgoingtoJamaicatwogirlswerepregnantbyhim,andthefatherofoneofthem,while
refusingtolethimmarryhisdaughter(JeanArmour),wasbentonretribution.Burnsmanagedtoraisethemoneyfrompotentialpurchaserstohavesomeofhispoems
printed.ThisKilmarnockedition(fromtheplacewhereitwasprinted)ofPoems,ChieflyintheScottishDialect(1786)changedhislife.Hegaveuptheideaof
emigrating,andbecamethetoastofEdinburghitistothisperiodofhislifethatthecelebratedcorrespondencewithMrs(Agnes)MacLehose(17591841)belongs.
HealsomarriedJeanArmour(17671834),thoughnotbeforeshehadbornehimtwosetsoftwins.Merefame,however,didnotpaythebills,andaftertryingfarming
again,BurnsbecameacustomsofficialinDumfries.Hismainliterarytaskfrom1787untilhisdeathfromrheumaticfeverwastocontributetoandedit(unpaid)two
compendiaofsongs,ASelectCollectionof

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OriginalScottishAirs(publishedfrom1793)andTheScotsMusicalMuseum(17871803).In1790,toobligeafriend,hewroteaversionofascaryfolktale,'Tam
o'Shanter'.ThisnarrativepoemofsustainedintensityistodayrecitedatcelebrationsallovertheworldonBurns'sbirthday.
Burnsisapoetofsimpleconcepts,simplyexpressed.Heemployedavarietyofmetrestosuitdifferentpoeticforms.Hisrangeisasprodigiousashisoutput:satire
('HolyWillie'sPrayer')scenesofrusticlife('TheHolyFair','PoorMailie'sElegy')epistlestofriendsepigramsnaturepoems('ToaMouse')andsongslovesongs
('ARed,RedRose','O,WertThouintheCauldBlast','Yebanksandbraeso'bonnyDoon'),andsongsofthecountryside('TheBirksofAberfeldy').Hewas
concernednotonlywithScottishthemesandwithpromotinghisareaofthecountryasasourceofpoetry,butwiththeScottishlanguage,inwhichhewasinfluenced
byreadingFERGUSSON,whomhefollowedindevelopingacomposite,poeticScots,employingwordsfromdifferentScottishdialects.UnlikeFergusson,Burnswrote
equallywellinEnglishandScots,andevenusesbothinthesamepoem('TheCotter'sSaturdayNight','ToaMountainDaisy').Heisoneofthefewmajorpoetsin
anylanguagetohaveovercomethehandicapofanindigentupbringinghewascalled'theploughmanpoet'.Hewasalsoanoutspokenopponentofhypocrisyanda
championoftherightsofthepoor.SeePoems:inScotsandEnglish,ed.DonaidA.Low,newedn1996SelectedPoetryandProse,ed.DonaldA.Low,1995
PoemsandSongs,ed.withaglossarybyJamesKinsley,2ndedn1971TheLettersofRobertBurns,2ndedn,ed.G.RossRoy,1985IanMcIntyre,Dirtand
Deity:aLifeofRobertBurns,newedn1997(thepoetinhishistoricalcontext)HughDouglas,RobertBurns:theTinderHeart,1996(womenandsong)David
Daiches,RobertBurns,newedn1994of3rdedn1981(criticalbiography)RichardHindleFowler,RobertBurns,1988(criticalstudy).
Burroughs,WilliamS(eward)(b.1914)
Americannovelist,wasborninStLouis,Missouri,agrandsonoftheaddingmachinetycoon,andwaseducatedatLosAlamosRanchSchoolandHarvard,wherehe
readanthropology.Atvarioustimeshewasaprivatedetective,pestexterminator,andbarman.HewasdischargedfromtheUSArmyin1942onpsychiatricgrounds.
HelivedinMexico,Tangier,London,andParis,beforereturningtotheUSAin1974.In1951heshothiswifeofsixyearsina'WilliamTell'gamethatwentwrong,
andserved13daysinaMexicojailofwhichhesaid,'IamforcedtotheappallingconclusionthatIwouldneverhavebecomeawriterbutforJoan'sdeath.'In1944
hehadbecomeaddictedtoheroin,fromwhichhewascuredinLondonin1957.Inthemeantimehepublished,asWilliamLee,Junkie:Confessionsofan
UnredeemedDrugAddict(1953).TheNakedLunch(Paris1959inUSAasNakedLunch,1962)wasthelastbooktobecensoredbytheUSauthorities.
Createdfromhundredsofpagesofnotesmadewhilehewasaddicted,andputtogetherbythetechniqueof'cutup',akindoflinguisticcollage(ofwhichBECKETT
remarked,'That'snotwriting,it'splumbing'),itreceivedseriouscriticalattentionasalandmarkinsurrealistfiction.Bitsleftoverfromtheprocesswererecycledasa
trilogy:TheSoftMachine(1961,USA1966),TheTicketThatExploded(1962,USA1967),andNovaExpress(1964).Subsequentfictionismoreaccessibleto
thegeneralreader.CitiesoftheRedNight:aBoy'sBook(1981)andThePlaceofDeadRoads(1984)reflecthissatiricalbentandhisinterestinsciencefictionand
thewestern.See(withDanielOdier)TheJob:TopicalWritingsandInterviews,1984TheLettersofWilliamBurroughs19451959,ed.OliverHarris,newedn
1994TedMorgan,LiteraryOutlaw:theLifeandTimesofWilliamS.Burroughs,newedn1991.
Burton,(Sir)RichardFrancis(182190)
Britishtraveller,orientalist,anthropologist,poet,andprosewriter,wasborninHertfordshire,theeldestsonofacolonelinthe36thRegiment,andhadanirregular
education,mainlyinplacesontheContinentatwhichhisparentsstopped.HewasdestinedfortheChurch,andenteredTrinityCollege,Oxford.Afterfivetermshe
rebelledagainsttheregimenandjoinedthearmyinIndia,wherehespentsevenyearswithoutseeingaction,butacquiredseveralmorelanguagesandhislifelong
passionforOrientalism.In1853,indisguise,hepenetratedtheforbiddencityofMecca,andkissedtheholyBlackStoneitself,anexploitwhichhedescribes
flamboyantlyinPersonalNarrativeofaPilgrimagetoEIMedinahandMeccah(185556).FirstFootstepsinEastAfrica(1856)waswrittenwhilerecovering
frombeingspearedthroughbothcheeksinanattackonhiscampontheSomaliancoast.HewasheadoftheexpeditionincentralAfricaduringwhichin1858thetrue
sourceoftheRiverNilewasfirstsighted.In1860hestudiedtheMormonsinSaltLakeCity.In1861hemarriedIsabelArundell(183196),whosharedasmanyof
hissubsequentpostingsandtravelsaswerethoughtfitforher.HewasBritishconsulforfouryearsoveralongstretchoftheWestAfricancoast,fromwhichcame
severalbooksandnumerouslearnedpapers,andforanotherfouryearsinSouthAmerica.In1872hewasappointedtoTrieste,wherehespenttherestofhislife,
withintervalsforfurthertravel.HewroteTheBookoftheSword,ahistoricalstudy,ofwhichonlythefirstvolumeappeared(1884).HetranslatedTheLusiadsof
CAMES(1880)and,forprivatecirculation,theArabicclassic,TheThousandandOne

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Nights(188588),unexpurgatedandcopiouslyannotated.Thelatter,whichdependedtosomeextentontheearlierEnglishtranslation(188284)byJohnPayne
(18421916),wasreissued'forhouseholdreading'(188788)inaversioneditedbyhiswife.Afterhisdeathshedestroyedtheannotatedcompletetranslationofthe
15thcenturymanualofShaikhalNafwazi,TheScentedGarden,onwhichhewasworking,andotherunpublishedmanuscripts.HewasmadeKCMGin1885.See
FrankMcLynn,Burton:SnowupontheDesert,newedn1993(biography).
Burton,Robert(15771640)
Englishprosewriter,wasbornatLindleyHallinLeicestershire,andeducatedattheFreeSchoolinSuttonColdfield,NuneatonGrammarSchool,andBrasenose
College,Oxford.In1599hewaselectedtoaFellowshipatChristChurch,Oxford,wherehelivedabachelorexistencefortherestofhislife,thoughaftertakinga
degreeindivinityin1614hebecameVicarofStThomas's,Oxford,andin1630wasgiventhelivingofSeagrave,Leicestershire,byhispatron,LordBerkeley(1601
58).Anexcellentclassicist,hewroteasatiricalversecomedyinLatin,Philosophaster,whichwasperformedinChristChurchhallin1617.Hislife'swork,The
AnatomyofMelancholy,firstpublishedin1621andmeticulouslyrevisedbyhimforfoursubsequenteditions,hasalltheeccentricitytraditionallyassociatedwith
learnedmenathisuniversity.Itcontainsalmostasmuchwitaswisdom,whilereflectinghisenormouslearninginscienceandmedicine,aswellasinliteratureand
philosophy.Thefirstpartcoversthenatureandcausesofhissubject,including'MiseryofScholars','Windy(orflatuous)Melancholy',and'Maids',Nuns',and
Widows'Melancholy'theseconddealswithitscuresthethirdisatreatiseonlovemelancholyandreligiousmelancholy,incorporatingstoriesfromclassicalauthors
andfromCHAUCER,SPENSER,JONSON,andSHAKESPEARE.Manysectionstakeaclassicalallusionorquotationastheirstartingpointandcanstandasplainlystatedessaysin
theirownright.BOSWELLquotesSAMUELLJOHNSONassayingthatit'wastheonlybookthatevertookhimoutofbedtwohourssoonerthanhewishedtorise'.It
influencedwritersasdiverseasMILTONandSTERNE,andisthesourceofJOHNFORD'STheLover'sMelancholyandKEATS'S'Lamia'.
Butler,Guy(b.1918)
SouthAfricanpoetanddramatist,wasborninCradock,CapeProvince,andeducatedatthelocalhighschoolandatRhodesUniversity,Grahamstown.DuringWorld
WarIIheservedintheSouthAfricanArmyintheMiddleEastandItaly,afterwardstakingafurtherdegreeatBrasenoseCollege,Oxford.Hetaughtat
WitwatersrandUniversitybeforebeingProfessorofEnglishatRhodesUniversity195286.HeseesEnglish,'thechosenlanguageofliteratureofmillionsofblacks',as
aunifyingelement,andmuchofhispoetry,firstpublishedinStrangertoEurope:Poems19391949(1952enlargededn1960),describesAfricanexperiencesin
European,aswellasEnglish,ways,orEuropefromtheviewpointofaSouthAfrican.Hehasabroadmetricalrangeandmanifoldpoeticinterests.Hisverseplaysare
particularlyconcernedwithcontemporaryissuesinamultiracialsociety.SeeSelectedPoems,rev.edn1989EssaysandLectures19491991,ed.StephenWatson,
1994KarooMorning:anAutobiography19181935,newedn1983BurstingWorld:anAutobiography19361945,1983ALocalHabitation:an
Autobiography19451990,1991.
Butler,Samuel(161280)
Englishpoet,wasborninStrensham,Worcestershire,thesonofawelltodofarmer,andwaseducatedatKing'sSchool,Worcester.Heissaidtohaveservedin
variousaristocratichouseholds.Byhisownaccount,hemetacoloneloftheParliamentaryarmyandhisclerkinLondonduringtheCivilWar,andusedthemasthe
basisforthepedanticPresbyterianknightandtheargumentativeNonconformistsquireofhismockheroicpoem,Hudibras.AftertheRestorationoftheMonarchyin
1660,ButlerbecamesecretarytotheLordPresidentofWales,andStewardofLudlowCastle.ThefirsttwopartsofHudibraswerepublishedin1662and1663
(dated1663and1664).Between1667and1669hewrotehis'Characters',aseriesofsatiricalsketchesonthefailingsandfoiblesofthetimes,whichwerenot
publisheduntil1759.HudibrasPartIIIwaspublishedin1678,earninghim100fromCharlesIIandapension,whichbeliesthepoet'sownclaimthathisrewardfor
supportingtheKingwithhissatirewaspenury.Hudibras,writteninroughhewnoctosyllabiccouplets,haseveryclaimtoberankedamongthegreatEnglishsatirical
poems,butwhereDRYDENandPOPEtakearapier,Butleremploysapikestaff.ThoseofthepersuasionofHudibras,forinstance,'Callfire,andsword,anddesolation/
Agodly,thoroughreformation'.Hisimagesaredeliberatelybase,too:'Andlikealobsterboil'd,themorn/Fromblacktoredbeginstoturn.'SeeHudibrasPartsI
andIIandSelectedOtherWritings,ed.JohnWilderandHughdeQuehen,1973.
Butler,Samuel(18351902)
Britishnovelist,prosewriter,poet,philosopher,andpainter,wasbornintherectoryofLangar,Nottinghamshire,thesonofafuturecanonofLincolnandagrandson
oftheBishopofLichfieldandCoventry.Afteraccompanyinghisparentsin1843onatourofEuropebytrain(anewphenomenon),hewaseducatedatShrewsbury
SchoolandStJohn'sCollege,Cambridge.Religiousdoubts,expressedina

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correspondencewithhisfatherwhichisaccuratelybutnotfullyreproducedinTheWayofAllFlesh,ledhimtoabandonhisfamily'sintentionthatheshouldstudyfor
theministry.Whentheyopposedhisambitiontobecomeapainterinstead,heemigratedtoNewZealandin1859.Therehemadeafortunebreedingsheephis
accountsofhisexperiences,editedbyhisfather,werepublishedin1863asAFirstYearinCanterburySettlement.In1864hereturnedtoEngland,settledin
London,andstudiedpainting,laterexhibitingonseveraloccasionsattheRoyalAcademy.WhilehewasinNewZealand,hehadcontributedtotheChristchurch
Pressawittyarticleon'DarwinandtheMachines',whichbecamethebasisofErewhon,orOvertheRange(1872),publishedanonymously.Thestatewhichthe
travellerfinds(Erewhonisananagramof'nowhere')isnotsomuchUtopiaasaparodyofVictoriansociety.Itwashisonlybookwhichenjoyedanysuccessinhis
lifetime.TheFairHaven:aWorkinDefenceoftheMiraculousElementinOurLord'sMinistry(1873),'bythelateJohnPickardOwen',wasbasedona
pamphletprivatelyprintedin1865,andisinpointoffactacleverlypresentedandamusingargumentagainsttheResurrection.
UnwiseinvestmentsinCanadianstocksledtoseveralvisitstheretotryandrecoverhisfunds,ononeofwhich(1875)hecomposed'APsalmofMontreal',withthe
immortalrefrain'OGod!OMontreal!',satirizingthetreatmentaffordedbythelocalmuseumtothestatueofaGreekdiscusthrower.In1877hepublishedLifeand
Habit,thefirstofseveralworksinwhichhequestionedthelineofreasonofDARWIN.ThebreadthofhisinterestsisdemonstratedalsobytwoAlpinetravelbooks,
twopublishedoratorios,prosetranslationsoftheOdysseyandIliad,andtwobizarrecriticalstudies,TheAuthoressoftheOdyssey(1897)andShakespeare's
SonnetsReconsidered(1899).TheWayofAllFlesh,onwhichheworkedforthirtyyears,waspublishedposthumouslyin1903.Technicallyanovel,itisalsoa
blendofautobiography(particularlydescribinganunhappychildhoodandrebelliousyouth,ofwhichgenreitisaforerunner),socialsatire,andeccentricinterpretation
ofthescientific,psychological,andreligioustheoriesoftheage.HisownviewsonevolutionwereinspiredbytheFrenchnaturalist,ChevalierdeLamarck(1744
1829),andthese,hisstanceonreligiousmatters,andhisattitudetomoneyandwealth,influencedG.B.SHAW,whoreferstohisdebtinthePrefacetoMajorBarbara.
SeePeterRaby,SamuelButler:aBiography,1991.
Buzo,Alexander(b.1944)
Australiandramatist,wasborninSydney,thesonofanAlbaniancivilengineerandhisAustralianwife,andwaseducatedatArmidaleSchool,forayearatthe
InternationalSchool,Geneva,andattheUniversityofNewSouthWales.Hehadjobsasasalesman,messenger,publisher'sstoremanpacker,andcivilserviceclerk
until1968,whenNormandAhmedwasperformedinSydney.WhenthisstreetconversationpiecebetweenaPakistaniandanAustralianwasstagedinBrisbanein
1969,theactorplayingthelatterwasconvictedofusingobscenelanguage(theplay'sfinalline),buttheverdictwasquashedbytheSupremeCourtofQueensland.
Significantsilences,actionwithoutwords,lightimagery,andthenonappearanceofthemotivatingcharacterarefeaturesofRooted(1969),astudyofmiddleclass
disintegration.InthesatiricalTheRoyMurphyShow(1973),thefinalmortificationoftheTVsportsshowanchormanisinpublic.AsResidentPlaywrightforthe
MelbourneTheatreCompany197273,BuzowroteMacquarie(1972),inwhichthesituationoftheGovernorofNewSouthWalesfrom1808to1821
counterpointsthatofahistorylecturerinthe1970s.CoralieLansdowneSaysNo(1974),MartelloTowers(1976),andMakassarReef(1978)arebitingcomedies
ofmodernAustralianmannerswithBigRiver(1980)hereturnedtohistory,andextendedhisrangetoconcernsofnationalidentity.TheSearchforHarryAllway
(1988)andPrueFliesNorth(1991)aresatiricaldetective/adventurestories.SeeNormandAhmed,andOtherPlays,1993andinLeslieRees,AHistoryof
AustralianDrama,Vol.2,1987.
Byatt,A(ntonia)S(usan)(b.1936)
neDrabble,Britishnovelistandcritic,wasborninSheffield,theeldersisterofDrabblerivalryandtensionbetweensistersarerecurringfeaturesinherfiction,notably
inhersecondnovel,TheGame(1967),whichfollowedShadowofaSun(1964),thegrowinguptoanindependentsensibilityofaCambridgeundergraduate.She
washerselfeducatedatSheffieldHighSchool,TheMountSchool,York,andNewnhamCollege,Cambridge,afterwhichshespentayearatBrynMawrCollege,
Pennsylvania,andoneatSomervilleCollege,Oxford,whereherresearchgrantwasterminatedin1959whenshemarriedIanC.R.Byatt,aneconomist.Shelectured
attheCentralSchoolofArtandDesign,London,from1965to1969,andatUniversityCollege,London,from1972,whereshewasSeniorLecturerinEnglish1981
83.TheVirginintheGarden(1978),dedicatedtothememoryofherl1yearoldson,whowasrunoverandkilledbyacarin1972,andStillLife(1985)
constitutethefirsttwopartsofaprojectedquartetofnovels,beginningin1952,inwhichthesymbolism(inthefirst)ofEnglishliterarycultureand(inthesecond)ofart
holdstogetherthecomplexstrandsofrelationshipswithinafamily.BabelTower(1996),thethirdpart,setinthe1960s,culminatesinthreesetsofcourtproceedings

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involvingadivorceandan'obscene'publication.Possession:aRomance(1990),whichwontheBookerprizeforfiction,isinessenceadualquestintoVictorian
literature,bolsteredbothbypasticheandbygenuinescholarship.AngelsandInsects(1992)takestheformofapairoflinkednovellasinVictoriansettings,whose
themesareentomologyandspiritualism.TheMatisseStories(1994)comprisesthreestoriesaboutarticulatemiddleagedheroines,withanundertextsuggestedbythe
workoftheFrenchpainterHenryMatisse(18691954).TheDjinnintheNightingale'sEye(1995)isfiveintellectualfairytales.HercriticalworksincludeDegrees
ofFreedom:theNovelsofIrisMurdoch(1965),WordsworthandColeridgeinTheirTime(1970),andPassionsoftheMind:SelectedWritings(1991).After
adivorcein1969shemarriedPeterJ.Duffy.ShewasmadeCBEin1990.SeeRichardTodd,A.S.Byatt,1997(criticalintroduction).
Byron,(GeorgeGordon),6thLord(17881824)
poet,wasborninLondonbutspenthischildhoodinScotlandwithhismother,theformerCatherineGordonofGight(d.1811),andinheritedthetitlefromhisgreat
unclein1798.HewaseducatedatHarrow,whereaclubfootdidnothamperhisathleticpursuits,andTrinityCollege,Cambridge.Aselectionofpoeticjuvenilia,
HoursofIdleness(1807),wasnotunjustifiablysavagedintheEdinburghReview,whichnettledByronintorespondingwithEnglishBardsandScotchReviewers
(1809).Between1809and1811hetravelledinandaroundtheMediterranean,ononeoccasionswimmingtheHellespont,andwrotethefirsttwocantosofaspiritual
travelogue,ChildeHarold'sPilgrimage,whichwereanimmediatesuccesswhenpublishedin1812.HepromptlyturnedoutfourdramatictalesTheGiaour
(1813),TheBrideofAbydos(1813),TheCorsair(1814),andLara(1814)whichcontainsomepassagesoffinepoetry.Healsoindulgedintwospectacular
affairs:withLadyCarolineLamb(17851828),thewifeofthefuturePrimeMinisterLordMelbourne(17791848)andwithAugustaLeigh(17831851),hisown
halfsister,thedaughterofhisprofligatefatherbyafirstmarriagetoLadyCarmarthen.ThedaughterborntoMrsLeighin1814isgenerallyregardedasByron's.In
1815heembarkedonadisastrousmarriagewithAnnabellaMilbanke(17921860),whowalkedoutonhimsoonafterthebirthoftheirdaughterAda(181552),
claiminghewasinsaneseeJoanPierson,TheRealLadyByron(1992)fortherestofherlifeandthatofherdaughter.In1816,houndedbycreditorsandostracized
bysociety,ByronleftEngland,forgood.
ForafewmonthshelivedonLakeGeneva,nextdoortoP.B.SHELLEYandhismistress,MaryGodwin(MARYSHELLEY),andMary'sstepsisterClaireClairmont(1798
1879),withwhomByronresumedanaffairwhichhadbeguninLondonadaughter,Allegra(d.1822),wasbornin1817.DuringthistimehewroteCantoIIIof
ChildeHarold.CantoIVwasfinishedinVenicein1817.IntheItalianburlesquepoetryofLuigiPulci(143284)Byronnowfoundtheformandmetre(ottavarima,
stanzasofeightiambicpentametersrhymingabababcc)forthekindofepicsatirehewascontemplating.HeexperimentedwithBeppo(1817),aslendertaleof
technicalinfidelity.The16cantosofhisunfinishedmasterpiece,DonJuan,werepublishedinpartsfrom1819.In1819hemetTeresaCountessGuiccioliinVenice,
andmovedtoRavennatobenearher.Sheleftherhusbandforhimin1821.ThroughherbrotherhewasintroducedtotheCarbonari,asecretsocietyforthe
liberationofItaly,whichinspiredtwoVenetiandramas,MarinoFaliero(1820)andTheTwoFoscari(1821).TheformerwasstagedatDruryLanein1821against
hiswishes,andfailed,muchtohisannoyance.DonJuanwasattackedin1821intheprefacetoSOUTHEY'SelegyonthelateKingGeorgeIII,AVisionofJudgement.
Neveronetosufferfools,orcritics,gladly,Byronproducedhisownversion,TheVisionofJudgement(1822),'ByQuevedoRedivivus',asatiresofiercethatthe
publisherwasfined100for'calumny'.In1823,boredwithTeresaandsuspectingafallingoffinhispoeticreputation,ByronwenttoGreece,offeringhisservices,
andmoney,tothelocalfreedomfightersagainsttheTurks.Hesawnoaction,anddiedofmalariaatMissolonghiinApril1824.
FormanyyearsthemoreromanticandnotoriousaspectsofByron'slifeandcharacterovershadowedhispoeticreputation.Hewrotesomememorableshortpoems,
including'WhenWeTwoParted','So,We'llGoNoMoreARoving','SheWalksinBeauty'and'TheDestructionofSennacherib'bothpublishedinHebrew
Melodies(1815),and'TheIslesofGreece',whichappearsinDonJuanCantoIII.Histruemtier,however,wassatire.DonJuanisalsothemostgenuinelyfunny
majorpoemintheEnglishlanguage.Itspicaresqueheroissentabroadat16,havingbeendiscoveredflagrantedelictoinamarriedwoman'sbed.Afteradramaticand
romanticodysseytoGreece,Constantinople,andRussia,heissentbytheEmpressCatherinetoEnglandasherspecialenvoy.Thetaleiscutshortattheintriguing
pointatwhichaghostlyfriarmaterializesinJuan'sbedroominaGothicmansion,andisrevealedasoneofhisfellowguests:'Infull,voluptuousbutnoto'ergrown
bulk,/ThephantomofherfrolicGraceFitzFulke'.TheformandmetregaveByrontheappropriatemediumtodigressonallmanneroftopics,andtouse
outrageousrhymesandfamiliar,oftendowntoearth,dictionandimageswhilethecoupletattheendofeachstanzainvitedthepithyepigramwhichhadbeensucha
featureofthesatireofDRYDENandPOPE.See[Works],

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ed.JeromeJ.McGann,1986SelectedPoetryandProse,ed.DonaldA.Low,1995[SelectedVerse]ed.JeromeJ.McGann,1994SelectedPoems,ed.Susan
WolfsonandPeterManning,1996Byron:aSelfPortrait,ed.PeterQuennell,1990(lettersanddiaries17981824)SelectedLettersandJournals,ed.LeslieA.
Marchand,newedn1993LeslieA.Marchand,Byron:aPortrait,newedn1993PeterQuennell,Byron:theYearsofFame,newedn1988,andByroninItaly,
newedn1977(biography)AndrewRutherford,Byron:aCriticalStudy,1961LeslieA.Marchand,Byron'sPoetry:aCriticalIntroduction,1965.

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C
Cabell,JamesBranch(18791958)
Americannovelist,wasborninRichmond,Virginia,ofanotableSouthernfamily.HehadabrilliantcareerattheCollegeofWilliamandMary,duringwhichhetaught
FrenchandGreekwhileanundergraduate,publishedpoemsinthecollegemonthly,someofwhichreappearedinhiscollection,FromtheHiddenWay(1916),and
wroteapaperonCONGREVEwhichwaslaterpublishedintheInternational(1901).Aftergraduatingin1898hehadnewspaperstaffjobsinRichmondandNewYork,
andthenembarkedonacareerasaprofessionalgenealogist,thefruitsofwhichwereseveralsumptuousprivatelyprintedvolumes.Therewasasurprisingbreakinhis
activityin191113,whenheworkedforacoalminingconcerninthemountainsofWestVirginia.In1913hemarriedPriscillaShepherd(18741949),awidowwith
fivechildren,theeldestofwhomwasseverelyhandicappedfrominfantileparalysis.Theylivedincomfort,firstintheShepherdfarmhouse,'DumbartonGrange',and
theninRichmond(withasummerretreatonMountainLake).Cabellhadin1902beguntocontributeromancestopopularmagazines,whichreappearedinvolume
formundertitlessuchasTheEagle'sShadow(1904),TheLineofLove(1905),Gallantry(1907),andChivalry(1909).Whenaskedbyhismainpublisher,
Harper,totonedownthemorefleshlyaspects,herefused,andwasdropped.
Henowbegantheambitiousfictionalsequence,'BiographyoftheLifeofManuel',thehistoryandlegendofhismythicalFrenchprovinceofPoictesme.Ultimately
reissuedin18volumes(192730),itincorporatesrevisedversionsofallhisearlyromances,ofwhichTheSoulofMelicent(1913)becameDomnei(1920).Jurgen:
aComedyofJustice(1919),havingreacheditsthirdprinting,wasprosecutedforobscenityin1922,andacquittedonthedirectionofthejudgeonthefourthdayof
thetrial.Aftercompletinghisvastwork,CabellannouncedthatJamesBranchCabellwouldwritenomore.Instead,hebegantowriteasBranchCabell,before
revertingtohisfullname,thelastelementofwhichhesaid,whennettledbypubliccriticism,waspronouncedasrhymingwith'rabble'.Laterfictionalworksincludethe
satiricaltrilogy,Smirt:anUrbaneNightmare(1934),Smith:aSylvanInterlude(1935),andSmire:anAcceptanceintheThirdPerson(1937).SeeJoeLee
Davis,JamesBranchCabell,1962(criticalstudy).
Cable,GeorgeWashington(18441925)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninNewOrleans,thefifthchildandeldestsonofabusinessman,onwhosedeathin1859helefthighschoolto
workinthecustomhouse.HeenlistedintheConfederateArmycavalryin1863andserveduntiltheendoftheCivilWarin1865,beingtwicewounded.Hemarriedin
1869,andin1870beganwritingacolumn,signed'DropShot',fortheNewOrleansPicayune,whichranforeighteenmonths.Whileholdingdownaccountancyjobs
withthreeorganizationsinthecottonindustrytosupporthisgrowingfamily,hebegantowritestories,whichEdwardKing(18481896),gatheringmaterialforhis
bookonthepostCivilWarSouth,recommendedtohispublisher.'SieurGeorge'wasprintedinScribner'sMonthlyin1873,andothersfollowed.Acollection,Old
CreoleDays(1879),wasonlypublishedattheinterventionofHjalmarH.Boyesen(18481895),theacademicandcritic,whoguaranteedScribner'sagainstloss.In
1879,afterhisfamilyhadweatheredtheyellowfeverepidemic,Cable'snovel,TheGrandissimes:aStoryofCreoleLife(1880)beganserializationin1881he
finallyfeltabletobecomeafulltimewriter.DrSevier(1884),astrongnovelwithasocialmessage,thehistoricalstudyTheCreolesofLouisiana(1884),andtwo
polemicalessays,'TheConvictLeaseSystemintheSouthernStates'and'TheFreedman'sCaseinEquitypublishedtogetherinTheSilentSouth(1885)made
himsounpopularintheSouththathemovedwithhisfamilytoNorthampton,Massachusetts.Hepublishedlittlefurthersignificantfiction,buthewasnowacelebrated
author,whotouredwithTWAINin1884,andsubsequentlytravelledthousandsofmiles(withavisittoEnglandin1898)givingplatformreadings.In1886heinstituted
theHomeCultureClubs,forinterracialreadinggroupsandeducationalimprovement.Theorganization,towhichAndrewCarnegie(18351919)donated$50,000in
1903foraheadquarters,wasrenamedthe

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People'sInstitutein1909.SeePhilipButcher,GeorgeW.Cable,1962(biographical/criticalstudy).
Caedmon(fl.c.66070)
AngloSaxonpoet,isdescribedbyBEDE.inchapter24ofhis'ChurchHistory'asbeinganunlearnedandunsociablefarmworkerwhowasinspiredbyavisionwhilehe
sleptinthestablesto'singabouttheCreation'.InoneofthemanuscriptsofBedetheninelinesofwhathesangarewrittenintheNorthumbrianstyleofEnglishwhich
hewouldhaveused,andthesequalifyCaedmontobethefirstknownEnglishpoet.Hereportedhisliteraryrevelationtothefarmmanager,andwastakentothe
famousabbessHild(d.680),whoadmittedhimtohercommunityasamonk.HerehecomposedagreatcorpusofreligiousverseonthemeswhichBededescribes,
butwhichhasnotsurvived.TheGenesispoemsintheBodleianLibrarymanuscriptknownas'JuniusII'arestylisticallyofalaterdateandareregardedasoftheschool
ofCaedmon.
Caesar,(Gaius)Julius(10244BC)
Romanstatesmanandhistorian,wasborninRome,andbytheageof30hadsquanderedhiswife'sfortuneandhisown.Heusedhisoratoricalpowerstocampaign
forpublicoffice,becomingapraetorin63,inwhichcapacityhenabbedalsothepostofpontifexmaximusanddiscovered(inSpain)amilitarytalentwhichenabled
himtoamassenoughbootytopayoffhisdebts.Asconsulin59hesetuptherulingtriumvirate,andobtainedthegovernershipofGaulfortenyears,duringwhich,by
brilliantbutpunitivetactics,hebecamemasterofthewholeregionwestoftheRhine.HealsomadetwoexpeditionstoBritain,whichhadbeenunknowntotheRoman
world.In49,whenPompey(10648BC)madehisbidforpower,CaesarcrossedtheriverRubiconattheheadofhistroops,signifyingthathecameasaninvader.
PompeywasdefeatedandpursuedtoEgypt,whereCaesarthenspentafruitfulholidaywithCleopatra.HereturnedwithhistroopsviaAsiaMinor,wherehe
annihilatedthearmyofPharnacesandsentthesenatehiscelebratedpieceoftelegraphese:'Venividivici[Icame,Isaw,Iconquered].'ThePompeyfactionhaving
finallybeenstampedout,hewasin47appointeddictatorfortenyears,andin45forlife.Ayearlesstwodayslater,hewasstabbedtodeathbyabandofsenatorial
conspiratorsledbyMarcusJuniusBrutus(d.42BC).Thejudgmentofhistoryisthathetriedtomaketoomanychangestooquickly.Hewasdeifiedin42.Hisown
descriptionofhiscampaigninGaul,DeBelloGallico(tr.CarolynHammondasTheGallicWar,1996),istheearliestsurvivingrecordofcontemporaryevents,anda
distinguishedarmycommander'saccountofhisactionsinaclear,nononsensestyle.SeeChristianMeier,Caesar,tr.DavidMcLintock,newedn1996(biography).
Cahan,Abraham(18601951)
Americannovelistandjournalist,wasborninVilna,Russia,wenttoVilnaTeachers'Institute,andin1882emigratedtotheUSA,ofwhichhelaterbecameacitizen.
HeattendedlawschoolinNewYork,butwasneveradmittedtotheBar.HewrotearticlesonJewishsubjectsforNewYorkpapers,andstoriesinYiddish.Almost
hisinitialventureintofictioninEnglishwasYekl:aTaleoftheNewYorkGhetto(1896),thefirstAmericanJewishnovel.ItwasfollowedbyTheImported
BridegroomandOtherStoriesoftheNewYorkGhetto(1898).HewasastaffjournalistontheNewYorkCommercialAdvertiserfrom1897to1901,after
whichheeditedthephenomenallysuccessfulYiddishnewspaper,the'JewishDailyForward'untilhewasinhiseighties.TheRiseofDavidLevinsky(1917)isthe
archetypalnoveloftheJewishimmigrantwhoachievestangiblesuccesswithoutanysenseofmoralachievement.Cahan'sautobiography,writteninYiddishand
publishedinfivevolumes192631,wastranslatedbyLeonStein,AbrahamEConan,andLynnDavisonasTheEducationofAbrahamCahan(1969).
Cain,JamesM(allahan)(18921977)
Americannovelist,wasborninAnnapolis,Maryland,andeducatedatWashingtonCollege,Chestertown,ofwhichhisfatherhadbecomePresidentin1903.After
tryingseveraljobs,andtakinginstructioninsinging,hedecidedtobecomeawriter,andtaughtatWashingtonwhilestudyingforafurtherdegree.Heenlistedasa
privateintheUS79thDivisionin1918,andservedinFrance,whereheeditedthedivision'sweeklypaper,theLorraineCross.HewasareporterontheBaltimore
SuntaughtjournalismforayearatStJohn'sCollege,AnnapolisthenmovedtoNewYork,wherehewroteeditorialsandarticlesforjournals,aseriesofsatirical
dialoguesfortheAmericanMercurybeingpublishedasOurGovernment(1930).In1931hewenttoHollywood,wherehestayedfor17years,writingfilmscripts.
ThePostmanAlwaysRingsTwice(1934)wasthefirstofhispaceystoriesofcriminallove,whichearnedhimthesobriquet,'thetwentyminuteeggofthehard
boiledschool'.Hewrote'DoubleIndemnity'in1936tohelpfinancetherunofhisstageversionofThePostmanAlwaysRingsTwice(1936)itwaspublishedin
ThreeofaKind(1943),with'CareerinCMajor'and'TheEmbezzler'.InSerenade(1937),MiIdredPierce(1941),TheMoth(1948),andTheRootofHisEvil
(1951)arepredominantlystudiesofcharacter.ShortstoriesareinTheBabyintheIceboxandOtherShortFiction,ed.RoyHoopes(1981).Inanattemptto
redresstheimbalanceinrewardsbetweenproducersandwritersoffilms,heproposedin1946theestablishment

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oftheAmericanAuthors'Authority,whichfounderedonthedifficultyofwriterstoreachconsensus.Ofhisfourmarriages,theshortest,toanexfilmstar,endedin
divorceafter18months,andthelongest,toaformeroperasinger,lastedfor19yearsuntilherdeathin1966.SeeDavidMadden,JamesM.Cain,1987(critical
study).
CalderndelaBarca,Pedro(160081)
Spanishdramatist,wasborninMadrid,whereheattendedaJesuitschooluntilhewas13.AfterayearatAlcalaUniversity,hewentontoSalamancaUniversity,
whereuntil1620hestudiedcanonlaw,withtheology,philosophy,andlogicassubsidiarysubjects.Hethenspentseveralriotousyearsinthecompanyoftwoofhis
brothers,tookpartinpoeticcontestsinhonourofStIsadore,andhadhisfirstplayperformedin1623.Hebecamecourtdramatistin1635afterthedeathofVECA,
andwasin1637madeaknightoftheOrderofSantiago,withwhomheservedinCataloniain164041duringtherevoltagainstSpain,andwaswounded.He
returnedtoMadridin1642withamonthlypension.In1651,followingthedeathofhistwobrothersandofamistressbywhomhehadason,hewasordainedpriest
andbecameachaplaintotheKing.Henowrestrictedhisliteraryactivitiestocourtplaysandtotwoautossacramentales(oneactreligiouspieces)ayearforthecity
ofMadrid.CaldernandhisschoolofdramatistsdevelopedthecomediaofVega,andinmorethanahundredsecularplayshedemonstratedavarietyoftypesand
moods:cloakandsword(orcomediesofmanners),nationallegends,historicaldramas,tragediesofhonourseeespeciallyElMedicodesuHonra(tr.Roy
CampbellasTheSurgeonofHisHonour,1960)andElPintordesuDeshonra(tr.DavidJohnstonandLaurenceBoswellasThePainterofDishonour,1995)
andmythologicalandphilosophicalplays.Fourpartes(volumes),eachof12plays,werepublished163672,withafifth,containingten(ofwhichCalderndisowned
four),in1677.JuandeVeraTassisyVillarroel(1631c.1701)publishedninevolumesofthedramaticworks(168291),butdiedbeforehecouldbringoutthetenth.
EnglishRestorationcomedyowesageneraldebttoCaldern:CharlesIIencouragedSirSamuelTuke(d.1674)toadaptLosEmpeosdeSeisHorasasThe
AdventuresofFiveHours(1663),andElMaestrodeDanzaristhesourceofWYCHERLEY'STheGentlemanDancingMaster.EDWARDFITZGERALD'SEightDramas
ofCaldern(1853),ofwhichLifeisaDreamwasfirstperformedin1926,arenotnowregardedasgivingafairimpressionofCaldern'sart.SeePlays,Vol.1,tr.
GwynneEdwards,1991.
Caldwell,Erskine(190287)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninCowetaCounty,Georgia,'inaplacesoremoteithadnoname',theonlychildofaPresbyterianministerwhose
peripateticexistencemeantthattheboyonlyhadayearinhighschool,inWrens.HeattendedErskineCollegein192021,andthentheuniversitiesofVirginiaand
Pennsylvaniauntil1926withoutfinishinganycourse.In1926,newlymarried,hegaveuphisjobontheAtlantaJournaltogoandwriteinthecomparativesanctuary
ofMaine.Hehadpublishedtwotoughguycitynovellasandacollectionofstories,AmericanEarth(1931),whenhemanagedtoencapsulateinTobaccoRoad
(1932)thedesperationwhichhadforyearsbeenthelotofthepoorSouthernwhite.Itsmodestreceptionwasinstrumentalintherejectionofhisnextnovel,abouta
familyinMaine,whichwasfinallypublishedasALampforNightfallin1952.Anotherpublishertookhissecondseamysliceofrurallowlifeandearthysex,God's
LittleAcre(1933).ItsacquittalinaNewYorkCourtofachargeofobscenity,andthesuccessofthestageproductionofTobaccoRoad(1934),whichalmost
closedafterafortnightbutwentontorunforoversixyears,helpedtoprojecthimintobeingabestseller.Thesetwobooks,andthebestofhiseconomicallyworded
shortstoriesseeTheCompleteStoriesofErskineCaldwell(1941)effectivelyrepresenthisgenuinecontributiontoAmericanliterature,thoughhepublished
sometwentymorenovels.Withhissecondwife,thephotographerMargaretBourkeWhite(190671),heproducedseveralphotographicessays,ofwhichYouHave
SeenTheirFaces(1937),aSouthernstudy,isanespeciallynoteworthyexampleofthegenre.SeeWithAllMyMight:anAutobiography,1987DeepSouth:
MemoryandObservation,newedn1995CallItExperience:theYearsofLearningHowtoWrite,newedn1996JamesE.Devlin,ErskineCaldwell,1984
(criticalstudy)WayneMixon,ThePeople'sWriter:ErskineCaldwellandtheSouth,1995(criticalstudy).
Galisher,Hortense(b.1911)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninNewYorkCityandeducatedatHunterCollegeHighSchoolandBarnardCollege,towhichshewentonmoney
scrapedtogetherbyherparentsandearnedbyherselfinarestaurant.Shegraduatedinphilosophy,didsocialwork,andmarriedin1935.Herfirststory,whichshe
composedwhilewalkingachildtoschool,waspublishedin1947.Acollectionofstories,IntheAbsenceofAngels(1951),wasfollowedtenyearslaterbyherfirst
novel,FalseEntry(1961),anAmericanchroniclewhichhaslinkswithherfifth,TheNewYorkers(1969).Herrangeofformsisaswideasareherthemesand
settings.JournalfromEllipsia(1965)isaninterplanetaryversionofSAMUELBUTLER'SErewhonandSWIFT'SGulliver'sTray

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elsthecharacterrevelationsinMysteriesofMotion(1983)aremadeduringthefirstcivilianspaceshuttleservicetheunashamedlyribaldreflectionsinTheBobby
Soxer(1986)aretoldwiththehindsightofmaturity.Criticsregardherbestmediumastheshortstory,whichshehasdefinedas'anapocalypse,servedinaverysmall
cup'seeTheCollectedStoriesofHortenseCalisher(1975).Herself(1972)isanautobiographicalstudyofawritinglife,whichincludescriticalarticlesand
commentaryonthewriterasfeminist,teacher,andparentseealsoKissingCousins:aMemoir(1988).
Callaghan,Morley(190390)
Canadiannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninTorontoofIrishCatholicdescent,andwaseducatedatStMichael'sCollege,TorontoUniversity,andOsgoode
HallLawSchool.HewascalledtotheOntarioBarin1928butneverpractised.DuringsummervacationshehadbeenacubreporterontheTorontoDadyStar,
wherehecameacrossHEMINGWAY,whoencouragedhimtowriteandarrangedthepublicationofsomeofhisstoriesinanAmericanmagazineinParis.Hisworkwas
alsospottedbyF.S.FITZGERALD,whosepublisherissuedhisfirstnovel,theluridgangstertale,StrangeFugitive(1928).OnanextendedhoneymooninParisin1929,
hemixedwiththeexpatriateliteraryset,andcausedasensationbytakingonthemuchheavierandmoreexperiencedHemingwayinaboxingmatch,andknockinghim
out.Callaghan'smodestaccountoftheexploitisinThatSummerinParis:MemoriesofTangledFriendshipswithHemingway,FitzgeraldandSomeOthers
(1963):HemingwaywroteaspleneticversionoftheincidentinAMoveableFeast(1964).AfterabriefstayintheUSA,CallaghanreturnedtoToronto,wherehe
spenttherestofhislifeasafulltimewriter.DuringWorldWarIIhewaswiththeRoyalCanadianNavyonassignmentfortheNationalFilmBoard,andwas
anchormanoftheperipateticcurrentaffairsradioprogramme,'OfThingstoCome'.Healsowrotetwoplayswhich,accordingtoanobituarist,'whenproduced,
pleasedneitherhimnorthepublic'.EDMUNDWILSON,inanessayreprintedinOCanada(1965),comparedhimtoCHEKHOVandTURGENEV.Hisimpressionisticshort
storiesseeMorleyCallaghan'sStories(1959)areregardedbysomecriticsasofahigherorderthanhis14novelsandonenovella,NoMan'sMeat(Paris,1931).
Mostagreethathistwonovelswhichmostpowerfullyrepresentsocietyarebothfromthemiddleperiodofhisdevelopment:TheLovedandtheLost(1951),part
thriller,partlovestory(winneroftheGovernorGeneral'sAward),andtheonewhichfollowed,TheManyColoredCoat(1960),amoral,Christiantaleofhuman
natureincrisis.HewasmadeCompanion,OrderofCanada,in1983.Hisson,thewriterandcriticBarryCallaghan(b.1937),haseditedTheLostandFound
StoriesofMorleyCallaghan(1985).SeeGaryBoire,MorleyCallaghan:LiteraryAnarchist,1994(biography)Gary,Boire,MorleyCallaghanandHisWorks,
1990.
Calvin(orCauvin)Jean(150964)
Frenchtheologian,wasborninNoyon,thesonofanecclesiasticallawyer,andwasat14sent,withtwoyoungnoblemenoftheregion,toParis,wherehebecameMA
in1529.InsteadofgoingontostudytheologyattheSorbonne,hedecidedtoreadlawinOrleansandBourges,afterwhich,hisfatherhavingdiedin1531,hesettled
inParisandproducedacommentaryonSENECA'SDeClementia(1532).Formallyassociatedwiththedoctrinesoftheevangeliques,hewasforcedtoleavethe
countryin1533,and,inBasle,wroteandpublishedinLatinInstitutioChristianaeReligionis(1535),thefirstcompletevindicationofProtestantismandthe
cornerstoneofCalvinisttheology.HisowntranslationofitintoFrench(1541)isalandmarkintheuseofthevernacularforseriousprose.In1539hesettledin
Strasbourgwhere,indeferencetohisdictumthatifhetookawife'itwouldbeinordertodevotemytimetotheLord,bybeingthemorerelievedfromtheworriesof
dailylife',heconsentedtomarrythewidowofanAnabaptistwhomhehadconverted.In1541hewaspersuadedtogoandbolstertheestablishmentoftheReformed
faithinGeneva,wherehereorganizedtheChurchandaideditsbranchesabroad,andin1559foundedtheAcademy.HisdifferencesofopinionwithMichaelServetus
(151153)resultedinthelatterbeingburnedatthestake,thoughCalvinpleadedforalesspainfulmethodofexecution.HissuccessingroupingtheReformed
communitiesofEuropeintoacoherentunityledtothereligiouswarswhichfollowedhisdeath.HistheologywasinspirationalinthedevelopmentofProtestantism,and
hisideasonChurchgovernmentarethebasisofPresbyterianism.HisdoctrinesinfluencedEnglishliteratureofthe16thand17thcenturies,andtheireffectisapparent
inScottishandCanadianliteratureintothe20thcentury.SeeFran oisWendel,Calvin:theOriginsandDevelopmentofHisReligiousThought,tr.PhilipMairet,
newedn1987.
Calvino,Italo(192385)
Italiannovelistandcritic,wasborninSantiagodelasVegas,Cuba,andgrewupinSanRemo,wherehisfatherwascuratorofthebotanicgarden.Fromhis
experienceofservicewithabrigadeofCommunistpartisansin194345duringWorldWarII,hewrotehisfirstnovel,IlSentierodeiNididiRagno(1947tr.
ArchibaldColquhounasThePathtotheNestofSpiders,1957)itwasreissuedin1964withapreface(tr.GwynMorrisinItalianWritingToday,1967)inwhich
hediscussesneoreal

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ism.HegraduatedfromTurinUniversityin1947,whenhejoinedtheeditorialstaffofthepublisherEinaudiheeditedthecontroversialliterarymagazine,IIMenab,
from1959to1967.ThestructureandformofINostriAntenati(1960tr.ColquhounasOurAncestors,1980),atrilogyofnovelsoffantasyandhighadventurein
historicalsettings(originallypublished195259),weredevelopedfromthenarrativetechniquesofthestorytellersamongthepartisansfurtherstudyledtoFiabe
Italiane...(1956tr.GeorgeMartinasItalianFolktales,1982).Inseveralcollectionsofstories,somerealistic,somevergingonsciencefiction,alinkisprovided
byanarrator,whoinSeUnaNotted'InvernounViaggiatore(1979tr.WilliamWeaverasIfonaWinter'sNightaTraveller,1981),whichbeginsinarailway
station,isbentonromancingtheelusiveLudmilla,whorepresentsthereaderseealsoNumbersintheDarkandOtherStories,tr.TimParks(1995),a
posthumouscollectionofstorieswrittenin194384.SixMemosfortheNextMillennium,tr.PatrickCreagh(1992),comprisesfiveoutofthesixlecturesonspecific
literaryvalueswhichhecompletedbutdidnotlivetodeliveratHarvardUniversityin1985.TheRoadtoSanGiovanni,tr.Parks(1993)isacollectionoffive
autobiographicalessayswritten196277.
Cambridge,Ada(18441926)
Australiannovelistandpoet,wasborninNorfolk,England.Shewaseducatedbygovernesses,andat24hadpublishedtwobooksofreligiousverseandthreemoral
tales.In1870shemarriedRev.GeorgeCross(18441917),withwhomshesailedtoAustralia.TheylivedinsixcountryparishesinVictoriabeforesettlingin
Williamstownin1893.In1874sheofferedaserialtotheAustralasian,whichprintednineofherstoriesduringthenext12years.In1887shepublishedanonymously
inLondonUnspokenThoughts,acollectionofpoemssomeofwhichexpressedreligiousdoubtsorraisedquestionsaboutsexualityandmarriage:itwasquickly
withdrawn.AMarkedMan(1890),originallyserializedas'ABlackSheep',wasthefirstofadozennovelswithAustralianbackgroundstoachievesuccess.Herplots
areromanticandusuallyconventional,thoughsheisanadvocateofsecondmarriages,achievedbyprovidentialmeans,whenthefirstisunhappyandherdescriptions
ofruralsociallifeandtheterrainarevividandvalid.WhenCrossretired,theyleftforEngland,butshereturnedshortlyafterhisdeath,and'foundatinyhome'in
Malvern,Victoria,nearheronlydaughter.HerautobiographicalThirtyYearsinAustralia(1903),towhichTheRetrospect(1912)isacomplement,isavaluable
studyofconditionsandarevealingaccountofherlife.SeeMargaretBradstockandLouiseWakeling,RattlingtheOrthodoxies:aLifeofAdaCambridge,1991
AudreyTate,AdaCambridge:HerLifeandWork18441926,1991.
Cameron,Norman(190553)
Scottishpoet,wasborninEdinburghandeducatedatFettesCollegeandOrielCollege,Oxford,wherehereadEnglish,hadseveralpoemspublishedinOxford
Poetry,andmetGRAVES,whobecamealifelongfriend.In1929heacceptedapostasaneducationofficerinNigeria,fromwhichheresignedin1932tobenear
GravesinMajorca,andtowrite.Theplanlastedonlyafewmonths,forhediscoveredthathealsoneededapaidjob,andhehadaviolent,butpetty,quarrelwiththe
Americanpoet,LauraRiding(190191),withwhomGraveswasliving.HeworkedinLondonasanadvertisingcopywriteruntilWorldWarII,inwhichheservedina
politicalwarfarecapacitywiththeEighthArmyinAfricaandItalythepoems'BlackandWhite'andtheoftenquoted'Green,GreenisElAghir'reflecthis
experiences.Afterwardshereturnedtoadvertising,andincreasedhisliteraryoutputwithsomescrupulousbutalsotechnicallyoutstandingversetranslationsofpoems
byRIMBAUDandVILLON,andEnglishversionsoftheproseofBALZACandVOLTAIREitwasameasureofhisdedicationtohiscraftthathewouldnotuseawordwhichwas
unknowntotheoriginalauthor'sEnglishcontemporaries.Hislifewasfraughtwithdomesticupheavals(hewasmarriedthreetimes),andhesufferedfromhypertension.
Graves,inTheCollectedPoemsofNormanCameron(1957),describeshimas'adividedcharacteralternatelyaPresbyterianprecisJanandmoralistanda
paganpoetandbooncompanion'.SeeCollectedPoemsandSelectedTranslations,ed.WarrenHopeandJonathanBarker,1990.
Cames(orCamons),Luisde(152480)
Portuguesepoetanddramatist,wasborn,probablyinLisbon,ofanancientbutimpoverishedhouse,andwaseducatedatCoimbraUniversityuntilabout1542.In
1544,inchurch,hesawalady,identifiedbysomeasCaterinadeAtaide(d.1559),withwhomhefellinloveandinwhosehonourhecomposedabodyoflyric
poetry.Ataboutthistime,too,hewrotethreeplays:anadaptationfromPLUTARCH,animitationofPLAUTUS,andFilodemo,acomedywhichwasfirstperformedinGoa
whenhewastherein1555.In1546hegotintotroubleatcourt(anothercriticalfactionhasidentifiedhisinamorataastheInfantaMaria),andwasbanishedupthe
Tagusriver,fromwhichhewassenttoserveinCeutaontheAfricancoast,wherehelostaneyeinaction.HereturnedtoLisbonin1549,andin1552endedupinjail
afteracarnivalbrawlinwhichacourtierdied.HewaspardonedeightmonthslaterandsailedforIndia.FromthePortuguesebaseofGoahewentonamilitary
expeditiontoOrmiz,on

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thePersianGulf,andspentanuncomfortablefewmonthsinGuardafui,atthetipoftheHornofAfrica.In1556hewasappointedtoMacao,thePortuguese
possessionoppositeHongKong,tooverseetheeffectsofallpeopledeadorabsent.Havingamassedafortune,hewasreturnedtoGoain1559tobetriedfor
professionalmisconduct.TheshipwaswreckednearthemouthoftheMekong,Cambodia,andthoughhegotsafelytoshorewiththepreciousmanuscriptofOs
Lusiadas,whichhehadconceivedinthe1540s,helostallhismoneyand,itissaid,aChineseconcubine.WhenhefinallyreachedGoa,hewasthrownintoprison,
releasedwithhischargesquashed,andthenimprisonedagain,fordebt.HedidnotreturntoLisbonuntil1570,havingenroutespenttwopennilessyearsin
Mozambique.In1571hewasgrantedatenyearcopyrightinOsLusiadas,andin1572apensionof15,000reis.Itwaspaidonlyirregularly,andhediedinpoverty.
OsLusiadas[TheLusiads,i.e.Lusitanians](tr.RichardFanshaw,1655tr.LeonardBacon,1950)isthenationalepicofPortugal,apersonalandhistorical,aswellas
amythological,odysseyintenbooksofeightlinestanzas,whichusestheexplorationsofVascodaGama(c.14691525)asitsframework.
Campbell,Alistair(b.1925)
NewZealandpoet,novelist,anddramatist,wasborninRarotonga,CookIslands,ofaScottishfatherandaPolynesianmother,bothofwhomdiedwhenhewasa
child.HewasbroughtupinNewZealandandwaseducatedatOtagoBoys'HighSchool,OtagoUniversity(forayear,duringwhichhewasaclassmateofBAXTER),
VictoriaUniversity,andWellingtonTeachers'College.MineEyesDazzle:Poems19471949(1950rev.edns1951and1956)containedlyricalevocationsofnature
andlandscapeandreflectionsonhisuprootedchildhoodlaterworkrecallsaspectsofhisfirstmarriage,toADCOCK,whichfinishedindivorceafterfiveyears,andhis
remarriage.HewasEditor,DepartmentofEducationSchoolPublicationsBranch195572,andSeniorEditor,NewZealandCouncilforEducationalResearch1972
87.SanctuaryofSpirits(1963),originallywrittenforradio,isapoeticsequencefromMaorihistory:ancestralelementsfeatureinafurthersequence,TheDarkLord
ofSavaiki(1980).StoneRain:thePolynesianStrain(1992)containssignificantpoemsonPolynesianthemes.Inatrilogyofnovels,TheFrigateBird(1989),
Sidewinder(1991),andTia(1993),hehasexploredtheeffectonmentalstabilityofculturaldisconnectionsuchashehimselfexperienced.SeeCollectedPoems
19471981,1981IslandtoIsland,1984(autobiographyto1950)PeterSmart,IntroducingAlistairCampbell,newedn1985(biographical/criticalstudy).
Campbell,David(191579)
Australianpoet,wasbornatEllerslie,anoldfamilypropertynearAdelong,NewSouthWales.HewaseducatedatKing'sSchool,Parramatta('Weallscoffedat
poetryandthoughtsportwaseverything')andJesusCollege,Cambridge,wherehewasencouragedbyafellowAustraliantoreadsomecontemporarypoetry.He
wasarugbyfootballinternationalist,beingcappedasaflankerforEnglandagainstWalesin1937.DuringWorldWarIIheservedintheRoyalAustralianAirForce
seehisvividpoemaboutfightinginthejungle,'MeninGreen'(1943)andwasawardedtheDistinguishedFlyingCrossandBar.Afterthewarhefarmed,andwrote.
Hisearlierbooksofverse,beginningwithSpeakwiththeSun(1949),reflecthisruralupbringingandinterests,withexcursionsintoAustralianizedlyricsandballads,
oftenwiththeexpressionofwryhumour.ThetitlesequenceofTheBranchofDodonaandOtherPoems19691970(1970)isdrawnfromGreekmythology,and
thevolumealsocontainsaseriesofmoderngeorgics,'WorksandDays'.AutobiographicalpoemsareafeatureofDevil'sRockandOtherPoems19701972(1974)
andDeathsandPrettyCousins(1975).Healsopublishedtwobooksofshortstories,EveningunderLamplight(1959),inwhichherecapturesimagesofhis
childhood,andFlameandShadow(1976).SeeCollectedPoems,ed.LeonieKramer,1989.
Campbell,George(b.1916)
Jamaicanpoet,wasbornGeorgeConstantineCampbellBoydinColon,Panama,andwasbroughtbyhismothertoJamaicawhenhewasfive.HewaseducatedatSt
George'sCollege,Kingston,andlaterstudiedintheUSAattheDramaticWorkshopoftheNewSchoolforSocialResearch.HeworkedasajournalistontheDaily
GleanerandPublicOpinion,asEditorofWelfareReporter,thegovernmentjournalforsocialservices,andlatterlyasPublicationsConsultant,InstituteofJamaica.
Hewasdiscoveredasapoetbythewifeofthestatesman,NormanManley(18931969),who,forsuchpoemsas'Emancipation','IwasNegro',and'History
Makers',calledhim'PoetoftheRevolution',andforthelaunchingofwhosePeople'sNationalPartyin1938Campbellwrote'OnThisNight'.FirstPoems(1945)
wasalsoalandmarkinthatitbrokeawayfromVictorianconventionsandusedfreeverseasamediumforCaribbeanpoetry.SeeFirstPoems:aNewEdition,with
AdditionalPoems,introductorypoembyDerekWalcott,1981EarthTestament,1983(subsequentcollection).
Campbell,Joseph(18791944)
Irishpoet,wasborninBelfast,thesonofanationalisticbuildingcontractormarriedtoaculturedGael.In1902hewenttoDublin,where

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theIrishLiteraryRevivalcaughthisimagination.Hepublishedarticlesandpoems,andwrotewordsforDonegalairscollectedbythemusicianHerbertHughes(1882
1937),whichappearedasSongsofUladh(1904).HeworkedandwroteaplayfortheUlsterLiteraryTheatre,butmovedtoLondonin1906,wherehetaught,was
involvedwithIrishliteraryorganizations,andmarriedaLondonwoman.BythetimetheyreturnedtoafarminWicklow,hehadhadfivevolumesofversepublishedin
Ireland,comprisinginthemaintightlyknitbutoftentootightlyexpressedevocationsoftraditionalIrishthemes.Irishry(1913),withitscharacterstudies(notably'The
OldWoman'),andEarthofCualann(1917)markedthehighestpointsin,aswellastheculminationof,hiscollectionsofpoetry,butnottheendofhispromotionof
Irishculture.AfterbeingarrestedandimprisonedduringtheCivilWarof192223,hewenttotheUSA,wherehefoundedsuccessivelytheSchoolofIrishStudiesin
NewYork,theIrishFoundation,andtheIrishReview.HereturnedtoWicklowin1939andlivedthereinsolitudeuntilhisdeath,withoutevercompletingthework
onhis'CollectedPoems'.SeeThePoemsofJosephCampbell,ed.AustinClarke,1963.
Campbell,Roy(190157)
SouthAfricanpoetandtranslator,wasborninDurbanofScottishdescentonbothsides.HewaseducatedatDurbanHighSchool,whichheleftat16togotothe
RoyalMilitaryAcademy,Sandhurst,spendingayearatNationalUniversityCollegetofillintime.HesailedforEnglandinDecember1918,havingdecidedinsteadto
gotoOxford.There,whilestudyingforhisentrance,hemetanevenyoungerpoetryenthusiast,thecomposer(Sir)WilliamWalton(190283),whointroducedhimto
theSITWELLSandT.S.ELIOT.RealizinghewouldnotachievethenecessarystandardinGreek,hewenttoLondon,andthenspenteighteenmonthsinProvence.Backin
Londonin1921,hemetthestunning,liberatedMaryGarman(18981979).Theyweremarriedfivemonthslater,andlivedforayearinarudimentarilyconverted
cowshedinWales,wherehedraftedTheFlamingTerrapin(1924),whosesubjectis'agreatmachine,/Thoughtlessandfearless,governingtheclean/Systemof
activethings...'.Thisvigorousphilosophicalpoem,whichT.E.LAWRENCErecommendedtoitspublisheras'ariotofgloriousimageryandcolour',startledtheGeorgian
literaryestablishment.
As'localboymakesgood'hereturnedtoSouthAfrica,wherehewrotethememorableAfricanpoems'TheSerf','TheZuluGirl','TristandaCunha',thesymbolic
'MakingofaPoet',andthesatirical'PoetsinAfrica'.Thesewerepublishedinhismostsignificantcollection,Adamastor(1930),withpoemsofProvence,notably
'MassatDawn'and'HorsesontheCamargue'.HewasappointedEditorofanewreviewjournal,Voorslag,onwhichhewasassistedbyPLOMERandVANDERPOST.
Aftertwoissueshethrewupthejob,draftedTheWayzgoose(1928),ahilariousskitontheDurbanculturalscene,andhastilyreturnedtoEngland,wherehewaslent
thegardener'scottageoftheNICOLSONS'houseatLongBarn.Nearcatastrophe,causedbyMary'saffairwithSACKVILLEWEST,wasavertedthecouplewerereconciled
andwenttoProvence.CampbellrevengedhimselfontheNicolsonsandtheirliterarycircleinaheavyhandedsatiricalpoem,TheGeorgiad(1931).Whenmoney
grewscarcetheCampbellsmovedtoSpain,andwerereceivedintotheCatholicChurch,thetwininspirationsofthepoemsinMithraicEmblems(1936).His
supportofFrancointheSpanishCivilWar,demonstratednotinactionbutwithapropagandapoem'fromtheBattlefield',publishedasFloweringRifle(1939),made
himevenlesspopularinEngland.
HevolunteeredfortheBritishArmyin1941andservedinEastAfrica.TheimmediatepostwaryearswerespentinLondon,wherehepublishedhislastcollection,
TalkingBronco(1946),redeemedalmostentirelybyhismagnificenttranslationof'EnunaNocheOscura'ofJOHNOFTHECROSSseealsohisThePoemsofStJohn
oftheCross(1951).Hewasdrinkingheavily,andwasnowsoargumentativethathefoughtwithMACNEICEinapub,threatenedGRIGSONinthestreet,andpunched
SPENDERonthenoseduringapoetryreading.In1952heandhiswifewenttoliveinPortugal,wherehedidtranslationsofSpanishandPortuguesewriters,mainlyfor
theBBC.In1957,onthewaybackfromtheHolyWeekcelebrationsinSeville,aworntyreontheircarburstwhileMarywasdriving.Campbelldiedinthecrash.
SeeCollectedPoems,3vols1949,1957,1960BrokenRecord,1934,andLightonaDarkHorse,1951(autobiography)PeterAlexander,RoyCampbell:a
CriticalBiography,1982andessaybyPATONinChristopherHeywood(ed.),AspectsofSouthAfricanLiterature,1976.
Campbell,Thomas(17771844)
Scottishpoet,wasborninGlasgow,the11thchildofa67yearoldretiredmerchant,andwaseducatedatGlasgowUniversity.In1794hewalkedtoEdinburghand
backtoattendthetrialfortreasonofthepoliticalreformerJosephGerrald(176396),whoseaddresstothecourtmadealastingimpressiononhim.Hespranginto
thepubliceyewithhisphilosophicalstudyinheroiccouplets,ThePleasuresofHope(1799).BasedonthemethodofROGERS'SThePleasuresofMemory,itsfirst
parttakespoliticalfreedom(especiallyasappliedtoPoland)asatheme,andthesecondtheimagination.In1880hevisitedGermany,

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wherehewrotetherousing'YeMarinersofEngland'.AdistantviewofthebattleofHohenlindeninspiredthenarrativepoemofthatname,publishedwith'Lochiel's
Warning',whichcombinestheScottishsecondsighttraditionwiththeromanticviewofthe'45Rebellion,andconcludesthatthelatterwasamistake.In1803he
marriedacousinandmovedtotheLondonarea.GertrudeofWyoming(1809),anattemptatanAmericantopicinSpenserianstanzas,movedWALTERSCOTTto
suggesttoIRVINEthatthepoetwas'afraidoftheshadowthathisownfamecastsbeforehim'.Inthesamevolumeappeared'TheBattleoftheBaltic'andthepopular
'LordUllin'sDaughter'.SpecimensoftheBritishPoets(1819)containedsomegoodcriticismandimpressedevenCARLYLE,butsubsequentproseworkswerelargely
hackwork.HewasnominallyeditoroftheNewMonthlyMagazine(therealworkwasdonebyacolleagueand,untilherdeathin1830,byMrsCampbell)from
1820to1831,whenhestartedtheMetropolitanMagazine,whichonlylastedashorttime.In1843heretiredtoBoulogne,wherehedied.Hewasburiedin
WestminsterAbbey.HeneverlosthisScottishaccent,andhispopularitywassuchthatbetween1827and1829hewasthreetimesinsuccessionelectedLordRector
ofGlasgowUniversity,onthelastoccasiondefeatingSirWalterScott.
Campion,Edmund
seeHOLINSHEDSTANYHURST.
Campion,Thomas(15671620)
Englishpoetandmusician,wasborninLondonandeducatedatPeterhouse,Cambridge.HethenstudiedlawatGray'sInn,andmedicineinFrance,qualifyingasa
doctorin1606.PoemsbyhimwereincludedinapiratededitionofSIDNEY'SAstrophelandStellain1591(seealsoDANIEL).Poemata(1596)containedelegiesand
epigramsinLatin,inwhich,andinhisEnglishlyrics,hedemonstratedtheinfluenceofCATULLUSandMARTIAL.BeginningwithABookofAyres(1601)hedefinesan
airasthemusicalequivalentofapoeticepigramhepublishedsixvolumesofsongswithmusic.Therearesomefinereligiouslyrics,deftclassicalparallels,and
unconventionalandwittyplaintsoflove,notably'Mistris,sinceyousomuchdesire'and'Comeyouprettyfalseeyedwanton',aswellas'ThereisaGardeninher
face'('CherryRipe').InObservationsintheArtofEnglishPoesie(1602)hearguedforareturntotherhythmofclassicalmetresattheexpenseofrhyme.
In1607hecomposedamasqueforthemarriageoftheKing'sScottishbornfavouriteJamesHay(d.1636),laterEarlofCarlisle.Hewaschosentowritethe
spectacularentertainmentfortheweddingnightin1613ofthePrincessElizabeth(laterknownasthe'WinterQueen')toFrederickV,ElectorPalatine,fromwhomthe
HanoverianmonarchsofBritainandtheHouseofWindsordescended.Inthesameyeartwofurthermasquesbyhimwereperformed:TheCaversham
EntertainmentfortheQueenandTheSomersetMasquefortheweddingofRobertCarr(d.1645),createdEarlofSomersetfortheoccasion,andFrances
Howard,exwifeoftheEarlofEssex.Theuneasytoneofthelattermayreflecttheseamycircumstancesofthemarriage,afterwhichthecouplewereconvictedofthe
murderofSirThomasOverbury(15811613),whohadopposedthematchseeDavidLindley,TheTrialsofFrancesHoward:FactandFictionattheCourtof
KingJames(1993).Campion'spatron,SirThomasMonson(15461641),wasforatimeimprisonedasanaccessory,tothecrime.SeeTheEssentialCampion,
1988AyresandObservations:SelectedPoemsandProse,ed.JoanHart,1976DavidLindley,ThomasCampion,1986(criticalstudy).
Camus,Albert(191360)
Frenchnovelist,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninMondovi,Algeria,wherehewasbroughtupbyhismother,anilliteratecharwoman,afterhisfather'sdeathin1914in
thebattleoftheMarne.HewaseducatedattheLyceofAlgiersonascholarship,andattheUniversityofAlgiers,fromwhichhereceivedthediplmed'tudes
suprieuresinphilosophyin1936,aftertuberculosishadinterruptedhisstudiesandputpaidtohisbecomingacollegeteacherhestillmanagedtoplayingoalforhis
universityandfortheAlgeriannationalteamatsoccer.HefoundedtheTheatreduTravail,inwhichhewasactor,director,andplaywright,andpublishedL'Enverset
l'Endroit[BetwixtandBetween](1937),acollectionofessaysexploringareconciliationbetweenthestatesofhappinessandsuffering.Shortlyafterthepublicationin
ParisofhisnovelL'tranger(1942tr.StuartGilbertasTheOutsider,1946),heleftAlgeriatojointheFrenchResistance,forwhomheeditedtheunderground
newspaperCombat.
InLeMythedeSisyphe(1943tr.JustinO'BrienasTheMythofSisyphus,1955)Camusexpoundedhisviewsonthecontemporaryhumansituationintermsofthe
destructionofbeliefs:'Thisdivorcebetweenmanandhislife,theactorandhissetting,trulyconstitutesthefeelingofAbsurdity.'Thedisharmonyisattheheartofthe
TheatreoftheAbsurd,towhichhisinitialcontributionwasCaligula(1945tr.Gilbert,1948).AsecondcycleofworkscomprisedLaPeste(1947tr.GilbertasThe
Plague,1948),anarrativeofthedescentofpestilenceonOraninthe1940sLesJustes(1950tr.GilbertasTheJustAssasins,1958),aplayinspiredbythe
terroristattackontheTsar'sunclein1905andL'HommeRvolt(1951tr.AnthonyBowerasTheRebel:anEssayonManinRevolt,1953).Headaptedforthe
FrenchstageplaysbyCALDRON(1953)andVEGA(1957),andalsoFAULKNER'SRe

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quiemforaNun(1956).Hediedinacaraccident,havingbeenin1957theyoungestwinneroftheNobelPrizeforLiteratureafterKIPLINC.Inabriefcasefoundatthe
sceneofthecrashwere144pagesofscribbled,unpunctuatedmanuscript,thebasisofhisepicautobiographicalnovelinspiredbytheFrenchAlgerianconflict(1954
62).Withtheadditionofpunctuation,itwaspublishedasLeDernierHomme(1994tr.DavidHapgoodasTheFirstMan,1995).SeeSelectedEssaysand
Notebooks,ed.PhilipM.W.Thody,newedn1989.
Canetti,Elias(190594)
Bulgarianbornnovelistandcritic,wasborninRusseofSephardicJewishparents.AsachildhespokeLadino,buthisparentsspoketoeachotherinGerman,which
healwaysinsistedwashismothertongue.ThefamilymovedtoEnglandin1911.Ayearlaterhisfatherdied,andhisdomineeringandpossessivemothertookhimto
Vienna.Hewaseducatedthere,inZurich,andinFrankfurt,finallyobtainingadoctorateinchemistryatViennaUniversityin1929,thoughhehadnointentionofbeing
ascientist.DieBlendung(1936tr.C.V.WedgwoodasTheTowerofBabel,1947),astoryofpersonalparanoiawithpropheticpoliticalimplications,was
publishedshortlybeforehesettledinEngland.MasseundMacht(1960tr.CarolStewartasCrowdsandPower,1962rev.edn1973)isasociologicalstudy.
FromhisresearchnotesforithelargelydrewtheaphorismswhicharethebasisofDieProvinzdesMenschen(1973tr.JoachimNeugroschelasTheHuman
Province,1978)afurthercollectionwaspublishedasTheSecretHeartoftheClock,tr.JoelAgee(1991).Threevolumesofautobiography,coveringtheyearsto
1937,appearedasTheTongueSetFree(tr.Neugroschel,1988),TireTorchinMyEar(tr.Neugroschel,1989),andThePlayoftheEyes(tr.RalphManheim,
1990).HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1981.In1934hemarriedVenetiaToubnerCalderon(d.1963),whosestoriesofaViennesestreet,written
duringthe1930s,werepublishedasDieGelbeStrasse(byVezaCanetti,1990tr.IanMitchellasYellowStreet,1990).Hissecondwifediedin1988.SeeThomas
H.Falk,EliasCanetti,1993(biographical/criticalstudy).
Capek,Karel(18901938)
Czechnovelist,dramatist,andjournalist,wasborninMaleSvatonovice,Bohemia,thesonofaphysician,andwaseducatedattheuniversitiesofBerlin,Paris,and
Prague,wherehewasawardedadoctorateinphilosophyin1915.AnadvocateoftheCzechlanguage,andasupporterofthenewstateofCzechoslovakiawhich
wascreatedafterWorldWarII,hewroteforLidovNoviny,whichsupportedthegovernment,andestablishedtheVinohradskyArtsTheatreinPraguein1921.His
futuristicplay,R.U.R.(Rossum'sUniversalRobots)(1920tr.PaulSelver,1923),wasawarningofthedangersoftreatinghumanslikemachines,andgavetothe
worldtheword'robot'.InthesatiricalTheInsectPlay(1921tr.Selver,1923),writtenwithhisbrotherJosef(18871945),thehabitsofinsectsaretellinglyapplied
tothehumanrace.Hewroteseveralsciencefantasies,notably[WarwiththeNewts](1936tr.M.andR.Weatherall,1937)andaphilosophicalnoveltrilogy,
beginningwithHordubal(1933tr.Weatheralls,1934).Hepropoundedthevalidityofthefairytaleasagenuinebranchofliterature('Fairystoriesoriginateinlife..
.'),anddemonstratedhisbeliefbywritingexuberantexamplesofthisgenreseeNineFairyTalesandOneMoreThrowninforGoodMeasure,tr.Dagmar
Herrmann(1990).Hesuccumbedtopneumonia,indespairattheMunichagreement,whicheffectivelyhandedoverCzechoslovakiatoHitler.WhentheNazisentered
Prague,theGestapocalledathishometoarresthim,notknowinghewasdead.JosefwastakenofftoBelsenconcentrationcamp,wherehediedjustbeforetheend
ofWorldWarII.
Capote,Truman(192484)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,andjournalist,wasbornTrumanStreckfusPersonsinNewOrleans,thesonofatravellingsalesmananda16yearoldformer
MissAlabama(theyweredivorcedfouryearslater).HelivedwithrelationsinruralAlabamauntil1939,whenhewasadoptedbyhismother'ssecondhusband,
JosephCapote,aCubanbusinessman.HeboardedatStJohn'sAcademyandTrinitySchool,NewYork,andatGreenwichHighSchool,Connecticut.Hethen
workedfortwoyearsfortheNewYorker,oneversionofhisdismissalbeingthathehadoffendedFROST.Havingalreadyhadshortstoriespublished,henowreturned
toAlabama,wherehebegananovel.BythetimeOtherVoices,OtherRooms(1948),thelyricalquestofa13yearoldforafatherfigure,wasfinishedand
published,hewasalready,at24,anotablefigureontheliteraryscene.ThecriticswerediscouragingheleftNewYorkforHaitiandFrance,andsettledforatimeina
villainSicily,andcontinuedtowrite.AfterATreeofNightandOtherStories(1949)camehissecond,andonlyother,novel,TheGrassHarp(1951),insome
waysanotherportraitofhisownboyhood,whichhealsowroteasaplay(1952).Hisnovella,BreakfastatTiffany's,theuninhibitedNewYorkexploitsofthezany
HollyGolightly,withwhichheclaimed'mysecondcareerbegan',waspublishedin1958withthreestories,ofwhich'ADiamondGuitar',setinaprisonfarm,illustrates
thedarkersideofhiswork.
From1959to1965heworkedalmostexclusivelyonInColdBlood:aTrueAccountofaMultipleMurderandItsConsequences(1966).Variouslycalled'anon
fictionnovel'and'creativereporting',itisanexhaustiveand

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grippinginvestigationintothemotivelessmurderofaKansasfamily,theperpetratorsofwhichhefinallyaccompaniedontheirwaytothegallowsseveralyearsafter
theirconviction.Truetohispublicreputation,hecelebratedhisreleasefromthestrainofwritingthebookbythrowinginNewYorkwhatLifecalled'thepartyofthe
century'.AreviewofthebookbyKENNETHTYNANintheLondonObserver(13March1966)wasthecauseofbitterpersonalenmitybetweenthetwo.Amuchlonger
feud,withVIDAL,startedin1948anddevelopedintoalibelsuit.Caporesurvivedacarsmashin1969andacanceroperationin1971,betweenwhichheservedthree
daysintheOrangeCountyJailforfailingtoappearasawitnessinthemurdertrialofamanhehadbeeninterviewing.'HandCarvedCoffins',whichheclaimedwasa
reconstructionofagruesomeseriesofmurdersbuthassincebeenshowntobemainlyfiction,wasincludedinacollectionofpieces,MusicforChameleons(1980).
Onlypartswereeverpublishedof'AnsweredPrayers',hisbignovel,forwhichhefirstsignedacontractin1966.SeeCapoteReader,newedn1993GeraldClarke,
TrumanCapote:aBiography,newedn1993KennethT.Reed,TrumanCapote,1981(criticalstudy).
Cardus,(Sir)Neville(18891975)
Britishjournalist,cricketwriter,andmusiccritic,wasborninRusholme,Manchester,theillegitimatesonofAdaCardus(d.1954),whowithhertwosisters,heclaims,
graced'theoldestofprofessionsandbecameanadornmenttoit'.Informationabouthischildhoodiselusive,ifnotconflicting,butheattendedaBoardschool,steeped
himselfinWesterncultureinthepubliclibrary,hauntedthemusichalls,andwaspassionatelyinterestedinmusic.In1912hebecameassistantcricketprofessionalat
ShrewsburySchool,fromwhichhemadetheunusualswitchtoheadmaster'ssecretaryin1914.Hiseyesightpreventedhisbeingcalledup,andin1916hejoinedthe
staffoftheManchesterGuardian.Soitwasthat,havingbeeninstructedbytheNewsEditortorecuperatefromachestillnesswithafewdaysinthesunatOld
TraffordwatchinghisbelovedLancashire,hebecamein1920thepaper'scricketcorrespondent,inwhichcapacityhedevelopedhisuniquestyleofevocative
reportage.AtthesametimehewasassistanttotheMusicCritic,whomhesucceededin1927.HespentWorldWarIIinAustralia,writingonmusicand
broadcasting,andin1951becametheGuardianLondonmusicreviewer.InhismusiccriticismseeespeciallyTenComposers(1945rev.edn1958asA
Composers'Eleven)asinhiscricketwriting,hewasmoreconcernedwithexaminingtheessenceoftheartandrecapturingtheaestheticpleasureoftheaudience
thanwithtechniquesortechnicalities.Hisselectiveautobiographies,Autobiography(1947),SecondInnings(1950),andFullScore(1970)maybereadinthesame
light.HewasmadeCBEin1964andwasknightedin1967.SeeChristopherBrookes,HisOwnMan:theLifeofNevilleCardus,newedn1986.
Carey,Peter(b.1943)
Australiannovelist,wasborninBacchusMarsh,Victoria,thesonofagarageowner,andwaseducatedatGeelongGrammarSchooland,forayear,atMonash
University,afterwhichheworkedinadvertisinginMelbourne,London(196870),andSydney.Twovolumesofshortstories,TheFatManinHistony(1974)and
WarCrimes(1979),markedadistinctivedebutinthatthoughthecharactersaredrawnrealisticallyandcleverly,thesituationsareoftensurrealseealsoCollected
Stories(1995),comprisingthesetwocollectionswithfournewtales.Hisfirstnovel,Bliss(1981),whichwontheMILESFRANKLINAward,isablacklybutnotbleakly
humorousaccountofanadvertisingexecutive'sresuscitationfromdeathandhissubsequentlives.Illywhacker(1985)explores,throughthereminiscencesofa139
yearoldtrickster,themythofAustraliannationalselfsufficiency.OscarandLucinda(1988),anelegantfantasyperiodpiece,wontheBookerprizeforfiction.The
TaxInspector(1991)savagesthemoresofmodernSydney.TheUnusualLifeofTristanSmith(1994)audaciouslysetsaphysicallydisadvantagedprotagonistin
analternativeworldofoppositeswhoseprinciples,cultures,andcolonialpatternsarerecognisablefromthehistoriesoftheUSAandAustralia.TheBigBazoohley
(1995)isanimaginativenovelforchildren.CareygaveuphispartnershipinaNewSouthWalesadvertisingagencyin1989,andmovedtoGreenwichVillage,New
York,withhissecondwife,atheatredirector.SeeKarenLamb,PeterCarey:theGenesisofFame,1992(criticalstudy)AnthonyJ.Hassail,DancingonHot
Macadam:PeterCarey'sFiction,1994(criticalstudy).
Carleton,William(17941869)
Irishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninPrillisk,Co.Tyrone,theyoungestof14childrenofasmallfarmer.Bilingual,hehadarudimentaryhedgeschool
education,butenjoyedarichbackgroundofsongsandstoriesfromhisparents.Hewasdestinedforthepriesthood,butinstead,aftertryingvariousjobs,hebegan
writingfortheProtestantpaper,theChristianExaminer,in1828.TwoseriesofTraitsandStoriesoftheIrishPeasantry,whichhadappearedinanumberof
journals,werepublishedinbookformin1830and1833.Thepiecesdealwithavarietyofaspectsofrurallifefunerals,wakes,weddings,folklore,religion,sports,
fightsandconsideringthathehadnoliterarytraditionfromwhichtowork,theyareremarkablefortheirexuberance,wit,descriptivepower,anddia

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logue.TheyarealsothefirstgenuineaccountsofpeasantlifeinIrelandbeforetheFamineof184548.TalesofIrelandfollowedin1834.Subsequentlyhewrote
morethanfifteennovels,ofwhichFardoroughatheMiser(1839)isthemostnotable.TheBlackProphet(1847),RedHall,ortheBaronet'sDaughter(1852),
afterwardspublishedasTheBlackBaronet,andTheSquandersofCastleSquander(1852)dealgloomilyandinluriddetailwiththeeffectsoftheFamine.Theyare
notasappealingashisshorterstoriesandpieces,andarewrittenasthoughdidacticallydirectedtoanaudiencewhowouldknownothingofthebackground.See
Autobiography,1896(publishedwithhisletters)BenedictKiely,PoorScholar:aStudyoftheWorksandDaysofWilliamCarleton,newedn1972.
Carlyle,Thomas(17951881)
Scottishhistorian,biographer,critic,translator,andthinker,wasborninEcclefechan,Dumfriesshire,theeldestsonofastonemasonbyhissecondmarriage,andwas
educatedatAnnanAcademyandEdinburghUniversity.Havinggivenuptheideaoftheministry,hetaughtforseveralyears,tookupandthenabandonedthelaw,
studiedGermanliterature,andwroteTheLifeofFriedrichSchiller(1825).In1826hemarriedJaneBaillieWelshJaneWelshCarlyle(180166)awomanof
considerableintellectandownerofthesmall,remoteestateofCraigenputtock,nearDumfries,wheretheylivedfrom1828to1834.HerehewroteSartorResartus,
firstpublishedinFraser'sMagazine(183334),awitty'symbolicmyth'intheformofaphilosophicaltreatiseonclothing.In1834thecouplemovedtoCheyneRow
inLondon.TheFrenchRevolution(1837)themanuscriptofthefirstvolumewasinadvertentlyburnedbyMILL'Shousemaidandhadtoberewrittenfrommemory
plantsthereadervividlyinthemidstoftheeventsdescribed.OnHeroes,HeroWorshipandtheHeroicinHistory(1841),andasixvolumebiographyofFrederick
theGreat(185865),enabledCarlyletopursuehisfavouriteintellectualpastimeoftranscendentalism:findingprecedentsinthepasttoexplaineventsandcharactersin
recenthistory,whichinturnofferpointerstothefuture.
Apartfromhisbreadthofvision,Carlyle'sappeallayinthedistinctivestylehedevelopedinmidcareer,whichhasbeencalled'ejaculatory':avastvocabularybacks
conventionalspeechpatterns.Criticsdifferastohowfar,orwhether,beingmarriedtohimstifledhiswife'screativeabilitiesitisprobablethat,realizingherlimitations,
shechoseinsteadtousehercriticalfacultiestohelphim,asshedidotherauthorsoftheirwideacquaintance.Afterherdeath,hewrotelittle.In1874DISRAELI,asPrime
Minister,wrotetoCarlyle,then79,offeringtorecommendtoQueenVictoriatheawardtohimoftheGrandCrossoftheBathandapension'equaltoagood
fellowship'.Hereplied,withgreatdignityandhumility,decliningboth.SeeACarlyleReader,ed.G.B.Tennyson,1984:JaneWelshCarlyle:aNewSelectionof
HerLetters,newedn1959,andThomasCarlyle:LetterstoHisWife,1953,ed.TrudyBlissFredKaplan,ThomasCarlyle:aBiography,newedn1993Simon
Heffer,MoralDesperado:aLifeofThomasCarlyle,newedn1996A.L.LeQuesne,Carlyle,1982(introductiontohisthought)andinDouglasGifford(ed.),
TheHistoryofScottishLiteratureVol.3:NineteenthCentury,newedn1989.
Carman,(William)Bliss(18611929)
Canadianpoet,wasborninFredericton,NewBrunswick,theeldestsonofabarrister,and,throughhismother,afirstcousinofROBERTSandrelatedtoEMERSON.He
waseducatedatFrederictonCollegiateSchool,theUniversityofNewBrunswick,andforanunhappyyearatEdinburghUniversity.Hewasateacher,privatetutor,
andarticledclerkinFrederictonbeforegoingontoHarvard,wherehemettheAmericanpoet,RichardHovey(18641900).Between1890and1900hewasonthe
editorialstaffofvariousAmericanjournals,includingthereligiousIndependent,andAtlanticMonthly.ThetitlepoemofLowTideonGrandPr:aBookofLyrics
(1893)typifieshisinitialelegiactonewhich,inandafterthepublication(withHovey)ofSongsfromVagabondia(1894),becamemoreboisterous.In1896hemet
MaryPerryKing(18611939)helivedwithherfamilyinNewYorkfrom1897to1907,andsettlednearherinConnecticutin1908.Herevertedtoclassicalthemes
infivevolumes,reissuedtogetherasThePipesofPan(1806),andinSappho:Lyrics(1902)alsoSappho:OneHundredLyrics(1904).Andasanexpressionof
hisfurthersearchforapoeticphilosophyhewrote(withKing)DaughteroftheDawn:aLyricalPageant...(1913)andEarthDeitiesandOtherRhythmic
Masques(1914),reflectingtheprevailingdoctrineofUnitrinitarianismTruth,Beauty,andtheGood.In1921,nowregardedbythepressasnationalpoetlaureate,
heundertookafteraseriousillnessthefirstofseveralpoetryreadingtoursofCanadaonhisreturnfromoneofthemhediedinConnecticut.Themostpopularofthe
fourConfederationPoets,theothersbeingLAMPMAN,Roberts,andD.C.SCOTT,hegavealeadtoCanadianwriterstoreflecttheirownculture.Henevermarried.See
Windflower:theSelectedPoems,ed.RaymondSousterandDouglasLochhead,1985.
Carmi,T.,pseudonymofCharmiCharny(192594)
Israelipoetandeditor,wasborninNewYork,'nexttoBronxZoo',ofaHebrewspeakingfamily.HegraduatedfromYeshivaUniversityin1946.In1947,after
spendingayearinFranceinareliefunitworkingamong

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Jewishorphans,hesettledinPalestineandjoinedtheHaganah,theundergroundJewisharmy,becoming,rathertohissurprise,aherooftheWarofIndependence
(194849).HethenservedasanofficerintheIsraeliairforce.HewasacoeditoroftheliteraryjournalMassafrom1952to1954,andchildren'sbooks'editorofthe
publisherAmOvedfrom1963to1970,afterwhichheheldvisitingprofessorshipsinAmericanuniversities.In1978hewasappointedVisitingProfessorofHebrew
LiteratureattheHebrewUnionCollege,JewishInstituteofReligion,Jerusalem.Hisverse,ofwhichthefirstvolumewaspublishedin1950,combinestraditional
elementsandmodernconversationalexpressions,oftenwithsensuousundertones.CollectionsinEnglishareTheBrassSerpent(1961tr.DomMoraes,1964),
SomebodyLikeYou,tr.StephenMitchell(1971),andAttheStoneofLosses,tr.GraceSchulman(1983),aselection.HetranslatedplaysbyBRECHT,SHAKESPEARE,
andSOPHOCLESintoHebrew,andeditedandtranslatedThePenguinBookofHebrewVerse(1981).Hewasthreetimesmarried,andhadachildbyeachwife.
Carpio,LopeDeVega
seeVECACARPIO.
Carroll,Lewis,pseudonymofCharlesLutwidgeDodgson(183298)
Britishchildren'swriterandmathematician,wasborninDaresbury,Lancashire,thesonofthefutureArchdeaconofRichmond,andwaseducatedatRugbySchool
andChristChurch,Oxford,wherehethenbecamealecturer.Diffidentandshy,hewasbestabletocommunicatewithchildren.Astoryfirsttoldontherivertothe
daughtersoftheDeanofChristChurchwaspublishedin1865asAlice'sAdventuresinWonderlandandforitswit,weirdlogic,linguisticfun,andwildrhymes,has
remainedpopularwithchildrenandadultseversince.ThroughtheLookingGlassandWhatAliceFoundThere(1871)isslightlymorecontrived(asthoughthe
mathematicianhadinfluencedthestoryteller),butinHumptyDumpty,TweedledumandTweedledee,theWhiteKnight,andtheRedQueen,itishosttocharactersas
memorableasanyintheearlierbook.Hisotherventureintofiction,SylvieandBruno(1889)andasequel,wasnotmuchappreciatedevenbyhiscontemporaries,
unlikeTheHuntingoftheSnark(1876),asustainednonsensepoem,manyofwhosewittyallusionsarejustasvalidtoday.Ofanumberofmathematicaltreatises,
EuclidandHisModernRivals(1879)wasthemostinfluential,andLUCASrecords:'Scatteredupanddownitweremanyjokes,whichwouldhavebeenmore
numerousbutforthecriticismsoffriends.'Dodgsonwasanaccomplishedphotographer,especiallyoflittlegirls,ofwhomhestartedtakingpicturesin1856and
ultimatelyclaimedtohaveenjoyedthefriendshipofovertwohundred.SeeTheSelectedLettersofLewisCarroll,ed.MortonN.Cohen,newedn1996Derek
Hudson,LewisCarroll,newedn1995(biography)MortonN.Cohen,LewisCarroll:aBiography,newedn1996DonaldThomas,LewisCarroll:aPortrait
withBackground,1996.
Carter,Angela(194092)
neStalker,Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,critic,andjournalist,wasborninEastbourne,Sussex,thedaughterofaScottishjournalist,andspentherearly
childhoodinsouthYorkshire.AftergoingtoadirectgrantschoolinBalham,southLondon,shewasapprenticedtotheCroydonAdvertiser.ShemarriedPaul
Carter,anindustrialchemist,in1960,andwentwithhimtoBristolwhere,failingtogetajobasalocalnewspaperreporter,shereadEnglishliteratureatBristol
University,specializinginthemedievalperiod.Afteratrialrunwitharatherviolentthriller,ShadowDance(1966),sheestablishedtheboundsofherparticular
territorywithTheMagicToyshop(1967),astudyoftyrannyinabizarresetting,whichwontheJohnLlewellynRhysAwardforaworkbyanauthorunder35.With
theproceedsoftheSomersetMAUGHAMAwardforherthirdnovel,SeveralPerceptions(1968),sheleftherhusband(theydivorcedin1972)andspenttwoyearsin
Japan,which,sheclaimed,gaveanimpetustoherfeminism.Themoreimmediatemanifestationsofthiswerethenovel,ThePassionofNewEve(1977),andher
study,TheSadeianWoman:anExerciseinCulturalHistory(1979),oneofthefirstbookscommissionedbyViragoPress.NightsattheCircus(1984)is
regardedasaclassicof'magicrealism'.TheBloodyChamberandOtherStories(1979)containsimaginative,anddisturbing,reworkingsoftraditionaltales,an
aspectofherintellectualcuriositywhich,withherpenchantforinventivenessandbroadcomedyandherconvictionoftheindomitablenatureofwomanhood,inform
herlastnovel,WiseChildren(1991).Critical,oftenalsodisrespectful,piecesareinNothingSacred:SelectedWritings(enlargededn1992)andExpletives
Deleted(1992),whichincludesconstructiveessaysonCHARLOTTEBRONT,DELAMARE,andSTEAD.TheViragoBookofFairyTales(2vols199092)containsher
selectionoforallytransmittedstorieswhichgivesubstancetoherideologicalassumptions.AmericanGhosts&OldWorldWonders(1993)isaposthumous
collectionofstoriesandsketcheswhichshehadsuggestedforpublicationinthisformseealsoBurningYourBoats:CollectedShortStories(1995)andThe
CuriousRoom:CollectedDramaticWorks(1996).Shediedofcancer,havingin1984hadasonbyhersecondhusband.SeeLornaSage,AngelaCarter,1994
(criticalintroduction).
Carter,Martin(b.1927)
Guyanesepoet,wasborninGeorgetownandeducated

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thereatQueen'sCollege.HewasacivilservantforfouryearsuntilforcedtoresignbecauseofhisinvolvementwiththePeople'sProgressiveParty.Hewasalreadya
publishedpoetwhen,onBritain'simpositionofdirectrulein1953,hewasheldforthreemonthsinadetentioncamp.PoemsofResistancefromBritishGuiana,the
contentsofwhichhehadwrittenshortlybeforehisarrest,waspublishedintheUKin1954.'BlackFriday1962',recallingtheuseofBritishtroopsinthestreetsto
supportthesuspensionoftheconstitution,waspublishedlocallyinJailMeQuickly(1963).Afterindependencein1966hebecameMinisterofPublicInformationand
Broadcasting,andrepresentedGuyanaattheUnitedNations.PoemsofSuccession(1977)containspoemsfrompreviouscollections,includingthephilosophical
'Conversations'andthosesuchas'ListeningtotheLand'and'UnderaNearSky',inwhichthepastobtrudesonthepresent.HeextendedhisrangewithPoemsof
Affinity19781980(1980).SeeSelectedPoems,1989.
Cary,Joyce(18881957)
Irishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninLondonderry,butspentmostofhislifeinEngland.HewaseducatedatCliftonCollegeand(aftertwoyearsstudying
art)atTrinityCollege,Oxford.HeservedwiththeRedCrossintheFirstBalkanWar(191213),andwasfrom1913to1920amemberoftheNigerianPolitical
ServicehesawactionwiththeNigerianRegimentintheCameroonsin1915.BeginningwithAissaSaved(1932),hewrotefournovelswithAfricansettings,of
whichthemostnotable,andmemorable,isthetragicomicMisterJohnson(1939).CharleyisMyDarling(1940)echoeshisownyouthAHouseofChildren
(1941)isanautobiographicalevocationofachildhoodholidayinIreland.HerselfSurprised(1941),ToBeaPilgrim(1942),andTheHorse'sMouth(1944)are
novelsabouttheworldoftheartistwhicharedesignedasatrilogyineach,thenarrativeistoldandtheothercharactersobservedbyadifferentoneofthethreemain
protagonists.HedealsinthesamewaywithaspectsofpoliticsinPrisonerofGrace(1952),ExcepttheLord(1953),andNotHonourMore(1955).Inthesesix
worksinparticular,heisconcernedwiththeplace,andproblems,ofthecreativeindividualtryingtomakehisownworldoutof,andhisownwaythrough,the
repressionsandcontradictionsofachangingcontemporarysociety.SeeBarbaraFisher(ed.),JoyceCaryRemembered:inLettersandInterviewsbyHisFamily
andOthers,1988AlanBishop,GentlemanRider:aBiographyofJoyceCary,newedn1989BarbaraFisher,JoyceCary:theWriterandHisTheme,1980.
CasanovadeSeingalt,GiacomoGirolamo(172598)
Italianadventurerandprosewriter,brotherofFrancesco(17271805),thelandscapepainter,andofGiovanniBattista(172898),DirectoroftheAcademyofFine
Arts,Dresden,wasborninVeniceofparentswhowerebothactors.Afterhisfather'sdeathin1733,hismotherwenttoactinDresden,andattheageofeighthewas
senttoPaduaUniversity.HereturnedtoVeniceasagraduate,tookminororders,andembarkedonalifetimeofescapades,seductions,espionage,andquestionable
dealings,whichtookhim,oftenpursuedbythepolice,toFrance,Germany,England,andSpain,inallofwhichhemovedinliterary,andtheatricalcirclesandmixed
withthegreat.Hepublishedavolumeofplaysin1752.In1755hewassentencedtofiveyearsinthenotorious'Piombi'intheroofoftheDoge'sPalaceinVenicefor
avarietyofoffencesagainstthelawandmorality.HisdaringescapeinOctober1756wasthesubjectofhisHistoiredeMaFuite...(1788tr.ArthurMachenas
Casanova'sEscapefromtheLeads,1925).Hewasultimatelypardoned,andbecameanadviseronsubversiveliterature.From1785hewasnominallylibrarianto
theCountofWaldsteinatDuxinBohemia,whereheconcentratedonhisautobiography.WritteninFrenchandpublishedinLeipzigasMmoirescritsparLui
mme(12vols182638),itwasuntilthe1960savailableonlyinexpurgatedversions,thefirsteditioninEnglishfromtheoriginalmanuscriptbeingHistoryofMyLife,
tr.WilliamR.Trask(6vols196772).
Castiglione,Baldassare(14781529)
Italiancourtierandprosewriter,wasbornonhisfather'sestateofCasatico,Mantua,andstudiedatMilanUniversity.Heworkedforaristocraticfamiliesandin1504
joinedthecourtoftherulersofUrbino,whomheserveduntilin1516FrancescoMariadellaRovere(14901538)wasoustedbythetroopsofPopeLeoX,and
retiredtoMantua.Castiglione,whoaccompaniedhim,nowmarried,settleddown,andrevisedandpolishedhisstudyofRenaissancemanners,LibrodelCortegiano
[TheBookoftheCourtier].In1519hereturnedtodiplomaticduties,becomingMantuanambassadortoRomeand(in1524)papalnunciotoSpain,wherehespent
therestofhislifeandwherehedied.ThethreatofapiratededitionofhisbookgalvanizedhimintosendinganauthorizedmanuscripttothefamousAldinePressin
Venice,fromwhomhepurchasedhalftheprintingofonethousandcopiesandalimitededitionof30copiesonfinepaperforhisfriends.Publishedin1528,this
conversationpieceinfourbooks,consciouslywritteninwhathesawasanItaliannational,ratherthanregional,vernacular,withfrequentreferencestoclassicalRoman
writers,hadlessinfluenceinItaly,whereitsambiencewassomewhatpass,thaninEngland,whereitwastranslatedin1561bySirThomasHoby

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(153066)andbecamethecourtlyidealoftheElizabethanera.SeeTheBookoftheCourtier,ed.VirginiaCox,1994PeterBurke,FortunesoftheCourtier:the
EuropeanReceptionofCastiglione's'Cortegiano',1996(criticalsurvey).
Cather,Willa(18731947)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasbornWilella,inBackCreekValley,Virginia,theeldestofsevenchildrenofaneasygoingsonofalandedfamily,the
headofwhichremainedloyaltotheNorthduringtheCivilWar.In1883herfathersolduphisfarmandmovedtoNebraska,where'wehadveryfewAmerican
neighbourstheyweremostlySwedesandDanes,NorwegiansandBohemians'.Afterayear,hesoldupagain,andmovedintoRedCloud,wheresheattendedhigh
school.Shewentonat17totheUniversityofNebraska,Lincoln.Outspokeninheropinionsandunusualinherstyleofdress(shefavouredmasculinecutsand
croppedhair),shewroteinherfirstyearaclassessayonCARLYLE,whichherteachersenttotheNebraskaStateJournalwithoutherknowledge.Thesightofitin
printdeterminedheronacareerasawriter,ratherthaninmedicine,andwhentheJournalinvitedhertowriteaSundaycolumnandtheatrecriticism,sheaccepted
enthusiastically.Herfirstpublishedstory,'Peter',appearedin1892intheBostonmagazine,MahoganyTree,towhichanotherteacherhadsentit,andlaterthatyear,
withchanges,inthestudentjournal,Hesperian,whichCatherwasnow,editing.Aftergraduating,shebecamein1896EditorofHomeMonthly,Pittsburgh,onthe
saleofwhichthefollowingyearshejoinedthetelegraphdeskofthePittsburghDailyLeader.In1901shewentintoteaching,andtwoyearslaterbecameamember
oftheAmericanliteraturedepartmentofAlleghenyHighSchool.Shewasnow,livingwiththefamilyofIsabelleMcClung,thedaughterofaPittsburghjudgeandthe
greatloveofherlife,onwhosemarriagein1916shewasdevastated,andonwhosedeathin1938shefeltshecouldnotgoonliving.
In1903shepublishedabookofverse,AprilTwilights,andhadatelegramfromS.S.McClure(18571949),theebullienteditorandpublisher,whosejournal,
McClure'sMagazine,hadalreadyrejectedsomeofherstories.AtameetinginNew,York,heundertooktopublishanythingshewrote,beginningwithacollectionof
stories,TheTrollGarden(1905).In1906,whentheseniorstaffofMcClure'swalkedoutafterarow,sheacceptedhisinvitationtobecomeaneditor.In1908she
becamemanagingeditor,inwhichcapacityshewentonascoutingtriptoLondon,wheresheattendedthefuneralofMEREDITH,metGOSSEandWELLS,andsatwith
GREGORYinYEATS'SboxtoseetheAbbeyTheatre'sproductionofSYNGE'SThePlayboyoftheWesternWorld.In1909shetookanapartmentinWashingtonPlace
withEdithLewis,withwhomshelivedfortherestofherlifeseeEdithLewis,WillaCatherLiving:aPersonalRecord(1953).
TheLondontheatreworldprovidedpartofthebackground,andthecollapsein1909ofanew,bridgeovertheStLawrenceatQuebecthedenouement,ofherfirst
novel,Alexander'sBridge(1912).ThatyearshevisitedNebraskaagain,gaveupherjob,and,nowalmost39,settledinNewYorktobeginherlife'swork.She
explainedlater:'IbegantowriteabookentirelyformyselfastoryaboutsomeScandinaviansandBohemianswhohadbeenneighboursofourswhenIlivedona
ranchinNebraska...Heretherewasnoarrangingor''inventing"everythingwasspontaneousandtookitsownplace,rightorwrong.'ThiswasOPioneers!(1913)
inTheSongoftheLark(1915)andMyAntonia(1918)shefurtherexploredpioneeringthemesandtheplaceofthetalented,andcourageous,woman.InOneof
Ours(1922)amaladjustedherofromtheplainsultimatelymeetsanironicdeathontheWesternFrontinWorldWarI.ToCather,'Theworldbrokeintwoin1922or
thereabouts.'Withthatfeeling,andherreceptionintotheEpiscopalChurch,herwritingtookanewdirection.ALostLady(1923),basedonthecircumstancesof
someoneshehadknown,thewifeofaformergovernorofNebraska,andTheProfessor'sHouse(1925)arepredominantlyaboutconflictingvaluesinlife.The
novella,MyMortalEnemy(1926),isadeeplyfeltstudyofdisillusionment.DeathComesfortheArchbishop(1927)andShadowsontheRock(1931)are
evocationsofhistoricalsituationsinNewMexicoandQuebecrespectively.Personaltragedies,ahandandawristinjury,andtheworseninginternationalsituation
doggedthewritingofherlastnovel,SapphiraandtheSlaveGirl(1940),forwhichshereturnedtotheVirginiaofherchildhood,andtothecircumstancesofherown
family17yearsbeforeherbirth.AmonghernumerouscorrespondentswasthefirstpresidentoftheCzechoslovakRepublic,T.G.Masaryk(18501937).SeeEarly
NovelsandStories,1987,LaterNovels,1990,Stories,Poems,andOtherWritings,1996,ed.SharonO'BrienJamesWoodress,WillaCather:aLiteraryLife,
newedn1989MildredR.Bennett,TheWorldofWillaCather,newedn1995(criticalstudy)SharonO'Brien,WillaCather:TheEmergingVoice,newedn
1997.
Catullus,GaiusValerius(c.8553BC)
Romanlyricpoet,wasborninVeronaandinabout62cametoRome,wherehewasoneofthe'newpoets',whoreactedagainsttheirelders.Hehadablazingaffair
withawomanhecallsLesbiainhispoems,whomayhavebeentheemancipatedandprofligatewifeofMetellusCeler,consulin60.In57CatulluswenttoBithynia,
AsiaMinor,asaguestorcampfollowerofitsgov

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ernor,Memmius(towhomLUCRETIUSdedicatedDeRerumNatura).Hediedsoonafterhisreturn.The116completepoemsthatwehavevaryfromtwoto408lines.
Aswellasthelove/hatepoemstoLesbia,therearebitinglyobservantcameosoffriendsandenemies(includingCAESAR),andaccountsofchancemeetingsandalfresco
sexualencounters,inwhichheisoftencoarsebutalwaysamusing.Others,includinghislongestwork,adescriptionoftheweddingofPeleusandThetis,have
mythologicalthemes,butstillshowdepthofpoeticemotion.HisfamilyhadavillaatSirmio,whichinspiredTENNYSON'Slyrical'FraterAveatqueVale'.SeeThePoems
ofCatullus,tr.JamesMichie,newedn1990(includesLatintexts).
Causley,Charles(b.1917)
Britishpoetandanthologist,wasborninLaunceston,Cornwall,andeducatedlocally.HeservedintheRoyalNavyinWorldWarII,returningafterwardstohiscareer
asalocalprimaryschoolteacher,whichheremaineduntilhisretirement.HisfirstbookofversewasFarewell,AggieWeston(1951)hisreputationwasconfirmed
byhisthird,UnionStreet(1957).Causleyexcelsattheballadform,takinghisimagesfromthingsheknowswellthesea,theCornishcountrysideandfolklore,
Christianity,children.Heoftenusespopulardictionandreworkstraditionalrhythmsandrhymestocreateeffectsofintensityandsurprise,asin'Innocent'sSong':
'Watchwherehecomeswalking/OutoftheChristmasflame,/Dancing,doubletalking:/Herodishisname.'(Innocenceisarecurringthemeinhispoetry.)His
narrativepoems,outwardlyartlessbutconstructedandfinishedwithprecision,oftenrevealdisturbingtruths,particularly'TheBalladofCharlotteDymond','Mother,
getup,undothedoor',and'BalladofJackCornwell'.Muchofhisverseisalsoaccessibletochildren,forwhomhehascompiledseveralanthologies,thefirstof
which,DawnandDusk(1962),brokenewgroundinthatitcomprisedexclusivelycontemporarypoetryoriginallywrittenforadultaudiences.Causleyhasalsowritten
poetryandplaysespeciallyforchildren.HewasawardedtheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1967andwasmadeCBEin1986.SeeCollectedPoems1951
1992,1992CollectedPoemsforChildren,1996.
Cavafy,C(onstantine)P(etrou)(18631933)
Greekpoet,wasborninAlexandriaofaPhanariotfamily,andwaseducatedinEnglanduntilthecollapseofthefamilyexportbusinessthroughouthislifehespoke
GreekwithafaintEnglishaccent.In1892heobtainedaclericalpostinthe'ThirdCircle'oftheBritishrunIrrigationDepartment,forwhichheworkedforthirtyyears,
livinginanoverfurnishedflatinastreethauntedbyprostitutes.Hebegantopublishpoetryinperiodicalsin1886,andintheearly1900sissuedtwoprivatelyprinted
pamphletsofhisverse.Fromabout1911,whichheregardedasthebeginningofhismatureperiod,hedistributedsinglepoemstoachosencircleofreadersas
offprintsorintheformofbroadsheets,tobecollectedintoafolder.SomeofthemreflectedaspectsoftheHellenisticagewhichfollowedthedeathofAlexanderthe
Greatin323BCotherswereoutspokenevocationsofhomosexuallove.FORSTER,whofirstmethimin1917,introducedhimtoEnglishreadersinanessay,'The
PoetryofC.P.Cavafy',inPharosandPharillon(1923).SeeCollectedPoems,tr.EdmundKeeleyandPhilipSherrard,rev.edn1992RobertLiddell,Cavafy:a
CriticalBiography,1974EdmundKeeley,Cavafy'sAlexandria,2ndrev.edn1996(biographical/criticalstudywithextensivequotations).
Caxton,William(c.142091)
Englishprosewriter,translator,andprinter,wasborninKent,andwasapprenticedtoaLondonmercer.Hebecameaprominentmerchant,tradingbetweenEngland
andtheLowCountries,andwasGovernoroftheEnglishNationofMerchantAdventurers,basedinBruges,betweenabout1462and1470.Hethenbranchedinto
literature,asatranslatorandaprinter,acrafthehadstudiedinCologne.In1475(ormaybeinthepreviousyear)heproducedinBruges,inhisowntranslationfrom
theFrench,TheRecuyelloftheHistoryesofTroye,whichwasthefirstbooktobeprintedinEnglish.In1476hesetuphispressinLondoninashopwhichhe
rentedfromWestminsterAbbey,andfromthenuntilhisdeathheprintedanddistributedadistinguished,butalsocatholic,listoftranslationsofclassicalandEuropean
literature,andoriginalworksinEnglishwhichincludedthefirsteditionsofCHAUCER,GOWER,LYDGATE,and(inaversioneditedbyhimself)MALORY.Hisowncontributionas
atranslatorcomprisesovertwentyconsiderableworksinDutch,French,andLatin,forwhichheemployedanEnglishliterarylanguagewhichhecalls'notoverrude,
necuryous,butinsuchtermesasshallbeunderstandenbygoddysgrace'.SeeN.FBlake,WilliamCaxtonandEnglishLiterature,1991.
Gelan,Paul
seeHAMBURGER.
Cellini,Benvenuto(150071)
Italiansculptorandprosewriter,wasborninFlorence,theeldestsurvivingsonofanarchitectwhowantedhimtobeamusicianbutfinallyaccededtohisrequesttobe
apprenticedtoagoldsmith.Expelledfromthecityforsixmonthsforrioting,hegotexperienceinBolognaand(havinglefttownagainafterarowwithhisfather)in
Pisa.In1519hearrivedinRome,wherehesoon,byhisownaccount,obtainedcommissions,andwasalso

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employedbyPopeClementVIIasacourtmusicianand,duringthesackofRomein1527,asagunner.Heopenedhisownbusinessandledalivelyandvariedlife.In
1545hereturnedtoFlorence,wherehewaselevatedtothenobilityin1554.Hewasimprisonedtwoyearslaterforanassaultonanothergoldsmith,andagainin
1557forahomosexualactwithoneofhisapprentices.Hemarriedlateinlife,buthavingnolegitimateorillegitimatesonwhosurvivedchildhood,in1560headopted
hismodel'ssonashisheir,andthenlaterdisinheritedhim.HischiefplasticmemorialsarethebronzePerseusanditselaboratebase,andthemassivesilversaltcellar
madeforFrancisIofFrance.Hisliterarybequesttoposterityishisautobiography,whichhebeganinhisownhandin1558andthendictatedtoaboy'ofabout
fourteenwhowasinapoorstateofhealth'.Theoriginalmanuscriptwasdiscoveredin1805aprintededitionfromanothersourceappearedinNaplesin1728,and
wastranslatedintoEnglishin1771byThomasNugent(170072).Itisavividaccountofamanandhiscraft,ofthenobilityandtheordinarymenandwomenofthe
times,andofthetimesthemselves.SeeTheLifeofBenevenutoCellim,tr.JohnAddingtonSymonds,newedn1995.
Cervantes(Saavedra),Miguelde(15471616)
Spanishnovelist,wasborninAlcaladeHenares,thefourthofsevenchildrenofanimpoverishedhidalgowhoseancestorsprobablyconvertedfromJudaism.The
familymovedtoValladolid,Cordoba,andSeville,wherehewenttotheJesuitcollege,andthentoMadrid,whereheprobablyattendedtheCitySchool.Aftergoing
toItalyinthetrainofCardinalAcquaviva,heenlistedintheSpanisharmy,foughtheroicallyatLepantoin1571inthenavalvictoryofDonJohnofAustria(154578)
overtheTurks,inwhichhepermanentlylosttheuseofhislefthand,andthentookpartinexpeditionsagainstTunisandthefortressofLaGolita.In1575,thegalleyin
whichhewastravellingbacktoSpainwascapturedbyTurkishpirates,andhespentfiveyearsasaslaveinAlgiersbeforebeingransomedbyTrinitarianmonks.
Unabletofindasuitablejob,hetriedtomakealivinginMadridbywriting,butneitherhisplaysnorapastoralnovel,LaGalatea(1584),hadanysuccess.Already
thefatherofanillegitimatedaughter(IsabelSaavedra),in1584hemarried19yearoldCatalinadeSalazarvPalacios.TheylivedforatimeinEsquivias,avillageof
LaMancha,whereshehadafarm,butsoonseparated.In1587hebecamearovingquartermasterfortheArmada,theSpanishfleet,butwasjailedinSevillein1597
whenafinancierwithwhomhehaddepositedstatefundswentbankrupt.Continuouslypassedoverforbetterposts(in1590hehadevenappliedtobesentoverseas),
andagainmjailm1602,hefinallymanagedtopublishElIngeniosoHidalgoDonQuixotedeLaMancha(1605tr.ThomasSheltonasTheHistonyofthe
ValorousandWittieKnightErrant,DonQuixoteoftheMancha,1612).Hispleasureinitsimmediatecriticalsuccess(hehadsoldtherightsforapittance)was
dampenedwhenthepolice,investigatingthecircumstancesinwhichamanhaddiedinastreetdueloutsidehishome,discoveredthatCervantes'ssisteranddaughter
wereusingtheplaceforimmoralpurposes.
LateinlifehewroteNovelasEjemplares(1613asExemplaryStories,tr.C.A.Jones,1972asExemplaryNovels,tr.B.W.Ife,R.M.Price,Michaeland
JonathanThacker,JohnJones,JohnMacklin,andothers,4vols1992)asecondpartofDonQuixote(1615),aftertheappearancethepreviousyearofapirated
editionofanincompleteversionandLosTrabajosdePersilesandSigismunda(1617tr.fromtheFrenchasTheTrauelsofPersilesandSigismunda,1619),a
dreamlikenovelofadventurewhichheonlyjustmanagedtofinishbeforehediedofdropsy.ThecompleteDonQuixote,regardedasthefirstmodernnovel,isa
workintheSpanishtraditionwhosewit,characterization,andimaginativeexplorationofillusionhavegivenitauniversalappeal.Amongseveral18thcentury
translationsarethosebyCharlesJarvisorJervas(c.16751739),painterandfriendofPOPE,whoseversion(1742)hasbeenreissuedmanytimes,mostrecently(ed.E.
C.Riley)in1992,andSMOLLETT(1755).TherewerenolessthanfourcriticalcommentariespublishedinEnglandinthe18thcentury,thefirstannotatededition,
PleasantNotesuponDonQuixotebyEdmondGayton(160866),havingappearedin1654.
Chalmers,Thomas(17801847)
Scottishcleric,wasborninEasterAnstruther,Fife,andeducatedatStAndrewsUniversity,becomingMinisterofKilmany,Fife,in1803.In1815hewastranslatedto
theTronKirk,Glasgow,wherehisoratorywasmuchadmiredasareactionagainstthenewunimpassionedpulpitliberality.Hispublicweekdaysermonswere
publishedin1817asASeriesofDiscoursesontheChristianRevelationViewedinConnectionwiththeModernAstronomy,which,accordingtoHAZLITT,'ran
likewildfirethroughthecountry'.TheChristianandCivicEconomyofLargeTowns,apamphletpublishedin1819,wasthefirstofanumberofworksinwhichhe
addressedsocialandeconomic,aswellasreligious,concerns.In1820,havingturneddownachairatEdinburghUniversity,heexchangedhisinfluentialparishforthat
ofStJohn's,whichtheTownCouncilwasestablishinginthepoorestpartofGlasgow.HebecameProfessorofMoralPhilosophyatStAndrewsin1823,and
ProfessorofTheologyatEdinburghin1827.In

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1843,attheheadof470ministers,heliterallywalkedoutoftheChurchofScotland,inprotestagainstStateinterferenceinwhattheyregardedastheprerogativeof
theChurch,andfoundedtheFreeChurchofScotland,ofwhichhewasthefirstModerator.Hewasmorepreacherthanwriter,who,accordingtothecriticRev.
GeorgeGilfillan(181378),'alwaysthrewhisheart,butnotalwayshisartisticconsciousness,intowhathewrote',butatatimewhentwothirdsofallScottishbooks
wereofareligiousnature,'AstronomicalDiscourses'wasthefirsttocrossthelinebetweenthereligiousandtheliterarymarkets.Heisalsotoberememberedinthat,
havingblazedoutofhispublisherinafury,heinstigatedanalternativeoutletforhispublicationsbylending1600ofhisownmoneyat5percentinteresttohisbrother
Charles(c.17901864)andWilliamCollins(17891853)tofoundwhatbecamethehouseofCollins,nowHarperCollins.SeeStewartJ.Brown,ThomasChalmers
andtheGodlyCommonwealth,1982.
Chambers,Robert(180271)
Scottishprosewriterandeditor,wasborninPeebles,thesonofacottonmerchant,throughwhosecopiesofEncyclopaediaBritannicatheboy'roamedlikeabee'
attheageoften.Adropinfortunesnecessitatedthefamily'sremovaltoEdinburgh,whereheattendedaclassicalacademy.At16,havingtriedandfailedatseveral
jobs,hesetupastall,atthesuggestionofhisbrotherWilliam(180083),fromwhichhesoldhisownschoolbooks,pocketbibles,andoldbooksfromtheirhome.
Theventureprospered,andin1819hewentintothebookshopbusinessproperwithWilliam(whohadnowfinishedhisapprenticeship)fromthisbeginningthere
soonemergedthepublishinghouseofW.&R.Chambers.Robert'santiquarianandliteraryinterestsledhimtocompileTraditionsofEdinburgh(1824rev.edn
1868)andPopularRhymesofScotland(1826rev.edns1841and1869),whichhaveremainedstandardworks.Hewasstillayoungmanwhenhepublished
HistoryoftheRebellioninScotland17456(1828)andbegantowriteABiographicalDictionaryofEminentScotsmen(183234)in1833hebecamejoint
Editorwithhisbrotheroftheliterary,philosophical,andscientificperiodical,Chambers'sJournal.HewaselectedamemberoftheRoyalSocietyofEdinburghin
1840,afterwhichheretiredtoStAndrewsfortwoyearstowriteVestigesoftheNaturalHistoryofCreation(1844).Publishedanonymously,forhedidnotwant
theexpectedfuroretodamagehisliteraryreputationorthatoftheirfirm,thisvividexpositionbyabrilliantcommunicatorpreparedthegroundforDARWINandothers
topresentsimilarviewsonevolution.SeeMiltonMillhauser,JustBeforeDarwin:RobertChambersand'Vestiges',1959.
Chandler,Raymond(18881959)
Americannovelist,wasborninChicago,thesonofarailwayengineerwhoonedaydisappeared,leavinghiswife,anIrishimmigrant,tolookaftertheboy.Hewas
educatedinEnglandatDulwichCollege'Itwouldseemthataclassicaleducationmightberatherapoorbasisforwritingnovelsinahardboiledvernacular.Ihappen
tothinkotherwise.[It]savesyoufrombeingfooledbypretentiousness.'AfterayearinEurope,hebecameaBritishcitizen,satthecivilserviceexamination,inwhich
hepassedthirdoutofsixhundredcandidates,andwasappointedanassistantnavalstoresofficer.Hequitaftersixmonths,wastakenonthestaffoftheWestminster
Gazette,andwrotecriticalessaysfortheAcademy.HereturnedtotheUSAin1912,andstudiedbookkeeping.HeenlistedintheCanadianArmyin1917,foughtin
France,andtransferredtotheRoyalFlyingCorpsafterrecuperatingfromashellblastwhichkilledeveryoneelseinhisunit.AftergoingbacktoLosAngeles,he
marriedCissyPascal,18yearshissenior,andbecameanexecutive,andlatervicepresident,ofanoilcompany,whichfiredhimin1932forabsenteeism,dalliance,
anddrunkenness.Withoutajob,hestudiedpulpmagazines,tookacorrespondencecourseinwritingfiction,andhadastory'BlackmailersDon'tShoot'(onwhichhe
hadworkedforfivemonths)publishedinBlackMaskin1933.Withhisfirstnovel,TheBigSleep(1939),heturnedcrimefictionintoanartform,andintroducedhis
privatedetective,PhilipMarlowe,amanofsentiment,humour,andacodeofmorality.InbetweenthepublicationofFarewellMyLovely(1940)andTheLadyin
theLake(1943)hespenttimeinHollywood,initiallytowritethefilmofCAIN'SDoubleIndemnity(1944).HewroteTheLongGoodbye(1953)whileCissywas
dying,andrevisedittomakeMarlowe'scharacterconsistentwithearlierbooks.Afterherdeathin1954,hebegantothreatensuicide,wentbacktothebottle,and
spenthislastyearscommutingbetweenLondonandLaJolla,California.HebecameanAmericancitizenagainin1956.Agenuinecraftsman,hewrotetoanassociate
(1945):'AllIwantedwhenIbeganwastoplaywithafascinatingnewlanguage,andtrying,withoutanybodynoticingit,toseewhatitwoulddoasameansof
expressionwhichmightremainonthelevelofunintellectualthinkingandyetacquirethepowertosaythingswhichareusuallyonlysaidwithaliteraryair.'Thisis
anotherwayofputtingwhathesaidtoAtlanticMonthlyin1948:'Wouldyouconveymycomplimentstothepuristwhoreadsyourproofs,andtellhimorherthatI
writeinasortofbrokendownpatoiswhichissomethingliketheway

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aSwisswaitertalks,andthatwhenIsplitaninfinitive,Goddamnit,Isplititsoitwillstaysplit.'SeeStoriesandEarlyNovels,1995LaterNovelsandOther
Writings,1995FrankMacShane,TheLifeofRaymondChandler,newedn1986TomHiney,RaymondChandler:aBiography,1997WilliamH.Marling,
RaymondChandler,1986(biographical/criticalstudy)andalsoHAMMETT.
Chapman,George(15591634)
Englishpoet,dramatist,andtranslator,wasbornnearHitchin,Hertfordshire,andprobablystudiedatOxfordorCambridge,withouttakingadegree.Heismentioned
inthe1590sasawriterofcomedies,buthisfirstknownpublishedwork,TheShadowofNight(1594),consistsoftwopoemsofobscuremeaning.OvidsBanquet
ofSence(1595),however,demonstratesthequalitieswhichenabledhimgracefullytofinishMARLOWE'SHeroandLeander(1586).Histranslationofsevenbooksof
HOMER'SIliadwasthefirstinstalmentofTheWholeWorksofHomer(1616),theIliadinrhyminglinesof14syllables,theOdysseyinheroiccouplets.Hisgraspof
Greekwastenuous,andhisinterpolationsinappropriate,butthiswasamonumentalachievementwhichthrilledhiscontemporariesandinspiredoneofKEATS'Smost
quotedsonnets,beginning,'MuchhaveItravelledintherealmsofgold...'.Chapman'scomedies,ofwhichAllFools(1599)stillreadswell,arelargelybasedon
Romanorcontinentalmodels,withadashofethicsandtopicalsatireEastwardHoe(1605),writtenwithJONSONandMARSTON,resultedinJonsonbeingjailedfor
insultingtheScots.HistragediesBussyD'Ambois(1607)anditssequel(1613),andthetwopartsofTheConspiracieandTragedieofCharlesDukeofByron
(1608),arebasedonnearcontemporaryfiguresfromFrenchhistory.Asadramatist,though,Chapmanisregardedasagiftedintellectualwhoseworkslacked
commercialinstinct.
Chateaubriand,FranoisRende(17681848)
Frenchnovelist,prosewriter,andstatesman,wasborninSaintMalo.Aftercollege,hespentashorttimeinthearmy,triedhishandatbeingawriterinParis,andthen
leftforAmericatoavoidtheFrenchRevolution.HereturnedonhearingofthearrestofLouisXVI,joinedtheranksofthemigrs,andwaswoundedandleftfor
deadherecoveredandtookrefugeinEngland,wherehegaveFrenchlessonsforaliving.Essai...surlesRvolutions(1797)isanapprenticework.Hereturned
toFrancein1800andjoinedtheDiplomaticService.GnieduChristianisme(1802tr.FredericShoberlasTheBeautiesofChristianity,1813)isanemotional
apologiafortheCatholicfaith,towhichhehadbeenconverted.HeextractedfromittwoshortfictionalnarrativesbasedonhisexperiencesandresearchinAmerica,
Atala(1801tr.CalebBingham,1802)andRend(1802tr.1813withAtala,tr.IrvingPutter,1952),whichareintheRomantictradition.HewascreatedVicomte
in1815,andservedasambassadorinBerlin,London,andRome,beingMinisterofForeignAffairsin1822.LatterlyheenjoyedthecompanyofMmeRcamier
(17771849).HismostlastingworkisLesMmoiresd'OutreTombe(184950),thestoryofhislifeinthecontextoftheeventsandphilosophiesofhistimes,written
andoftenrewrittenoverthirtyyearsandpublishedposthumouslythedefinitivetextdidnotappearuntil1948seeMemoirs,ed.andtr.RobertBaldick,newedn
1965(selection).
Chatterton,Thomas(175270)
Britishpoet,wasborninBristolshortlyafterthedeathofhisfather,aschoolmaster.Hismother,then21,earnedalivingbykeepingadameschoolandtakingin
sewing.Theboywaseducatedatacharityschool,andin1767wasapprenticedtoalawyer.Hehadbeguntowriteversewhenhewasten,andsoonafterwardshe
forgeda'medieval'poemwhichhepresentedtohisteacher.Hesoldfurtherforgeriesofancientdocumentstolocalworthies,includingaversetragedy,Aissa,
purportingtobebyapriestcalledSirThomasRowley.ChattertonnowinventedacompletecorpusofmedievalpoetryforRowley,inwhichhetriedunsuccessfullyto
interestHORACEWALPOLE.In1770hebrokehisindenturesbythreateningtocommitsuicide,andwenttoLondontoearnhislivingasawriter.Hesucceededforonlya
fewweeks.On24August,exhaustedandnearstarving,hepoisonedhimselfinhislodgings.Hewasnotyet18.Hisownverses,mainlysatirical,arelargelyofa
juvenilenature.The'Rowley'poems,however,thoughwritteninapseudomedievalEnglish,withmanyspuriousormisusedarchaisms,containmuchofgenuinelyrical
excellence,anditistheseandthecircumstancesofhisdeathwhichledtohisbeingregardedasoneoftheforerunnersoftheRomanticpoets,andinspired
WORDSWORTH'Sreferencein'ResolutionandIndependence'to'Chatterton,themarvellousboy,/Thesleeplesssoul,thatperishedinhispride...'.SeeComplete
Works,ed.D.S.TaylorandB.B.Hoover,1971SelectedPoems,ed.GreyelLindop,1986LindaKelly,TheMarvellousBoy:theLifeandMythofThomas
Chatterton,1971.
Chatwin,Bruce(194089)
Britishtravelwriterandnovelist,wasborninSheffieldandwenttoMarlboroughCollege,afterwhichhetookajobasaporteratSotheby's.Havingpronounceda
Picassowatercolourinthesaleroomafake,onthestrengthofwhichhewasappointedtoapostofresponsibility,hegaveuptheartworldforarchaeology,

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whichhereadatEdinburghUniversity.Hehadnowacquiredatastefortravel,whichhesatisfiedasanomadicjournalist,settingoutwithjustaknapsackwhereverhis
fancytookhim.InPatagonia(1977)revealedhiseyeforthetellingaswellastheeccentricdetailTheViceroyofOuidah(1980),astudyoftheslavetradein
NapoleonictimesbasedonhistravelsinDahomeyandBrazil,demonstratedhisabilityconvincinglytofictionalizehisobservationsandresearch.Asenseoflocation
alsoinformsOnaBlackHill(1982),anovelexpressiveoflifeonaWelshhillfarm.Hewrotetwofurthernovels,TheSonglines(1987),basicallyaphilosophical
meditationonthenomadicwayoflife,andUtz(1988),abriefbutprofoundexplorationofcharacter.HediedinFranceofanAIDSrelatedillness,havingpersonally
puttogethertheposthumousselectionofpieces,WhatAmIDoingHere(1989)seealsoPhotographsandNotebooks(1993)andAnatomyofRestlessness:
UncollectedWritings,ed.JanBormandMatthewGraves(1996).SeeSusannahClapp,WithChatwin:PortraitofaWriter,1997NicholasMurray,Bruce
Chatwin,1994(criticalstudy).
Chaucer,Geoffrey(c.13431400)
Englishpoet,publicservant,andcourtier,wasthesonofaprosperousLondonwinemerchant.HemayhaveattendedStPaul'sCathedralSchool,andhealmost
certainlystudiedlawbetween1361and1367.Theearliestrecordofhimisin1357asapageinthehouseholdofElizabeth,CountessofUlster,thewifeofLionel,
thirdsonofEdwardIII.HeservedwiththearmyinFrancein1359,beingtakenprisonerandthenreleasedforaransom,16ofwhichwaspaidbytheKing,in
whoseserviceheappearsin1367asvalet.InthiscapacityheundertookthefirstofmanydiplomaticmissionstotheContinentwhichcontinuedintothereignof
RichardII.In137273and1378hewasinItaly,wherethephysicalandintellectualenvironmentdidmuchtoinspirehispoeticimagination.Inabout1366hemarried
Philippa(d.c.1378),thedaughterofSirPayneRoetandsisterofKatherineSwynford(13501403),mistressand,later,thethirdwifeofJohnofGaunt.Chaucerwas
ControllerofCustomsandSubsidyofWools,Skins,andHidesintheportofLondon137486,andClerkoftheKing'sWorks138991.Hislastpublicofficewas
DeputyForesteroftheroyalforestofNorthPethertoninSomerset.On4December1399,hetookouta53yearleaseonahouseinthegardenofWestminster
Abbey,whereHenryVII'schapelnowstandshewasburiedintheAbbeyonhisdeaththefollowingyearhismonumentwassetupin1555inwhatlatercametobe
knownasPoets'Corner.Frominternalevidence,theorderinwhichhewrotehismainpoeticalworksisasfollows:
TheBookoftheDuchess:writteninoctosyllabiccoupletstocommemoratethedeathofBlanche,thefirstwifeofJohnofGaunt,in1369firstprintedin1532in
Chaucer'sworks,ed.WilliamThynne(d.1546).
TireHouseofFame:anentertaining,unfinisheddreampoeminoctosyllabiccouplets,writtenbetween1374and1385,andfirstprintedin1477/8byCAXTON.
TheLifeofStCecilia:writteninrhymeroyalsoonafter1373andafterwardsincorporatedinTheCanterburyTalesasthe'SecondNun'sTale'.Itmarksthe
beginningoftheItalianinfluenceonhiswork.
TheParlementofFoules:animaginativetreatmentinrhymeroyalofthedreampoem,theOldFrenchdeviceofargumentamongbirds,andthecourtlydisputationon
questionsoflove,probablywrittenforStValentine'sDay1383.Itisunusualandallthemorelivelyinthatthebirdsrepresentdifferentstratainthehumansocial
hierarchyofthetime,andthedebateassumesthetrappingsoftheEnglishParliament.FirstprintedbyCaxtonin1477/8asTireTempleofBras.
TroilusandCriseyde:ProfessorEN.Robinsoninhiseditionoftheworkscallsthis'Chaucer'ssupremeexampleofsustainednarration...unsurpassedinitskindin
laterEnglishpoetry'.Writteninrhymeroyalnotbefore1385,ithasmorecharacterization,tragicpassion,andfeelingforplotandsettingthanitsimmediatesource,
FilostratoofBOCCACCIO.FirstprintedbyCaxtoninabout1482.(SeealsoHENRYSON.)
TheLegendofGoodWomen:unfinishedaccountsoffamouslegendaryandhistoricalwomen,writtenbetween1382and1394andfirstprintedinThynne'sedition.It
marksthefirstuseinEnglishofthedecasyllabic(heroic)couplet,inwhichTheCanterburyTalesismainlycomposed.
TheCanterburyTales:originallyprojectedinabout1386.Lessthanafifthofitstaleswerecompleted,andtheywereneverputintoanyproperorder.Evenso,the
resultisoneofthemostsublimeandenjoyableworksinEnglishliterature,andthoughthereareprecedentsfortheformat,Chaucer'streatmentisuniqueinthatthe
storytellersrepresentawidevarietyofsocialclasses,theyinteractwitheachother,andtheircharacteristicsaredevelopedthroughtheirstories.Thefirstprintededition
wasbyCaxtonin1477/8.TherearegoodmodernversetranslationsbyNevillCoghill(1951)andDAVIVWRIGHT(1985).
TheRomauntoftheRoseisonlyattributedtoChaucer,butmaypartlybehis.Hewrotetwoproseworks,Boece,atranslationofDeConsolationePhilosophiaeof
BOETHIUS,andATreatiseontheAstrolabe,asimplifiedtranslationfromtheLatinmadein1392foraboywhomayhavebeenhisownson.Itissignificantthathe
alwayswroteinEnglish,andintheLondonspeechofhistime,ratherthanFrench,whichwasthelanguageofthecourtandofmanyofhisoriginals.Indoingso,he
developedtheEnglishlanguageasaliterarymedium,while

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contributingtothedominanceoftheSouthEastMidlanddialectonitswaytobecomingstandardEnglish.SeeTheWorks,ed.EN.Robinson,newedn1957:The
RiversideChaucer,ed.LarryD.Benson,3rdedn1987DerekPearsall,TheLifeofGeoffreyChaucer:aCriticalBiography,newedn1994S.S.Hussey,
Chaucer:anIntroduction,1981H.S.Bennett,ChaucerandFifteenthCenturyVerseandProse,newedn1973,reissued1990(overallstudy)BerylRowland
(ed.)CompaniontoChaucerStudies,2ndedn1979PeterBrown,ChauceratWork:theMakingoftheCanterburyTales,1994HelenCooper,The
CanterburyTales,2ndrev.edn1996(criticalstudy).
Cheever,John(191282)
Americanshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasborninQuincy,Massachusetts,ofatroubled,genteelfamily.HewasexpelledfromThayerAcademy,anexperience
whichheusedinhisfirstshortstory,publishedintheNewRepublic.HelivedinimpoverishedcircumstancesinNewYork,aboutwhichhewrotestories,principally
fortheNewYorker.Hismarriagein1941,ofwhichtherewerethreechildren,surviveduntiltheendofhislife,inspiteofhisalcoholismandbisexualescapades.His
firstcollectionofstories,TheWaySomePeopleLive,waspublishedin1943,whilehewasservingintheUSArmy,fromwhichhewasproudtoreceivean
'honourabledischarge'attheendofWorldWarII.Hereturnedtobeingafulltimewriteroffiction,andashemovedfromNewYork,toScarborough,toan
expansivehouseinOssining(builtin1799),sohebecameachroniclerofsuburbanAmericanlife.Heworkedfortwentyyearsonhisfirstnovel,TheWapshot
Chronicle(1957),whichwontheNationalBookAward.Itssequel,TheWapshotScandal(1964),isadescentintothelessedifyingfeaturesofcontemporary
Americanmores,athemetowhichhereturned,withevenmorebite,inBulletPark(1969).InFalconer(1977),theappallingexperienceofprison,whichthe
protagonistsomehowsurvives,representsthedegradationofsocietyitself.TheStoriesofJohnCheever(1978)wonthePulitzerPrize.HisdaughterSusanCheerer
wroteamemoir,HomeBeforeDark(1984)hissonBenCheever'sfirstnovel,ThePlagiarist(1992),isaboutanovelistwhosefatherbearsacloseresemblanceto
him.SeeTheJournalsofJohnCheever,ed.RobertGottlieb,newedn1993TheLettersofJohnCheever,ed.BenjaminCheever,newedn1992Scott
Donaldson,JohnCheever,1988(biography).
Chekhov,Anton(Pavlovich)(18601904)
Russiandramatistandshortstorywriter,wasborninTaganrog,adullprovincialtownontheSeaofAzov,thethirdofsixchildrenofarecklessshopkeeperwhose
father,aformerpeasantserf,hadbecomeanestatebailiff.Hestayedonatthelocalgrammarschoolwhenin1876hisfatherwentbankruptandlefttown,rejoining
thefamilyinMoscowthreeyearslater,whenheenteredtheuniversitymedicalschool.Hequalifiedin1884,havingsupportedthefamilyinthemeantimebywriting
humorousstoriesandsketchesforweeklymagazines.WhileinpracticeinMoscowhecontinuedtowrite,moreseriously,inthathespentlongeronthe12storiesthat
werepublishedin1888thanonthe129whichappearedin1885,andhewastacklingmoreseriousthemesseeEarlyStories,tr.anded.PatrickMilesandHarry
Pitcher(1994).Whilestillatschoolhehadwrittenthreeplays.WhenhecouldnotfindatheatreforPlatonov(1881),hisfirstattempttopresentabroadspectrumof
thesocialforceswhichweremouldingRussianlife,and[OntheHighway](1884)failedtopassthecensor,heturnedto'vaudevilles',thesuccessofwhich
encouragedatheatreproprietortocommissionafulllengthplay.Ivanov(1887),writtenintendays,wasnottheexpectedcomedy,butaplayofdirectaction,which
ChekhovrewroteforitsevenmoresuccessfulpremiereinStPetersburgin1889.[TheWoodDemon](1889),amoralityplaywrittenundertheinfluenceofthe
teachingsofTOLSTOY,failed,andhewithdrewit.Hewrotenofurtherplayforseveralyears,duringwhichhemadeanepictripacrossAsiatotheconvictsettlementon
SakhalinIslandseeAJourneytoSakhalin,tr.BrianReeve(1993)wentonaEuropeantour,andacquiredasmallestatenearMoscowatMelikhovo,wherehe
continuedhismedicalpracticeuntil1899.
[TheSeagull](1896),'acomedy,threefemaleparts,sixmale,fouracts,landscape(viewoflake)agreatdealoftalkaboutliterature,littleaction,fivetonsoflove',in
whichheadmitted'sinningagainsttherulesofthestage',wasputoninStPetersburgafteronlyninerehearsals,andwastakenoffafterafewperformances.In1897
Chekhovwasdiagnosedastubercular.WhenhereturnedtoRussiathefollowingyearafterwinteringinthesouthofFrance,hewaspersuadedtoletthenewMoscow
ArtTheatreincludeTheSeagullinitsrepertoire.ThoughhefeltthattheactordirectorConstantineStanislavksy(18631938)hadmisinterpretedtheplay,and
commented,'Youractingisexcellent,onlyyouarenotplayingmycharacter',theproductionwasaresoundingsuccess,andthecompanyadoptedaseagullasits
emblem.Contemporarycriticsreckonedthatthepublicwasnotyetattunedtothenewformofhisdramawhen[UncleVanya](1899),areworkingofTheWood
Demon,wasfirstperformedbutthecompany'stourintheCrimea,whereChekhovwaswinteringforhishealth,encouragedhimtowrite[TheThreeSisters](1901),
'adramainfouracts'withthree(ifnotfour)heroines,inwhichachoruselementreinforcestheindirectaction.In1902hemarriedOlgaKnipper(18701959),a
leadingactresswiththeMoscowArtTheatre,whotook

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thepartofthelandowner,MmeRanevskaya,attheopeningperformanceof[TheCherryOrchard](tr.RobertBrusteinandGeorgeCalderon,1995)in1904,and
wasstillplayingitin1943.This,Chekhov'slastplay,ofwhichhewastooilltowritemorethan'aboutfourlinesaday',andwhichhedesignateda'comedy',without'a
singlepistolshot'(oralovetriangle),ispeopledbyessentiallycomiccharactersbuthasoftenbeenplayedasatragedy.Hediedinhisbedlessthansixmonthslater,
havingjust,athisdoctor'ssuggestion,downedaglassofchampagne.Hewasadramatistwhosepurposewastobeperformed,andwhoalteredaplaytosuitthe
actororactresswhomthemanagementfinallychoseforthepart.Hisshortstoriespossesstheessentialelementsofdrama:structure(whichhecalled'architecture'),
plotdevelopment,andaction.
TheSeagullwasfirstperformedinEnglishattheGlasgowRepertoryTheatrein1909,andTheCherryOrchard(1911)andUncleVanya(1914)bytheStage
SocietyinLondon.G.B.SHAWprefacedhisHeartbreakHouse(1919)as'notmerelythenameoftheplay.Itiscultured,leisuredEuropebeforethewar...[of
which]Chekhovhadproducedfourfascinatingdramaticstudies.'ConstanceGarnett(18611946),motherofGARNETT,translatedTheTales(191622)andThe
Plays(1923).Chekhov'sversionofnaturalism,incorporatingpsychologicalexpressionism,muchinfluencedthedevelopmentofWesternfictionaswellasdrama.See
FivePlays:Ivanov,TheSeagull,UncleVanya,TheThreeSisters,TheCherryOrchard,newedn1980,TwelvePlays,1992(includesPlatonov,TheWood
Demon,andcomicplays),tr.RonaldHingleyChekhovOmnibus:SelectedStories,tr.ConstanceGarnett,ed.DonaldRayfield,rev.edn1994RonaldHingley,A
LifeofAntonChekhov,newedn1989AndreiTurkov(ed.),AntonChekhovandHisTimes,tr.CynthiaCarlileandSharonMcKee,1995.
Chesnutt,CharlesW(addell)(18581932)
Americanshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasborninCleveland,Ohio,theeldestchildoffreebornnegroes.Hisfather,whohadservedwiththeUnionarmyinthe
CivilWar,movedhisfamilytoFayetteville,NorthCarolina,in1866afterhiswife'sdeath,hemarriedagain.Whentheboy,whohadhadastoryserializedinalocal
negroweeklyin1872,explainedtothePrincipalofHowardSchoolthathemustleavetohelpsupportthefamily,hewasemployedasapupilteacher.Hegraduated
tobecomingPrincipaloftheStateColoredNormalSchoolin1880,butgaveupapromisingcareerto'goNorth,where,althoughtheprejudicesticks...yetaman
mayenjoy...privilegesifhehasthemoneytopayforthem'.Havingobtainedthenecessaryproficiencyinshorthand,hewenttoNewYorkin1883,andthento
Cleveland,wherehepassedtheOhioBarexaminationin1887andopenedanofficeasacourtreporter.Hisstory,'TheGoopheredGrapevine',waspublishedin
AtlanticMonthlyin1887.Hisethnicbackgroundwasnotpubliclyrevealeduntil1899,whichsawthepublicationofTheConjureWoman,acollectionofdialect
talesofUncleJulius,andTheWifeofHisYouthandOtherStoriesoftheColorLine,inwhichhehighlighted'certainaspectsoftheracequestionwhicharequite
familartothoseontheunfortunatesideofit'.Whenhisthreenovels,TheHouseBehindtheCedars(1900),TheMarrowofTradition(1901),andTheColonel's
Dream(1905),failedtogainacceptancefromapredominantlywhitereadingpublic,hegaveupcreativeliteratureforlesssubtlemeansofcampaigningforequalityfor
allunderprivilegedcitizens.Amanwhocouldhavepassedforwhitebutrefusedtodoso,heconfidedinhisjournal(1881)thatintheSouth'Ioccupyapositionsimilar
tothatofMahomet'sCoffin.Iamneitherfish,flesh,norfowl.'SeeCollectedStories,1996TheJournals,ed.RichardBrodhead,1993ToBeanAuthor:Letters
18891905,ed.J.R.McElrothandR.C.Leitz,1997SylviaLyonsRender,CharlesWChesnutt,1980(criticalstudy)
Chesterfield,(Stanhope,PhilipDormer),4thEarlof(16941773)
Britishstatesmanandprosewriter,wasborninLondonandeducatedprivatelyand,forayear,atTrinityHall,Cambridge,beforedoingtheGrandTourofEurope.He
waselectedtoParliamentwhilestillonly20,andsucceededtohisfather'stitlein1726.HewasAmbassadortoHolland172832,fromwherehereturnedwithhis
mistress,MileduBuchet.Sheborehimasonsoonafterwards,calledPhilip,towhomfromtheageoffiveChesterfieldaddressedavoluminousseriesoflettersof
elegantexhortation.OnPhilip'sdeathin1768,hetransferredhisepistolaryattentionstohisgodsonandheir,adistantcousinwhowasalsocalledPhilip.Chesterfield
hadalonganddistinguishedpoliticalcareer.In1733,muchtothedispleasureofKingGeorgeII,hemarriedtheCountessofWalsingham(16931778),theillegitimate
daughteroftheDuchessofKendal,mistressofGeorgeI.Itwasabusinessarrangement:thecouplelivedinseparatehousesnextdoortoeachotherinGrosvenor
Square.Apartfromhisjournalisticandpoliticalwritings,Chesterfieldallowedlittletobepublishedinhislifetime.MiscellaneousWorks(including'LetterstoHis
Friends')appearedin1777,asdidCharactersofEminentPersonagesofHisOwnTime,whichincludedGeorgeIandQueenCaroline.Amongthecoinagesand
dictainhisletterstohisillegitimateson(publishedin1774)are:'Aninjuryismuchsoonerforgottenthananinsult'(1746)'Takecareoftheminutes,forthehourswill
takecareofthemselves'(1747)'Ishouldbesorry

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ifyouwereanegregiousfopbutIprofessthat,ofthetwo,Iwouldratherhaveyouafopthanasloven'(1749)'...achapterofaccidents...'(1753).SeeLord
Chesterfield'sLetters,ed.DavidRoberts,newedn1992ColinFranklin,LordChesterfield:HisCharacterand'Characters',1993.
Chesterton,G(ilbert)K(eith)(18741936)
Britishnovelist,poet,critic,andjournalist,wasborninLondon,theeldersonofaprominentestateagent,andwaseducatedatStPaul'sSchoolandtheSladeSchool
ofArt.Afteraspellinpublishing,hebecameajournalist,adesignationheneverabandonedevenattheheightofhisfame.Hisfirstbook,avolumeofversecalledThe
WildKnight,appearedin1900,andhisfirstnovel,TheNapoleonofNottingHill,afantasyofthefuture,in1904.InTheManWhoWasThursday:aNightmare
(1908),regardedasthebestofhisnovels,fantasticandsinisterplotsarehatchedbyabandofanarchists,noneofwhomarewhattheyseem.Atthesametimehewas
writingcriticalstudiesofROBERTBROWNING(1903),DICKENS(1906),andGB.SHAW(1909),whilealsocontributingtoanumberofjournals.HewasassociatedwithBELLOC
andhisideasonthenatureandefficacyofmedievalsocietysoclosely,indeed,thatSHAWcoinedforthemthename'Chesterbelloc'.Chestertonbecameaconvertto
Catholicismin1922,ashadbeenpresagedinhiscriticalarticlesandinthecontroversialOrthodoxy(1909).TheInnocenceofFatherBrown(1911)wasthefirstof
fivecollectionsofdetectivestoriesaboutthatunassumingpriest,whosecharacterwasbasedonChesterton'sYorkshirefriendandconfidant,FatherO'Connorsee
FatherBrown:aSelection,ed.W.W.Robson,1995.Asapoet,hehasafinecommandofrollickingrhythm,whichheexploitstogoodeffectnotonlyin'Lepanto'
and'TheRoilingEnglishRoad',butalsoinmorereflectivepoemssuchas'TheSecretPeople'and'ASongofGiftstoGod'.SeeTheEssentialG.K.Chesterton,
introducedbyEJ.Kavanagh,newedn1986PoemsforAllPurposes:SelectedPoems,ed.StephenMedcalf,1994Autobiography,newedn1986Michael
Coren,Gilbert:theManWhoWasG.K.Chesterton,1990JosephPearce,WisdomandInnocence:aBiographyofG.K.Chesterton,1996.
Childers,Erskine(18701922)
novelistandIrishpolitician,wasborninLondon,thesecondsonofaneminentorientalist,whodiedin1876,andofanIrishwomanfromCo.Wicklow.Hewas
educatedatHaileyburyandTrinityCollege,Cambridge,andwasaclerkintheHouseofCommonsfrom1895to1910.HetooktimeofftoserveintheBoerWarof
18991902,aboutwhichhewroteapersonalrecord(1900).Outofhishobbyofsailing,whichhedidsinglehandedorwithjustoneortwocrew(crossingtheNorth
Seamanytimes),camethemilieuofhispoliticallymotivatedthriller,TheRiddleoftheSands(1903).TwoEnglishmen,onaBalticsailingholiday,becomeentangled
with,andultimatelythwartthetraitorousobjectivesof,aformerBritishnavalofficerwhoispreparingforaGermaninvasionofBritain.Thestoryhashumourand
characterizationaswellassuspense.Childers'sdevotiontothecauseofselfgovernmentforIrelandwassurreptitiouslydemonstratedin1914whenheandhis
Americanwife(whowascrippled)ranacargoofarmsinhisownyachttotheIrishNationalVolunteers.DuringWorldWarIheservedasalieutenantcommanderin
navalintelligence,winningtheDistinguishedServiceCross.Onhisdemobilization,hemovedwithhisfamilytoDublin,andwaselectedtoandappointedasaminister
intheselfconstitutedDailEireann.Hedidnotsupportthetreatyof1921withtheBritishGovernment,andfoughtfortheRepublicanarmyintheCivilWar.In
November1922hewascapturedathismother'soldhomebysoldiersoftheIrishFreeState,andwasexecutedbyfiringsquadafortnightlater,afteracourtmartial
whichherefusedtorecognize.Hisson,ErskineChilders(190574),wasPresidentoftheIrishRepublic197374.SeeJimRing,ErskineChilders:aBiography,
1996.
Chopin,Kate(18511904)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasbornCatherineO'FlahertyinStLouis,Missouri,thethirdchildbyhissecondmarriageofanIrishimmigrant(and
prosperousbusinessman),andofaFrenchAmerican,withwhosefamilyshelivedafterherfather'sdeathin1855.ShegraduatedfromStLouisAcademyofthe
SacredHeartin1868.In1870shemarriedOscarChopin,wentwithhimtoNewOrleans,andproducedfivesonsandadaughterinquicksuccession.In1879they
movedtoCloutierville,Louisiana,where,afterhisdeathofmalaria,shekeptuphisbusinessandconductedasemipublicaffairwithacaddishplanter,whobecame
themodelfortheloversinherfiction.In1884shereturnedwithherchildrentoStLouis,andin1889herfirstpublishedstory,'APointatIssue',appearedintheSt
LouisPostDispatch.AtFault(1890),anovel,waspublishedatherownexpense,buthercrisp,exoticstoriesofCreolelifeinruralLouisianafoundaready
magazinemarketandwerecollectedinBayouFolk(1894)andANightinAcadia(1897).ThehostilereceptionofTheAwakening(1899),whosemessageof
sensualemancipationshockedapublicnotyetattunedtosocial,economic,orpoliticalequalityforwomen,demoralizedherasawriter.Shediedofabrain
haemorrhage.SeeKateChopin'sPrivatePapers,ed.EmilyToth,PerSeyersted,andMarilynBonnell,1997EmilyToth,KateChopin:aLife,1991Peggy
Skaggs,KateChopin,1985(criticalstudy).

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ChrtiendeTroyes(fl.116085)
Frenchpoet,servedfromabout1160to1172,possiblyasheraldatarms,atthecourtinTroyesofhispatron,Marie(d.1198).ShewasthewifeoftheComtede
ChampignonandthedaughterofLouisVIIandEleanorofAquitaine(c.11221204),whoin1152immediatelyafterherdivorcemarriedthefutureKingofEngland,
HenryII.SubsequentlyChrtienwasinattendanceontheCountofFlanders.'Erecetnide'(composedbetween1160and1170tr.BurtonRaffel,afterwordby
JosephJ.Duggan,1997)istheoldestsurvivingArthurianromance.In'Cligs'(c.1176)theheroinesuffersmanifolddiscomfortsandusesallherfemininewilestokeep
herselfforherlover.'Lancelot'and'Yvain',whichisthedirectsourceoftheearly14thcenturyEnglishArthurianromance'YwainandGawain',werebothcomposed
towardstheendofthe1170s.Theunfinished'Perceval'(c.1181)featuresthesymbolicGrail.Chrtienwroteforthemostpartinlimpid,glidingoctosyllabiccouplets.
Attributedtohiminadditionbysomescholarsare'Philomena','Guillaumed'Angleterre',andtwoshortArthurjanromances,'LeChevalierhl'pe'and'LaMulesans
Frein'.SeeTheCompleteRomancesofChrtiendeTroyes,tr.DavidStaines,newedn1993ArthurianRomances,tr.D.D.R.Owen,newedn1991.
Christie,Agatha(18901976),
neMiller,Britishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninTorquay,andeducatedherselfbyreadingathomeuntilshewenttoParisat16tostudysingingandthepiano.
ShemarriedColonelArchibaldChristie,RoyalFlyingCorps,in1914,andduringthewaryearsservedasaVoluntaryAidnurseinTorquay,andtheninadispensary,
whereitisprobablethattheseedsofherlatercareeraretobefoundseeMichaelC.Gerald,ThePoisonousPenofAgathaChristie(1993)foranexhaustive
accountofinstancesofpoisoninginherworks.Herfirstdetectivestory,TheMysteriousAffairatStyles(1920),introducedtheretiredBelgianpoliceman,Hercule
Poirot.He,ortheamateursleuthMissMarple,whofirstappearsinMurderattheVicarage(1930),featureinmostofhernovels,rightuptoCurtain:Hercule
Poirot'sLastCase(1975)andSleepingMurder(1976),bothwrittenduringWorldWarIIbutkeptbacktocompletethecanonwhenthetimecame.In1926she
precipitatedamysteryofherown,whenthebreakdownofhermarriageandotherstressesledtoherdisappearance.ShewasdiscoveredinaHarrogatehotel,
registeredinthenameofherhusband'smistress.In1930shemarried(Sir)MaxMallowan(190478),thearchaeologist,inwhoseworksheenthusiasticallyinvolved
herself.Sheadaptedsomeofhernovelsandshortstoriesforthestage,WitnessfortheProsecution(1953)beingdramaticallythemosteffective,andThe
Mousetrap(1952),whichwasstillrunningin1997,financiallythemostsuccessful.Thefactthatherbookshavebeentranslatedintomorethanahundredlanguagesis
asmuchareflectionofhernegativeasofherpositivequalitiesasanovelist.Theuppermiddleclassruralsettingsofmuchofherworkaresoquainttomodernreaders
astobeuniversal,andthelackofdepthofcharacterizationmeansthatnounderstandingofracial,social,orenvironmentalfactorsisrequiredofthereader.Shedoes
provideaperpetualmentalchallenge,andjusticeisalwaysdone.ShewroteromanticnovelsasMaryWestmacott.ShewasmadeCBEin1956andDBEin1971.
SeeAnAutobiography,1996JanetMorgan,AgathaChristie,newedn1985(biography).
ChristinedePisan(1363c.1430)
Frenchpoetandprosewriter,wasborninVeniceandattheageoffivewastakenbyhermothertoParis,whereherfatherwascourtastrologertoCharlesV.At15
shemarriedEtiennedeCastel,agentlemanfromPicardywhobecametheKing'ssecretary.Onherhusband'sdeathin1389,withthreechildrentosupport,shetook
towriting:lyricalverses,sometimestoorder,sacredandscientificpoems,romanticfictioninamixtureofproseandverse,andeducationalandsociologicaltreatises.
InL'ptreauDieud'Amours(1399)shelaunchedaspiritedcounterattackonMEUNGandhisRomandelaRoseonbehalfofhersex.LaCitdesDames(1405tr.
BryanAnslayas...theCyteofLadyes,1521)isacollectionofportraitsdrawnfromBOCCACCIO.LeLivredesTroisVertus(1406)isahandbookforwomen.She
retiredtoanunneryinabout1418,wherein1429shewroteacelebrationoftheearlysuccessesofJoanofArc(c.141231).AnthonyWoodville,orWydeville
(c.144283),EarlRivers,translatedProverbsofChristinedePisan,'setinmetre',whichwasprintedbyCAXTONin1478.Thereisamanuscriptilluminationinthe
BritishLibrarydepictingherpresentingavolumeofherpoemstoIsabelofBavaria,thewifeofCharlesVIandQueenofFrance.SeeTheSelectedWritings,tr.
KevinBrownlee,ed.RenateBlumenfeldKosinski,1997.
Churchill,Charles(173264)
Britishpoetandpoliticaljournalist,wasborninWestminster,thesonofaclergyman,andwaseducatedatWestminsterSchool.HewasadmittedtoStJohn'sCollege,
Cambridge,in1748toreadfortheChurch,butwasdisqualifiedfromcontinuing,probablybecauseofhisclandestinemarriage.Hestillbecameaclergyman,
succeedingtothecuracyofStJohn's,Westminster,onhisfather'sdeath.Improvidence,towhichhiswifecontributedhershare,ledtobankruptcy,fromwhichhe
extricatedhimselfbywritingTheRosciad(1761),aversesatireonthecontemporarystagewhichechoesbothDRYDENandPOPE.The

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CriticalReview,editedbySMOLLETT,treateditunfavourably:ChurchillrepliedwithTheApology,addressedtotheCriticalReviewers(1761).Afriendshipwiththe
radicalpoliticianJohnWilkes(172797)seePeterD.G.Thomas,JohnWilkes:aFriendtoLiberty(1996)ledtohisadoptingapoliticalstanceinmuchofhis
subsequentverse,beginningwiththeantiScottishTheProphecyofFamine(1763),andtotheirestablishingtheperiodicalNorthBritainindirectoppositionto
Smollett'sBriton.Churchillseparatedfromhiswifein1761,andhisbehaviourledtohisresignationfromStJohn'sin1763.Furthercomplicationsensued.Heeloped
withayoungwomanwhosefamilythreatenedtoassassinatehim.WilkeswasinvolvedinadueloveranissueoftheirjournalwhichtheHouseofCommonsdenounced
asaseditiouslibel,expelledfromParliament,convictedofobscenelibelforAnEssayonWoman(privatelyprintedbefore1763),andhadtotakerefugeinFrance.
ChurchillwroteTheAuthor(1763)andTheDuellist(1764)asspiriteddefencesofhisfriend,andtravelledtoBoulognetoseehim.Hediedthereofafeverwhichin
hisgeneralconditionhewasunabletosurvivein1762hehad,byhisownaccount,beendiagnosedasseverelysufferingfromavenerealdisease.SeeThePoetical
WorksofCharlesChurchill,ed.DouglasGrant,1956.
Churchill,(RtHon.Sir)WinstonS(pencer)(18741965)
Britishstatesman,historian,andbiographer,wasbornatBlenheimPalace,theeldersonofthepoliticianLordRandolphChurchill(184995),andwaseducatedat
Harrow.From1895to1900hecombinedthefunctionsofarmyofficerandwarcorrespondent,performingbothwithdistinctioninCuba,Indiaaboutwhichhe
wroteTheStoryoftheMalakandFieldForce(1898),Sudan(whereatOmdurmanhetookpartinthelastgreatcavalrychargeoftheBritishArmyandwona
secondmedalforbravery),andSouthAfrica(duringtheBoerWarof18991902).HewaselectedtoParliamentin1900,inwhichyearhepublishedaloosely
autobiographicaladventurenovel,Savrolaabiographyofhisfatherfollowedin1906.Fromthenuntilhisdeathhewasbothpoliticianandauthor.Hispostsincluded
FirstLordoftheAdmiralty191115,ChancelloroftheExchequer192429,andPrimeMinister194045and195155.NotablebooksareTheWorldCrisis
(192331),Marlborough:HisLifeandTimes(193338),TheSecondWorldWar(194854),andAHistoryoftheEnglishSpeakingPeoples(195658).Ifhis
historyofWorldWarIIissomewhatonesided,thatisbecausetherewassomuchtobewrittenabouthisconductofit.Hewasabletousehisownwideexperience
toilluminatehisstudiesofpeopleandevents,anditisameasureofthequalityofhisprosethatitalmostdemandstobereadaloud.HewasawardedtheNobelPrize
forLiteraturein1953.Seetheofficialbiography,begun(196667)byhissonRandolph,andcompleted(197188)byMartinGilbert,andGilbert'sonevolumestudy,
Churchill:aLife,newedn1992KeithAldritt,ChurchilltheWriter:HisLifeasaManofLetters,1992.
Cibber,Colley(16711757)
Britishactor,dramatist,theatricalmanager,andpoet,wasborninLondon,thesonofaDanishsculptor,andwaseducatedforsixyearsatthefreeschoolinGrantham,
Lincolnshire.HebecameanactorinLondon.Frustratedatonlyplayingsmallparts,hewroteoneforhimself,thefoppishSirNoveltyFashioninLove'sLastShift,a
sentimentalcomedyperformedin1696.Otherplaysfollowed.Hewasadramaticmanipulatorratherthananoriginaldramatist,whosesuccessdependedonhiswits
ratherthanhiswithewasalsoaneffectiveadaptor,hisRichardtheThird(1699),'asIalter'ditfromShakespeare',beingthestandardperformingtextforsometwo
hundredyears.In1704hebecameactormanageratDruryLane.Duringthe1720shegeneratedquarrelsnotonlywithPOPE,asdidsomany,butalsowithHENRY
FIELDING,buthispublicstanding,ifnothisliteraryreputation,wasenhancedwhenin1730hewasforsomereasonappointedPoetLaureate.AnApologyfortheLife
ofColleyCibber,Comedian(1740)isareadableautobiographyofamanwhoknew,ifhewouldnotpubliclyadmit,hislimitations,andavaluablefirsthandaccount
ofthestageatthetime.HissonTheophilus(170358),alsoanactoranddramatist,wroteLivesofthePoetsofGreatBritainandIreland(1753)andmarried,as
hissecondwife,Susannah(171466),anotablesingerandactress,thesisterofThomasArne(171086),thecomposer.SeeAnApologyfortheLifeofColley
Cibber,ed.B.R.S.Fone,1968RichardH.Barker,MrCibberofDruryLane,1939(biography).
Cicero,MarcusTullius(10643BC)
Romanstatesmanandprosewriter,wasbornnearArpinumandstudiedinRome.In80hesuccessfullydefendedRoscius,chargedwithpatricideontheevidenceofa
favouritefreedmanofthedictator,Sulla.Hethenprudentlywentabroadforhishealth.HereturnedafterSulla'sdeathin78,andhelpedbyforensictriumphsascended
thepoliticalladder,beingelectedconsulfor63,anddealingfirmlywithCataline'sconspiracyagainstthestate.In58,havingrefusedtojoinCAESAR'Striumvirateand
criticizeditsrighttogovern,hespentayearinexile.Hereturnedreluctantly,andwasgovernorofCiliciain5150.AfterCaesar'sassassinationin44,hedeliveredor
publishedhis'Philippics',attackingMarkAntony(c.8230)andurgingthesenatetograntanamnestytotheconspirators.WhenAntonyandthesecondtriumvirate
cametopower,Cicerowastrackeddown

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andmurdered.HisheadandhandswerecutoffandsenttoRome,wheretheywerenailedupintheforum.Hisspeechesandphilosophicalworksclasshimasa
masterofrhetoricandstyle.TostudentsofRomanlife,thefourcollectionsofletters,'TohisBrotherQuintus','TohisFriends','ToBrutus'(theconspirator),and'To
Atticus'(hisclosestfriend),editedshortlyafterhisdeath,areofgreaterinterest.SeeElizabethRawson,Cicero:aPortrait,newedn1994.
Clare,John(17931864)
Britishpoet,wasbornatHelpstone,nearPeterborough,thesonofabarelyliteratecountryman.Thoughheattendedschool,hewastaughttoreadandwritebyalocal
farmer'sson.Theeducationwhichinspiredhispoetrywashisobservationofnatureandofthedailyroutinesofcountrylife.AbooksellerinStamfordpublishedhis
PoemsDescriptiveofRuralLifeandSceneridin1820,theyearthepoetmarriednottheloveofhisyouth,whomheneverforgot,butagirlhehadmadepregnant.
TheVillageMinstrel(1821)andTheShepherd'sCalendar(1827)werepublishedinLondonbutwerefinancialdisasters.Thelatterhadbeensubjectedtodrastic
andunsympatheticeditingbythepublisher,JohnTaylor(17811864):theoriginalversion,ed.EricRobinsonandGeoffreySummerfield(published1964)revealsthe
truespiritofavillagecommunity.TheRuralMuse(1835)earnedClare40,butbynowhisresilienceandmindwerebrokenbypovertyandprivationhiswifehad
givenbirthtotheirseventhchildin1833.In1837heenteredaprivateasylum,fromwhichheranawayfouryearslater.HewasthencommittedtotheNorthampton
countyasylum,wherehespenttherestofhislife,kindlytreatedandstillwriting:theasylumregisterrecordedlaconicallythathedied'afteryearsaddictedtoPoetical
prosing'.Hispoetry,whichheneverlearnedtopunctuateandleftunrevised,isshotthroughwithpenetratinginsightsandhappychoicesofphrase.Hisbirdpoems
alonerepresentacorpusofnaturepoetrywhichisunique.See[Works],ed.EricRobinsonandDavidPowell,1984AutobiographicalWritings,ed.EricRobinson
andGeoffreySummerfield,newedn1986J.W.andAnneTibble,JohnClare:aLife,rev.edn1972JohnLucas,JohnClare,1994(criticalintroduction).
Clark,JohnPepper(b.1935)
Nigeriandramatistandpoet,wasborninKiagbodointheNigerdelta,andwaseducatedatWarsiGovernmentCollege,Ughelli,andIbadanUniversity,wherehe
foundedthestudentpoetrymagazine,theHorn.Hebecameajournalist,firstasagovernmentinformationofficer,andthenasFeaturesEditoroftheDailyExpress,
Lagos.SongofaGoat(1961),anAfricanversetragedywhosetoneandstructureechoGreekclassicaldrama,wasperformedthroughoutAfricaandinEurope.Like
Poems(1962),firstpublishedinNigeria,itwasreissuedinternationallyinThreePlays(1964),withTheMasqueradeandTheRaftinthelattertheunityofplaceis
representedbyacraftadriftontheNiger,andthedenouementisitsdestruction.ExperienceswhileonafellowshipatPrincetonUniversityin196263arethesubject
ofAmerica,TheirAmerica(1964),describedbySALKEYas'thefirstofitskindfromanylivingnegroauthor...polemicaljournalism...qualityreportage...alsoa
distinguishedtravelbook'.Severalpoemsincorporatedinit,withsomefromPoems,wereincludedinAReedintheTide(1965),thefirstcollectionbyanindividual
Africanpoettobepublishedinternationally.In1965hebecamealectureratLagosUniversity,wherehewaslaterappointedProfessorofEnglish.Casualties:Poems
19661968(1970)compriseshisreflectionsontheBiafranwarseealsoADecadeofTongues:SelectedPoems19581968(1981).Furthercollectionsofplays
areTheOzidiCycle(1975),whichhecollectedandtranslatedfromtheIjoofOkabouOjobolo,and(asJ.12.ClarkBekerderemo)TheBikoroaPlays(1985).His
collectionofcriticalessaysonAfricanliterature,TheExampleofShakespeare(1970),includes'TheLegacyofCaliban',astudyofthelanguagespokenbyAfricans
andother'natives'inEnglishliteraturefromSHAKESPEAREtoACHEBE.
Clark,WalterVanTilburg(190971)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninEastOrland,Maine,eldestoffourchildrenofWalterErnestClark(d.1955),PresidentoftheUniversityof
Nevada191737.HewaseducatedatRenoHighSchoolandtheUniversityofNevada,wherehestudiedliteratureandphilosophy.Whileateachingassistantatthe
UniversityofVermont,hewroteamaster'sthesisonJEFFERS,ofwhomhebecameaclosefriendthereareechoesoftheJeffershomeinthesymbolictitlepoemof
Clark'sfirst,andonly,collectionofverse,TenWomeninGale'sHouseandOtherPoems(1932).In1933hemarried,andforthenexttenyearstaughtEnglishand
drama,andcoachedbasketball,inhighschoolsinCazenoviaandRye,NewYork.Attheageof27hewroteTheOxBowIncident(1940),astudyofmobviolence
whichisalsoaclassicwesternnovel.Itisrootedinitsauthor'sfeelingforthelanditself:'Thedesertdoesnotmoveeither.Itdoesnotstirormakeasound.Ithasno
rhythmbutthevisible,staticrhythmofitsshapes....[Nevada]isaregionofextremesthatexistatthesametime'(1957).Asecondnovel,TheCityofTrembling
Leaves(1945),betrayedayouthfullyricism.ClarkreturnedwithhisfamilytoNevadain1946.AblackpantherisboththerealandamythicquarryinTheTrackof
theCat(1949),asecondwesternofmemorabledimensions.Hislastpublished

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workwasTheWatchfulGodsandOtherStories(1950),the'otherstories'havingbeenpublishedinvariousjournals194046.Heresignedasamemberofhis
universityin1953inprotestat'autocraticadministration'.HetaughtcreativewritingattheUniversityofMontana195456,andSanFranciscoStateCollege195661,
beforereturningtotheUniversityofNevadaasWriterinResidence.
Clarke,ArthurC(b.1917)
Britishscientificwriter,novelist,andshortstorywriter,wasborninMinehead,Somerset.Whenhewas13,hisfatherdiedoftheeffectsofbeinggassedinWorldWar
I.HewaseducatedatHuish'sGrammarSchool,Taunton,enteredthecivilserviceasanauditingclerkin1936,andservedintheRoyalAirForceduringWorldWar
IIasaradarspecialistwiththerankofflightlieutenant.InanarticleinWirelessWorldin1945,forwhichhewaspaid15,hepropoundedthenotionofgeostationary
satellitesforglobalcommunications,whichhefurtherpredicted,inashortstoryin1960,wouldbeemployedalsofordisseminatingpornography.Aftergettingfirst
classhonoursinphysicsandmathematicsatKing'sCollege,London,in1948,hewasforatimeanassistanteditorofPhysicsAbstracts,beforepublishinghisfirst
sciencefictionnovel,PreludetoSpace(1951),andbecomingafulltimewriter.AFellowoftheRoyalAstronomicalSociety,andChairmanoftheBritish
InterplanetarySociety194647and195053,hisinterestalsoinunderwaterexplorationandphotographytookhimin1956toSriLanka,whichhedecidedtomake
hishome,andwherein1975heinstalledtheonlyprivatelyownedEarthsatellitestationintheworldandtheonlytelevisionsetinthecountry.Heisarealistwhouses
fictionasamediumforextrapolatingfromknowndata,andalso,asin2001:aSpaceOdyssey(1968,fromhisownscreenplay),TheFountainsofParadise(1979),
and3001:TheFinalOdyssey(1997),forconductingasearchformeaning.Arecentnonfictionwork,HowtheWorldWasOne:BeyondtheGlobalVillage
(1992),ispartlyahistoricalaccountofthe19thcenturypioneersoftransatlantictelegraphyandpartlyautobiography.InadditiontoAscenttoOrbit:aScientific
Autobiography(1984)andNeilMcAleer,Odyssey:theAuthorisedBiographyofArthurC.Clarke(1992),thereexists,byhisownaccount,aprivatejournalof
'fourtofivemillionwords'whichnoonehasseen.HewasmadeCBEin1989.
Clarke,Austin(18961974)
Irishpoet,novelist,anddramatist,wasborninDublinandeducatedattheJesuitBelvedereCollegeandUniversityCollege,Dublin.Intwoearlybooksofverse,The
VengeanceofFionn(1917)andTheSwordoftheWest(1921),heattemptedtorecreatetheCelticethos.TheCattledriveinConnaught(1925)isamorelively
representationofIrelandpast.ClarkeworkedasajournalistinEnglandfrom1929to1937,whenhereturnedtoCo.Dublin.Pilgrimage(1929)andNightand
Morning(1938)stillreflectthepast,butareconcerned,too,withmattersofthepresent,inparticulartheconflictsbetweenasceticismandnaturaldesire,andbetween
faithandreason.Hisdefianceofartisticcensorshipbothmotivatedandprovidedthesubjectofhisfirstnovel,TheBrightTemptation(1932).WithRobertFarren
(190984)hefoundedtheDublinVerseSpeakingSocietyin1940andtheLyricTheatrein1944foratimeheconcentratedonwritingversedrama.InAncient
Lights(1955)hereturnedtohiscommitmenttopoetryandtospeakingoutloudaboutthevariousdeprivationsoflifeinDublin.MnemosyneLayinDust(1966)isa
disturbingcollectionwhichrecallshisincarcerationinanasyluminhisyouth.Heisessentiallyanationalpoetbecauseofhisconcernabout(andlatterlysatireon)the
contradictionsofmodernIrishlifeandbecauseheused,adapted,andbreathedfreshlifeintotraditionalpoeticforms.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.HughMaxton,new
edn1992ReviewsandEssaysofAustinClarke,ed.GregoryA.Schirmer,1995TwiceRoundtheBlackChurch,1962,andPennyintheClouds,newedn
1990(autobiography)GregoryA.Schirmer,ThePoetryofAustinClarke,1983(criticalstudy)MauriceHarmon,AustinClarke:aCriticalIntroduction,1989.
Clarke,AustinC(hesterfield)(b.1934)
Barbadiannovelist,waseducatedatHarrisonCollegeandTorontoUniversity,andbecameafreelancebroadcasterandproducerinCanada.Hisfirsttwonovels,The
SurvivorsoftheCrossing(1964)andAmongstThistlesandThorns(1965),arestudiesrespectivelyofBarbadianagriculturalconditionsandchildhood.From
1968to1974hetaughtliteratureandcreativewritingintheUSAasavisitinguniversitylecturer.TheMeetingPoint(1967),StormofFortune(1973),andThe
BiggerLight(1975)aredistinctivefortheirthemeoftheWestIndian,predominantlyworkingclass,immigrantinToronto,aswellasforhisevenhandedtreatmentof
thisspecificcultureclash.ThestoriesinWhenHeWasFreeandYoungandHeUsedtoWearSilks(rev.edn1973)areextensionsofthistheme,whileinthosein
WhenWomenRule(1985)theimmigrantsarealsofromEuropeInThisCity(1992)andThereAreNoElders(1993)areaboutsettledimmigrantsandtheir
childrenwhoarefirstgenerationCanadians,andassimilationratherthanconflict.HewasCulturalandPressAttachtotheBarbadosEmbassy,Washington197475,
andthenspentayearasGeneralManager,CaribbeanBroadcastingCorporation,beforereturningtoCanada.ThePrimeMinister(1977)isanovelaboutreverse
isolation,inwhichaWestIndianreturnsfromCanadatohishomeland

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totakeupapoliticalappointment.SeeGrowingUpStupidUndertheUnionJack,1980,andColonialInnocency,1982(autobiography)StellaAlgooBaksh,
AustinC.Clarke:aBiography,1994.
Clarke,Marcus(184681)
Australiannovelistandjournalist,wasborninKensington,London,thesonofaChancerylawyer,andwaseducatedatHighgateSchool(wherehewasafriendof
HOPKINS).Hisfather'ssuddendeathlefthimnotwithanexpectedfortuneof70,000,butwithonly800,withwhichin1863hewasshippedofftoVictoria,wherean
unclewasaprovincialjudge.HewasdismissedfromhisjobinaMelbournebankfordilettantism,andspenttwotoughyearsintheWimmeraareabeforereturningto
the'civilisedattire,cigars,claret,andasubscriptiontotheUnionClubBalls'ofMelbourne,andtotheprospectofthejournalisticcareerwhichhissketchesandstories
seemedtooffer.Asawriterheprospered,especiallywithhisweeklyarticlesintheAustralasianas'ThePeripateticPhilosopher'(186770).Hisattemptstobean
editorweredisastrous,thoughColonialMonthly,duringhisbrieftimethere,serializedhisfirstnovel,LongOdds(1869),anEnglishmelodramawithahorseracing
climaxandanAustralianending.WhileemployedbytheAustralianJournalheofferedtowriteanewserialfor100.InresearchingithestudiedtheStateLibraryof
Victoria'srecordsontransportation,andvisitedtheformerPortArthursettlementinTasmania,whereheinterviewedpeoplewithmemoriesofit.Thefirstmonthly
instalmentofHisNaturalLifeappearedinMarch1870thelastwaspublishedinJune1872,bywhichtimeitissaidmanyreadershadlostthethread,andthathe
usedtohavetobelockedupuntilhedeliveredanotherinstalment.Ontheadviceof(Sir)CharlesGavanDuffy(18161903),IrisheditorandPrimeMinisterof
Victoriain1871,heradicallyrevisedthenovelforbookpublicationin1874,inparticularcuttingandalteringthebeginningandend.Itwasreissuedin1885asForthe
TermofHisNaturalLife.(Thecompleteoriginalversionwasfirstpublishedinbookformin1970,ed.StephenMurraySmith.)Inwhateverform,itisthemajor
19thcenturyAustraliancontributiontotheEnglishnovel,agraphicrecordofapenalsystemwhichhaddisappearedonlytwentyyearsbefore,and,forallthegrim
accountsofdegradation(includinghomosexualgangrapeandcannibalism)andbarbaricfloggings,agenuineattemptatastudyofthepsychologicalaswellasphysical
effectsofsuchpunishment.
Clarkemarriedanactressin1869,andin1870partedwithhis'birthrightoffreespeechforamessofofficialpottage'tobesecretarytotheTrusteesofStateLibrary
ofVictoria,becomingAssistantLibrarianin1876.Thisdidnotpreventhimfromwritingtwomorenovels,severalvolumesofshortstories,andfivedramaticpieces
includingthepopularpantomime,Twinkle,Twinkle,LittleStar...(1873),andTheHappyLand(1880),apoliticallampoonbasedonGILBERTandtransferredto
thecurrentsituationinVictoriawhileregularlycontributingtocriticaljournals,newspapers,andmiscellaniesorfrombeingdeclaredbankruptin1874and1881.
Shortlyafterthesecondoccasionhecontractedpleurisy,ofwhichhediedinahousebereftoffurniture,withapencilinhishand.AbillintheVictorianParliamentto
providehisdestitutewidowandsixchildrenwithapensionwasdefeated.SeeStories,ed.MichaelWilding,1983AColonialCity:HighandLowLife,ed.Laurie
T.Hergenhan,1972(journalism)BrianElliott,MarcusClarke,1958(biography).
Clausewitz,Carlvon(17801831)
Germanmilitaryphilosopher,wasborninBurgandbecameanensigninthePrussianarmyattheageof12.HestudiedattheMilitarySchool,Berlin,from1801to
1803.In1806hewaswoundedandtakenprisonerbytheFrench,returningattheendofthewartoworkonthereorganizationofthearmy.HeenteredRussian
servicein1812,beingin1814appointedChiefofStaffoftheRussoGermanCorps.HerejoinedthePrussianarmyin1815,becomingin1818MajorGeneraland
DirectoroftheMilitarySchool,andin1830InspectorofArtilleryatBreslauandthenChiefofStafftotheArmyofObservationonthePolishborder.Hediedof
cholera.Theninevolumesofhisseminalstudyofwar,especiallyinrelationtopolitics,VomKriege[OnWar],waspublishedbyhiswifein1832.SeeOnWar,ed.
AnatolRapoport,tr.Col.J.J.Graham,newedn1982HistoricalandPoliticalWritings,ed.andtr.PeterParetandDanielMoran,1992PeterParet,Clausewitz
andtheState:theMan,HisTheories,andHisTimes,1985.
Cleland,John(17101789)
Britishnovelistandmiscellaneouswriter,wasborninKingstononThames,Surrey,thefirstsonofaScot,MajorWilliamCleland(c.16751741),Commissionerof
TaxesandafriendofPOPE.HewenttoWestminsterSchoolfortwoyearsandlaterjoinedtheEastIndiaCompanyinBombay.Hereturnedin1741,butafterhis
father'sdeathfelloutwithhismother(whocontrolledthefamilybudget)andintoconsiderabledebt,forwhichhewasin1748committedtotheFleetprisonforayear.
AfterthepublicationofthesecondoftwopartsofMemoirsofaWomanofPleasure(174849),hewasrearrestedand,withhispublisher,brieflyimprisonedagain
forissuinganobscenepublication.Clelandthenhimselfproducedanexpurgatedversion,publishedin1750asMemoirsofFannyHill.Thenovelwhichbroughthim
notorietyand,sinceaseriesoflawsuitsinthe1960s,literary

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respectability,didnothingtomakehisfortune.Fortherestofhislonglifehetrieddesperatelytokeephimselfbywriting:reviewsfortheMonthlyReview(including
perceptivearticlesonHENRYFIELDINGandSMOLLETT)adisappointinglymildnovel,MemoirsofaCoxcomb(1751)fourromances,publishedtogetherasThe
SurprisesofLove(1764)medicaltreatisestranslationsfrombothItalianandFrenchstagecomediesandtragedies,someofwhichwerepublishedbutnone
performedandsatiricalverses.BOSWELLdescribedhimin1779asadisappointedandlonelyfigure,livinginshabbychaos,'drinkingteaandeatingbiscuits....There
wassomethinggenteelinhismanneramidstthisoddity.'Andtocapitall,hewasevensuspectedofbeinghomosexual.MemoirsofaWomanofPleasureisawitty
andgenuinelyeroticwork.Hisheroine,Fanny,hasaffinitieswithbothSAMUELRICHARDSON'SPamelaandFielding'sShamela,whilehavingmuchmorefunthaneither.See
WilliamH.Epstein,JohnCleland:ImagesofaLife,1974.
Clemens,Samuel
seeTWAIN.
Clough,ArthurHugh(181961)
Britishpoet,wasborninLiverpoolandstayedinEnglandwhenhisparentsemigratedtoAmerica.HewaseducatedatRugbySchool,whereheexcelledateverything,
andBalliolCollege,Oxford,wherehedidlesswell.In1848heresignedafellowshipatOrielCollegeratherthantakeholyorders,whichreligiousdoubts,implanted
whenhewasanundergraduate,nowmadeunthinkable.AftertwoyearsasheadofacollegeinLondonandthreeinAmerica,hemarriedandtookajobwiththe
EducationOfficeinLondon.HediedinFlorenceafteraboutofmalaria.TheBothieofTobernaVoulich(therevisedtitleofaversenovelinhexameters,first
publishedin1848)isanamusingandtenderaccountofaHighlandholidayromancebetweenanEnglishundergraduateandalocalgirl,withahappyending.'Amours
deVoyage',publishedinanAmericanjournalin1858,istoldinletters.Claude,whocannotcrystallizehisattitudetotheshortlivedRepublicofRome,dithersacross
Europeaftertheobjectofhisaffections,onlytoloseherintheend.Clough'sotherlongpoem,'Dipsychus'(areferencetosomeoneofadoublesidednature),isa
dramainavarietyofmetres,comprisingadialoguewithatemptingspirit.Thebestknownofhisshorterpoemsare'SayNottheStruggleNaughtAvaileth'andhisskit
ontheTenCommandments,'TheLatestDecalogue'.Itwasunusualforapoetofhistimetoexpresspersonaldoubtsandintellectualtussles,whichhedoeswitha
senseofhumourandarefreshingairofenquiringinnocence.SeeThePoems,ed.F.L.Mulhauser,translationsed.JaneTurner,2ndedn1974SelectedPoems,ed.
JimMcCue,1991TheOxfordDiariesofArthurHughClough,ed.AnthonyKenny,1990RobindraBiswas,ArthurHughClough:Towardsa
Reconsideration,1972.
Cobbett,William(17631835)
Britishprosewriterandpoliticaljournalist,wasborninFarnham,Surrey,thesonofasmallfarmer,andhadlittleformaleducation.HeenlistedintheArmyin1784,
andduringayearatChathamabsorbedthecontentsofalocalcirculatinglibraryandtaughthimselfgrammar.HewasasergeantmajorinNovaScotiaandNew
Brunswickbetween1785and1791.Afterhisdischargeheaccusedhisformerofficersofembezzlement,asaresultofwhichheandhiswifetookrefugeinFranceand
theninAmerica,where,asPeterPorcupine,hewrotefiercecriticismofthelocalDemocrats.Aftertwoprosecutionsforlibel,heprudentlyreturnedtoEnglandbefore
thepublicationofPorcupine'sWorks(1801)seePeterPorcupineinAmerica:PamphletsonRepublicanismandRevolution,ed.DavidA.Wilson(1994).In
1802hebegantheweeklyPoliticalRegister.HisviewsveeredfromTorytoRadical,andin1810hewasjailedforanarticleonarmyflogging.Herepeatedlystood
forParliament,andwasfinallyelectedin1832.Afarmeraswellasawriter,hetouredsouthernEnglandin1822toobserveagriculturalconditions.Hisaccountswere
publishedinvolumeformasRuralRides(1830),aneccentricbutengagingblendofautobiography,ruralimpressions,polemic,andlexicaldigressions.Otherworks
includeCottageEconomy(1822)andAdvicetoYoungMen,and,incidentally,toYoungWomen(1829).HAZLITTwroteofhiminTheSpiritoftheAge:'Heis
notonlyunquestionablythemostpowerfulpoliticalwriterofthepresentday,butoneofthebestwritersinthelanguage.'SeeDanielGreen,GreatCobbett:the
NoblestAgitator,1985RaymondWilliams,Cobbett,1983(introductiontohisthought).
Cocteau,Jean(18891963)
Frenchnovelist,dramatist,poet,andcritic,wasborninMaisonsLaffitteofafamilyoflawyers.HewaseducatedattheLyceCondorcet,Paris,andat18had
publishedtwobooksofverse,whichhelaterdisowned.LePotomak(1919),aprosefantasy,hadbeenputasideduringWorldWarILeCapdeBonneEsprance
(1919)comprisedpoetryreflectinghiswarexperiencesOdePicasso(1919)gavenoticeofthedirectionofhisattentiontowardsmodernism.Hismonstrous,or
magnificent,egotismledhim,withrecoursetosuchrestorativestotheimaginationastheCatholicChurch,opium,andsolitude,intoalmosteveryartisticfield,including
theballetandgraphicarts,eachofwhichheenlivenedwithhiseccentricindividualism.LesEnfantsTerribles(1929as

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EnfantsTerribles,tr.SamuelPutnam,1930asChildrenoftheGame,tr.RosamondLehmann,1955),writteninthreeweeks,isaclassicnovelofadolescence.Of
hisplays,LaMachineInfernale(1934tr.CarlWildmanasTheInfernalMachine,1936)isbasedonthelegendofOedipusthedramaticmonologueLeBel
Indiffrent(1941)waswrittenforhisfriend,thepopularsinger(Edith)Piaf(191563),whodiedonthesamedayashedidthecostumeromanceL'AigleaDeux
Ttes(1946tr.RonaldDuncanasTheEagleHasTwoHeads,1948)hadalongLondonrun.FilmswhichhewroteanddirectedincludeOrphe(1949),fromhis
ownplay(1926),andLaBelleetlaBte(1945).SeealsoTempestofStars:SelectedPoems,tr.JeremyReed(bilingualedn1992).
Coetzee,J(ohn)M(ichael)(b.1940)
SouthAfricannovelist,wasborninCapeTownandgraduatedfromCapeTownUniversityin1963,andasPhD(withathesisonBECKETT'Sprosestyle)fromthe
UniversityofTexasin1969.HewasacomputerprogrammerbeforeteachingliteratureandlinguisticsatStateUniversityofNewYorkandthenatCapeTown
University.ThetwonovellasinDusklands(1974,inUSA1985)arestudiesofthepsychologicalandsocialconditioningofracesbyotherraces,whichisattheheart
ofhiswork,whetherthesettingisallegorical,asinWaitingfortheBarbarians(1980),orSouthAfrica.HispostmodernisttechniqueisclearlyillustratedinInthe
HeartoftheCountry(1977),inwhichthefantasiesofthenarratorareopentoseveralinterpretations.LifeandTimesofMichaelK(1983),whichwontheBooker
prizeforfiction,andAgeofIron(1990)embodyfablesifnotportentsofthepoliticalfutureofhiscountry.AtthecentreofTheMasterofStPetersburg(1994)isa
partfactual,partfictionalDOSTOEVSKY,throughwhosepreoccupationsCoetzeecombinesideologicalargumentwithmagicrealism.WhiteWriting(1991)comprises
criticalessaysexploringthemindandmythsofSouthAfricathroughitswritingseealsoDoublingthePoint:EssaysandInterviews,ed.DavidAttwell(1992).
GivingOffense:EssaysonCensorship(1996)isasignificantcollectionwhichillustrateshowcensorshipintheUSSRandSouthAfricadeformedtheworkevenof
themostheroicopponentsofthesystem.
Cohen,Leonard(b.1934)
Canadianpoet,novelist,composer,andsinger,wasbornintoaJewishfamilyintheplushWestmountdistrictofMontreal,andwenttoMcGillUniversity.He
abandonedhispostgraduatestudiesatColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,afterthreeweeks,andreturnedtoMontreal,wherehereadhispoetryinnightclubssampled
thefamilyclothingbusinesswroteanunpublishednovel('BalletofLepers')andpublishedabookofverse,LetUsCompareMythologies(1956),whichdrawson
bothJewishandChristianthemesandtraditions,andwhosefeeling,simpleforms,andgraphicimagerymadeaconsiderableimpact.ACanadaCouncilawardtook
himtoEngland,whereheworkedonhisfirstpublishednovel,TheFavoriteGame(1963),inwhicharichJewishboyfromMontrealcomestoselfrealizationand
embarksonacareerasafolksinger.FromEnglandhewenttotheGreekislandofHydra,thesourceofmuchofhissubsequentcreativity.Hehassincedividedhis
timebetweenGreece,Montreal,andthedemandsofbeinganinternationalsingerwithadistinctivestyleofdeliveryandarepertoireofidiosyncraticlyrics.Beautiful
Losers(1966),hissecondnovel,achievedcultstatusforitsmodernisttechnique,bizarresymbolism,anderoticism.SelectedPoems19561968(1968),chosenfrom
hisfirstandthreefurthercollections,wasaninternationalpublicsuccess,andwonhimtheGovernorGeneral'sAward,whichhedeclined,explaining:'Muchinme
strivesforthishonorbutthepoemsthemselvesforbiditabsolutely.'SeeStrangerMusic:SelectedPoemsandSongs,newedn1994IraB.Nadel,Various
Positions:aLifeofLeonardCohen,1996LindaHutcheon,LeonardCohenandHisWorks:Fiction,1992,andLeonardCohenandHisWorks:Poetry,1992.
Cohen,Matt(hew)(b.1942)
Canadiannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninKingston,Ontario,ofJewishparents,andwasbroughtupinOttawa,wherehewenttoFisherParkandNepean
highschools.AftergraduatingfromTorontoUniversity,hespentseveralmonthsinEurope,wherehewrote,whilelivingaloneinabarn,anepicpoem,andpartofa
novel,forwhichhethenreceivedanofferfromaLondonpublisher.Feeling'reallyscared'and'unreadyforit',hereturnedtoToronto,tookapostgraduatedegreein
politicalscience,andsubsequentlyburnedthenoveltogetherwitheverythinghehadwrittenbeforehewas25.Hebecameafulltimewriterin1968,havingspenta
yearteachingthesociologyofreligionatMcMasterUniversity.Aftertwoshortnovelswhoseprotagonistshavedestructivedualconsciousnesses,Korsniloff(1969)
andJohnCrackleSings(1971),heworked'intensely'tocompleteColumbusandtheFatLadyandOtherStories(1972),inwhichfantasyorsymbolismareoften
imposedoneverydaysituationsseealsoTheExpatriate:CollectedShortStories(1981).Insubsequentnovelshehasusedtheexplorationoftimeinthe
elucidationofhisthemes,notablyinTheDisinherited(1974)andTheSweetSecondSummerofKittyMalone(1979).Timeandtheastronomicalexplorationof
spaceinformNadine(1986),inwhichaJewishorphanofWorldWarIIsearchesforaprofessionalandpersonaldes

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tiny.SeeGeorgeWoodcock,MattCohenandHisWorks,1994.
Coleridge,SamuelTaylor(17721834)
Britishpoet,philosopher,andcritic,wasborninOtteryStMary,Devon,thetenthandyoungestchildofthevicar(hewasalsothegrammarschoolmaster)andhis
secondwife.AprecociousboywhoreadandwasdeeplyinfluencedbyArabianNights'Entertainmentsattheageofsix,hewaseducatedatChrist'sHospital,
whichhefoundatraumaticexperience,andJesusCollege,Cambridge,wherein1791hefirsttookopium,forrheumatism.Duringhisfinalyearhegotintodebtand
disappearedforfourmonthstobeanineffectivetrooperintheDragoonsundertheassumednameofSilasTomkynComberbache,andfinishedwithoutadegree.He
hadalreadybegunpublishinghispoemsinnewspapers,whenonavacationwalkingtourin1794hewasintroducedtoSOUTHEYinOxford.Aclosefriendshipwas
forged,foundedontheideaofestablishinga'Pantisocracy'inaremotepartofAmerica.Theschemedidnotmaterialize,butledtoColeridgemarryingSarahFricker
(17701845),theyoungersisterofSouthey'sfiance.In1796hestartedapoliticaljournal,TheWatchman,whichsurvivedfortenissues,andpublishedPoemson
VariousSubjects,thesecondeditionofwhich(1797)containedpoemsbyLAMB,afriendfromChrist'sHospitaldays,andCharlesLloyd(17751839).Thenextfew
yearsweremomentousandproductive.Hewroteaplay,Osorio,whichwasrejectedbySHERIDANbutultimatelystagedin1813asRemorse.Afriendshipwith
WORDSWORTHhadin1797grownintosuchabondthatthepoetandhissistermovedtoAlfoxdenHouse,Somerset,tobeneartheColeridgesinNetherStowey.
BetweenNovember1797andMay1798Coleridgewrotethethreeworksonwhichhisreputationasamajorpoetisfounded:thefirstpartoftheweirdballad,
'Christabel'(thesecondwascomposedin1800,andtherestneveratall)theopiuminspiredfragment,'KublaKhan'and'TheRimeoftheAncientMariner',which
wasincludedinLyricalBallads(1798).ThisjointpublicationwithWordsworthexpressedthetheoryofpoeticsensationtowardswhichtheyhadbeenworking,and
spearheadedtheRomanticMovement.WiththeWordsworths,hethenundertookastudytourinGermany,afterwhichtheymovednorthandhespentsomemonthsin
LondonasajournalistontheMorningPost.In1800hetookhisfamilytoGretaHall,intheLakeDistrict,intowhichtheSoutheysalsomoved.
ColeridgewasnowaddictedtoopiumandemotionallyentangledwithSaraHutchinson(17751835),Wordsworth'ssisterinlawthepoem'Dejection:anOde'
was,initsoriginalform,writtenforherunderthetitle'ALetterto...'.In1804hewenttoMaltaforhishealth,andsuccessfullytookonthepostoftemporaryPublic
Secretaryoftheisland,onlytoreturntoEnglandin1806moreaddictedtodrugsthanbeforeseeAletheaHayter,AVoyageinVain:Coleridge'sJourneyto
Maltain1804(1973,reissued1993).In1808heseparatedfromhiswife,andin1810hebrokewiththeWordsworths.Heearnedsomefame,andsomemoney,by
givingcoursesofliterarylectures,someofwhichhavebeenreconstitutedinShakespeareanCriticism,ed.ThomasM.Raysor(2vols,newedn1960).In1816he
puthimselfinthehandsofDrJamesGillman(17821839),intowhosehouseinHighgate,London,hemovedforwhatwasintendedtobeamonth.Hestayedfor18
yearsuntilhisdeath.Thecontrolofhisaddictionenabledhimtoattractawidecircleofdisciplesandfriends,andtocompleteBiographiaLiteraria(1817),acritical
studyofpoetryandphilosophywithautobiographicaldigressions.Healsopublishedanewbookofverse,SibyllineLeaves(1817),andacollectededitionofhis
poetry(1828)hecontinuedtowriteprose,thoughmorediscursivelythanbefore,andpoetry,whichbycontrastwastighterandhadlostitspowertosurprisethe
discoveryofthreehundredunknownpoemswasannouncedinFebruary1995.
Ofhisthreechildrenwhosurvivedinfancy,Hartley(17961849),referredtointhepoems'FrostatMidnight'and'TheNightingale',bothwrittenin1798,hadpoetical
talent,but,havingbeensenttoOxfordbySouthey,losthissubsequentfellowshipthroughdrunkenness,failedasaschoolproprietor,anddiedaliteraryvagrant.
Derwent(180083)becamethefirstheadofStMark'sCollege,Chelsea,andeditedsomeofhisfather'sandbrother'sworks.Sara(180252),anotablescholarand
translator,aswellasabeauty,marriedhercousinHenryColeridge(17981843).WilliamCollins,fatherofWILKIECOLLINS,metherattheWordsworthsin1818,and
paintedheras'TheHighlandGirl',whichwasexhibitedinLondontogreatacclaimandmuchimpressedherfather,whohadnotseenhersinceshewasachild.Her
fantasyPhantasmion(1837)isinterspersedwithpleasantlyrics.
See[SelectedWorks],ed.H.J.Jackson,1985Coleridge'sVerse:aSelection,ed.WilliamEmpsonandDavidPirie,1972(criticaleditionofthebestpoetry),
reissuedasSelectedPoems,1989Coleridge:SelectedPoems,ed.RichardHolmes,1996SelectedLetters,ed.H.J.Jackson,1987MollyLefebure,Samuel
TaylorColeridge:aBondageofOpium,1974(biography),andTheBondageofLove:aLifeofMrsSamuelTaylorColeridge,newedn1988RichardHolmes,
Coleridge:EarlyVisions,newedn1990(biographyto1804)RosemaryAshton,TheLifeofSamuelTaylorColeridge:aCriticalBiography,1996John
LivingstoneLowes,TheRoadtoXanadu:aStudyintheWaysoftheImag

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ination,newedn1986(criticalstudyof'TheAncientMariner'and'KublaKhan')RichardHolmes,Coleridge,1982(introductiontohisthoughtandworks).
Colette,(SidonieGabrielleClaudine)(18731954)
Frenchnovelist,wasborninSaintSaveurenPuissaye,thedaughterofaoneleggedwarveteran,andwaseducatedatthelocalschooluntilshewas16.At20she
marriedafriendofthefamily,the34yearoldHenriGauthierVillars('Willy').HeintroducedhertotheculturallifeofParisandtohisdistinctlypaedophiliacsexual
tastes,inpursuitofwhichheencouragedhertowritespicyschoolgirlstoriesincollaborationwithhim.Theliterarypartnershipranforfourbooks,beginningwith
ClaudineL'cole(1900asClaudineatSchool,tr.JanetFlanner,1930tr.AntoniaWhite,1963),andendingwhentheydivorcedin1903.Shenowbranched
outonherown:asanovelist,withasuccessionofsensuous,exhilaratinglywritten,semiautobiographicaloraspiratorynovelsandstoriesevokinglabellepoqueand
deep,sometimesambiguouspassions,ofwhichChri(1920tr.Flanner,1930)anditssequel(seeChriandTheLastofChri,tr.RogerSenhouse,1954),LeBl
enHerbe(1923tr.PhyllisMgrozasTheRipeningCorn,1931tr.SenhouseasRipeningSeed,1959),andthetitlestoryofGigietAutresNouvelles(1944tr.
SenhouseasGigi,1953)arecelebratedexampiesseealsoTheCollectedStoriesofColette,ed.RobertPhelps(1984)astheloveroftheMarquisedeBelbeuf
andasanactress,inalesbiansketchwiththeMarquiseattheMoulinRouge(theaudiencepeltedthemwithcushions),andwithmoresuccessontourinasteamy
bodicerippercalledTheFlesh,inthecourseofwhichherbodicewasnightlyripped.In1912shemarriedHenrydeJouvenal,EditorofLeMatin,bywhomshehad
adaughterin1913,andwhose19yearoldsonsheseduced.Themarriageendedin1925,andaftertenyearsofnominalspinsterhoodshemarriedMaurice
Goudeket,thesonofaJewishdiamondmerchant,whomshehidinherflatinthePalaisRoyalfrom1942untiltheendofthewar,havingsecured,throughherNazi
friends,hisreleasefromincarceration.Afterherdeath,hercoffinlayinstateinthecourtyardofthePalaisRoyal,withthetrappingsofaGrandOfficeroftheLegionof
Honouratitshead.TherefusaloftheArchbishopofParistograntheraCatholicburialwasattackedbymany,includingGRAHAMGREENE,whowroteanopenletterto
LeFigaroLittraire.SeeDianaHolmes,Colette,1991(criticalstudy)DanaStrand,Colette:aStudyoftheShortFiction,1995.
Collins,Tom
seeFURPHY.
Collins,Wilkie(182489)
Britishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninLondon,theeldersonofWilliamCollinsRA(17881847),thelandscapepainter,andwasnamedaftertheScottishpainter,
(Sir)DavidWilkie(17851841).Attheageof12heaccompaniedhisparentsfortwoyearstoItaly,wherehelaterclaimedtohavelosthisvirginitytoanolder
womaninRome.OntheirreturnhewentasaboardertoMrCole'sschoolinHighburyPlace.WhileworkingasaclerkwithaLondonteaimporter,hehadasigned
storypublishedintheIlluminatedMagazine(1843),wrote'Iolani',anovelabouttheSouthSeas,andbeganAntonina:or,TheFallofRome.In1846hisdying
fatherenteredhimforthelawatLincoln'sInn(hewascalledtotheBarin1852).Collins'sbiographyofhisfatherappearedin1848.Hehadapaintingexhibitedatthe
RoyalAcademyin1849.Antoninawaspublishedin1850,twodaysafterthecharityperformanceofhismelodrama,ACourtDuel,adaptedwithout
acknowledgmentfromtheFrenchallhissubsequentplays,severalofthemfromhisownbooks,areoriginalworks.In1851hemetDICKENS,towhosemagazine,
HouseholdWords,heregularlycontributedstorieswhilealsowritingnovels,whichincludedHideandSeek(1854),featuringaprofoundlydeafgirl,andTheDead
Secret(1857),astudyofcharacterdependingon'expectationratherthansurprise'withaperipheralthemeofblindness.Hislinkswithhiseditor,whowasalso
sometimeshisliterarycollaboratorandonseveraloccasionshistravellingcompanion,werestrengthenedwhenin1860hisbrother,thepainterCharlesCollins(1828
73),marriedDickens'sseconddaughter,Kate(18391929),laterMrsCarloPerugini.
TheWomaninWhite(1860),firstpublishedasaserialinAlltheYearRound,isasensationalmysterynovel,withacomplexplot,severalsecrets,andtwovillains.It
soldoutonthedayofpublicationandwasreprintedsixtimesinsixmonths,the1861onevolumeeditionincorporating,inthelightofcriticismsbythereviewerinThe
Times,correctionstotheintricatesequenceofdatesonwhichthedenouementdepends.Collinswroteinalloverthirtynovels,ofwhichthemostfamous,andbest,is
TheMoonstone(1868),inwhichSergeantCuffisthefirstdetectiveinEnglishfictiontoplayamajorroleintheaction.Thestoryistoldfromseveralpointsofview
andthushasadepthunusualinnovelsofthisgenre,thoughcharacterizationissecondarytoplot,suspense,andrevelation.In187374hespentsixmonthstouringthe
USA,wherehereadtoaudiencesanexpandedversionofhisstory'TheDreamWoman'.WithTheLawandtheLady(1875),whichhasafemaleinvestigatorbent
onclearingherhusbandofkillinghisfirstwife,hemovedevenclosertothemoderndetectivenovel.Collinsnevermarried,butby1858waslivingopenlywitha
widow,Elizabeth('Caroline')Graves(183095)andhersevenyear

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olddaughter.Heacquiredasecondmistress,MarthaRudd(alias'MrsDawson'),whomhehadmetin1864whenshewas18or19andwasworkinginaninnin
GreatYarmouth.HerpresenceinLondonin1868precipitatedacrisiswithCaroline,whouppedandmarriedthe27yearoldsonofadistiller,onlytoreturntwo
yearslaterwhenhermarriagefailed.HehadthreechildrenbyMartha(thefirstin1869),allofwhomheacknowledgedandprovidedfor.SeeCatherinePeters,The
KingofInventors:aLifeofWilkieCollins,1993.
Collins,William(172159)
Britishpoet,wasborninChichester,thesonofahatterwhowastwicemayorofthecity,andwaseducatedatWinchesterCollegeandTheQueen'sCollege,Oxford,
transferringtoMagdalenasascholarin1741.In1742hepublishedanonymouslyPersianEclogues,fourshortextravaganzasinheroiccouplets.Hisfatherdiedin
1744,andCollins,indebtandwithoutajob,visitedhisuncle,ColonelMartin,servinginFlanders,whoconcludedthathewas'tooindolentevenforthearmy'.Odes
onSeveralDescriptiveandAllegoricalSubjects(1746,dated1747),hismostsubstantialwork,albeitonly12poems,wasneglectedbythepublic.Aplan
sponsoredbyJOHNSON,whogothimacommissiontotranslateARISTOTLE'S'Poetics',founderedin1749whenColonelMartindied,leavingthepoet2000whereupon
herepaidhisdebtsandabandonedtheproject.Hislastknownpoem,'AnOdeonthePopularSuperstitionsoftheHighlandsofScotland',waswrittenin1749.Inthe
finalyearsofhislifedepressionbecameinsanity.Afterhisdeathhissisterdestroyedhissurvivingmanuscripts.Asbefitshisfecklesswayoflifeandhismercurialnature,
truepoetryflashesonlyintermittentlyinhisworks,ofwhichthedeeplyfeltlyric,'Ode:WrittenintheBeginningoftheYear1746'('Howsleepthebrave...')andthe
unrhymed'OdetoEvening'areregardedashismostaccomplished.SeeEdwardG.Ainsworth,PoorCollins:HisLife,HisArtandHisInfluence,1937.Seealso
THOMASGRAY.
Colum,Padraic(18811972)
Irishpoet,dramatist,andnovelist,wasborninLongfordintheworkhouseofwhichhisfatherwasatthetimemanager,andwaseducatedatGlasthuleNational
School,Sandycove.Heworkedasarailways'clerkuntilhewas22,when,withhispoetrynowbeginningtobepublished,hewastherecipientofafiveyear
scholarshipfromanAmericanbenefactortofurtherhisliterarystudiesandcareer.HewasafoundermemberoftheAbbeyTheatre,forwhichhewroteTheLand
(1905),TheFiddler'sHouse(1907,originallyproducedin1903asBrokenSoil),andThomasMuskery(1910),playsinwhichcountryfolkarerevealedasbeing
moreresilientandofamoreworthwhilenaturethanpeopleofthetowns.Hispoetry,muchofthebestofwhichappearedinWildEarth(1907),waspopularforits
simple,nostalgicevocationsofruralIreland,asin'ABalladMaker','ACradleSong','ThePlougher',and'SheMovedThroughtheFair'thelater'Monkeys'
demonstratesaphilosophicaloutlookbutthesamepowersofobservation.In1914heandhiswifeMary(18841957),neMaguire,emigratedtotheUSA,where
shebecamearespectedliterarycriticandcollaboratedwithhimtowriteavolumeofliteraryreminiscences,OurFriendJamesJoyce(1958).Hecontinuedtowrite
poetry,andalsomadeanameforhischildren'sstoriesandretellingsofIrishandclassicallegends,throughwhichhewascommissionedbythelocaladministrationto
researchandwriteupthefolkloreofHawaii(1937).HisnovelTheFlyingSwans(1957)isadetailedreconstructionoflifeandtheconflictsofclassinruralIrelandin
thelate19thcentury.SeeThePoet'sCircuits:CollectedPoemsofIreland,newedn1981SelectedPoemsofPadraicColum,ed.SanfordSternlicht,1989
ZackBowen,PadraicColum,1970(criticalstudy).
Compton,FrancesSnow
seeADAMS,HENRY.
ComptonBurnett,Ivy(18841969)
Britishnovelist,wasborninPinner,Middlesex,theeldestofsevenchildrenofacrusadinghomeopathicdoctorandhissecondwifehisfirstwifediedin1882,leaving
fivechildrenwhodidnotgetonwiththeirstepmother.ShewaseducatedatAddiscombeCollege,Hove,andtheRoyalHollowayCollege,whereshetookadegreein
classics.AfterDolores(1911),aheavynovelinVictorianstylewhichshelaterclaimedwaslargelywrittenbyherbrotherNoel(18871916),shewrotenothinguntil
PastorsandMasters(1925).Thisestablishedthedistinctiveethosandliterarystylewhichpervade18furthernovelsTheLastandtheFirst(1971)waspublished
posthumously.AllaresetattheendoftheVictorianageanddepictanenclosedcommunity,suchasadecayedcountryhouseoraschool.Ineach,atyrant,maleor
female,dominatesthelessercharacters(teachers,servants,companionsor,mostoften,children),whileasubsidiarygroupofhangerson(solicitors,doctors,friends,
relations)makeupthecomplement.Casualrevelationsofcrimes,carnalsins,andhumanfailings(especiallyjealousyandacquisitiveness)motivatetheplots,andthe
villainsaremoreoftencondemnedoutoftheirownmouthsthansufferatthehandsofsocietyoroftheirfellows.Theactionsarecarriedthroughalmostentirelyin
dialogue,sometimesoverheardthroughakeyholeorbyasimilardevice,givingfullplaytotheauthor'sbrilliantbutausterewit.EspeciallyrecommendedareAFamily
andaFortune(1939),Manservantand

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Maidservant(1947),andMotherandSon(1955).ShewasmadeCBEin1951andDBEin1967.SeeHilarySpurling,IvyWhenYoung:theEarlyLifeofIvy
ComptonBurnett18841919,1974,andSecretsofaWoman'sHeart:theLaterLifeofIvyComptonBurnett19201969,1984,onevolumeednasIvy:the
LifeofIvyComptonBurnett,1996KathyGentile,IvyComptonBurnett,1991(criticalstudy).
ConanDoyle,Arthur
seeDOYLE.
Congreve,William(16701729)
Britishdramatist,wasborninBardsey,Yorkshire,thesonofanarmyofficerwhowassoonafterwardsappointedcommanderofthegarrisonatYoughalinIreland.
HewaseducatedatKilkennyCollegeandTrinityCollege,Dublin(atbothofwhichhewasacontemporaryofSWIFT),andthenstudiedlawinLondon,forwhichhe
hadlittleinclination.Hisfirstpublishedworkwasanovel,Incognita,orLoveandDutyReconcil'd(1692),by'Cleophil',accordingtohim'writtenintheidlerhours
ofafortnight'stime'.Acomedy,TheOldBatchelour,writtenfouryearsearliertoamusehimself'inaslowrecoveryfromafitofsickness',wasputonin1693andran
for14days,averysuccessfulrunatthattimeDRYDENdeclaredittobethebestfirstplayhehadeverseen.TheDoubleDealer,performedlaterthesameyearand
publishedin1694,thoughalsotermed'acomedy',hasadarkerside,whichmayaccountforitsfailure.LoveforLove(1695),hisbestconstructedpiece,restoredhis
reputationandhasremainedthemostfrequentlyperformedofhisplays.TheMourningBride(1697)isanoutandouttragedy,butstillpackedthehousesinitsday.
In1698thereappearedanattackontheprevailingspiritoftheatricalcomedy,ShortViewoftheImmoralityandProphanenessoftheEnglishStage,bya
Nonconformistminister,JeremyCollier(16501726).CongreverepliedwithAmendmentsofDrCollier'sFalseandImperfectCitations(1698),butbygeneral
consenthegottheworstoftheargument.TheWayoftheWorld(1700)containssomeofthemostdazzlingwitandreparteeinRestorationdrama,scenesofbrilliant
inventiveness,andcleverlydrawnandcontrastedcharacters,notablythetwopairsoflovers,MirabellandMillamantontheonehand,andtheschemingadulterers,
FainallandMarwood,ontheother.Thoughitwasnotquitethetotalfailureoftenascribedtoit,anditreadsthebestofallcomediesofmanners,itsinitialreception
wassuchthatCongrevegaveupwritingforthestageattheageof30.HewasforatimeVANBRUGH'ScolleagueinthemanagementofthenewHaymarketTheatre,built
in1705,buthismasque,TheJudgementofParis(1701),waspublishedbutneverperformed.Therestofhislifewasspentenjoyingaseriesofnearsinecures(he
wasCommissionerforLicensingHackneyCoachesuntil1705,whenhebecameCommissionerofWineLicences,andhewasappointedSecretaryforJamaicain
1714),anddelightinginhismanyfriendsunlikethemainbodyofwitsofthetime,heissaidnevertohavegivenoffencetoanyone.Latterlyhesufferedfrom
blindnessandgout,butbaskedintheregularcompany,andfavours,ofHenrietta,DuchessofMarlborough(d.1733),towhomheleftthebulkofhisestateonthe
understandingthatitwouldultimatelygotoher(andsupposedlyhis)daughter,LadyMaryGodolphin.SeeCompletePlays,ed.HubertDavis,1967DavidThomas,
WilliamCongreve,1992(criticalstudy).
Connolly,Cyril(190374)
Britishcriticandeditor,wasborninCoventry,theonlychildofaregulararmyofficerfromamilitaryfamilyandhisIrishwife,whomhehadmetandmarriedwhenhis
regimentwaspostedtoIreland.TheboywastakentoIreland,SouthAfrica,Corsica,andTangier,beforebeingsenttoapreparatoryschoolinBathandthentoSt
Wulfric's,wherehewasacontemporaryandfriendofORWELL.HewonscholarshipstoEtonandtoBalliolCollege,Oxford,wherehiseclecticandhedonistictastes
informedhiscriticalacumenandhisprosestylebutaffectedhisstudieshefinishedwithathirdinmodernhistory.Hedevelopedasawriterwiththeencouragement
oftheAmericanbornmanofletters,LoganPearsallSmith(18651946),whosesecretaryandtravellingcompanionhewasforatime.Aftermarryingthefirstofhis
threewivesin1930,hetravelledEuropeincomfort,andwrotehisonlynovel,TheRockPool(1936),asatirical,semiautobiographicalstudyoflifeandcharacteron
theFrenchRiviera.ItwaspublishedinParis,havingbeenregardedasrathertoodaringforpublicationinBritain,whereitfinallyappearedin1947.Enemiesof
Promise(1938rev.edn1949)beganasa'didacticenquiryintotheproblemofhowtowriteabookwhichlaststenyears',anddevelopedintoaseriesofcritical
insightsintosocialandliterarytopicswhosethirdpart,'AGeorgianBoyhood',isaclassicaccountofchildhood.In1939hefounded,withSPENDER,theprestigious
literarymonthly,Horizon,whichheeditedforthewholeofitsexistenceuntil1950.
TheUnquietGrave(1944rev.edn1945),'AWordCyclebyPalinurus'(thenavigatorinVIRGIL'SAeneidwhofellasleepandwentoverboard),isaphilosophical
investigationintothemindofawriter,withmanysupportingliteraryquotations.From1951untilhisdeathhecontributedaregularliterarycolumntotheSunday
Times.Hepublishedfourvolumesofarticlesandreviews(194573).Hissecondwife,whomhemarriedin1950andfromwhomhewasdivorcedin1956,was
BarbaraSkelton(191596),whosemem

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oirsofheramorouslife,TearsBeforeBedtime(1987)andWeepNoMore(1989),arebothamusingandscurrilousabouthim.HewasmadeCBEin1972.See
SelectedEssays,ed.PeterLevi,1992CliveFisher,CyrilConnolly:aNostalgicLife,newedn1996(biography)JeremyLewis,CyrilConnolly:aLife,1997.
Conquest,Robert(b.1917)
Britishpoet,critic,editor,andhistorian,wasborninGreatMalvern,Worcestershire,andeducatedatWinchesterCollege,MagdalenCollege,Oxford,andGrenoble
University.DuringWorldWarIIheservedintheOxfordshireandBuckinghamshireLightInfantry.HewasthenfortenyearsamemberoftheDiplomaticService,and
subsequentlyheldvariousresearchandteachingfellowshipsatAmericanuniversities.Poems(1955)expressedhisavowedpreferenceforthemesillustrating'thepoet's
relationshiptothephenomenaluniverseinparticulartolandscape,women,artandwar',andforformswhichare'usually,thoughnotalways,traditional'.His
anthology,NewLines(1956),broughttogetherforthefirsttimethepoetryofnineemergingpoets,includingAMIS,ENRIGHT,THOMGUNN,JENNINGS,LARKIN,andWAIN,aswell
ashimself,collectivelyrepresentingwhatforthesakeofconveniencewasbrieflydubbedtheMovement,whoseworkhadthequalityofcontrol,combinedwithclarity
andacertainwit.NewLines2waspublishedin1963.Conquest'sinterestinsciencefictionhasinspiredseveralpoems,aswellashiscompilationSpectrum:a
ScienceFictionAnthology(5vols196165),incollaborationwithAmis,withwhomhewroteTheEgyptologists(1965),acomicmysterystorywithanantiquarian
theme.HeistheauthorofpoliticalandhistoricalstudiesoftheUSSR,includingTheGreatTerror:Stalin'sPurgeoftheThirties(1968rev.edn1973)anda
biographyofStalin(1991).
Conrad,Joseph(18571924)
novelistandshortstorywriter,wasbornTeodorJosefKonradKorzeniowski,nearMohilowinPoland.Hisfather,amemberofalandedfamilyandaliterary
personalitywhohadtranslatedSHAKESPEAREandHUCOintoPolish,broughthisfamilytoWarsawin1862tostartupaliteraryperiodical,thoughthiswasafrontforhis
politicalactivityagainstRussianrule,forwhichhewasexiledtotheUrals.Hiswifeaccompaniedhimwiththechild,butshediedin1865.Fatherandsonwereallowed
toleaveRussiain1867onhisfather'sdeathin1869,theboybecamethewardofhisuncle,andstudiedclassicsandGermanatStAnneHighSchoolinCracow.
Whenhewas16hepersuadedhisguardiantolethimgotoseaheservedinvariousFrenchshipsbasedatMarseilles,includingoneinvolvedingunrunningforthe
SpanishCarlistcause.Ashore,heseemstohavelostmoneybygambling,andononeoccasionheattemptedsuicide.In1878hejoinedtheBritishship,Mavis,bound
forConstantinople,andreturnedwithittoLowestoft,Suffolk,hardlyknowingawordofEnglish.YethenowdeterminedtobecomeaBritishseaman.Helearned
EnglishwhileservingonacoastalshipplyingbetweenLowestoftandNewcastle,andthenworkedhiswayinothervessels,havingadventureswhichlaterreappeared
inhisnovels.Hequalifiedasthirdmatein1880,matein1883,andmasterin1886,whenhechangedhisnameandtookBritishcitizenship.
HisfirstcommandlastedfromJanuary1888toMarch1889,afterwhich,whilewaitingaroundonshoreforanothership,hehadthebreakfasttableclearedearlier
thanusualoneday,andbegantowriteanovel,ashedescribesinSomeReminiscences(1912):'Thenecessitywhichcompelledmewasahidden,obscurenecessity,
acompletelymaskedandunaccountablephenomenon....TillIbegantowritethatnovelIhadwrittennothingbutletters....Theconceptionofaplannedbookwas
entirelyoutsidemymentalrange.'(Itwouldhavespoiltanotherwiseperfectlyreasonablerecordtohaverevealedthatin1886hewroteastoryforthemagazineTit
Bitswhichwasnotprinted.)Theunfinishedmanuscriptofthenovelaccompaniedhimonsubsequentvoyages,includingatraumatictriponaCongosteamerwhich
brokehishealthandalmosthisspirit.InJanuary1894heresignedfromtheMerchantNavy,finishedhisnovel,whichwasbasedonhisexperiencesinandoffthe
MalayanArchipelagoin188789,andsubmittedittoT.FisherUnwin,whosereader,EdwardGarnett(seeCARNEWT),recommendeditforpublicationitappeared
asAlmayer'sFolly(1895)andencouragedhimtowritemore.AnOutcastoftheIslands(1896)andTheNiggerofthe'Narcissus'(1897inUSAasThe
ChildrenoftheSea,1897)werefollowedbyseveralfurthernovels,notablyNostromo(1904),TheSecretAgent(1907),andUnderWesternEyes(1911),a
psychologicalandpoliticalstudyintheironicalstrainwhichrunsthroughmostofhiswork,andbyvolumesofshortstories'HeartofDarkness'firstappearedin
Youth:aNarrativeandTwoOtherStories(1902)and'TheSecretSharer'in'TwixtLand&Sea:Tales(1912).
Conradmarriedatypist(thedaughterofawarehouseman)in1896andtheyhadtwochildren.FamilylifeinLondonwasmademoredifficultbyillness,despondency,
andmoneyproblems.HisfortuneschangedwiththepublicationintheUSAofChance(1913),inwhichhedeliberatelyemployedhiscrafttoappealtoawiderpublic
withastory,intwoparts('TheDamsel'and'TheKnight'),ofstrangepassionandremorse,withahappyending.InVictory(1915)hepursuedasimilarthemeofthe
redemptionofayoungwomanabusedbyfate,butparadoxically,nowthat

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hisreputationwasassuredandhisfinancialpositionrelieved,theinspirationalandinnovatoryveinthathaddistinguishedhisworkbegantofade.
Conradwasadepressivenihilistwhoseattemptstofindanidentityandtoexpresshisviewsonthenatureofhumanexistence,thoughwritteninalanguagewhichhe
onlyconsciouslybegantolearnwhenhewas21andneverspokeclearly,tooktheEnglishnoveloutoftheVictorianageandgaveitnewdimensions.Theexoticor
romanticsettings,thehorrors,andmanyofthesituationsarereal,andasisparticularlyexemplifiedinLordJim(1900),whichwasoriginallyintendedasashortstory,
heusestechniquesentirelyhisowntobuildupthestorylineinsuchawaythatcomplexdesignsandambiguousmotivesaremostvividlyrevealed.SeeTheComplete
ShortFiction,Vol.1:TheLagoonandOtherStories,Vol.2:TheInformerandOtherStories,Vol.3:HeartofDarknessandOtherTales,Vol.4:TheDuel
andOtherTales,ed.SamuelHynes,199294JeffreyMeyers,JosephConrad:aBiography,1991JocelynBaines,JosephConrad:aCriticalBiography,new
edn1993JohnBatchelor,TheLifeofJosephConrad,newedn1996(criticalbiography)GavinYoung,InSearchofConrad,newedn1992(traveloguecum
biographicalstudy)C.B.Cox,JosephConrad:theModernImagination,1976CedricWatts,APrefacetoConrad,2ndedn1993J.H.Stape(ed.),The
CambridgeCompaniontoJosephConrad,1996andinJ.I.M.Stewart,WritersoftheEarlyTwentiethCentury,1963,reissued1990.
Constant(deRebecque),Benjamin(Henri)(17671830)
novelist,prosewriter,andpolitician,wasborninLausanne,Switzerland,ofrefugeeHuguenotdescenthismotherdiedafortnightlater.Hewaseducatedbyprivate
tutorsandtravelledwithhisfather,anarmyofficerintheserviceoftheNetherlands,toBelgium,Holland,andEngland(LondonandOxford),afterwhichheattended
theuniversitiesofErlangen(178283)andEdinburgh(178385).HethensettledinParis,whereheimmediatelyindulgedhislifelongpassionsforgamblingand
women.In1787hemetMmedeCharrire(17401805),withwhomhebeganacloserelationshipandacorrespondence,andatwhosehomeatColombierin1788
hefoughtthefirstofseveralduelsinhislifethelast(seated)wasin1822.HewasemployedatthecourtofBrunswickfrom1788to1795.Hemarriedin1789and
wasdivorcedin1795,havingin1794fallenmadlyinlovewithSTAL(thedaughterbornin1797wasprobablyhis).Thestormyon/offaffairlastedfor17years,
whereuponhetransferredhisaffectionsandattentionstoMineRcamier(17771849),whowaslatertobetheconfidanteofCHATEAUBRIAND.Havingpublishedseveral
politicaltracts,hebecameaFrenchcitizenin1798andamemberoftheTribunatein1799,hisoppositiontothepoliciesofNapoleonresultinginhisbeingexpelled,
withtwentyothers,in1802.HeleftFrancewithStal,whowasseverelydispleasedathissecretmarriagein1808(asherthirdhusband)toCharlottevon
Hardenburg,withwhomhehadfirsthadanaffairin1794.ThoughhepublishedanantiNapoleonictreatiseamongotherwritingsin1814,headvisedtheEmperor
duringthe'HundredDays'in1815betweenNapoleon'sreturntoFrancefromElbaandthebattleofWaterloo,afterwhichhewroteanapologiaforhisactionsand
hadhisexilerevokedbyLouisXVIII.HisshortnovelAdolphe,astylishexplorationofpersonality,onwhichhehadbeenworkingfortenyears,waspublishedin
LondonandParisin1816(tr.AlexanderWalker,1816).Ccile,afictionalversionofhistangledrelationshipswithStaelandCharlotte,whichheneverfinished,
turnedupin1948andwaspublishedin1951(tr.NormanCameron,1952).In1819hewasfirstelectedtotheChamberofDeputies,inwhichasaliberalleaderof
theoppositionherepresentedsuccessivelySarthe,Paris,andtheLowerRhineuntilhisdeath.Hewasgivenastatefuneral.HealsopublishedDelaReligion
ConsidereclansSaSource,SesFormesetSesDeveloppements(182431).SeePoliticalWritings,ed.BiancamariaFontana,1988DennisWood,Benjamin
Constant:aBiography,1993.
Cook,GeorgeCram
seeGLASPELL.
Cooke,JohnEsten(183086)
Americannovelist,wasbornnearWinchesterofaprominentVirginiafamily,andwaseducatedatCharlestownAcademy.Hethenstudiedlawandwasadmittedto
theVirginiaBarin1851,butpreferredtobeawriter.Harper'sMagazineprintedseveralofhisstorieshealsopublishedhistoricalromancesofVirginiasociety,of
whichTheVirginiaComedians:or,OldDaysintheOldDominion(1854),setjustbeforetheAmericanWarofIndependence(177583),isregardedashaving
mostmerit.IntheCivilWar(186165)herosequicklyfromprivatetocaptainintheConfederatearmy,andwasinchargeofacannonatBullRun.InSurryof
Eagle'sNest:or,TheMemoirsofaStaffOfficerServinginVirginia(1866),'EditedfromtheMSSofColonelSurry',towhichMohun:or,TheLastDaysof
LeeandHisPaladins...(1868)isasequel,hecombinedaccuratehistoricalaction,bolsteredbyfootnotes,withmelodramaandromance.Therevisededitionofhis
life(1863)ofGeneralThomas('Stonewall')Jackson(182463),underwhomheserved,waspublishedasStonewallJackson:aMilitaryBiography(1866).After
theCivilWarhemarried,andsettledonanestateinClarkeCounty,wherehewrotefurtherromancesandhistoricalstudies.

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Cooper,AnthonyAshley
seeSHAFTESBURY.
Cooper,JamesFenimore(17891851)
Americannovelistandsocialcritic,wasbornJamesCooper(headdedthemiddlename,thatofhismother'sfamily,later)inBurlington,NewJersey,thesonofJudge
WilliamCooper(17541809),whoin1790movedhisfamilytohisfrontiersettlementofCooperstown,NewYork.Theboywaseducatedlocally,andthenfortwo
yearsatthehomeofarectorinAlbanyinpreparationforYale,fromwhichhewasexpelledin1805forplayingpranks.Heservedbeforethemastatsea,andwasin
1808commissionedasamidshipmanintheUSNavy.Havinginheritedhisfather'sfortune,heresignedfromtheservicein1811tomarrySusanDeLancey,amember
ofapatricianfamilywhichhadretainedsomeofitslandsaftersidingwiththeBritishduringtheAmericanWarofIndependence(177583).Thecouplehadtwosons
andfivedaughters,andlivedinMamaroneckandthenCooperstown,beforebuildingahouseatAngevineFarm,nearScarsdale.Tosettleabetwithhiswife,Cooper
wrote(anonymously)Precaution(1820),anEnglishnovelofmannersinthestyleofonehehadbeenreadingtoher.Havingnowdiscoveredatalent(andapotential
sourceofincomewithouthavingtorelyontheDeLanceystomaintainhissocialpositionwhilehisfather'sestatewasstillcircumventedwithlegalobstructions),he
wroteTheSpy:aTaleoftheNeutralGround(1821),ahistoricalromanceinvolvingadoubleagent,whichisthefirstsignificantnovelabouttheWarof
Independence.HenowmovedintoNewYorkCity,wherehefoundedtheexclusiveliteraryandartisticBreadandCheeseClub.Whilehisinitialliterary
pretentiousnessmatchedthesocialaffectationhedisplayedallhislife,hewasconsciousoftheneedtoexploittothefullthenewnation's'povertyofmaterials'asa
sourceofliterature.BeforesailingwithhisfamilyforEuropein1826,hepublishedThePilot(1823),withwhichhevirtuallyinventedtheseastorywithThePioneers
(1823)andTheLastoftheMohicans(1826)heestablishedthefoundationofhisgranddesignandcreated,inthecharacterofNattyBumppo,thequintessential
frontiersman.Thefive'LeatherStockingTales',inwhichBumppoappearsinvariousguises,are(inchronologicalorder)TheDeerslayer(1841),TheLastofthe
Mohicans,ThePathfinder(1840),ThePioneers,andThePrairie(1827).
HissevenyearsinEuropeincludedtwoextensivestaysinParis,wherehemetthereformer,theMarquisdeLafayette(17571834),atwhoserequesthewrote
NotionsoftheAmericans(1828),designedtoredressEuropeanmisconceptions.Healsowrotetwomorenotableseastories,TheRedRover(1827)andThe
WaterWitch(1830),andthreeEuropeanhistoricalromances.AmongthelatterwasTheBravo:aVenetianStory(1831),whosereceptionintheAmericanpress
movedhimtocounterwithALettertoHisCountrymen(1834),inwhichheannouncedthathewouldwritenomorenovelsaresolutionheshortlybroke.Back
homeatCooperstown,hefurtherembroiledhimselfincontroversybyrefusingpublicaccesstoapointonOtsegoLakewhichwasafavouritepicnicspot.Whenthe
pressattackedhim,herespondedwithaseriesoflibelsuits.InTheAmericanDemocrat(1838)hedefendedapoliticalstancewhichupheldbothdemocracyandthe
preservationofthestatusofthegentleman.Thisbroughtfurtherattacks,whichwereintensifiedintheformofobjectionstoaspectsofhisTheHistoryoftheNavyof
theUnitedStatesofAmerica(1839).Thethree'LittlepageNovels',Satanstoe(1845),TheChainbearer(1845),andTheRedskins:or,IndianorInjin(1846),
constituteafamilysagawhichculminatesintheAntiRentdisturbancesof183946,withwhosesupportershewasinsympathy.Thejudgmentofhistory,andthe
continuingpopularityofhisprincipalworksasnostalgicevocationsofapioneeringsociety,runcountertothewickedlyfunnycritiquebyTWAIN,'FenimoreCooper's
LiteraryOffenses'inTheWritingsofMarkTwain,Vol.XXII(1911)inwhichheclaims:'InoneplaceinDeerslayer,andintherestrictedspaceoftwothirdsofa
page,Cooperhasscored114offensesagainstliteraryartoutofapossible115.Itbreakstherecord.'SeeJamesGrossman,JamesFenimoreCooper,1949
(biography)AlanTaylor,WilliamCooper'sTown:PowerandPersuasionontheFrontieroftheEarlyAmericanRepublic,newedn1996(sociological/historical
study)DonaldA.Ring,JamesFenimoreCooper,1988(biographical/criticalstudy)GeorgeDekker,JamesFenimoreCooper:theNovelist,1967(criticalstudy).
Cooper,William,pseudonymofHarrySummerfieldHoff(b.1910)
Britishnovelist,wasborninCrete,thesonoftwoschoolteachers,andwaseducatedatCreweCountySecondarySchoolandChrist'sCollege,Cambridge.Hetaught
inLeicesterfrom1933to1940,anddidwarserviceintheRoyalAirForce,afterwhichhebecameanassistantcommissionerwiththeCivilServiceCommission,
subsequentlyactingasapersonnelconsultanttovariousnationalbodies.Beginningwiththe'lightlyromanticandpoeticandfunny'Trina,setinYugoslavia,towhichhe
hadneverbeen,hepublishedfourforgottennovelsasH.S.Hoffbetween1934and1946.TheassumptionofthepseudonymforScenesfromProvincialLife
(1950),whosesettinghadaffinitieswithLeicester,wasdonetoprotectrealidentitiesaswellasgivinghimanewliterarylife,itheraldedanewliteraryform,inwhich
theaspirations,fears,andactivitiesoftheyoungprovincialintellectual

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classarerefreshinglyandincisivelycapturedandanalysed.Whatwasplannedasasequel,ScenesfromMetropolitanLife,wasforlegalreasonsnotpublisheduntil
1982inScenesfromMarriedLife(1961)thepersonalproblemsofJoeLunnarehappilyresolved,whileinScenesfromLaterLife(1983)thecharactersare
broughtfacetofacewiththenewproblemsinherentintheageinwhichtheylive.InseveralothernovelsCooperbringshissenseofhumourtobearonhisacute
observationoffamiliarexperiences.FromEarlyLife(1990)isaseriesof89numberedfragmentsrecallinghislifeuntilhewenttouniversity.
Coover,Robert(Lowell)(b.1932)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninCharlesCity,Iowa,andgraduatedfromIndianaUniversityin1953.Heservedasalieutenantinthe
USNavalReserveuntil1957,thentookafurtherdegreeatChicagoUniversity.Heheldaseriesofuniversityteachingpostsbetween1966and1976,andbecame
WriterinResidenceatBrownUniversityin1979.Hebeganwritingseriouslyin1957,andhadaseriesoffivepoemspublishedinFiddleheadin1960,andhisfirst
fictioninNobleSavagein1961.In1962hebeganhisfirstnovel,TheOriginoftheBrunists(1966),aconsciousmixtureofgenresandnarrativetechniques.The
postmoderniststraincontinuedwithTheUniversalBaseballAssociation,Inc.,J.HenryWaugh,Prop.(1968).InPricksongsandDescants(1969)hecollected
hisearlierstories(seven'exemplaryfictions',afterCERVANTES,andthreeunderthetitleof'TheSentientLens')withfurtherretellingsfromnewperspectivesoftraditional
tales(fromtheBibleandOVIDaswellasfromfolklore)andotherpiecesexploringthemultiplepossibilitiesoffiction.ThePublicBurning(publicationdelayeduntil
1977becauseofpossiblelegalobjections),abizarresequenceoftreatmentsoftheexecutionin1953ofthespiesEthelandJuliusRosenberg,withRichardNixon,
thenVicePresident,ascircusringmasterandnarrator,beganasaplayandwasfinallyexpandedfromanovellapublishedinTriQuarterly26.Subsequentfictional
workshaveincludedSpankingtheMaid(1982),variationsonasexualfantasywhichchallengeconceptsofrealityandexposition,andInBedOneNightandOther
BriefEncounters(1983)andANightattheMovies:ShortFictions(1987),furtherexperimentsinformandlanguage.InJohn'sWife(1996)thenatureoffiction
itselfallegorizeslifein'aquietprairietown'.SeeLoisGordon,RobertCoover:theUniversalFictionmakingProcess,1983(criticalstudy)JacksonCope,Robert
Coover'sFictions,1986(criticalstudy).
Corelli,Marie(18551924)
Britishnovelist,wasbroughtupasMinnieMackay,andwasalmostcertainlythedaughterofCharlesMackay(181489),ajournalistandminorScottishpoet,and
MaryElizabethMills(183076),awidowwhomhemarriedin1861,ayearafterthedeathofhisfirstwife.Sheneverpubliclyacknowledgedeitherofherparents(she
claimedtobeadopted)andalwaysliedaboutherage.Whenshewas14shewassenttoaconvent,afterwhichshehadabriefcareerasaconcertpianist,underthe
nameofSignorinaMarieCorelli,whichsheretainedpermanently.Aftersomepoemsandastoryhadbeenpublished,ARomanceofTwoWorlds(1886)was
acceptedforpublication,followedthesameyearbythemoremelodramaticVendetta:or,TheStoryofOneForgotten.They,andseveralmorenovels,were
greetedpolitelybyprominentindividualsandwithhostilitybythecritics,onwhomshetriedunsuccessfullytoturnthetableswithananonymoussatire,TheSilver
Domino(1892).Barabbas:aDreamoftheWorld'sTragedy(1893),anoverblownaccountoftheCrucifixionandResurrection,launchedherintothebestseller
class.TheSorrowsofSatan:or,TheStrangeExperienceofOneGeoffreyTempest,Millionaire(1895),aidedbybeingoneoftheearliestnovelstobepublished
inasinglevolumeat6shillings,achievedthehighestsalesonandimmediatelyafterpublicationofanyEnglishnoveluptothattime.In1899shemovedfromLondonto
StratforduponAvon,wherehertactlessnessandherbeliefinherowndestinyoutweighedherattemptsatgenerosity.Localfrictionwasintensifiedbyalibelactionin
1903(shewasawardedaderisoryfarthing'sdamages),andbyherconvictionduringWorldWarIforhoardingsugar.Herwritingwasgenuinelyfeltandunashamedly
sensational,withmysticalundercurrentsorpseudoreligiouswrappings,andreflectedthetastesofthepublicforthecomparativelyshorttimeshewasinvogue.She
nevermarried(thoughsheindulgedinsomeembarrassingflirtations),herfaithfulcompanionfrom1876beingBerthaVyver(18561942),whoeditedherposthumous
Poems(1925).
Corneille,Pierre(160684)
Frenchdramatistandcritic,wasborninRouen,theelderbrotherofthedramatistThomasCorneille(16251709),and(hisfatherbeingamagistrate)waseducated
thereforthelaw,whichhewaslicensedtopractisein1624.Mlite,acomedyofromanticintriguewhichhadbeenperformedinRouen,wasin1630playedinParis,
whereheproducedmoreofthesamekindandwasbrieflyamemberofthestableofdramatistssponsoredbyCardinalRichelieu(15851642),whoin1634
establishedtheAcadmieFranaisetoregulatelinguisticandliterarystandards.Mde(1635tr.1639),atragedyfromGreeklegend,gavenoticeofadeepertalent.
ItwasconfirmedbyLeCid(1637tr.J.RutterasTheCid,1637),atragicomedybasedonaSpanishpiece,whichoffendedmembersof

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theAcadmieforitsapparentdisregardoftheirowninterpretationofthedramaticunitiesofARISTOTLE.Inspiteoftheplauditsofthepublic,Corneillewassufficiently
discouragedtogointotemporaryretirement,fromwhichheemergedwiththeRomantragediesHorace(1640),Cinna(1641),andPolyeucteMartyr(1643tr.
WilliamLowerasPolyeuctes,1655),inthelastofwhichthepersonalpredicamentsinherentintheconflictbetweenChristianityandpaganismareplayedoutinheroic
manner.LaMortdePompe(1643)wasperformedinDublin(1663)inaversionbyKATHERINEPHILIPS,andinLondon(1664)inanadaptationby'certainpersonsof
honour',whoincludedSEDLEYandWALLER.LeMenteur(1643tr.asTheMistakenBeauty:or,TheLiar,1685)looksforward,initscomicinvention,toMOLIRE.
Afterafailurein1652,heproducednothingforthestageuntilOedipe(1659),afterwhichhecontinuedwritingtragediesuntil1674.Hisinfluenceonthedevelopment
of17thcenturyEnglishheroicdramawasconsiderable,particularlyinhisuseofrhymingcoupletsfortragedy,andheiscitedcontinuouslybyDRYDENinOfDramatick
Poesie.TherearemoderntranslationsbyJohnCairncross(1975,1980).
Cornford,Frances(18861960)
neDarwin,Britishpoet,wasborninCambridge,theonlychildbyhissecondmarriageofSirFrancisDarwin(18481925),thethirdsonofDARWIN.Shewasprivately
educated.Afterhermother'sdeathwhenshewas17,shelivedinCambridgefortherestofherlife,marryingFrancisCornford(18741943),laterProfessorof
AncientPhilosophy.RUPERTBROOKEwasafrequentvisitortothehouseandgavehercriticaladviceandencouragement.Herfirstbook,Poems,waspublishedin1910.
Herbetterverseisdistinctiveratherthandistinguished,andoftenreflectsasuddenobservation,revelation,orexperience:notonlythebizarre'ToaLadySeenfrom
theTrain'('Owhydoyouwalkthroughthefieldingloves...'),butalso'PreExistence','Childhood',and'AllSouls'Night'.Hereldestson,JohnCornford(191536),
enlistedintheInternationalBrigadeintheSpanishCivilWarandwaskilledinbattle.Hehadhadpoemspublishedinliteraryjournalsandwroteseveralaboutthe
actioninSpain.FrancesCornfordwasawardedtheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1959.Herhalfbrother,BernardDarwin(18761961),wasanotablejournalist
andwriterongolf,andcompiledTheOxfordDictionaryofQuotations(1941).SeeCollectedPoems,1954SelectedPoems,ed.JaneDowsonandHugh
Cornford,1996.
Cornwell,David
seeLECARR.
Cortzar,Julio(191484)
Argentiniannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninBrussels,Belgium,andreturnedtoBuenosAireswithhisparentsin1918.Hequalifiedasateacher,andin
1938publishedabookofverseasJulioDens.HeworkedasahighschoolteacherinBolivarandChivilcoy,andthentaughtFrenchliteratureattheUniversityof
Cuyo,fromwhichheresignedafterbeingbrieflyimprisonedforprotestingagainstthePernregimein1945.HethenworkedfortheArgentinepublishers'association
whilestudyingforadegreeasapublictranslator.Inthesamemonthinwhichhepublishedhisfirstcollectionofstories,Bestiario(1951),heleftArgentinaforParis,
wherehebecameafreelancetranslatorforUnesco,andin1981aFrenchcitizen.Hispenchantforinvestingordinarysituationswithmysteryandphantasmagoric
elementsoffearwasapparentinhisfirstnovel,LosPremios(1960tr.ElaineKerriganasTheWinners,1965),inwhichthewinnersofafreecruisereturnhaving
beennowhere.InRayuela(1963tr.GregoryRabassaasHopscotch,1966),theillogicalitiesoflifeandtherandomactionsoftheprotagonistsarereflectedinthe
structureofthenarrative.SeealsoEndoftheGameandOtherStories,tr.PaulBlackburn(1967),andAChangeofLightandOtherStories,tr.Rabassa(1980).
SeeIlanStavans,JulioCortazar:aStudyoftheShortFiction,newedn1994.
Couvreur,Jessie
seeTASMA.
Coward,(Sir)Nol(18991973)
Britishdramatist,actor,andsongwriter,wasborninTeddington,Middlesex,ofamusicalfamily,andhadanirregularformaleducationbeforebeginninghis
professionalactingcareerin1911inafairyplay,TheGoldfishafterthisheregularlyplayedchildparts.By1917hehadwrittenseveralplays,ofwhichone,the
naturalisticTheRatTrap,wasproducedin1924.HewroteandactedinI'llLeaveIttoYou(1920),buthisfirstrealsuccesswasthecomedy,TheYoungIdea
(1922).TheVortex(1924),aboutdrugaddiction,createdasensationandranforsevenmonths,whichwasaslongasheallowedhimselftostayinonepart.He
directed,butdidnotactin,hiscomedyofmanners,HayFever(1925),whichranfor337performances.Afteranervousbreakdownandthreefailures,hecameback
withtheoperetta,BitterSweet(1929),andtheromanticcomedy,PrivateLives(1930),whilealsowritingrevues.Thepatriotismwhichinspiredtheproduction,
Cavalcade(1931),resurfacedinInWhichWeServe(1942),thefamouswarfilmwhichhewroteandcodirected,andinwhichhestarred.BlitheSpirit(1941),his
mostlastingcomedy,iswrittenwiththepoiseandgraceofamaster.Toensurehisfinancialstabilityinthelightofthehugeearningsfromhiscabaretperformancesin
LondonandLasVegasinthe1950s,hewenttolivepermanentlyabroad,inSwitzerlandaswellasJamaica,wherehebuiltahousein1948,andlateraretreatonthe
hill

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aboveit.HedirectedHayFeverattheNationalTheatrein1964,andmadehislastappearanceontheLondonstagein1966.Theultimateallrounder,aswellasin
persontheepitomeofthemodernwit,hewroteanovel,PompandCircumstance(1960),shortstoriesseeTheCollectedShortStories(1962),andseveral
volumesofreminiscencesanddiaries.Hewasknightedin1970.SeePlays,introductionbyRaymondManderandJoeMitcheson,5vols197983Autobiography,
introductionbySheridanMorley,newedn1992TheNoelCowardDiaries,ed.GrahamPaynandSheridanMorley,newedn1991)CliveFisher,NolCoward,
1992(biography)PhilipHoare,NolCoward:aBiography,newedn1996.
Cowley,Abraham(161867)
Englishpoetandessayist,wasborninLondon,theposthumoussonofabookseller,andwaseducatedatWestminsterSchoolandTrinityCollege,Cambridge,having
alreadypublishedPoeticalBlossomes(1633).HebecameaFellowofTrinityin1640but,likehisfriendCRASHAW,wasexpelledbythePuritans.Hewenttoroyalist
heldOxford,fromwherehejoinedtheKing'ssupportersinParis.Hewassomekindofspecialagent,andonamissiontoEnglandwasimprisonedin1655,butwith
anassuranceof1000,putupbyafriend,wasreleasedonbail.BetweenthenandtheRestorationoftheMonarchyin1660,hestudiedmedicine,qualifiedasa
doctor,andpublishedPoems(1656).Thisconsiderablevolumeincludedanunfinishedreligiousepic('Davideis')'PindariqueOdes'(inrhymingfreeverse)The
Mistress(appealstoorcomplaintsaboutanunresponsive,andunknown,lady,originallypublishedseparatelyin1647)and'Miscellanies',mainlyelegiesandlyrics.
Cowley'scontemporarypopularityasapoetmustbemeasuredagainsthisclosenessintimetoSPENSER,JONSON,andDONNE,andthefactthathisPindaricsbecamea
vogue.AttheRestorationhedidnotreceivethepreferentialtreatmenthefelthehadearned,buthisfellowshipwasrestoredandtheCrowngavehimafavourable
leaseonanestateatChertsey,Surrey.Hereheretiredtowrite,notsomuchpoetry(exceptinLatin),asaseriesoflucidandgracefulessaysinthemannerof
MONTAIGNEonsuchgeneralsubjectsasobscurity,liberty,solitude,andthegarden.TheyaretheworkofacontentedbachelorandprofessedEpicurean,whohad
declaredin'Anacreontics','AfterdeathInothingcrave,/Letmealivemypleasureshave./AllareStoicsinthegrave.'AbiographicalstudywasincludedinhisWorks
(1668),editedbyhisfriend,ThomasSprat(16351713),DeanofWestminster.SeePoetryandProse,withSprat'sLife,ed.L.C.Martin,newedn1988.
Cowper,William(17311800)
Britishpoet,wasborninGreatBerkhamstead,Hertfordshire,thesonoftherectoroftheparish.Hismother,adescendantofDONNE,diedwhenhewassix,andhewas
senttoalocalboardingschool,wherehewasbullied,andthentoWestminsterSchool,afterwhichhestudiedlaw.In1750hefellinlovewithhiscousinTheodora(to
whom,as'Delia',headdressedseveralpoems),butwasforbiddentomarryherbecauseofhisincipientmadness.In1763,unabletofacetheinterviewforaclerkship
attheHouseofLords,heattemptedsuicide,andwasforatimeconfinedinanasylum.Onhisdischarge,andwithapensionfromfriendsandfamily,helodgedwitha
clergymanandhiswife,MorleyandMaryUnwin.OnMorley'sdeathin1767,CowpersetuphousewithMary(172496)inOlney,Buckinghamshire,andwould
havemarriedherbutforrecurringfitsofmadness.Here,withthelocalrector,JohnNewton(17251807),hewroteOlneyHymns(1779)amongthe66whichhe
contributedare'Godmovesinamysteriousway...','Hark,mysoul!ItistheLord...',and'Sometimesalightsurprises...'.Poems(1782)wasindifferently
received.
In1781hehadmetLadyAusten(d.1802),alivelyyoungwidow,withwhomhestruckupsucharapportthatforatimeshelivedintheunoccupiedportionoftheir
housesheisreferredtoas'Anna'or'SisterAnn'inhispoems.In1783shesuggestedhewriteapoeminblankverseaboutasofa.Attheendofayear'swork,it
hadbecomea5200linepaeanoncountrylife,withcommentsontopicalissues,insixbooks:'Nothavingthemusicofrhyme,itrequiressocloseanattentiontothe
pauseandcadence...astorenderit...themostdifficultspeciesofpoetryIhaveevermeddledwith.'Itwasincluded,withthehilarioussong'JohnGilpin'(thestory
ofwhichhehadheardfromLadyAusten),inPoemsII(1785),whichmadehimfamous.Hewasamostversatilepoet,wholeftamassofoccasionalpoems,thelast
ofwhich,'TheCastaway',reflectstheturmoilofhisillnesses.Hispoetrywasexactlyrightforhistimeinthatitwasdirectandoftenraisedeverydaysightsandactivities
togenuinepoeticlevels,whilespeakingalsofortheMethodistandEvangelicalmovements.HislettersseeSelectedLetters,ed.JamesKingandCharlesRyskamp
(1989)especiallythoseondomesticandliterarymatters,areasfelicitouslywrittenasanyinthelanguage.SeeTheTaskandOtherSelectedPoems,ed.James
Sambrook,1994DavidCecil,TheStrickenDeer,newedn1988(biography).
Coyle,William
seeKENEALLY.
Cozzens,JamesGould(190378)
Americannovelist,wasborninChicago,whichhisparentswerevisitingfromRhodeIsland,andwasbroughtupinStatenIsland,NewYork,wherehewenttoStaten
Island

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Academyuntilhewasoldenoughtobesentawaytoschool.HegraduatedfromKentin1922,havingalreadyhadworkprintedinAtlanticMonthly.Hewasa
sophomoreatHarvardwhenhisfirstnovel,Confusion(1924),waspublished,which'wenttomyhead,andItookayear'sleaveofabsencetowrite[Michael
Scarlett(1925)]'.Heneverreturned.InsteadhewentforayeartoCubatoteachthechildrenofAmericanengineersatasugarmill,whichprovidedthebackground
fortwomorenovels,CockPit(1928)andTheSonofPerdition(1929).Hethenspentsomemonthsduring192627inEuropeastutortothepoliomyleticsonof
travellingAmericans,anexperiencewhichhelaterusedinAskMeTomorrow(1940).In1927hemarriedtheheadofthemanuscriptdepartmentofhisliteraryagent.
WithTheJustandtheUnjust(1942),hisfirstreallymajornovel,helaidouthisdistinctiveterritory,towhichhereturnedinByLovePossessed(1957),inwhicha
lawyerwhosefamilyhaslongheldaprivilegedpositioninasmallcommunityisthefocalpointofdramaticdisorderwithinit.FromCozzens'sserviceasamajorinthe
USArmyAirForceduringWorldWarIIderivedhisPulitzerprizewinningnovel,GuardofHonor(1948)threedaysonanairbaseduringwhichtheramifications
ofanearmissbetweenaircraftlandingontherunwayareplayedout.
Crabbe,George(17541832)
Britishpoet,wasborninAldeburgh,Suffolk,theeldestchildofasalttaxcollector.Abookishboy,hewenttoschoolinStowmarket,wasapprenticedtoasurgeon,
workedinawarehousewhilestudying,and,inabout1777,setuppracticehimself.Hehadin1774publishedadidacticpoem,'Inebriety',andin1780,engagedtobe
marriedandunabletomakemedicinepay,hewenttoLondontotrytosellhismanuscripts.Thoughhispoem'TheCandidate'waspublishedintheMonthlyReview,
hewasalmostdestitutewhenBURKErespondedtoapleaforhelp,securedapublisherforTheLibrary(1781),hadthepoettostay,advisedhimtotakeholy
orders,andfoundhimajobaschaplaintotheDukeofRutland,inwhosecastlehefinishedTheVillage(1783).Thisantiromanticsurveyofrurallife('...Ipaintthe
cot,/Astruthwillpaintit,andasbardswillnot')earnedhimliteraryfame,andhewasabletomarryatlast.Hegotseverallivings,butafterTheNewspaper(1785),
asatiricalpoem,hepublishednothinguntilPoems(1807),havingmadeperiodicbonfiresofmuchthathehadwritteninthemeantime.TheBorough(1810)isaseries
ofunlinkedpoeticsketches,oneofwhich,'PeterGrimes',isthesourceoftheoperabyBenjaminBritten(191376).InTalesoftheHall(1819)twohalfbrothers
meetafteraseparationandexchangeexperiences.MostofCrabbe'sverseisinheroiccouplets.Hetookarealistic,moral,lowermiddleclassviewoflife,writingwith
compassionandwit,andusinghisverseforminanoriginalway.TheVoluntaryInsane(ed.FelixPryor,1995),whichfirstcametolightinanotebookdiscoveredin
1989,isineightlinestanzassuchasVILLONemployedinhis'Testament'andwhichhehimselfhadusedforanearlierstudyofmadness,'SirEustaceGray'(1807).
Writteninabout1820,itsdreamlikevisionofdegradationinvolvesawomanwhohaskilledababyinhercareandistormentedbyalossoffaith.SeeTheComplete
PoeticalWorks,ed.NormaDalrympleChampneysandArthurPollard,3vols1988SelectedLettersandJournals,ed.ThomasC.Faulkner,1985Tony
Bareham,GeorgeCrabbe,1977(criticalstudy)FrankWhitehead,GeorgeCrabbe:aReappraisal,1996.
Craik,(DinahMaria),Mrs(182687)
neMulock,Britishnovelist,wasborninStokeuponTrent,thedaughterofaminister.Shewaseducatedprivately,andwenttoLondonin1846tosupporther
invalidmotherandtwoyoungerbrothersbywriting.WiththehelpofinfluentialfriendsshewasabletoplacethenovelsTheOgilvies(1849)andColaMonti:or,the
StoryofaGenius(1849),whichwerethebeginningofastreamofbooksforchildrenandimpressionableadults.JohnHalifax,Gentleman(1856)wasthenovelby
whichshewasbestknowninhertime(andhascontinuedtobebestknown)onthetitlepagesofhersubsequentbookstheprovenancewasattributedto'The
authoressofJohnHalifax,Gentleman'.Itsherorisesfromturner'sapprenticetowealthymillownerbyheroicqualitiesandasocialandmoraltemperamentwhich
enableshimtomakeasuccessfulmatchwithsomeoneoutsidehisclass,ararityinVictorianfiction.ContemporaryeventsfeatureagaininALifeforaLife(1859),in
whichrealpublicfiguresalsoappear.In1864shemarriedGeorgeLillieCraik,ofthepublishinghouseofMacmillan.Inthatyear,too,shewasawardedaCivilList
pensionof60,whichshehandedoverfortheuseofpoorauthors.Shepublishedtwovolumesofverse(1859and1881),fromwhich'Douglas,Douglas,tenderand
true'founditswayintoTheOxfordBookofVictorianVerse(1919).InAWoman'sThoughtsaboutWomen(1858)MrsCraikdemonstratesasimilarattitudeto
thatsooftenexpressedbyYONGE:'Menandwomenweremadefor,andnotlikeoneanother.'
Crane,(Harold)Hart(18991932)
Americanpoet,wasborninGarrettsville,Ohio,thechildofadividedmarriagewhichendedindivorceshortlyafterhisfatherbecameacandymanufacturerin
Cleveland,wheretheboyattendedpublicschools,andwaswritingpoetryat13.Afteravisitin1916withhismothertohisgrandfather's

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fruitfarmontheIsleofPines,southofCuba,whichgavehimhisfirsttasteofthesea,hesettledinNewYorkonhisown.Ostensiblyhewastobetutoredforcollege,
butthepulloftheliteraryandbohemianlifeofthecityprevailed.OntheentryoftheUSAintoWorldWarIin1917,hereturnedtoCleveland,whereheworkedina
munitionsplantandashipyard.Asacompromisebetweenhisfascinationformachineryandhavingtheleisuretowrite,hethenwenttoworkinthefactoryownedby
hisfather,whodeterminedinsteadto'drivethepoetrynonsense'outofhim.HewentbacktoNewYork,wherehelivedprecariouslyandwrote'Chaplinesque','My
Grandmother'sLoveLetters','AtMelville'sTomb',thesequence'Voyages',andotherpoemswhichwereincludedinWhiteBuildings(1926).Thankstothepersonal
financialsupportofabanker,hewasabletowriteTheBridge(1930),asequenceinspiredbytheseaandharbourcommandedbyBrooklynBridge,inwhichhe
offeredacosmicandapersonalviewofAmericandestiny.AGuggenheimfellowshiptookhimtoMexicowiththeideaofplanningalongpoemonthatcountry's
history.Onthereturnvoyagefromwhathaddevelopedintolucidintermissionsbetweenboutsofalcoholismandhomosexualdebauchery,hetookoffhiscoatand
jumpedfromthesternoftheshipintothesea.SeeTheCompletePoemsofHartCrane,ed.MarcSimon,newedn1993JohnUnterecker,Voyager:aLifeof
HartCrane,newedn1987WarnerBerthoff,HartCrane:aReIntroduction,1989(criticalstudy).
Crane,Stephen(18711900)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,andjournalist,wasborninNewark,NewJersey,the14thandlastchildofaMethodistministerwhodiedin1880.Hewas
broughtupbyhismotherinAsburyPark,andwassenttoamilitaryprepschoolatClaverack,NewYork,in1888.Hewentonin1890tostudyengineeringat
LafayetteCollege,andimmediatelyfailedhiscourse.HewasacceptedbySyracuseUniversity,fromwhichhedroppedoutaftertwosemesters,havingdonewellin
Englishanddistinguishedhimselfasabaseballcatcher.Fortwoyearshelivedinhisbrother'shouseatLakeViewandfriends'lodgingsinNewYork,wherehehada
fewabortivenewspaperjobsandaseriousaffairoftheheart.In1893heprivatelypublishedMaggie:aGirloftheStreets,'ByJohnstonSmith',ashort,naturalistic
novelofNewYorktenementlifenoteventheactivesupportofHOWELLScouldmakeitmovefromthebookshops.HealsobeganTheRedBadgeofCourage,for
whichhefinallyfoundasyndicate,ownedbyIrvingBacheller(18591950),preparedtoarrangeserialization.Bachelleralsocommissionedhimtowriteaseriesof
reportsfromtheWestandMexico.Beforehelefthemanagedtosellabookofverse,TheBlackRidersandOtherLines(1895),andthevolumerightsofTheRed
BadgeofCourage:anEpisodeoftheAmericanCivilWar(1895),whichherevisedwhilehewasinNewOrleans.Thisstudyofthepressuresofbattleonayoung,
untriedvolunteertotheUnioncause,incorporatingbothrealisticandimpressionistictechniques(itsauthorwasnotyet24andhiscombatexperiencewasinthefuture),
madehimacelebrity,andwasacclaimedalsoinEngland.While1896sawthecommercialpublicationofMaggie,twomorenovels(George'sMother,agrimportrait
ofEastSidesociety,andthesemiautobiographicalTheThirdViolet),andTheLittleRegiment:andOtherEpisodesoftheAmericanCivilWar,italsomarked
thebeginningofaspateoflargelyselfimposedcalamities.Eitherthroughnaivetyoranoverpassionatenature(theevidenceisconflicting),Craneallowedhimselfto
becomeinvolvedwithsomeratherunsuitableladies,oneofwhomhesavedfromachargeofsolicitingbyappearingincourtasawitness.Thepressmadeamealof
theepisode.InJacksonville,Florida,wherehewasenroutetocover(asaparticipant)agunrunningexpeditiontotheCubanrevolutionaries,hemetandestablisheda
permanentmnagewithCoraStewart(18651910),neTaylor,madamoftheHoteldeDream,whowasstillmarriedtoanEnglisharmyofficerwhomshehad
abandoned.
ThegunrunningexploitwasafiascointhattheshipsankandCraneandafewsurvivorshadtomakelandinadinghy,thoughheextractedfromtheincidentsome
usefulpublicityandanoutstandingstory,'TheOpenBoat'.HenowwenttoGreecetoreportontheTurkishwar,withCoraintowunderthenameofImogene
Cartershewasthefirstwomanwarcorrespondent.HereturnedviaEngland,wherehedepositedher.In1898,havingtriedtojointheUSNavytofightinthe
SpanishAmericanWarandbeenrejected,hewentallthesameasacorrespondent.HewascloselyinvolvedintheactioninCuba,fromwhichhefiledovertwenty
vividreports,andwasmentionedindispatchesbytheMarinesforbraveryasavolunteersignalman,beforebeingforciblyevacuatedwithmalariatoaddtohis
inherenttuberculosis.In1899hetravelledbacktoEngland,whereCorahadrented,as'MrsCrane',BredePlace,aderelict14thcenturymanorhouseinSussex.
Herehewrotecompulsively,inanultimatelyunsuccessfulattempttopaythebills.ShortlyafteragrandChristmaspartyforhisEnglishliteraryfriends,hehadaviolent
haemorrhage.On31March1900,hehadtwomore.CoragothimtoBadenweilerintheBlackForest,wherehediedon5June.SeeProseandPoetry:Maggie,A
GirloftheStreets,TheRedBadgeofCourage,Stories,Sketches,Journalism,andPoetry1984ThePortableStephenCrane,ed.JosephKatz,1969
ChristopherE.G.Benfrey,TheDoubleLifeofStephen

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Crane,newedn1994(biography)EdwinH.Cady,StephenCrane,rev.edn1980(biographical/criticalstudy)DavidHalliburton,TheColoroftheSky:aStudy
ofStephenCrane,1989.
Crapsey,Adelaide(18781914)
Americanpoet,wasborninBrooklynHeights,NewYork,thirdofninechildrenofRev.AlgernonSidneyCrapsey(18471928),asociallyawareEpiscopalian
clergymanwhowasin1906deposedfromtheministryathisownrequestafterbeingsuspendedbytheecclesiasticalcourtfor'heresy'.Shewasbroughtupin
Rochester,NewYork,andeducatedatKemperHall,aboardingschoolinWisconsin,andVassar,whereshegraduatedwithhonors,managedbasketballteams,and
wasEditorinChiefoftheVassarion.Herroommate,andlaterherclosestfriend,wasagreatnieceofTWAIN,JeanWebster(18761916),theheroineofwhose
famousromanticnovelDaddyLongLegs(1912)ispartlybasedonCrapsey.AftertwoyearsteachingatKemperHall,CrapseyspentayearstudyingattheSchool
ofArchaeology,Rome.ShewasforcedtogiveupherpostasinstructorofhistoryandliteratureatMissLowe'sSchool,Stamford,Connecticut,becauseof
exhaustion.ShereturnedtoEurope,spendingsometimeintheBritishMuseum,London,workingonthe'applicationofphoneticstometricalproblems'.In1911she
wasappointedinstructorinpoeticsatSmithCollegelaterthatyearherconditionwasdiagnosedastuberculinmeningitis.Verse(1915),was,accordingtothe
publisher'swife(describedbyherhusbandasa'DelphicWoman'),preparedbyCrapseyfromthegrave.AlsopublishedposthumouslywastheunfinishedAStudyin
EnglishMetrics(1918).HerprimeinfluenceswereKEATSandLANDOR:'Ah,Walter,whereyoulivedIrue/Thesedayscomealltoolateforme/Whatmatterifher
eyesareblue/WhoserivalisPersephone?'(Fiesole,1909).FromherstudyoftheJapanesehaikuandtangaintranslation,sheinventedher'cinquain':'Seafoam/
Andcoral!Oh,I'll/Climbthegreatpasturerocks/Anddreammemermaidinthesun's/Goldflood.'('LaurelintheBerkshires').SeeTheCompletePoemsand
CollectedLettersofAdelaideCrapsey,ed.SusanSuttonSmith,1977.
Crashaw,Richard(c.161349)
Englishpoet,wasborninLondon,thesonofaPuritanclergyman,andwaseducatedatCharterhouseandPembrokeHall,Cambridge,becomingaFellowof
Peterhouse.In1644heandfivecolleaguesweredismissedforrefusingtotaketheoathoftheSolemnLeagueandCovenantacceptinguniformityofworship
accordingtotheReformedChurch.HavingformallyconvertedtoCatholicism,hespentsometimeinParisbeforebecominganattendanttoCardinalPalottainRome.
HediedinrathersuspiciouscircumstanceswhileonapilgrimagetoLoreto.FromanearlyageCrashawwrotepoetryofanoccasionalandcelebratorynature,andhis
firstbookofverse(inLatin)waspublishedin1634.StepstotheTemple:SacredPoemswithotherDelightsoftheMuses(1646)isintwoparts,religiousand
secular.CrashawhasbeenclassifiedasaMetaphysicalpoetbecauseofhisfigurativelanguageandextravagantcomparisons.HisreligiousverseisunusualinEnglish
literatureinthatitiswrittenfromaCatholicstandpoint,andinhisuseofrhymeandrhythm,recurrentverbalmotifs,andresoundingclimaxes,hedemonstratesakeen
earformusicandmakesaconspicuouscontributiontotheculturalcounterReformation.Mosttypicalofhistechniqueare'TheFlamingHeart'andotherodestoSt
Teresa,especiallythosewritteninhisfavouritemetreofoctosyllabiccouplets,and'TheWeeper'(toMaryMagdalene),inwhichtheextravagantconceitsaretypically
baroque.'IntheHolyNativityofOurLordGod'takestheformofaGreekpastoralsungbyshepherdsandchorus.Amemorablesecularpoemis'Wishestohis
SupposedMistress',beginning'Whoe'ershebe/ThatnotimpossibleShe'.SeeThePoems,ed.L.C.Martin,2ndedn1957.
Crawford,IsabellaValancy(185087)
Canadianpoet,wasborninDublin,oneofonlythreeofthe12or13childrenofDrStephenD.Crawfordtosurvivechildhood.In1858shecamewithherparentsvia
WisconsintoCanada,whereherfatherwasthefirstdoctorinPaisley,CanadaWest.TheymovedontoLakefieldinabout1865,afterhisconvictionfor
misappropriationoffundsasmunicipaltreasurerfromtheretheywenttoPeterborough,wherehediedin1875,andheronlysurvivingsisterin1876.Shemusthave
persuadedhermotherthattheyshouldgotoToronto,whereshemightfindoutletsforherwriting,whichwastheonlymeansofsupportingthemboth.Shecontributed
storiestoCanadianandAmericanmagazinessomeofthosewhichhavebeentracedareinSelectedStoriesofIsabellaValancyCrawford,ed.PennyPetrone
(1977).Theonlybookpublishedduringherlifetime,andthatatherownexpense,wasOldSpookses'Pass,Malcolm'sKatie,andOtherPoems(1884),ofwhich
onlyfiftycopiesweresoldoutofaneditionof1000,despitefavourablenoticesinEnglishandCanadianjournals.Aromanticpoetofonlymoderateaccomplishment,
sheneverthelessdemonstratedthatEnglishpoeticformscouldbeadaptedtopioneerthemes,nativelegend,andthenaturalfeaturesandlandscapesofCanada.She
diedofheartfailure.SeeRobertBurns,IsabellaValancyCrawfordandHerWorks,1994.
Greeley,Robert(b.1926)
Americanpoetandcritic,wasborninArlington,Massachusetts,andwasbroughtupinafamilyof

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womenafterthedeathofhisfather,adoctor,whenhewasfour.AfterHoldernessSchool,NewHampshire,hewentin1943toHarvard,fromwhichhedroppedout
afterayearandservedasanambulancedriverwiththeAmericanFieldServiceinIndiaandBurmaduringthelastmonthsofWorldWarII.Havinginthemeantime
'found'thepoetryofW.C.WILLIAMS,hereturnedtoHarvard,butleftwithouttakingadegreeandfarmedinNewHampshire.In1950anattempttoestablishan
alternativeliterarymagazinefounderedbutbroughthimintocontactwithOLSON.TheirCompleteCorrespondence,ed.GeorgeButterick(198384)comprisessix
volumesandwritingtoeachothercouldoccupyawholeworkingday.AfterlivinginAixenProvenceandMallorca,CreeleyjoinedthestaffofBlackMountain
College,whichawardedhimthedegreeofBAin1956,andfoundedandeditedtheBlackMountainReview195457.Afterthecollegeclosedin1956,hetaughtin
aboys'schoolinAlbuquerque,andasavisitingprofessorattheUniversityofNewMexico.HejoinedthefacultyoftheStateUniversityofNewYork,Buffalo,in
1967andwasGrayProfessorofPoetryandLettersfrom1978to1989,whenhebecameCapenProfessorofPoetryandtheHumanities.HewasNewYorkState
Poet198991.
Creeley'sfirstvolumeofpoetrywaspublishedin1952,hisfirstsubstantialcollectionbeingForLove:Poems19501960(1962),dedicatedtohissecondwife,whom
hemarriedin1957(divorced1976).Inalecture(1967)hestated:'I'mgiventowritepoems.Icannotanticipatetheiroccasion....Tobeginwith,Iwasshyofthe
word''poet"andallitsassociationsinaworldIwasthenintimatewith.Itwasnot,inshort,afitattentionforayoungmanraisedintheNewEnglandmanner,compact
ofPuritanicallydeprivedsensesofspeechandsensuality.Lifewasrealandlifewasearnest,andonehadbestgetonwithit.Theinsistentpreoccupationwithwords
didbeginformeearly,justthatIdidwantsomuchtoknowwhatpeopleweresaying,andwhat,moreprecisely,theymeantbyit.'Hisversehasaneconomyof
languageandstyle,andaimstoachievethebreakthroughofthephilosophicalmindwhichwillresultinanoftenunexpecteddiscovery.Hehasalsopublishedan
autobiographicalnovel,TheIsland(1963),andTheGoldDiggersandOtherStories(1965).SeeTheCollectedPoemsofRobertCreeley19451975,1982
SelectedPoems,newedn1996TheCollectedProse,newedn1988TheCollectedEssays,newedn1992Autobiography,1991TalesoutofSchool:
SelectedInterviews,1993.
Croce,Benedetto(18661952)
Italianphilosopherandcritic,wasborninthemountainvillageofPescaseroli,Abruzzi,ofalandowningfamily,andwasbroughtupinNaples,wherehewenttoa
boardingschoolrunbypriestsforthechildrenofthegentry,and,encouragedbyhismother,avidlyreadnovels,especiallythoseofWALTERSCOTT.Whenhewas17,his
parentsandsisterwerekilledinanearthquakeontheislandofIschia,fromwhichhewasrescuedafterbeingburiedfortwelvehours.Heandhistwoyoungerbrothers
weretakeninbyacousin,astatesmanwholivedinRome.CrocestudiedlawatRomeUniversity,butwithdrewin1886withoutadegreeandreturnedtoNaples,
whereheattendedtothefamilyestateandsupportedhisownstudyandpublicationofresearchintoNeapolitancultureandfolklore.Aftertoyingwithsocialismand
concludingthatMarxismwaswithoutphilosophicalsignificance,hedevelopedhisowndoctrine,outlinedinEsteticacomeScienzadell'EspressioneeLinguistica
Generale(1902tr.DouglasAinslieasAestheticastheScienceofExpressionandGeneralLinguistic,1909),andelaboratedinvolumesonlogic,economicsand
ethics,andhistoriography.In1902heestablishedthebimonthlyreview,LaCritica,whichheranuntil1943,initiallywiththeidealistphilosopherGiovanniGentile
(18751944),whowentontobeaspokesmanforFascism.Afterbeingappointedalifesenatorin1910andbrieflyservingasMinisterofEducationbeforeMussolini
establishedhisdictatorshipin1922,CrocejoinedtheItalianLiberalParty.Thoughhewasallowedtocontinuetopublish,hisnamewasbannedfrombeingpublicly
mentionedandFascistthugsbrokeintoanddamagedhislibrary.DuringWorldWarII,hewasin1943takenintosafetyonBritishordersafterthefallofMussolinihe
becameleaderoftheLiberals(totheexpositionofwhoseaimshishistoricalwritingshadcontributed)andthefirstofficialspokesmanofthepoliticalassembly
establishedwiththeapprovalofAlliedCommand.HisbodyofconsiderableliterarycriticismincludesastudyofARIOSTO,SHAKESPEARE,andCORNEILLE(tr.1921),and
worksonpopularandliterarypoetry(tr.1933)andpoetics(tr.1936).SeePhilosophy,Poetry,History:anAnthologyofEssays,tr.CecilSprigge,1966.
Croker,ThomasCrofton(17981854)
Irishfolklorist,wasborninCork,thesonofanarmymajor,andwasat16apprenticedtoafirmofQuakermerchants,havinghadlitleformaleducation.A
preoccupationwitholdtraditionsandatalentforsketchingtookhimwanderingthroughsouthernIreland,afterwhichhesentsome'ancientairs'toTHOMASMOORE,who
invitedhimtoLondon.In1818hemovedtherepermanently,andobtainedthroughJohnWilsonCroker(17801857)norelationbutIrishbornandamanofletters
aswellasaMemberofParliamentaclericalpostintheAdmiralty,whereheremaineduntil1850.Re

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searchesintheSouthofIreland(1824)wasfollowedbyFairyLegendsandTraditionsoftheSouthofIreland(1825).Thisimpressiveandinfluentialwork,
whichwastranslatedintoGermanbytheGRIMMS(1826),andwasthefirstcollectionoforaltalesfromtheBritishIsles,originallyappearedanonymously.(Ittranspired
thatCroftonhadlostthemanuscript,whichhadtoberewrittenwiththehelpofhisfriends,whorememberedmanyofthestories.)Furthervolumes,entirelyhisown
workandunderhisname,werepublishedin1828.HewasadistinguishedmemberofnumerousBritishandEuropeanantiquariansocieties.Amonghisother
publicationsareLegendsoftheLakes:orSayingsandDoingsatKillarney(1829)andThePopularSongsofIreland(1839).Twolightnovelspublishedunder
hisnamein1832wereactuallytheworkofhiswife,theartistMarianneNicholson(d.1854).CrokerbreakfastedwithWALTERSCOTTinOctober1826,whodescribed
himinhisjournalas'littleasadwarf,keeneyedasahawk,andofveryprepossessingmanners.SomethinglikeTomMoore.'ThreedayslaterCrokerreturnedwith'a
presentofasmallboxofcuriousIrishantiques'.
Cronin,A(rchibald)J(oseph)(18961981)
Scottishnovelist,wasborninCardross,Dunbartonshire,andwenttolivewithhismother'sfamilyafterthedeathofhisfatherwhenhewasseven.Hewaseducatedat
DumbartonAcademy(hewonanationalhistoricalessayprizewhenhewas13)andGlasgowUniversity,wherehismedicalstudieswereinterruptedbywarserviceas
asurgeonintheRoyalNavalVolunteerReserve.Hequalifiedin1919,andmarriedadoctorin1921.HepractisedinaminingdistrictinWales,andwasMedical
InspectorofMines192426,afterwhichhewentintoprivatepracticeinLondonuntil1930,whenhishealthbrokedown.RecuperatingatafarmnearInveraray,in
theWestHighlands,hewrote,inthreemonths,Hatter'sCastle(1931),likealmostallhissubsequentnovelsanextensionofhisobservationofactualpeople.Its
immediateinternationalsuccessenabledhimtogiveupmedicinetowrite.Thepublicityforhisfourthnovel,TheCitadel(1937),inwhichheusedhisexperienceof
privatepracticetoexposesomeofitsmoreluridaspects,wascleverlyorchestratedbyhispublisher,thecrusadingVictorGollancz(18931967).Heworkedforthe
BritishMinistryofInformationintheUSAduringWorldWarII,afterwhichhesettledpermanentlyinSwitzerland.Heuseswelldescribedsettingsandwellrealized
predicamentssuchasthatoftheCatholicpriestinTheKeysoftheKingdom(1942)andhisenormousappealtoamiddlebrowaudiencewasenhancedby'Dr
Finlay'sCasebook',histelevisionandradioadaptationsofhisScottishnovelsbasedonhisexperiencesasadoctor.AdventuresinTwoWorlds(1952),ostensibly
anautobiography,isusefulasaguidetolinksbetweenfictionandfact.
Crowfield,Christopher
seeSTOWE.
Cullen,Countee(190346)
Americanpoet,wasprobablyborninLouisville,Kentucky,andwasbroughtupinNewYorkbeforebeingadoptedin1918byRev.andMrsFrederickCullen,ofthe
SalemMethodistEpiscopalChurch,Harlem,andgoingtoDeWittClintonHighSchool.WhileatNewYorkUniversityhewonnationalprizesforpoetry,ofwhichhe
publishedacollection,Color,in1925,theyearhewentontoHarvardtodoaMAdegree.In1927hepublishedafurthercollection,CopperSunTheBalladofthe
BrownGirl:anOldBalladRetold,intowhichheintroducedracialovertonesforwhichtherearenoequivalentsintheoriginalandCarolingDusk:anAnthologyof
VersebyNegroPoets.Hismuchtrumpetedmarriagein1928toYolande,thedaughterofDUBOIS,endedindivorceaftertwoyears.In1934hebecameateacherof
EnglishandFrenchatFrederickDouglassJrHighSchool,NewYorkCity.Hediedofuremicpoisoning,havingpublishedtwofurthercollectionsofverse,anda
novel,OneWaytoHeaven(1932).HesawhiscontributiontotheHarlemRenaissanceofthe1920sasbeingtointroducetheblackexperiencetowhitereaders
throughthemediumoftraditionalpoeticforms.SeeAlanR.Shucard,CounteeCullen,1984(biographical/criticalstudy).
Cummings,E(dward)E(stlin)(18941962)
Americanpoet,dramatist,andpainter,wasborninCambridge,Massachusetts,thesonofaHarvardlecturerwholaterbecameaUnitarianminister.Hehadan
intellectualupbringing,drewandwrotepoemsfreely,andwaseducatedatCambridgeLatinSchoolandHarvard,fromwhichhegraduatedmagnacumlaudein
1915.HavinggonetoNewYorktostudypainting,in1917hevolunteeredasadriverintheNortonHarjesAmbulanceCorpsoftheAmericanRedCross,andwas
senttoParistowaitforhisuniform,andthentothefront.HewasarrestedbytheFrenchauthoritiesforinjudiciousremarksmadebyhimandafriendinlettershome,
andspentthreemonthsinaninternmentcamphisfirstbook,TheEnormousRoom(1922),isanimpressionisticaccountofhisexperiences.Onhisreleaseand
returntotheUSA,hewasdraftedintotheArmyasaprivate,andfortheremainderofWorldWarIwasinacampinMassachusetts.Hespenttherestofhislife
betweenhisstudioinGreenwichVillage,thefamilyhomeofJoyFarminNewHampshire(whichheinheritedandwherehedied),andFrance,with

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occasionaltripstootherpartsoftheworld,includingtheSovietUnion,aboutwhichhepublishedajournal,EIMI[Greek,'Iam'](1933).
Thetitlesofhisfourbooksofverseinthe1920srangefromthetraditional,TulipsandChimneys(1923)andXLIPoems(1925),tothemoreoriginal&(privately
printed,1925)andis5(1926)followedlaterby11(1944).Theuntitledwork(1930)isanillustratedcollectionofsurrealsatiricaltales.Hisintenseindividualism
manifesteditselfespeciallyinthecreationofvisualforms,forwhichheusedlinebreaks(orlackofthem),lowercase(hesignedhimself'e.e.cummings'),hyphens,
unconventionalpunctuation,andspacingtoenhancehiseffect.Withinsuchaframework,hismessageisoftensimple,satirical,ortender(asinhislovepoems).Hewas
marriedthreetimes,onthefirstoccasiontoElaineOrr,bywhomhehadhadadaughterin1919hisverseplay,SantaClaus:aMorality(1946)reflectshislossof
thechildafterhermotherremarried.HepublishedhisCharlesEliotNortonProfessorofPoetrytalksatHarvardasi:sixnonlectures(1953).SeeCompletePoems
19041962,ed.GeorgeJ.Firmage,rev.andexpandededn,1994SelectedPoems,ed.RichardS.Kennedy,1994AnOtherCummings,ed.RichardKostelanetz,
1996(avantgardepoetryandprose)RichardS.Kennedy,'DreamsintheMirror':aBiographyofE.E.Cummings,newedn1994RichardS.Kennedy,e.e.
cummings,newedn1995(biographical/criticalstudy)CaryLane,'IAm':aStudyofthePoemsofE.E.Cummings,1976.
Cunningham,E.V.
seeFAST.
CunninghameGraham,R.B.
seeGRAHAM,R.B.CUNNINGHAME
Curnow,Allen(b.1911)
NewZealandpoet,wasborninTimaru,thesonofanAnglicanclergyman,andwaseducatedatChristchurchBoys'HighSchool.Hebecameatraineejournaliston
theChristchurchSun,butgavethatupin1931tostudyfortheAnglicanministryatStJohn'sCollege,Auckland.Insteadofbeingordained,hereturnedtojournalism,
andworkedasareporterandsubeditorfortheChristchurchPressfrom1935to1948,whilegraduatingfromCanterburyUniversityin1938.Threebooksofyouthful
versewerefollowedbyNotinNarrowSeas(1939),a'contributiontotheantimythaboutNewZealand'.In1949heworkedfortheNewsChronicleinLondon,
returningtobecomealecturerinEnglishatAucklandUniversity,ofwhichhewasAssociateProfessor196776.Regardedasthepoetwhohasmosteffectively
representedNewZealand'supsurgeinliterarynationalism,untilhiscareerwaswelladvancedhevoicedpublicratherthanpersonalissues,projectinganimagein
keepingwithhisadvice'ToanUnfortunateYoungWomanWhoAfterAttendingSixPublicReadingsbyThirtyPoetsAsked,DoesAnyoneCare?'('...Doesanyone
care?/Oneman'srhubarbisanotherman's/artichokeandthat'sthereasonwhy/thepoetryofearthisneverdead/deaddead').IntheimpressivesequencesTrees,
Effigies,MovingObjects(1972),andAnIncorrigibleMusic(1979),inwhichhesetsagainsteachotherimagesofNewZealandandItaly,pastandpresent,he
exploresmoreprivateconcernsintermsofattitudestorealobjectsandevents.TheAxe:aVerseTragedy,finishedwiththeencouragementofMARSH,wasproduced
in1949,andisoneofseveralplayswhichareconcernedwithculturalconflictsseeFourPlays(1972).Satiricalversesontopicalsubjects,whichhewroteweekly
forfortyyearsasajournalisticassignment,arecollectedinTheBestofWhimWham(1959).HisintroductionstoandselectionsforABookofNewZealandVerse
19231945(1945rev.edn1951)andThePenguinBookofNewZealandVerse(1960)demonstratedtheexistenceofanestablishedtradition.Hewonthe
CommonwealthPoetryPrize(1989)andtheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetry(1990),andwasmadeCBEin1990.SeeSelectedPoems19401989,1990
Continuum:NewandLaterPoems19721988,1988LookBackHarder:CriticalWritings19351984,ed.PeterSimpson,1987AlanRoddick,Allen
Curnow,1983(criticalstudy).
Cynewulf
8thor9thcenturyAngloSaxonreligiouspoet,wasthefirstEnglishpoettosignhiswork,whichhedidbyweavinghisnameinruniccharacters,acrosticfashion,into
hisverses.Itappearstowardstheendofthefourdidacticpoems:'TheFatesoftheApostles''TheAscension',thesecondpartofaneloquentsermonandtwolives
offemalesaints,'Juliana'and'Elene'(StHelena,motheroftheRomanemperorConstantine).OftheschoolofCynewulf,orpossiblyevenadaptedbyhimselffroman
earlierversion,isthemagnificent'TheDreamoftheRood',theearliestexampleofEnglishmysticalpoetry,andtheforerunnerofthe'dream'or'vision'poem.

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D
Dahl,Roald(191690)
Britishshortstorywriter,novelist,andchildren'swriter,wasborninLlandaff,Glamorgan,ofNorwegianparents.Hisfatherwasashipbroker,afterwhosedeathwhen
hewasfour,hewasbroughtupbyhismother.HewaseducatedatReptonSchool,whereheexcelledatsportbutwasrecordedasbeing'quiteincapableof
marshallinghisthoughtsonpaper'.HeworkedforShellOilinEastAfricafrom1937to1939,andintheearlyyearsofWorldWarIIflewRoyalAirForcefightersin
actioninLibya(wherehesurvivedacrashlanding),Greece,andSyria.InvalidedhomeandpostedtoWashingtonwiththerankofwingcommander,heworkedfor
theBritishsecurityorganization.ApressinterviewbyFORESTERledtohiscontributingarticlesandstoriestoAmericanqualitymagazines.Inhisfirstadultbook,Overto
You:10StoriesofFlyersandFlying(1946),theghastlytwistswhichcharacterizemanyofhisstories,andwhichweretobereflectedalsoinhispersonallife,are
alreadyapparent,butthewickedmeettheroughestofdessertsasoftenasdotheinnocenttheperversitiesoffate.SubsequentcollectionsincludeKiss,Kiss(1960),
SwitchBitch(1974),andTalesoftheUnexpected(1979).Theenormoussuccessofhischildren'sstorieswiththereadersthemselvesisduenotjusttothesituations
whichhisweirdimaginationwasabletodeviseandthecheerfulmannerwithwhichhischildcharactersoutwitortakerevengeontheirantagonists,butalsotohis
penchantfortherepellentbutappropriatedescriptivedetail,ofakindwhichotherchildren'sauthorseschew.Hewrotehisbooksinpencilonaboardacrosshis
knees,sittinginanoldwoodenshackatthebottomofhisgarden.In1953hemarriedtheAmericanactressPatriciaNeal(b.1926).Theyweredivorcedin1983.In
herautobiography,AsIAm(1988),shedescribesthetripletragedywhichprofoundlyaffectedtheearlyyearsoftheirmarriage.SeeTheCollectedShortStoriesof
RoaldDahl,newedn1992'Boy'and'GoingSolo':anAutobiographicalAccount19161941,newedn1992.
Dahlberg,Edward(190077)
Americannovelist,poet,andcritic,wasborninacharityhospitalinBoston,theillegitimatesonofSaulGottdank,anitinerantbarber,and'Lizzie'Dalberg(headded
the'h'in1928).Hewasbroughtupbyhismother,whoopenedtheStarLadyBarbershopinKansasCityin1905,andin1912puthimintotheJewishOrphan
Asylum,Cleveland,whereheremaineduntilafterhisconfirmationin1917Lizziefeaturesparticularlyinhisautobiographicalstudy,BecauseIWasFlesh(1964).
AfterseveralvagabondyearsheenrolledattheUniversityofCalifornia,transferringtoColumbiaUniversity,wherehegraduatedinphilosophyin1925.Afterteaching
forayear,andtravellinginEurope,heworkedhischildhoodintoanovel,BottomDogs(1929),whichhadaprefacebyD.H.LAWRENCE,withwhoseinterpretationof
thebookDahlbergdisagreed.FromFlushingtoCalvary(1932),asequel,isamoresophisticatedwork.ThoseWhoPerish(1934)isanearlyantiNazinovel
whosetargetisthecomplacencyofAmericanJewsatthetime.DoTheseBonesLive(1941),acollectionofcriticalessaysinwhichheanalysestherootsand
developmentofAmericanliterature,wasreissuedinLondonasSing,OBarren(1947),withaprefacebyHERBERTREAD,andlaterinarevisededitionasCanThese
BonesLive(1960).TheFleaofSodom(1950)isanenigmaticstudyoftheroleoftheartist.TheSorrowsofPriapus(1957),whichDahlbergdescribedas'alittle
bookonwhetheramanshouldhaveaphallusornot',anditssecondpart,TheCarnalMyth(1968),areredolentwithclassicallearning.TireConfessionsof
EdwardDahlberg(1971)isallegoricalautobiography.HispoemswerecollectedasCipango'sHinderDoor(1965).From1950almostperpetuallyonthemove,he
wasin1965appointedaprofessorofEnglishliteratureattheUniversityofMissouri.
Daiches,David(b.1912)
Britishcriticandprosewriter,wasborninSunderland,thesonofarabbi,andwasbroughtupinEdinburgh,ashedescribeswithhumourandtendernessinTwo
Worlds:anEdinburghJewishChildhood(1956).HewaseducatedatGeorgeWatson'sCollegeandEdinburghUniversity,andafterwardsatBalliolCollege,
Oxford.HewasAssistantProfessor,ChicagoUniversity193743,SecondSecretaryattheBritishEmbassyinWashington194446,andProfessorofEnglish,
CornellUniversity194651hisimpressionsandexperiencesofAmericaare

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describedinAThirdWorld(1971).BackinBritain,hetaughtatCambridgeandwasthenProfessorofEnglishandAmericanLiteratureatSussexUniversityfrom
1961untilhisretirementin1977,whenhereturnedtoEdinburgh.HehaswrittenTheNovelintheModernWorld(rev.edn1960)andACriticalHistoryof
EnglishLiterature(4vols,rev.edn1969),butofevenmorelastingworththanthesearehisstudiesoftheScottishscene,especiallyTheParadoxofScottish
Culture:theEighteenthCenturyExperience(1964)andRobertBurns(rev.edn1966),andhis1983Giffordlectures,GodandthePoets(1984).Hehasalso
writtenillustratedbiographiesofWALTERSCOTT(1971),BURNS(1972),STEVENSON(1973),andBOSWELL(1975),aswellasCharlesEdwardStuart:theLifeandTimes
ofBonniePrinceCharlie(1973),andthehistoricalguides,Glasgow(1977)andEdinburgh(1978).HewasmadeCBEin1991.
Daly,Rann
seePALMER.
Dana,RichardHenry,Jr(181582)
Americanprosewriterandlawyer,wasborninCambridge,Massachusetts,thesecondoffourchildrenofRichardHenryDana(17871879),poet,critic,andeditor.
Afterthedeathofhismotherin1822,hewassenttoprivateschoolsintheBostonarea,atoneofwhichhewastaughtbyEMERSON.HeenrolledatHarvardCollegein
1831,wassuspendedin1832onapointofhonour,anddroppedoutinhisthirdyearbecauseofeyetroubleaftermeasles.Hisloveofadventure,hatredofinactivity,
andtheattractionofnoveltyledhimtosignaboardthebrig,Pilgrim,boundforCaliforniaroundCapeHorn.Hiseyeproblemclearedupduringthefirstweek,and
aftertwoyearsandonemonthhearrivedbackinBoston,havingmadethereturnjourneyinAlert,andspent285daysinallatsea.Thetitleofhisclassicaccount,
TwoYearsBeforetheMast(1840),writtenfromhisjournal,isthusauthor'slicence,forgivableinthelightofitsinfluencebothonreadingtastesandonthe
introductionofseagoingreforms(hereviseditforthefinaltimein1876).HavinggraduatedfromHarvardin1837,hejoinedtheEpiscopalChurch,openedalaw
office,andmarriedin1841.Anablelawyerwhospecializedinmaritimelaw,lecturedeffectivelyonitsworkingsandonsocialissues,andwasDistrictAttorneyfor
Massachusettsfrom1861to1866,hepreferredpublicservicetothefurtherexploitationofhisliterarytalents.In1866hewassuedforplagiarismbythedeposed
editorofHenryWheaton'sElementsofInternationalLaw,arevisededitionofwhichDanahadbeenpersuadedtoprepareinhisplace.Theproceedingsdragged
onuntil1879,whenDanawaslargelyvindicated.Thedamagewasalreadydone,however,andin1876hisnominationbyPresidentUlyssesS.Grant(182285)as
USAmbassadortoBritainwasblockedintheSenate.HeretiredtoParisin1878,anddiedinRome.SeeRobertL.Gale,RichardHenryDana,1969
(biographical/criticalstudy).
Daniel,Samuel(1562/31619)
Englishpoetandhistorian,wasborninSomersetandeducatedatMagdalenHall,Oxford,withouttakingadegree.Histranslationin1585ofanItalianworkon
heraldicemblemsisdedicatedtoSirEdwardDymoke,hereditaryQueen'sChampion,inwhoseservicehewasforatimeandwithwhomhevisitedItaly.In1591,28
ofhislovesonnetswereprinted,withouthispermission,byThomasNewman(c.1562c.1600)inapiratededitionofSIDNEY'SAstrophelandStella,withaprefaceby
NASHE.ShortlyafterwardshewenttoWilton,Wiltshire,astutortoWilliamHerbert(15801630),thesonoftheEarlofPembrokebyhisthirdwife,Mary(seeSIDNEY).
TotheCountesshededicatedDelia(1592),containingthefullsequenceof50sonnets'ToDelia',whichareinthemainbeautifullyturnedandphrasedexamplesofthe
genre,andthenarrativepoem,'TheComplaintofRosamond'.Thesecondedition(1594)includedalsoCleopatra,averseclosetdramainclassicalstyleforwhichthe
Countesswastheinspiration.Somedomesticcatastrophethencausedhimtoseeknewpatronage,whichwasforthcomingfromGREVILLEandCharlesBlount(1563
1606),LordMountjoy,towhomDanieldedicatedthefirstfourbooksofhis(ultimatelyunfinished)historicalpoem,TheCivileWarresbetweentheTwoHousesof
LancasterandYorke(1595).
HenowbecametutortoLadyAnneClifford(15901676),thedaughteroftheCountessofCumberland,whohadhousesinNorthamptonshireandLondon.A
DefenceofRyme(1603)wasadirectanswertoCAMPIONandablatantattempttocurryfavourwiththenewKing.James(JAMESVI)obviouslyhadotherthingsonhis
mind,butmoresubtleapproachesledtoDaniel'smasque,TheVisionofTwelveGoddesses,beingpresentedin1604withtheQueenherselftakingapart,andtohis
acceptingthepoisonedchaliceoftheappointmentaslicensorofentertainmentspresentedbytheChildrenoftheQueen'sRevels.Whenhegaveupthepostayear
laterhewasalsointroubleforthecompany'sperformanceofhisPhilotas(1605),whichappearedtocommentonthetrialandexecutionoftheEarlofEssexin1601.
Hisprotestationsofinnocencewereaccepted,andTheQueenesArcadia,anadaptationoftheItalianformofpastoraldrama,waspresentedbeforethecourtat
Oxfordin1605.Inabout1610heretiredtoafarmatBeckington,Somerset,andhereandatcourt,wherehehadbeenagroomoftheQueen'sPrivyChambersince
1609,hedevotedhimselftoTheCollectionoftheHistorieofEnglandthefirstpartwasprivatelyprintedin1612,andthewhole,uptothedeathof

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EdwardIII,publishedin1618.Itisnotableinthatheupholdsmedievalcultureandrefusestoaccepthistoricallegendasfact.SeePoemsandADefenceofRyme,
ed.ArthurColbySprague,newedn1965JoanRees,SamuelDaniel:aCriticalandBiographicalStudy,1964.
D'annunzio,Gabriele(18631938)
Italiannovelist,poet,dramatist,andadventurer,wasborninPescara,theyoungestoffivechildrenofaprovincialcouncillor,andwenttoCiogniniCollege,Prato.He
becameacelebratedpoetattheageof16,whenacommercialpublisherreissuedhisprivatelyprintedPrimoVere[EarlySpring](1879),withtheomissionofthe
morelicentiousverses.Hepublishedafurthervolumein1881,beforegoingtoRome,whereheenrolledfor,butdidnotpursue,severaluniversitycourses,becamea
manabouttown,andin1883seducedandthenmarriedDonnaMariaHardouin(18651954),thedaughteroftheDukeofGallese.Fouryearslaterhevirtually
abandonedwife,home,andthreechildren,andbeganaperiodofastonishingliteraryfertilityandpassionateliving.Laudi...[Praises...]wastheoveralltitleofa
seriesofvolumesofverse(190312)inspiredbythe'enchantmentofthesun',whichhehadbeguntowriteinFlorenceafteranapocalypticvisittoGreece.Forthe
mostspectacularofhismanymistresses,theactressEleonoraDuse(18581924),hewrotetheplaysLaCittMorta(1898tr.ProfessorG.MantelliniasTheDead
City,1902),LaGioconda(1899tr.SymonsasGioconda,1901),andLaFigliadiIorio(1904tr.CharlottePorter,PietroIsola,andAliceHenryasThe
DaughterofJorio,1907),whichbecameanationaldramabutprecipitatedtheendoftheaffair,asDusewaspassedoverforthelead.IlPiacere(1889tr.Georgina
HardingasTheChildofPleasure,1898),whichreflectedthedecadenceofhisownlifestyle,setthetoneforfurtherfindesiclenovels,L'Innocente(1892tr.
ArthurHornblowasTireIntruder,1898),andTrionfodellaMorte(1894tr.HornblowasTriumphofDeath,1896),thestartingpointofwhichwasanotherwell
publicizedaffairtheEnglishtranslationswereevenmoreheavilybowdlerizedthantheFrench,onwhichtheydrew.IntheVenetiannovelIlFuoco(1900tr.
KassandraVivariaasTheFlameofLife,1900tr.SusanBassnettasTheFlame,1991)herehearsedhisaffairwithDuse,mostunfairly.
In1910,plaguedbydebtscausedbyhisownextravagances,hetookrefugeinParis,wherehecontinuedmuchasbefore.HereturnedtoItalyin1915tomake
impassionedoverturestothecountrytoenterWorldWarIontheAlliedside.Onceithaddoneso,heplayedanactiveroleasanairman,droppingbombsandleaflets
evenafterlosinganeye,theresultofacrashlandinginaseaplane.In1919heenteredFiume(Rijeka)attheheadofacolumnofsevenirregularbattalions,claimedit
forItaly,installedhimselfasdictator,andremainedtherefor16months,evenafterithadbeendeclaredafreecitywhenFiumewasfinallyannexedtoItalyin1924,
hewasonMussolini'srecommendationcreatedPrinceofMonteNevoso.Amysteriousaccidentin1922markedhisdeparturefromthepoliticalscene,butinthe
extraordinarilydecoratedvillaonLakeGardatowhichhehadretiredhecontinuedtowriteandtomakeassignations.
DanteAlighieri(12651321)
Italianpoetandpoliticalphilosopher,wasborninFlorence,andhadaclassicaleducationwhilealso,accordingtohisbiographerBOCCACCIO,studyingpoetry,music,
andpainting.In1289hefoughtinthefrontrankoftheFlorentinecavalryagainsttheTuscanGhibellinesatthebattleofCampaldino.Attheageofnine,Dantesays,he
firstseteyesonBeatricePortinari,theeightyearolddaughterofaprominentFlorentinecitizen:hespoketoherforthefirsttimenineyearslaterwhentheypassedin
thestreet.Hisintenseromanticpassionforherwassuchthataftershediedin1290,hecollectedthepoemshehadwrittenaboutherintoLaVitaNuova[TireNew
Life](tr.MarkMusa,1992tr.DinoS.CervigniandEdwardVasta,bilingualedn1994),withalinkingprosecommentary,anddedicatedhislifetoimprovinghimself
inordertobeabletowrite'ofthisblessedone...moreworthily',towhichendhesystematicallystudiedphilosophy,theology,andscience.In1294hemarried
GemmadiDonati,ofanoblefamily,bywhomhehadseveralsonsandadaughter,whoassumedthenameofBeatricewhenshebecameanun.Heenteredpubliclife
in1295,havingjoinedtheguildofthephysiciansandapothecariesinordertoregainthefranchisefromwhichnoblyconnectedcitizenshadbeenbarredsince1284.In
1300hewaselectedfortwomonthstoserveasoneofthesixrulingpriors,whoconfirmedthesentencesofbanishmentontheleadersofboththeBlackandWhite
Guelphfactionsinthecity.WhilehewasonanembassytoRometoopposethePope'sinvitationtoCharlesofValois,brotheroftheKingofFrance,totakea
'peacekeeping'forceoftwelvethousandmenintoFlorence,Charlesenteredthecity,theBlackstookover,andDantewasinhisabsencecondemnedtodeath.He
neverreturned.
Whenin1310Henry,CountofLuxemburg,announcedhisintentionofreceivingtheimperialcrownoftheRomanEmpire,Danteopenlysupportedhiminaseriesof
politicalletterswritteninLatin,andinDeMonarchia[OnMonarchy]outlinedthephilosophyofgovernmentwhichisinherentinTheDivineComedy.WhenHenry
diedofafeverin1313,heresignedhimselftothestatusquoandgavehisfullattention,latterlyinRavenna,tothecompletionofhislife'swork.Thethree

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greatsectionsofDivinaCommedia,Inferno,Purgatorio,Paradiso,representanallegoricaljourneyofman,whoobtainsrewardorpunishmentforactscommitted
intheexerciseofhisownfreewill.WritteninterzarimaintheItalianvernacular,whichheexplainedthatevenwomencanunderstand,itisalsoanepicspiritualand
cosmologicalautobiography,inthecourseofwhichthepoethimselfisconductedbyVIRGILandbyhisbelovedBeatrice,andmeetsandconverseswiththesoulsof
historicalfigures.Dante'sworkshaveinfluencedmanyEnglishpoetsfromCHAUCERtoMILTON,TENNYSON('Ulysses',InMemoriam),D.G.ROSSETTI(whowasnamedafter
him,translatedhim,andtookinspirationfromhimforhispainting),ROBERTBROWNING,andT.S.ELIOT,muchofwhosesymbolismderivesfromDante,andwhoseessay
onthepoet(1929)iscentraltohisliterarycriticism.SeeInferno,1984,Purgatory,1985,Paradise,1986,tr.MarkMusaTheDivineComedy,tr.CharlesH.
Sisson(blankverse),newedn,ed.DavidH.Higgins,1993TheDivineComedy,tr.AllenMandelbaum(unrhymedpentameters),newedn,withnotesbyPeter
Armour,1995TheInfernoofDante:aNewVerseTranslation,tr.RobertPinsky(terzarima),forewordbyJohnFreccero,notesbyNicolePinsky,newedn
1996(bilingualedn)Hell,tr.SteveEllis(irregularblankverse),newedn1995GeorgeHolmes,Dante,1980(introductiontohisthought).
Dark,Eleanor(190185)
neO'Reilly,Australiannovelist,wasborninBurwood,Sydney,theonlydaughterofDowellO'Reilly(1865923),politician,poet,andfictionwriter.Shewas
privatelyeducatedandin1922marriedDrEricPaytenDark,generalpractitionerandwriteronmedicalsubjects.From1921formanyyearsshecontributedarticles,
poems,andstoriestovariousmagazinesasPatriciaO'Rane.Herfirstnovel,SlowDawning(1932),astudyofawomandoctor,wasnineyearsfindingapublisher.It
wasfollowedbyPreludetoChristopher(1934)andfourothercontemporarynovelsinwhichsheemployedexperimentalnarrativetechniquesandpsychological
themes.TheTimelessLand(1941),StormofTime(1948),andNoBarrier(1953)compriseatrilogyofwhichthefirstinparticular,coveringtheearlyyearsof
EuropeansettlementandtreatingwithimaginativeinsightandhistoricalveracitytheconflictbetweenGovernorArthurPhillip(17381814)andtheAboriginal
Bennelong,isregardedasalandmarkinAustralianhistoricalfiction.ShewasmadeAOin1977.
Darley,George(17951846)
Irishpoet,critic,andmathematicalwriter,wasborninDublin,theeldestofsevenchildren(oneofwhombecamethemotherofBOUCICAULT)ofwelloffparentswho
wentshortlyafterwardstoAmerica,leavinghimwithhispaternalgrandfather.Affectedallhislifebyacripplingstammer,hewaseducatedbyatutorandatTrinity
College,Dublin,wherehereadclassicsandmathematics.Hegraduatedin1820and,havinggivenupworkingforafellowshipbecauseofthestrain,wenttoLondon
totryandearnalivingasawriter.HebecamearegularcontributortotheLondonMagazineaftersubmittingsomepiecesas'PeterPatriciusPickleHerring',andin
1822published,partlyathisownexpense,TheErrorsofEcstasie:aDramaticPoem,withOtherPieces.ThereafterJohnTaylor(17811864),KEATS'Spublisher
andEditoroftheLondonMagazine,becamehispublisher.ThroughhimDarleybroughtoutTheLaboursofIdleness:or,SevenNights'Entertainments(1826)'by
GuyPenseval',acollectionoffictionalprose,mainlyaboutlove,interspersedwithlyricsASystemofPopularGeometry(1826),thefirstoffivemathematical
textbooksandSylvia:or,TheMayQueen.ALyricalDrama(1827),theworkbywhichhewasbestknowninhistime.Hespenttheyears183035onthe
Continentstudyingthepaintingsandsculpture,andbecamearegularartcriticfortheAthenaeumonhisreturn.Heprintedathisownexpensein1835asmalledition
forhisfriendsofhisunfinishedlongpoem,Nepenthehealsohadtwoversechronicleplayspublished(1840and1841).Thoughhehadfriends,andadmiringyoung
femalecousins,hewroteinaletter(1845):'Ineverkeptmuchofanyperson'ssocietywithoutintheendfeelingmyselffarlesslikedthanwhenIentereditfirst.'His
anonymousimitationofaCavalierlyric,'ItisnotbeautieIdemande'(1828),wasprintedasgenuineinET.Palgrave,TheGoldenTreasury...(1861),butwas
omittedfromthe1896editionafteritsprovenancehadbeenrevealed.Ithassincebeenrestored,properlyattributed,tothe17thcenturysection.SeeSelected
Poems,ed.AnneRidler,1979.
Darwin,Charles(180982)
Britishnaturalist,thesonandgrandsonofphysicians,wasborninShrewsburyandeducatedatShrewsburySchoolandEdinburghUniversity,beforetransferringto
Christ'sCollege,Cambridge,toreadfortheChurch.Hebecamemoreinterestedinzoology,andin1831wasrecommendedbytheProfessorofBotanyasofficial
geologistandnaturalist(unpaid)toHMSBeagle,whichwassailingtoSouthAmericaandIndiaonsurveyduties.Theroundtheworldexcursionlastedfiveyears,
duringwhichDarwinwasinconstantmiseryatseabecauseofseasicknessandsufferedseverehardshipsonlandinpursuitoftheobjectsofhisresearch.Theresults
werepublishedindiaryformasVolumeIIIofCaptainRobertFitzroy'sNarrativeoftheSurveyingVoyages...(1839)seealsoCharlesDarwin'sBeagleDiary,
ed.R.D.Keynes(1988)and

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KeithS.Thomson,H.M.S.Beagle:theStoryofDarwin'sShip(1995).Darwinwasnowworkingonhistheoryofevolutionthrough'naturalselection'ofthefitter
species,whichhepresentedin1858withAlfredWallace(18231913),whohadcometosimilarconclusions,andpublishedin1859asOntheOriginofSpeciesby
MeansofNaturalSelection.Equallycontentioustheologically,butquiteacceptableinbiologicalterms,wasTheDescentofMan(1871),whichtraceshumanorigins
tothesameancestorsasthoseofthehigherapes.Healsowrotevariousscholarlyworksonplantsandonearthworms.Hisproseisamodelofscientificexposition.
Hisinvestmentsmadehimrich:somuchsothatwhenin1880hedecidedtovisithissonatCambridge,hehiredarailwaycarriagefromBromley,whichwasshunted
roundfromVictoriaStationtoKing'sCrosstoavoidhishavingtochangetrains.SeeTheOriginofSpecies,ed.GillianBeer,1996CharlesDarwin'sLetters:a
Selection18251859,ed.FrederickBurkhardt,forewordbyS.JayGould,1996CharlesDarwinandT.H.Huxley,Autobiographies,ed.SirGavindeBeer,new
edn1997AdrianDesmondandJamesMoore,Darwin,newedn1992(biography)MichaelWhiteandJohnGribbin,Darwin:aLifeinScience,newedn1996
JanetBrowne,CharlesDarwin:aBiography,VolumeOne:Voyaging,newedn1996DanielDennett,Darwin'sDangerousIdea:EvolutionandtheMeaning
ofLife,newedn1996(studyofhisthought).
Daudet,Alphonse(184097)
Frenchnovelist,wasborninNimes,Provence,fromwhichin1849thefamilywasforcedtomovetoLyonsowingtothecollapseofhisfather'ssilkbusiness.Forlack
offundshehadtoleavethelyceat16toworkasanusherataschoolintheCvennes,ahatefultaskwhichheabandonedin1857andwenttoParistoseekthe
financialsupportofhisjournalistbrotherErnest(18371921).Hisbookofverse,LesAmoureuses(1858),wasadmiredbythewifeofNapoleonIII,whosehalf
brother,theDucdeMorny(181165),tookhimonasasecretary.Hewasnowabletopursuehisliteraryambitions,whichwerefirstdirectedtowardsthestage,for
whichhewrotefiveunsuccessfulplays,andalsotofollowhisinstincts(accordingtoErnest)'toentereverylowhauntofBohemia',wherehecaughtsyphilis,whichin
theformoflocomotorataxiaultimatelykilledhim.In1866hisProvencalsketchesbegantoappearinL'vnement,thefirstfive,underthepseudonymofMarie
Gaston,beingwrittenwithPaulArne(184396).In1867hemarriedJuliaAllard(18451940),herselfaminorpoet,whomhetooktoProvence'toshowhermy
windmill'.HenowbeganasecondseriesofLettresdeMonMoulininLeFigaro,thewholecollectionbeingpublishedinvolumeformin1869(tr.MaryCareyas
LettersfromMyMill,1880tr.FrederickDavies,1978).TheridiculousprotagonistofLesAventuresProdigieusesdeTartarindeTarascon(1872tr.C.Roland
asTheNewDonQuixote...,1875)anditssequelsepitomizesthetraditionaltemperamentofsouthernFrance.Thedichotomybetweensouthandnorth,whichisthe
essenceofhiswork,ishighlightedinthenovelaboutapolitician,NumaRoumestan(1880tr.MrsGranvilleLayard,1884),whichHENRYJAMEScalled'amasterpiece.
..reallyaperfectwork'.Daudetwasbythenthemostsuccessfulwriterofhisday,butfrom1882,whenhehadtorelyonafulltimesecretary,hewasincontinuous
andintensepain,andatHUGO'Sfuneralin1885hewasalreadyunabletosignhisname.
Davenant(orD'avenant),(Sir)William(160668)
Englishdramatistandpoet,wasbornandwenttoschoolinOxford.Hisfatherwasawellrespectedinnkeeper,andtheboywassaidtobeSHAKESPEARE'Sgodson
(AUBREYsuggestshemayhavebeenhisson).Hebecameapage,firsttotheDuchessofRichmond(d.1639)andthentoGREVILLE.Hemarried,forthefirsttime,in
1624,becameahangeronatcourt,wrotetwogruesomedramasTheTragedyofAlbovine,KingoftheLombards(printed1629)andTheCruellBrother
(1630)andcaughtaterribledoseofsyphilisfromawhoreinAxeYard,Westminster,asaresultofwhichhelostmuchofhisnose,totheendlessamusementofthe
humoristsofthetime.TheWitts,acomedy,wasperformedin1633,andhisfirstcourtmasquein1635.ThepublicationofMadagascar,WithOtherPoems(1638),
whichinspiredacongratulatorypoembyhisfriendSUCKLINC,wasinstrumentalinhisappointmentlaterthatyeartosucceedJONSONasofficiallaureate.Hewasactivein
theroyalistcause,beingknightedin1643,andspentmuchofthelatterpartofthedecadeinParis.Herehebeganhislong(andultimatelyunfinished)poem,
Gondiberttheappearancein1651ofthefirsttwopartswasprecededbythepublicationofhiscriticalessayonheroicpoetry,ADiscourseonGondibert(1650),
andofan'Answer'byHOBBES.In1650,whileenroutetoMarylandonamissionfortheexiledroyalfamily,hewascapturedbytheParliamentaryforcesandonly
escapedthedeathpenalty,itissaid,ontheinterventionofMILTON.HewasinsteadimprisonedintheTowerofLondon,releasedin1652,andpardonedin1654.He
wastheonlypersonduringtheCommonwealthregimetobeauthorizedtopresenttheatricalentertainments,whichhewasprobablyabletoarrangebyclaimingthat
theyweremusicalperformances.HepresentedhisownTheSiegeofRhodes(1656),whichmarkedtheinaugurationofthetraditionofEnglishoperaandofthe
regularuseofscenery,andthefirstappearanceofEnglishactressesonthedramaticstage.Atthe

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RestorationoftheMonarchyin1660,hereceivedfromCharlesIIoneofthetwopatentstoestablishtheatricalcompanies,whichenabledhimtopresentseveralofhis
ownmusicaladaptationsofShakespeare.
Davidson,Donald
seeDICKEYRANSOMSPENCER.
Davidson,John(18571909)
Scottishpoet,dramatist,novelist,andjournalist,wasborninBarrhead,Renfrewshire,thesonofaministeroftheEvangelicalUnion,againstwhoseCalvinistic
principleshereactedstrongly'ABalladinBlankVerseoftheMakingofaPoet'isregardedasautobiographical.HewaseducatedattheHighlanders'Academy,
Greenock,whichheleftat13toworkinalaboratory.Hereturnedthereasapupilteacherforfouryears,afterwhichhespentayearatEdinburghUniversity.
Between1878and1889hetaughtunenthusiasticallyatasuccessionofreputableschools.Then,havinghadfourplaysandanovelTheNorthWall(1885)
publishedinScotland,hesetoutforLondon,withhispregnantwifeandinfantson,toearnalivingasawriter.Hebecameappreciatedbythecriticsandhisliterary
friendsforhiscontemporaryurbanpoems(T.S.ELIOT[18881965]regarded'ThirtyBobaWeek'asa'greatpoem'whichwasusefultohiminhisdevelopmentasa
poet)andhistopographical,narrative,andlyricalverses,variouslypublishedinInaMusicHallandOtherPoems(1891),FleetStreetEclogues(1893),Ballads&
Songs(1894),andothervolumes,butwasignoredbythepublic.
Thoughhealsodidsomejournalismandotherhackwork,hisincomewassolowthathewouldhavebeeninfinancialdistressevenifhehadnotalsotosendmoneyto
hismotherandsisterinEdinburgh,andtosupportabrotherwhowascertifiedinsane.Hisangryprideanduncertaintemperamentsurfaceparticularlyinhisseriesof
blankverse'Testaments',notableonlyforhisattempttoexpresspoeticallyscientificideasandlanguage.ContributionsbytheRoyalLiteraryFundandaCivilList
pensiongavesomerelief,buthisselfesteemwasfurtherdamagedbyawellmeantgesturebyG.B.SHAW,whogavehim250asexpensesandencouragedhimtowrite
aplaywhichwouldprojecthispersonalphilosophy.Nothingperformableemerged.InMarch1909DavidsonleftthehouseinPenzancetowhichhehadrecently
moved,topostamanuscripttohispublisher.Themanuscriptarrivedatitsdestination:Davidson'sdecomposedbodywasfishedoutoftheseasixmonthslater.Inhis
willhedirected,'Nooneistowritemylifenoworatanytime.'SeeThePoemsofJohnDavidson,ed.AndrewTurnbull,2vols197273SelectedPoemsand
Prose,ed.JohnSloan,1995JohnSloan,JohnDavidson:FirstoftheModerns,1995(criticalbiography)MaryO'Connor,JohnDavidson,1987
(biographical/criticalstudy)J.BenjaminTownsend,JohnDavidson:PoetofArmageddon,1961(criticalstudy).
Davies,(William)Robertson(191395)
Canadiannovelist,dramatist,critic,andjournalist,wasborninThamesville,Ontario,thesonofanewspapermagnateofmodestmeansbutconsiderableability,and
undertookhisfirstjournalisticassignmentattheageof11,forwhichhisfatherpaidhim25cents.ThefamilymovedtoRenfrewandthenKingston,andhewas
educatedatUpperCanadaCollege,Toronto,Queen'sUniversity,Kingston,andBalliolCollege,Oxford,wherehemadeanimpactasastagemanagerandactor,
wore(asbefittinghisstatusasamaturestudentof22)pincenezandenormoushats,andwroteasaBLittthesisShakespeare'sBoyActors(1939).Onthestrengthof
hisknowledgeofShakespeare,hegotajobasassistantto(Sir)TyroneGuthrie(190071),AdministratoroftheOldVicTheatre,atwhichhealsoactedandtaughtin
thetheatreschool.
In1940DaviesmarriedaformerOldVicstagemanagerandreturnedtoCanada,andtojournalism.HewasLiteraryEditorofSaturdayNight,Toronto,until1942,
whenhejoinedhisfather'sPeterboroughExaminer,ofwhichhebecamejointowner(withhistwobrothers)andEditorin1946thewittycolumnshewroteas
SamuelMarchbankswerecollectedinthreebooks(1947,1949,1967)andreissuedasThePapersofSamuelMarchbanks(1985).Hewasalsowritingplaysofan
intellectualnature:inoneact,ofwhichthefirsttobestagedwasOverlaid(1947)includedinErosatBreakfastandOtherPlays(1949)seealsoFortuneMy
FoeandErosatBreakfast:TwoPlays(1994),andfulllengthdramasseeHuntingStuartandOtherPlays,ed.BrianParker(1972).'Theywereperformed
inCanadabutitmeantverylittle,'hecommentedinaninterviewin1991soheturnedmoreseriouslytofiction.TempestTost(1951),LeavenofMalice(1954),and
AMixtureofFrailties(1958),reissuedasTheSaltertonTrilogy(1986),explorethequirksandmannersoftheinhabitantsofaCanadianuniversitytown.He
himselfassumedacademiclifein1963,whenhebecameMasterofMasseyCollege,TorontoUniversity,wherehealsotaughtEnglishanddramastudies(hewas
madeMasterEmeritusonhisretirementin1981).
Twofurthertrilogiesfollowed:'Idon'tintendtowrite[them]butIgetinterestedinthecharacters.Icouldgofurther,butunlessyou'reMarcelProust,youneedto
knowwhentoputthecorkin.'AmisdirectedsnowballtriggersofftheworldlyandotherworldlyeventswhichinformFifthBusiness

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(1970),TheManticore(1972),whichwontheGovernorGeneral'sAward,andWorldofWonders(1975)TheDeptfordTrilogy(1983).Theacademicworld,
art,mysticism,andareassessmentofthegenderroles(symbolicallyrepresentedbythelegendofArthur)featureinthe'CornishTrilogy':TheRebelAngels(1981),
What'sBredintheBone(1985),andTheLyreofOrpheus(1988).Hesuggestedthatfewauthorsofconsequencediewithoutleavingbehindatleastoneghost
story.ToHighSpirits:aCollectionofGhostStories(1982)headdedMurtherandWalkingSpirits(1991),whosenarratorisbludgeonedtodeathonpageone.
AutobiographicalovertonesenhancetherichnessofmanyofthecharactersinTheCunningMan(1995),hisfinalnovel,inwhichaphysiciancomestoknowhimself
throughrecallingthetheatricalfeaturesoflife.ItwassaidthathiseffortsinhisnovelstopublicizetheexplorationoftheJungian'SearchforSelf',andthoseofsome
criticstogotolengthstofinditthere,obscuredhismasteryofthecomedyandsatirewithwhichheexposedpretentiousnessinmodernsociety.CriticalessaysareinA
VoiceFromtheAttic:EssaysontheArtofReading(rev.edn1990)andTheEnthusiasmsofRobertsonDavies,ed.JudithSkeltonGrant(1979).Hehad
honorarydoctoratesfrom18CanadianandtwoAmericanuniversities,wastwiceshortlistedfortheNobelPrizeforLiterature,andwasmadeCompanion,Orderof
Canada,in1972.SeeJ.MadisonDavis(ed.),ConversationswithRobertsonDavies,1989JudithSkeltonGrant,RobertsonDavies:ManofMyth,newedn
1995.
Davies,W(illiam)H(enry)(18711940)
Britishpoet,wasborninNewport,Monmouthshire,andwasadoptedbyhisgrandparentsafterhisfather'sdeathandmother'sremarriage.Afterleavingschoolhewas
apprenticedtoapictureframer,butat22,withanadvanceof15fromasmallallowancelefthimbyhisgrandmother,hesailedforNewYork.Hespentthenextfew
yearsasanexceptionallymobiletramp,returnedtoBritain,leftagainfortheKlondikegoldfields,lostafootinanaccidentontherailways(hesmokedhispipewhile
waitingforadoctor),hadthelegamputatedtotheknee,andcamebacktoNewport.HeendedupinLondon,wherehepeddledpinsandtrinkets,sanghymnsinthe
street,and,whenhewas34,startedwritingpoetry.TheSoul'sDestroyer,andOtherPoems(1905)wasadmiredbymany,includingG.B.SHAWAND
EDWARDTHOMAS,whofoundDaviesacottageinKentand,withotherfans,paidtherent,heat,andlight.HerehewroteTheAutobiographyofaSuperTramp
(1908).TheCollectedPoems(1928)contained431lyrics,songs,andshortnarrativepoems,comprising'allIcaretoremember,andanumberofothersthatIwould
liketoforget':TheCompletePoems(1963)has749,andincludesthefiftyinLovePoems(1935),celebratinghismarriagein1923toafarmer'sdaughter
considerablyyoungerthanhimself.Hewrotefournovels,ofwhichTheTrueTraveller(1912)andTheAdventuresofJohnnyWalker,Tramp(1926)aresemi
autobiographical.Hispoetryhasanairofartlessinnocence,especiallywhenitevokesthejoysofnature:exemplifiedby'Leisure'('Whatisthislifeif,fullofcare,/We
havenotimetostandandstare...').Thereisasenseofgrimnesselsewhere,amongtheenormousrangeofthemes,manyofwhichreflecthisearlieritinerantexistence.
SeeSelectedPoems,ed.JonathanBarker,newedn1992LaterDays,newedn1985(autobiography)RichardJ.Stonesifer,W.H.Davies:aCriticalBiography,
1963.
Davin,Dan(iel)(191390)
NewZealandnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninInvercargillintoacloselyknitIrishRomanCatholiccommunity.HewaseducatedatMaristBrothers
School,Invercargill,SacredHeartCollege,Auckland,andOtagoUniversity,fromwhichhewonaRhodesScholarshiptoBalliolCollege,Oxford,wherehegotafirst
inGreats.DuringWorldWarIIheservedintheNewZealandDivisioninGreeceandCrete,wherehewaswoundedandthenasastaffofficerwiththerankofmajor
inNorthAfricaandItaly.Hewasthreetimesmentionedindispatches,andmadeMBEin1945.AfterthewarhejoinedthestaffofthescholarlywingofOxford
UniversityPress,ofwhichhewasDeputySecretarytotheDelegates197078,andAcademicPublisher197478.HewaselectedaFellowofBalliolin1965.In
1939hehadprojectedasequenceofnovelseachlinkedwithhisSouthlandbackground.BeginningwithCliffsofFall(1945),andcontinuingwithFortheRestof
OurLives(1947rev.edn1965),anotablenarrativeofthefightingintheMiddleEastinWorldWarII,andfurthertitles,itconcludes,accordingtohim,withNot
Here,NotNow(1970).BridesofPrice(1972)isasophisticateddepartureintocontemporarycomedy.SelectedStories(1981)drawsontwoearliervolumesThe
SalamanderandtheFire(1987)bringstogetherallhispublishedstoriesofthewar,withsomenewones.Crete(1953),hisofficialNewZealandwarhistory,has
beenadmiredbyliterarycriticsaswellasbyhistorians.HealsowroteKatherineMansfieldinHerLetters(1959)and(withW.K.Davin)WritinginNew
Zealand:theNewZealandNovel(2vols1956),andeditedseveralanthologies,includingShortStoriesfromtheSecondWorldWar(1982).HewasmadeCBE
in1987.SeeClosingTimes,reissued1986(memoirs)KeithOvenden,AFightingWithdrawal:theLifeofDanDavinWriter,Soldier,Publisher,1996James
Bertram,DanDavin,1973(criticalstudy).

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Daviot,Gordon
seeMACKINTOSH.
Davis,ArthurHoey.
seeRUDD.
Davis,RebeccaHarding(18311910)
neHarding,Americannovelist,wasborninWashington,Pennsylvania,towhichshereturnedfromWheeling,WestVirginia,at14tolivewithanauntandgotothe
femaleseminary.In1861AtlanticMonthlyprintedherfirststory,anonymously(bycustomandatherrequest)andunaltered,exceptinrespectofthemoresaleable
titleof'LifeintheIronMills'.BasedonconditionsinWheeling,itwasrevolutionaryinitsuncompromisingexposoftheundersideofindustrialdevelopment.Herfirst
novel,MargaretHowth(1862),whichbeganastheserial'AStoryofToday',hasasimilarbackgroundandaromanticplot.In1863shemarriedL.ClarkeDavis
(18271904),aPhiladelphialawyerwithaconnectionwiththedownmarketPeterson'sMagazine,whomshehadagreedtomeetafterhehadsentherafanletter.
ThoughshewasundercontracttoAtlanticMonthly,hepersuadedhertowriteforPeterson's,withtheresultthathersubsequentseriousfictionwasessentially
confinedtotheflawedWaitingfortheVerdict(1868),apreviewofpostslaveryproblems,andJohnAndross(1874),astudyofpoliticalcorruption.Herliterary
reputationwasalsosomewhatunfairlyeclipsedbythatofherson,RichardHardingDavis(18641916),atalentedjournalist,andpublicist,wholedaglamorouslife
andwrotepopularnovelswhichmatchedtheflamboyanceofhiswardrobeaswellasofhisexploits.SeeARebeccaHardingDavisReader:LifeintheIronMills,
SelectedFictionandEssays,ed.JeanPfaelzer,1995.
Davison,FrankDalby(18931970)
Australiannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasbornFrederickDouglasDavisoninGlenferrie,Victoria,butchosethealternativefirstnamesin1931todistinguishhim
fromhisfather,Fred(erick)Davison(18681942),editorandpublisher.AftersomeyearsabroadandservicewiththeBritishcavalryinFranceduringWorldWarI,
hespentfouryearstryingtoestablishasoldiersettlementfarmnearInjune,Queensland.Theterrainwasthebackgroundofhisfirstnovel,ManShy,ataleofawild
redheifer,whichhisfatherserializedinAustralia(192325),andthenprintedandboundin1931inarudimentaryform,inwhichitwontheAustralianLiterary
Society'sGoldMedal.OthernovelsincludeTheWellsofBeersheba(1933),ashortbutepicaccountofthechargeoftheAustralianLightHorseinPalestinein1917,
andDusty(1946),aboutadogwhosemixedbreedingresultsindividedinstincts.Henowembarkedon'the[novel]IhadbeenwantingtowritesinceIwasayoung
fellow'.TheWhiteThorntreeappeared22yearslater,in1968,initiallyinalimitededitionof500copies.Long,andoftentedious,itisadeepstudyofsexualityin
whichnoneoftheprotagonistsappeartohavemuchfun.TheRoadtoYesterday(1964)isacollectionofhisshorterfiction,ofwhichtheanimalandbushstoriesin
particularhaveconsiderablemerit.HewasmadeMBEforservicestoliterature.
DayLewis,Cecil
seeLEWIS,C.DAY.
Defoe,Daniel(16601731)
Britishjournalistandnovelist,wasbornFoe(headdedthe'De'inabout1703)inCripplegate,London,thesonofaNonconformistbutcher,andwaseducatedasa
DissenteratStokeNewingtonAcademy.Hemarriedin1684,playedapartin1685intherebellionoftheDukeofMonmouth(164985),wentintobusinessasa
hosieryagent,andwasmadebankruptin1692.AnEssayuponProjects(1697),writtenshortlyafterthisexperience,containssoundeconomical,social,and
educationalproposals,andplaceshimamongtheforwardthinkersoftheday.Manypoliticalpamphletsfollowed,someinverse,includingthepopularsatire,The
TrueBornEnglishman(1701).TheShortestWaywiththeDissenters(1702),however,anironicattackonthe'highflyers'intheChurch,misfiredandawarrant
wasissuedforhisarrest.Afterfourmonthsinhiding,hewastaken,tried,andsentencedtoprisonindefinitely,aheavyfine,andthreeconsecutivedaysinthepillory.
Thelastpartoftheordealwaseasedbythecrowdsinsteadofhurlingbricksandordure,theygarlandedthescaffoldwithflowers,dranktheprisoner'shealth,and
boughtcopiesof'HymntothePillory',whichhehadcourageouslycomposedfortheoccasion.ThoughhewasreleasedfromNewgateafterfivemonths,andhisfine
waspaidbytheCrown,hehadlosthisdecorativerooftilebusiness,hewasbankruptagain,andhehadawifeandsixchildrentosupport.Henowrespondedtoan
approachfromRobertHarley(16611724),SecretaryofStateandlaterToryheadoftheGovernment,toactasasecretnegotiatorinvariousploysofstate,andalso
toproduceajournal,entirelywrittenbyhimself,AWeeklyReviewoftheAffairsofFrance,PurgedfromtheErrorsandPartialityofNewsWritersandPetty
StatesmenofAllSides(moreoftenandlaterknownsimplyastheReview),whichfrom1704to1713cameoutthreetimesaweek.Thiswasallthemore
extraordinaryajournalisticfeatinthathewasalsoactive,andoftenaway,onhisotherbusiness(whichincludedarrangementsfortheunionoftheScottishandEnglish
parliaments),andthathiscommentsonthevariousissuesofthewarwereinvariablyshrewd.Thoughdefactohewasnolongerpoliticallyuntaintedandinparticular
hadtosubmergehisWhigprinciples,hewasusingtheexperiencetoforgeavividandpopularprosestyle,

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whichhewasabletoemploytoadvantageandsustaininlongerworks,whilestillcontinuingtotheendofhislifeindefatigablytowritepolitical,topical,and
instructionaltracts.
ThefirstmanifestationofDefoethenovelistwasthemoraladventurestory,TheLifeandStrangeSurprisingAdventuresofRobinsonCrusoe,ofYork,Mariner
(1719),followedthesameyearbyTheFartherAdventuresofRobinsonCrusoe,andin1720bySeriousReflectionsDuringtheLifeandSurprisingAdventures
ofRobinsonCrusoeallinspiredbytheexperiencesoftheScottishseaman,AlexanderSelkirk(16761721).Thegenreofthedesertislandstoryhadnowbeen
created.Encouragedbyhissuccess,Defoepublishedtwofurthernovelsofaction,knownbytheirshorttitlesofMemoirsofaCavalier(1720)andCaptain
Singleton(1720),andthenhissecondmasterpiece,TheFortunesandMisfortunesoftheFamousMollFlanders(1722).Thelengthy,titillating,andoften
reproducedsubtitleofthisromancetendstoobscurethefactthatthisfirstpersonnarrativeofastreetwiseadventuress,inthewordsofProfessorBonamyDobrein
EnglishLiteratureintheEarlyEighteenthCentury17001740(1959),'marksthebirthofthemodernnovel,if...thepeculiarmarkofthenovelasanartform
distinctfromotherliteraryformsisthatitshowstheinterplayoftheindividualandsociety'.AJournalofthePlagueYear(1722)beganasapieceofopportunist
journalismintheformofapamphletwarningthepublicofthedangersoftheplague,whichwasraginginMarseilles.Itbecameareconstructionoftheactualepidemic
inLondonin1665,graphicallyanddramaticallytoldasifbyaneyewitness.
Defoe'spowersofobservationaswellasofdescriptiveprose,andhisenergy,arealsodemonstratedinATourthro'theWholeIslandofGreatBritain(172427).
Whiletheoriginalnotesforthisessentialsourcebookofgeographyandsocialandeconomichistoryweremadeyearsbefore,heundertookseveralvisitstoScotland
between1724and1726tocheckhisoriginalimpressions,andhemakessomepropheticaswellasperceptivecomments.SeePaulaBackscheider,DanielDefoe:
HisLife,newedn1992IanBell,Defoe'sFiction,1985.
DeGraft,Joe[Joseph](192478)
Ghanaiandramatistandpoet,wasborninCapeCoastandeducatedatAchimotaSchoolandtheUniversityCollegeoftheGoldCoast,wherehewasoneofthefirst
totakeanhonoursdegreeinEnglish.HeestablishedadramaprogrammeatKumasiUniversityofScienceandTechnology,andwasin1961secondedtobeDirector
oftheGhanaDramaStudio.SubsequentlyhedevelopeddiplomacoursesindramaandtheatrestudiesattheuniversitiesofGhanaandNairobi,wherehewas
rememberedalsoforhisnotablestageandtelevisionperformanceinthenameroleofSHAKESPEARE'SOthello.HisfirstplaywasproducedinAccrain1962asVisitor
fromthePast.PublishedinarefinedformasThroughaFilmDarkly(1970),itisastudyofracialattitudes,withastrongsituationand,almostinevitably,aviolent
conclusion.ThemainconflictinSonsandDaughters(1964)isthedifferingperceptionsbyyoungandoldofthepurposeofeducation.Thepoemsinthecollection
BeneaththeJazzandBrass(1975)areinavarietyofmoods,fromthegrimpoliticalawarenessof'TheRockBehindtheFort'and'Deaths:SeventeenAprilNineteen
SixtySeven',totheamusingironyof'UnAfricanBreakfast',andthesocialsatireof'PlatinumLou'.
Deighton,Len(b.1929)
Britishnovelist,wasborninLondonandeducatedthereatMaryleboneGrammarSchool,StMartin'sSchoolofArt,andtheRoyalCollegeofArt.Hehadhada
rangeofsemiskilledandcreativejobs,andwascontributingaregularseriesofcookerycomicstripstotheObserverseeActionCookBook:LenDeighton's
GuidetoEating(1965)whenheburstontotheliteraryscenewithTheIpcressFile(1963),aColdWarspythrillerwhichwasdrylywitty,aswellastoughand
refreshinglyunromantic(itappearedinthesameyearasLECARR'Sfirstspynovel).Whilealsousinghisintricatebackgroundknowledgetoeffectinnovelsaboutthe
warintheairseeBomber(1970)andGoodbyeMickeyMouse(1982)hismainpreoccupationhasbeenthedissectionofthetwilightworldofespionage,most
elaboratelyinthetrilogyBerlinGame(1983),MexicoSet(1984),andLondonMatch(1985),withitsultimateunmaskingofthe(female)traitor.Theensuing
fortunesofthemaincharactersarefollowedinasecondtrilogy,theclimaxofthethirdbook,SpySinker(1990),beingthecollapseoftheGermanDemocratic
RepublicandthepullingdownoftheBerlinWallasaresultoftheinfiltrationofaWesternagent,whoseidentityturnstheapparentoutcomesofbothtrilogiesupside
down.HerevertedtoWorldWarIIinCityofGold(1992),adesertthrillerwithaclassicopening.AfurtherspytrilogybeganwithFaith(1994)andcontinuedwith
Hope(1995)andCharity(1996).Blood,FollyandTears(1993)isacritiqueoftheconductofWorldWarI,inwhichhisfatherfought,andWorldWarII.
Dekker,EduardDouwes
seeMULTATULI.
Dekker,Thomas(15721632)
Englishdramatistandprosewriter,wasaLondonerprobablyofDutchorigin,whoselifewaspunctuatedbyprisonsentencesfordebt.Hecollaboratedvariouslywith
JOHNFORD,MASSINGER,MIDDLETON,andWEBSTERtowriteatotalofsomesixtyplays,ofwhich17survive.

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HeappearsinridiculousguiseinJONSON'SplayThePoetaster,towhichheretaliatedwithSatiroMastix,ortheUntrussingoftheHumorousPoet(1602).Thefirst
twoplaysunderDekker'ssingleauthorship(bothperformedin1599)wereOldFortunatus,apleasantpoeticalpiece,andTheShoemaker'sHoliday,asound,
realisticcomedywhoseaimispurelytoentertain.Thelatterhassomeexcellentscenes,carefullystudiedcharacters(snobbishdignitaries,loyalcraftsmen,starcrossed
lovers),stockdeceptions,andneatcomparisonsandcontrasts,withracydialogueandcleverrhymingexchanges.Theonlyotherplayknowntobeentirelyhisown
workisthesecondpartofTheHonestWhore(1630),anunevenItalianatedramaofmoralityandsocialclass.DekkerwasachroniclerofLondonlifeatalllevels.
TheWonderfullYeare(1603)wasthefirstofaseriesofpamphletsinwhichbusyportraitsofLondonprovideabackgroundtosocialcommentandthegrimmestof
reportsoftheplagueseeThePlaguePamphlets,ed.F.P.Wilson(1925).TheGull'sHornbook(1609)isasatiricalvademecumaddressedtotheruralgallanton
howtodisporthimselfmostdestructivelyinthecity.SeeDramaticWorks,ed.FredsonBowers,195361JuliaGasper,TheDragonandtheDove:thePlaysof
ThomasDekker,1990.
DeLaMare,Walter(18731956)
Britishpoet,novelist,children'swriter,andcritic,wasborninCharlton,Kent,thesixthchildofaBankofEnglandofficial,andwaseducatedatStPaul'sCathedral
Choristers'School.At16hejoinedtheAngloAmericanOilCompany,forwhichheworkeduntil1908,whenNEWBOLT,thenLiteraryEditoroftheMonthlyReview,
obtainedforhimaCivilListgrantof200.Hisfirstbook,writtenasWalterRamalandpropheticallyentitledSongsofChildhood(1902),wasfollowedbyaliterary
fantasy,HenryBrocken(1904),byTheReturn(1910),astunningnovelofpossession,andbyhisfirstbooksforchildren,TheThreeMullaMulgars(1910)and
PeacockPie:aBookofRhymes(1913).Thebasisofallhissubsequentworkhadnowbeenrealized,buthispopularsuccessbeganonlywithTheListeners,and
OtherPoems(1912)itwasconfirmedbyMemoirsofaMidget(1921),aclassicincursionintomicroscopicfantasy.ComeHither:aCollectionofRhymesand
PoemsfortheYoungofAllAges(1923),arrangedthematicallyandwithadditionalmaterialbywayofcommentaryandparallels,possiblystillisthemost
inspirationalanthologyforchildren.MostofdelaMare'sworkhasundertonesofsadness,mystery,anddanger,especiallywherethereisaconfrontationwithor
absorptionintotheotherworld.Hisholdonreality,combinedwithhisattentiontodetailandtoprecisionoflanguageand,inhispoetry,withcommandofrhythmand
rhyme,hasensuredhisappealtothechildintheadultaswellastotheadultinthechild.PleasuresandSpeculations(1940)containsessaysonTENNYSONandRUPERT
BROOKE.HewasmadeCHin1948andawardedtheOMin1953.SeeCollectedPoems,newedn1979ShortStories,3vols1996TheresaWhistler,Imagination
oftheHeart:theLifeofWalterdelaMare,newedn1995(biography)LeonardClark,WalterdelaMare,1960(onhiswritingforchildren).
DeLaRame,MarieLouise
seeOUIDA.
DeLaRoche,Mazo(18791961)
Canadiannovelist,wasbornMaisieRocheinNewmarket,Ontario,ofIrishparentage.ShewaseducatedatParkdaleCollege,Toronto,andspentsomeofherearlier
yearsinruralsurroundings.Herdevotedcompanion(andsecretary)washercousinandadoptivesister,CarolynClement,withwhomsheadoptedtwochildren.They
livedinEnglandinWindsorduringthe1930s,returningpermanentlytoTorontoin1939.Astrugglingjournalistformanyyears,delaRochepublishedabookof
unremarkablestories,ExplorersoftheDawn(1922),followedbytwonovelsinwhichrealismandcharacterizationintrudeuponsentimentality,andthenbyJalna
(1927).Thiscolourful1920s'romanceoftherurallygentrified,EnglishcolonialWhiteoaksfamilywonthefirstAtlanticMonthlyLittleBrownprizeof$10,000.More
significantly,itensuredbyitsliteraryaswellaspopularsuccessamarketfor15sequels,sixofwhichprecedetheeventsdescribedinJalna.RingingtheChanges:
anAutobiography(1957)isdeficientinitsexpositionofhercreativeprocessandmisleadinginrespectofsomeofthefacts,includingherage.SeeJoanGivner,Mazo
delaRoche:theHiddenLife,1989.
Deledda,Grazia(18721936)
Italiannovelist,wasbornintheSardinianmountainvillageofNuoro,theeldestofsevenchildrenofanattorneyandhisilliteratewife.Sheattendedthelocalelementary
schooluntilshewasten,afterwhichshehadsomeprivatetuitioninFrenchandItalian,andreadRussianfictionintranslationandFrenchnovelists.Shehadastory
printedinaRomefashionmagazinewhenshewas15,andin1892shepublishedthefirstofaconsiderablecanonofnovelsaboutSardinianlife.Onherfather'sdeath
shemanagedthefamilywinery,whichshehandedovertoabrotheraftergettinganunexpectedlylargesumofmoneyfromtheFrenchtranslationofhersecondnovel.
Onavisittothecapital,Cagliari,in1899toseetheeditorofajournaltowhichshecontributed,shemetPalmiroModesani,anofficialintheMinistryofFinance.They
marriedin1900whensheaccompaniedhimtoRome,wherehehadbeenpostedtotheMinistryofWar,itwasherfirsttripoutsidetheisland.InRomesheraised
twochildren,andcontinuedto

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writeaboutthelandandpeopleofSardinia.EliasPortolu(1903tr.MarthaKing,1992),whichshebeganin1900,isoneofseveralofhernovelswhosethemeis
incestCenere(1904tr.HelenHesterColvillasAshes,1908)isaboutayoungmother'ssacrificeforherillegitimatechildinLaMadre(1920tr.MaryG.Steegman
asTheWomanandthePriest,1922)amothersuffersforherson,apriestwhohasfalleninlove.Inallshewrotesome35novelsand18volumesofstories
ChiaroscuroandOtherStories,tr.MarthaKing(1994)wasfirstpublishedin1912,theyearaftershevisitedNuoroforthelasttime.Deleddawasawardedthe
NobelPrizeforLiteraturein1927forher'idealisticallyinspiredwritingswhichwithplasticclaritypicturethelifeonhernativeislandandwithdepthandsympathydeal
withhumanproblemsingeneral'shewasthesecondwoman,afterLAGERLF,towinit,andthesecondItalian.
Deloney,Thomas(?1543c.1600)
balladmakerandprosefictionwriter,wasprobablybornandeducatedinEastAnglia,andisreferredtobyNASHEin1596as'theBallettingSilkeWeaver,of
Norwich'.ThelocalknowledgeofBerkshirewhichhedisplaysinhisnovelssuggeststhatatonetimehewasinvolvedinthesilkindustrythere.Hewascertainlyliving
inLondonin1586,wherehissonwasbaptized,andforthenexttenyearsorsohewasaleading,andnotorious,composeroftopicalballads(theElizabethan
equivalentofthepopularjournalist).TheGarlandofGoodWill,acollectionofhisversesfirstregisteredin1593,islargelycomposedofhistoricalballadsandlyrics
ofaroughandreadynature.StrangeHistories...,featuring'TheDutchesseofSuffolkesCalamitie',ofwhichtheearliestknowneditionisdated1602,comprises
metricalversions,inchronologicalorder,ofseveralofthemoresensationalepisodesinHOLINSHED'SChronicles.Deloneymightwellbetermedtheoriginatorofthe
sponsorednovel:ThePleasantHistorieofJackeofNewburie(registeredin1597)celebratestheweavingindustry,TheGentleCraft(1597),fromwhichDEKKER
tookelementsforTheShoemaker'sHoliday,theshoemakers,andThomasofReading(1600)theclothingtrade.WhencomparedwithotherformsofElizabethan
literature,thesecollectionsoflooselylinkedandsometimesfancifultalesofthebourgeoisiehavelittledistinctionexceptfortheirlivelydialogueandthefactthatthey
providedanobviouslypopularalternativetotheeuphuismsofROBERTGREENE,LYLY,andothers.
DeMille,James(183380)
Canadiannovelist,wasborninStJohn,NewBrunswick,andeducatedatHortonAcademyandAcadiaCollege,Wolfville.AfteratourofEuropewithhisbrother,he
wenttoBrownUniversity,RhodeIsland,afterwhichheopenedabookshopinStJohn,whichdidnotsurvivelong.In1859hemarriedthedaughterofthefirst
PresidentofAcadiaCollege,wherehetaughtclassicsfrom1860to1864,whenhewentasaprofessorofEnglishandhistorytoDalhousieUniversity.Hewasa
prolificnovelistwhoseacademicliteraryinsightenabledhimtoproduce,orparody,populargenresatwill,andtoindulgeinlinguisticjokes.Hisfirstrealsuccesswas
TheDodgeClub:or,ItalyinMDCCCLIX(1869),sketchesoftravelwiseAmericantourists.Hewrote,too,aseriesof'BrethrenoftheWhiteCross'archetypal
Canadianholidayadventuresforboys.Hismostingeniousstory,AStrangeManuscriptFoundinaCopperCylinder(1888),waspublishedposthumouslyandalso,
toavoidlossofcopyright,anonymously.Adystopiannovelwithinanovel,aformwhichenabledhimtosatirizethevacuousacademicdiscussionsamongtheparty
whichpicksupthemanuscriptatsea,itdescribestheadventuresofaseamanamongtheKosekinofAntarctica,whomDeMillesupplieswithacompletevocabulary
aswellaswithaculture.
Demosthenes(383322BC)
Athenianoratorandstatesman,thesonofawealthyarmsdealer,wasorphanedwhenhewasseven.In363,havingcomeofageandbeencheatedbyhisguardians,
heprosecutedthem,andgottheverdict,thoughnotthemoney.Determinednowonacareerasaforensicandpoliticalspeaker,heimprovedhisdictionand
presentationbystringenttraining,andthestyleofhisoratorybyassiduousstudy.Ofthesixtyorationsthatsurvive,his'Philippics'andotherspeechesagainstthe
aggressivepolicyofPhilipofMacedonarethemosteloquentandsignificant.Ofthese,nonewasmoreeffectivethan'OntheCrown',deliveredin330inresponsetoa
viciouspersonalattackonhiscredibilityasanationalhero,forwhichithadbeenproposedthathebepubliclyawardedagoldencrown.Demostheneswasimprisoned
in325forwhatwasprobablynomorethangrossnegligenceinthecaseofthepleabytheMacedonianroyaltreasurerforasylumandforbackingagainsthisformer
ruler.Heescapedintoexile,toreturninshortlivedtriumphonthedeathofAlexander(theGreat)in323.AfterthedefeatoftheGreekconfederacy,hewasforhis
earlierpoliticalactivitydeclaredanenemyofMacedoniabythenewruler,whoseagentspursuedhimtoatempleintheislandofCalauria,wherehetookpoison.
Denham,(Sir)John(161569)
Englishpoet,wasborninDublin,hisfatherbeingatthetimeChiefBaronoftheExchequerinIreland.Afterthreeyears(whichheissaidtohavespentdreamingand
gaming)atTrinityCollege,Oxford,heenteredLincoln'sInnin1634.Heallayedhisfamily'shorrorathisgamblingbywritingandprintinganessay

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decryingthehabit,byattendingtohisstudies(hewascalledtotheBarin1639),andbytranslatingintorhymingcoupletsthesecondbookofVIRGIL'SAeneid.Afterhis
father'sdeathin1638hereturnedtothegamingtablesandlostallthecash,andplate,whichhehadinherited.TheSophy(1642),aversetragedyinwhichafather
orderstheblindingofhisson,whotakesrevengebymurderinghisowndaughter,onwhomhisfatherdoted,earnedhimsomenotoriety.CoopersHill(1642first
authorizededn1655),bycontrast,ifnot,asJOHNSONcontends,theoriginalexampleinEnglishof'localpoetry,ofwhichthefundamentalsubjectissomeparticular
landscape',isregardedasthefirstinwhichphilosophicalspeculationisinspiredbylookingattheview.
ForatimeatthebeginningoftheCivilWarDenhamwasHighSheriffofSurreyandGovernorofFarnhamCastle,andafterbeingdeprivedofsomeofhispropertyby
ParliamenthecontinuedtosupporttheroyalcauseinFranceandEngland.AttheRestorationoftheMonarchyin1660hewasappointedSurveyorofWorkshewas
knightedafterthecoronationofCharlesIIin1661forhiscontributiontotheorganizationoftheoccasion.HewaselectedMemberofParliamentforOldSarumin
1661,andtotheRoyalSocietyin1663.In1665hemarried,ashissecondwife,the18yearoldMargaretBrooke,whomPEPYSrecordsthefollowingyearasbeing
themistressoftheDukeofYork(laterJamesII).ShediedinJanuary1667,itissaidfromeatingpoisonedchocolates.AtaboutthistimeDenhamexhibitedsymptoms
ofinsanity,fromwhichherecoveredenoughtowriteanelegypraisingtheoriginalityofthedeceasedCOWLEY,besidewhomhewasburiedinWestminsterAbbeytwo
yearslater.PoemsandTranslationswaspublishedin1668.DRYDENacknowledgedhisinfluenceasapoet,andJohnsonconcluded:'Heisoneofthewritersthat
improvedourtaste,andadvancedourlanguage,andwhomweoughtthereforetoreadwithgratitude,though,havingdonemuch,heleftmuchtodo.'
DeQuincey,Thomas(17851859)
Britishprosewriterandcritic,wasborninManchester,thesonofaprosperousmerchant,whodiedwhentheboywasseven.HewaseducatedintheWestCountry
beforebeingsentin1801toManchesterGrammarSchool,fromwhichhepromptlyranaway.Withasmallallowancefromhismother,hewanderedinWales,and
whenthemoneywasexhausted,endedupinLondon,subsistingoncharity.In1803hisguardiansenteredhimforWorcesterCollege,Oxford,whereheremained
intermittentlyforfiveyears,butleftwithoutadegree,havingfeltunabletofacehisfinalviva.In1804awellmeaningacquaintanceprescribedopiumforatoothache:
by1813hewasanaddict.InthemeantimehehadcomeintohisinheritanceandsettledintheLakeDistrict.In1817hemarriedalocalfarmer'sdaughter,bywhomhe
hadeightchildrenin1821,toearnaliving,heturnedhistalentsandwideintereststowriting.ConfessionsofanEnglishOpiumEater,signed'X.Y.Z.',appearedin
theLondonMagazineintwopartsin1821,andthereafterhecontributedarticlestovariousjournals,especiallyBlackwood'sEdinburghMagazine.Heandhis
familymovedtoEdinburghin1830.Unabletoworkexceptinsolitude,whenhiswifediedin1837hetookacottageinneighbouringLasswade,wherehesettledthe
children,whilehelivedinlodgingsinthecity.Whentheplacegotsosnowedupwithpapersthathehadnoroomtomove,helockedthedoorandsetupelsewhere
onhisdeathhewaspayingrentonsixsetsoflodgings.LaterworksinwhichthematerialsofhiswakingdreamsaresuperimposedonautobiographyareSuspiriade
Profundis(1845)andTheEnglishMailCoach(1849)thelatterincludes'TheVisionofSuddenDeath'and'DreamFugue',inwhichtherearepassagesofparticular
graphicandpoeticpower.Hisinterestinthepsychologyofcrime,onwhichheusedtocompilereportsfortheWestmorelandGazette,inspiredthepenetratingcritical
essay,'OntheKnockingattheGateinMacbeth',andthethreepartsof'OnMurderConsideredasaFineArt'(1827,1839,1854),ofwhichthefirsttwoarea
brilliantblendofparodyandblackcomedy.SeeTheConfessionsofanOpiumEater:andOtherWritings,ed.GrevelLindop,1985GrevelLindop,TheOpium
Eater,newedn1993(criticalbiography).
Desai,Anita(b.1937)
neMazumdar,Indiannovelist,wasborninMussoorieofaBengalifatherandaGermanmother,andwaseducatedatQueenMary'sHigherSecondarySchooland
DelhiUniversity.Shemarriedin1958,theyearaftershegraduatedinEnglishliterature,andhashadfourchildren.HerfirstnovelwasCrythePeacock(1963).An
accomplishedstylist,sheisconcernedwithanalysingtheIndiancharacterinthecontextofthecurrentIndiansituation.InFireontheMountain(1977),whichwona
clutchofawards,thefailureofdifferentgenerationstounderstandeachotherleadstoadisaster.InClearLightofDay(1980)aDelhifamilycomestotermswithits
past,andforsomeofitsmembersthereisanescape.InCustody(1984)isastudyofacountrytown,andoftheinsecurityofatemporarycollegelecturerwhose
preoccupationwithUrdupoetryleadstohismanipulationbytheunscrupulous.InBaumgartner'sBombay(1988)Desaigivesreintotheexpressionofherowndual
culturalheritagewhichcamethroughherparents.JourneytoIthaca(1995)centresonaquesttodiscoverthebackgroundofaneasternmystic.InGamesat
TwilightandOtherStories(1978)sherunsthroughherelegant

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repertoireofhumour,perception,andpathos.TheVillageoftheSea(1982)wontheGuardianchildren'sfictionaward.SheisamemberofboththeRoyalSociety
ofLiteratureandtheIndianNationalAcademyofLetters.
Descartes,Ren(15961650)
Frenchphilosopherandmathematician,wasborninTouraineofafamilyoflawyersandspenteightyearsattheJesuitcollegeofLaFlche,Anjou,afterwhichhemay
havetakenalawdegreeatPoitiers.In1618heenlistedinBredaasanofficercadetinthearmyoftheDutchPrince,MauriceofNassau(15671625).Thefollowing
yearhesetoutforCopenhagenbyaroundaboutroute,whichtookhiminNovembernearUlm,Bavaria.Here,inaroomheatedbyastove,heclaimedtohavehada
visionofhispartintheelucidationofknowledge,byemployingaunifiedsciencewhichcouldbeappliedtodiscoveriesinanysubject.Inthecourseofhisfurther
researchandcontemplationheformulatedhiscelebratedproposition:Cogitoergosum[Iamthinking,thereforeIam],thecornerstoneofhismetaphysics.He
returnedtoFrancein1622,setoffagainforItalythenextyear,andfinallyinstalledhimselfinParisin1626onlytomoveontoHollandin1629,wherehelivedat
variousaddressesandin1635hadanillegitimatedaughtercalledFrancine,whodiedoffeverwhenshewasfive.In1649,havingfailedtogetapostintheserviceof
LouisXIV,heratherreluctantlyacceptedapressingoffertojointhecourtofQueenChristinaofSweden.Theroutine(shelikedtohavephilosophylessonsat5am)
andthewinterclimateprovedtoomuchforhishealth.HeexpoundedhisCartesianphilosophyinthequasiautobiographicalDiscoursdelaMthode(1637),and
morefullyinMeditationesdePrimaPhilosophia(1641)andPrincipiaPhilosophiae(1644).SeeDiscourseonMethodandMeditationsoftheFirst
Philosophy,tr.JohnVeitch,1989StephenGaukroger,Descartes:anIntellectualBiography,1995TomSorell,Descartes,1987(introductiontohisphilosophy).
DeVere,Aubrey(Thomas)(18141902)
Irishpoet,wasbornatthefamilyseat,CurraghChase,Co.Limerick,thethirdsonofSirAubreydeVere(17881846),aminorpoetwhowroteinthemannerof
WORDSWORTH,andayoungerbrotherofSirStephendeVere(18121904),politicianandtranslatorofHORACE.Hewaseducatedbytutorsathomeforthisandother
periodsofhislifeseeRecollectionsofAubreydeVere(1897)andatTrinityCollege,Dublin.Heraisednoobjectiontohisfather'sproposalthatheshouldtake
ordersintheAnglicanChurch,butinsteadofstudyingtheologyhereadliteratureandphilosophy,andtravelled.InLondonhemetTENNYSON,whospentfive
comfortableandmentallyrecuperativeweeksashisguestatCurraghChasein1848hemetWordsworth,whoseregularguesthebecameatRydalMountandwhose
graveheafterwardsregularlyvisiteduntilhewasinhiseightiesandhemetCOLERIDGE'SdelightfuldaughterSara,withwhomhebecamefirmfriendsandtowhomhe
wrotein1851toexplainhisconversiontoRomanCatholicism.Poetrywasmorethanjustanaturalextensionofhiscultured,leisurely,bachelorexistence,thoughhis
firstpublishedworkwasatreatiseontheIrishsituation,EnglishMisruleandIrishMisdeeds(1848).InMayCarols(1857),writtenatthesuggestionofthePope,he
appliedhistalentforreligiouspoetrytocomposinghymnstotheVirginMaryandthesaints.Inisfail,aLyricalChronicleofIreland(1863)isaprophetictreatment
ofIrishlegendandhistory.TheForayofQueenMaeve(1882)isregardedasthemostimpressiveandinterestingofhisotherpoeticalworks.Healsowroteverse
dramasandliterarycriticism.
Devlin,Denis(190859)
Irishpoet,translator,anddiplomat,wasborninGreenock,Scotland,theeldestchildofnineinawelltodo,culturedfamily,withwhomhereturnedtoIrelandwhen
hewas12.HewaseducatedatBelvedereCollege,Dublin,forayearataseminary,andthen,havingdecidedagainstbecomingapriest,atUniversityCollege,Dublin,
whereheexcelledatlanguagesandheandhisfriend(andliteraryexecutor),BrianCoffey(190595),privatelyprintedaveryslimvolume,Poems(1930).After
furtherstudiesinMunichandParis,hejoinedtheIrishDepartmentofExternalAffairs,forwhichheworkeduntilhisdeathfromleukaemia,holdingamongseveral
poststhatofFirstSecretarytotheLegationinWashington(194047),andMinisterPlenipotentiary(1950)andthenthefirstIrishAmbassador(1958)toItaly.
Intercessions(1937)comprised15poemsthroughwhichshineshisstudyofFrenchwritersfromVILLONtoPaulluard(18951952).Inthetitlepieceinparticularof
LoughDergandOtherPoems(1946)hedemonstrateshisintellectualandpoeticvisionwherebytheresolutionofmodernproblemsmaylieinareligiousresponse.
HewasasmuchaEuropeanasanIrishpoet,whosephilosophicalattitudeandpoeticcraftmayalsobesampledinsuchpoemsas'ThePassionofChrist','Ank'hor
Vat','TheColoursofLove',andinhissequence,'TheHeavenlyForeigner'hisversionsofFrench,German,andItalianpoetryareinTranslationsintoEnglish,ed.
RogerLittle(1992).SeeCollectedPoems,ed.J.C.C.Mays,1989.
DeVries,Peter(191093)
Americannovelist,wasborninChicagoofimmigrantparentswhowerepillarsoftheDutchReformedChurch.HewaseducatedattheChicagoChristianHighSchool
andCalvinCol

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lege,Michigan,wherehebeganmildlytoreactagainsttheinhibitionsofhisupbringingandcuredhisstutterbygoinginforaspeakingcontest.Acandyvending
machineoperatorandaradioactorintheearly1930s,hebecamein1938aneditoroftheinfluentialChicagobasedPoetry:aMagazineofVerse,throughwhichhe
methiswife,whenhewonaprizeinoneofthejournal'scompetitions.ThroughTHURBER,towhomheshowedsomeofhishumorouswriting,hegotajobwiththeNew
Yorker,forwhichheworkedfrom1944to1986,initiallyaspoetryeditorandthenascartooneditor.HesettledinWestport,Connecticut,theethosofwhichis
sharedbyhisfictionalAvalon.Anunashamedlycomicwriter,hisoeuvre,inhisview,beginswiththefarcicalTheTunnelofLove(1954)ratherthanwithanyofthe
threenovelspublishedintheearly1940s.Hisrangealsoincorporatesparody,bothlinguisticTheTentsofWickedness(1979)andthematicSlouching
TowardsKalamazoo(1983)satireTheMackerelPlaza(1958)andsocialcomedyTheValeofLaughter(1967)andsocialcommentTheBloodofthe
Lamb(1962).Aswellasmorethantwentynovels,hepublishedWithoutaStitchinTime:aSelectionoftheBestHumorousShortPieces(1972).
Dickens,Charles(181270)
Britishnovelistandeditor,wasborninLandport,Portsmouth,thesecondofeightchildrenofaNavypayclerk.Hisfather'spostingsandinabilitytomaintainasuitable
styleoflivingforhisfamily,culminatinginhisimprisonmentfordebt,meantthattheboyhad14movesofhomeinasmanyyears,severalmonths'labourinWarren's
BlackingWarehouse,andonlytwoshortperiodsofformaleducation.ThesewereatWilliamGiles'sschoolinChathamwhenhewasnine,andatWellingtonHouse
Academy,Hampstead,from1824to1827,whenhestartedasasolicitor'sclerk.In1829,havinglearnedshorthand,hebecameanewspaperreporter.In1832he
appliedforanauditionatCoventGardenTheatrebutmisseditthroughillness.Heabandonedtheideaofthestagewhenin1833hisfirststory,'ADinneratPoplar
Walk'(laterreprintedas'MrMinnsandhisCousin'),waspublishedintheMonthlyMagazine,followedbyeightmoreinJanuaryFebruary1834.Subsequentseries
ofpseudonymoussketchesappearedinvariousjournals,andwerecollectedandpublishedasSketchesbyBoz(1836)seeDickens'Journalism:SketchesbyBoz
andOtherEarlyPapers18331839,ed.MichaelSlater(1994).ThePosthumousPapersofthePickwickClub,editedby'Boz'(1837)hadbegunserializationin
March1836,afewdaysbeforehismarriagetoCatherineHogarth(181579).AllDickens'snovelswerewrittenandoriginallyappearedasserials,thefirst24
instalmentsofOliverTwist:or,theParishBoy'sProgress(1838)beingpublishedinBentley'sMiscellany,ofwhichhewashimselfEditorfrom1837to1839.In
May1837,thesuddendeath,literallyinhisarms,ofhiswife's17yearoldsisterMary,whohadcometolivewiththecouplesoonaftertheirwedding,proved
particularlytraumatic,andshebecameaperpetualembodimentforhimofyouthandinnocence.Thetragedyalsocausedthesuspensionforamonthofhiswritingof
PickwickandofOliverTwist.Earlyin1838hewenttoYorkshiretoinvestigatereportsofbrutalityinboardingschoolsforunwantedboys.Onhisreturnhebegan
TheLifeandAdventuresofNicholasNickleby(1839),thefirstepisodebeingpublishedon31March1838.
Thisbecametheestablishedpatternofhiscareer:analmostincessantroundofwriting(onlyhaltedbyhisdeathfromacerebralhaemorrhageafterfinishingsix
instalmentsofTheMysteryofEdwinDrood),punctuatedbyfrequentfactfinding,publicity,andfamilyjourneys,andbymiscellaneousliteraryworks.In1842heand
hiswifespentsixmonthsintheUSAwhere,amidthefting,hegaveaddressesoninternationalcopyrightandinspectedconditionsinjails.From1850to1858he
editedHouseholdWords,whereseveralofhisnovelswereserialized,startingwiththesatiricalHardTimes(1854),whichdoubledthejournal'scirculationeven
thoughhisnormalstylehadsufferedbecauseoftheconstrictionsofspace.InDecember1853hegaveapublicreadingofhisworks,forcharity.Thisbecamesucha
welcomediversionforthepublic,andsuchapreoccupationwithhimself,thatin1858hestarteddoingitregularly,forhisownfinancialbenefitthatyearhetoured44
centresinBritain,andin186768adozenAmericancities,inspiteofcontinuousillhealth.Histheatricalbentmanifesteditselfalsoinhisarrangementofand
participationinamateurproductionsatTavistockHouse,hishomeinLondonfrom1851to1860,andatotherplacesinEngland.Foratourin1857heengaged,with
hermotherandsister,theyoungactressEllenTernan(18391914).Hisrelationshipwithherwastheultimatecauseofhisseparationfromhiswifein1858,aftershe
hadbornehimtenchildrenseeClaireTomalin,TheInvisibleWoman:theStoryofNellyTernanandCharlesDickens(rev.edn1991).Whentheproprietorsof
Punch,whoalsohadasubstantialshareinHouseholdWords,refusedtoprintanoticejustifyingtheseparation,heshutdownHouseholdWords,andin1859started
initsplaceAlltheYearRound,whichheediteduntilhisdeath.
Dickenswrotetwohistoricalnovels,BarnabyRudge(1841)andATaleofTwoCities(1859).Therest,excludinghisshorterexcursionsintothesupernatural,
notablyAChristmasCarol(1843),arestoriesofcontemporarylife.TheyrangefromthebroadfunofMrPickwick,thelightercomedysurrounding

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NicholasNickleby,andtheblackhumourofBleakHouse(1853),tothetearjerkingdemiseofNellintheOldCuriosityShop(1841),thedarknessofLittleDorrit
(1857),andthedepthandsuspenseofGreatExpectations(1861).TheperenniallypopularThePersonalHistoryofDavidCopperfield(1850)containselements
fromhisownchildhoodandearlycareer.Essentiallyhewasacomicwriterofgeniusandaremarkablestudentofcharacter,withahighlydevelopedsenseofdrama
andofdramaticspeech,andaperceptionoftheexactimageandmosttellingdescriptivedetail.Hewaslessofasocialreformer(beingtooinconsistentinhis
arguments)thanagreatnovelistwhousedsocialconditionstoenhancehiseffects.SeePeterAckroyd,Dickens,newedn1994(biography)GrahameSmith,Charles
Dickens:aLiteraryLife,1996(biographical/criticalstudy)JohnCarey,TheViolentEffigy:aStudyofDickens'Imagination,newedn1991JohnButtand
KathleenTillotson,DickensatWork,1957(criticalstudy)NicolasBentley,MichaelSlater,andNinaBurgis,TheDickensIndex,newedn1990.
Dickey,James(Lafayette)(b.1923)
Americanpoet,novelist,andcritic,wasbornandbroughtupinasuburbofAtlanta,thesonofanattorneywhosefamilyhadmovedtothecityfromthenorthern
Georgianhills.Tallandstrong,hewasafootballstarathighschoolbutpreferredathleticsseehisessay'NightHurdling'.AfterayearatClemsonCollege,North
Carolina,heenlistedintheairforceandflewmorethanahundredmissionsinthePacific'Myvalueswereformedbytheserviceormilitarylife.'Totherestperiods
heoweshisinitialacquaintancewithmodernpoetrytoliving'withlifeanddeatheverydayandeverynight'canbeattributedhisportrayalasawriterofsurvival,often
inheroiccircumstances.AfterWorldWarIIhegraduatedmagnacurelaudeinEnglishfromVanderbiltUniversity,wherehewastaughtbythepoetcriticDonald
Davidson(18931968).HispoetrywaspublishedinmagazineswhilehewasaninstructorintechnicalEnglishandreportwritingatRiceInstitute,astintinterruptedby
serviceasaflyinginstructorduringtheKoreanWar195152.AfterafurtheryearteachingattheUniversityofFlorida,hewentintoadvertising,'afascinatingand
excitingwaytolive'.Knownas'JingleJim',heworkedontheCocaColaaccountamongothers,andwrotehisfirstbook,IntotheStoneandOtherPoems(1960),
inoddmomentsduringcompanytime.AGuggenheimfellowshipenabledhimtovisitEurope,afterwhichhereturnedtoteaching.Helmets(1964)includedseveral
warpoems:Buckdancer'sChoice(1965)wontheNationalBookAward.Poems19571967(1967),hisfirstmajorcollection,includedtwosignificantnewpoems,
'Falling'and'MayDaySermons',whichhedescribed(1981)as'theonethehallucinatedversionofagirl'sfallfromanairlinerandtheotheranequallyhysterical
improvisationonafolkthemefromnorthGeorgia,bothpoemsofmadness,death,andviolentaffirmation'.HewasConsultantinPoetrytotheLibraryofCongress
196769.
In1968hebecameFirstCarolinaProfessorandPoetinResidenceattheUniversityofSouthCarolina.Deliverance(1970),anovelaboutacanoevoyage(aformof
transportatwhichheisadroit)whichhehasdescribedas'astorywhereundertheconditionsofextremeviolencepeoplefindoutthingsaboutthemselvesthatthey
wouldhavenoothermeansofknowing',hadlaininadrawerforseveralyearsbeforeherevisedandfinishedit.Itwasabestsellerandbecameafilm(1972)for
whichhewrotethescreenplay.Afterthedeathin1976ofhisfirstwife,bywhomhehadtwosons,hemarriedDeborahDobson,a23yearoldformerstudentofhis.
Puella(1982),acollectioncelebratingthe'fragilityandmystery'ofyoungwomanhood,waspublishedontheirdaughter'sfirstbirthday.TheCentralMotion:Poems
19681979waspublishedin1983.Dickey'spoetryiswritteninwhathecalls'unrhymed,irregularverse',alongerpoemgoingthrough150to175drafts.Hiscriticism
isoutspokenbutwitty,honest,andoftenprofound.HehastranslatedacollectionbyhisfriendYEVTUSHENKO,StolenApples(1971),withoutnecessarilyapprovingof
whathecalls'usingpoetryasapretextformakingbohemianspeeches'.HiscriticalworksincludeBabeltoByzantium:PoetsandPoetryNow(1968).SeeSelf
Interviews,ed.BarbaraandJamesReiss,newedn1984RonaldBaughman,UnderstandingJamesDickey,1986(criticalstudy).
Dickinson,Emily(183086)
Americanpoet,wasborninAmherst,Massachusetts,thesecondofthreechildrenofEdwardDickinson(180374),lawyer,civicleader,statesenator,andmemberof
Congress,andEmilyNorcross(180482).ShewaseducatedatAmherstAcademyandforayearasaboarderatMountHolyokeFemaleSeminary,SouthHadley,
abouteightmilesfromhome.Ofanumberofearlyromanticfriendships,themostintensewaswithSusan(Sue)Gilbert(18301913),whoin1856marriedEmily's
brother,AustinDickinson(182995).In1855shewaspersuadedtoaccompanyheryoungersisterLavinia(183399)toWashington,andthentoPhiladelphia,where
shemayhaveheardasermonattheArchStreetPresbyterianChurchbyRev.CharlesWadsworth(181482).Shelaterreferredtohimas'myshepherdfromlittle
girlhood',butonlytwomeetingsarerecorded,whenhevisitedherunexpectedly('Whydidyounottellmeyouwerecoming,soIcouldhaveittohopefor?')in1860,
andagainin1880.Thoughherbreadwonsecondprizeatthelocalfairin1856,thefollowingyearsheservedontheCattleShow

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committee,andin186465shemadetwotripstoBostonforeyetreatment,in1869shecouldwrite,'IdonotcrossmyFather'sgroundtoanyHouseorTown.'In
spiteofthefactthatlatterlyherseclusionborderedontheeccentric(sheconductedinterviewsfromupstairsthroughahalfcloseddoor),herfamilysawnothingoddin
herdesireforsolitude.AccordingtoMabelLoomisTodd(18561932),thewifeofanAmherstprofessor,who,asAustin'smistress,wasofteninthehouse(helived
nextdoortothefamilyhome),'AllthefarfetchedandimaginativereasonsforEmilyhavingbecomearecluse,awhitedrapedandspectacularhouseholdghost,areas
unnecessaryastheyarefalse.Itwasmerelyanormalblossomingofherownuntouchedspirit.'
In1862shereactedtoanarticleinAtlanticMonthly,'LettertoaYoungContributor',bythecriticThomasWentworthHigginson(18231911),bysendinghimfour
poemsandabriefnote,beginning,'AreyoutoodeeplyoccupiedtosayifmyVerseisalive?'.Herresponsetohisintriguedenquirieswasalonger,butevenmore
enigmaticletter,andthreemorepoems.Thoughtheyonlymettwice,in1870and1873('Ineverwaswithanyonewhodrainedmynervepowersomuch,'he
confessedtohiswife),theycorrespondedregularly.ShediedofBright'sdisease,andatherfuneralhereadEMILYBRONT'S'Nocowardsoulismine...'.
Onlysevenofherpoemswerepublishedinherlifetime,allanonymously.Oneofthem(in1878)wasattheinstigation,andinsistence,ofJACKSON,whoin1886wentto
liveinthesameliteraryboardinghouseastheHigginsons,andwhowrotetoherin1876:'Youareagreatpoetanditiswrongtothedayyoulivein,thatyouwillnot
singaloud.'Sheleft,inall,1775poems,somethreadedtogetherinlittlepackets,somejotteddownonwhateverwastohand,otherssenttofriendsinlettersorwith
giftsseeTheManuscriptBooksofEmilyDickinson,ed.R.W.Franklin(1981).Laviniadiscoveredthecacheofpacketsinherroomafterherdeath,andtook
themtoTodd,whotranscribedthemand,withHigginson,chose115forpublicationin1890withrhymessmoothed,metresregularized,anddictionalteredtosuit
whattheyregardedasthesensibilitiesofthepublic.Furthercollectionscontinuedtoappear,withBoltsofMelody:NewPoemsofEmilyDickinson(1945),for
whichtextspreparedbyToddwereputtogetherbyherdaughter,completingthecanon.ThefirstscholarlyeditionofallthepoemswasthatofProfessorThomasH.
Johnson,ThePoemsofEmilyDickinson(3vols1955),'Includingvariantreadingscriticallycomparedwithallknownmanuscripts',whichestablishedachronology
forthemseealsotheonevolume(readingtext)editionasTheCompletePoemsofEmilyDickinson(1960).DickinsonisnowrecognizedasAmerica'sfinest
womanwriter,andoneofitsgreatestpoetsofeithersex.Hercompressedlyricscontainawealthofemotions,presentedinsimplemetrepatternsandrhymeschemes
whichoftenreflectthehymnsofthetime,withidiosyncraticpunctuationandanabundanceofdashes,whichsheemployedasamusicaldevice.SeeSelectedLetters,
ed.ThomasH.Johnson,newedn1985RichardB.Sewall,TheLifeofEmilyDickinson,2volsnewedn1994JeromeLoving,EmilyDickinson:thePoetonthe
SecondStory,1986(criticalstudy).
Dickinson,Patric(191494)
Britishpoet,dramatist,andclassicaltranslator,wasborninNasirabad,India,onlythreemonthsbeforehisfather,anofficerintheBritishArmyinIndia,waskilledby
theTurksatthebattleofTelelamara.AtaprepschoolinKenthe'learntalot'atKing'sSchool,Bruton,hetaughthimselfoutofclassroomhours'abitmoreGreek
andLatinandalotmoreEnglish',byreadingonhisown.Asaresult,hewonanexhibitiontoStCatherine'sCollege,Cambridge,wherehistutorwasT.R.Henn
(190174),theIrishpoetandacademic.HetaughtuptothebeginningofWorldWarII,andservedintheArtists'Riflesin193940,afterwhichheworkedforthe
BBCuntil1948,firstasaproducerandthenasActingPoetryEditor.HewasGreshamProfessorofRhetoric,CityUniversity196467.Hisfirstcollectionofverse,
TheseusandtheMinotaur,andPoems(1946),reflectedaspectsofwartimeandalsotheattitudeofsomeonewhohadgrownupintheprewaryearstothe
shatteringchangebroughtaboutbytheimpactofnuclearfission.Hewas,however,primarilyalyricistandpoetofthecountryside,towhomtheparadoxesoflifewere
anessentialpartofhispoeticexpression.HewroteverseplaysforBBCradio(includinganadaptationofPLAUTUS)andforthestageTheDurableFire,aboutthe
conflictbetweenKingJohn,PopeInnocentIII,andArchbishopLangtonatthebeginningofthe13thcenturywascommissionedforperformanceinthechapterhouse
ofCanterburyCathedralin1962.HistranslationsincludeTheAeneidofVirgil(1961)andTheCompletePlaysofAristophanes(2vols1971).SeeSelected
Poems,1968ShadowoftheEarth:PoemsfromFortyYears,1992TheGoodMinute:anAutobiographicalStudy,1965.
Diderot,Denis(171384)
Frenchphilosopherandprosewriter,wasborninLangres,thesonofamastercutler,wenttothelocalJesuitcollege,andgraduatedasMAinParisin1732.Destined
fortheChurch,andthenforthelaw,hechoseinsteadtobeamanofletters,whichinfuriatedhisfather,whoin1742hadhimshutupinamonasterytotrytoprevent
hismarriage.Hewascommissionedbyabookseller/publisherin1746toedit,withthemathematicianJeanD'Alemb

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ert(171783),whatwasintendedasaFrenchtranslationofthefourtheditionofCyclopaedia:or,AnUniversalDictionaryofArtsandSciences(1728)by
EphraimChambers(16801740)itdevelopedintoanoriginalworkcomprisingoversixtythousandarticles,manyofthemwrittenbyhimself.Encyclopdie:ou,
DictionnaireRaisonndesSciences,desArts,etdesMtiers,'anendeavour,'wroteCARLYLEintheForeignQuarterlyReview(1833),'towhichonlytheSiege
ofTroymayoffersomefaintparallel',andwhichstandsasamonumentoftheEnlightenment,waspublished175172thelatervolumeswereissuedunofficiallyafter
Parliamenthadin1759outlawedtheworkasadestabilizinginfluenceontheChurch.Diderothadalreadybeenimprisonedin1749intheChateaudeVincennesfora
pornographicnovel,LesBijouxIndiscrets(1748tr.SophieHawkesasTheIndiscreetJewels,1993)andasubversivetract,LettresurlesAveugles[Letteronthe
Blind](1749).
Tocircumventtheregulationsagainstunauthorizedartcriticism,hemanagedin1759togethimselfappointedartcritictotheCorrespondanceLittraire,a
handwrittenjournalwithatinycirculation,mainlytoforeignpotentatesDiderotonArt,ed.andtr.JohnGoodman(2vols1995)coverstheexhibitionsattheSalon
Carrof1765and1767respectively.Duringthe1760shewroteseveralworksunpublishedduringhislifetime,includingasatire,LeNeveudeRameau[Rameau's
Nephew],whichGOETHEtranslatedintoGermanfromamanuscriptasequenceofthreephilosophicaldialogues,LeRveded'Alembert(tr.LeonardTancockas
D'Alembert'sDreamwithRameau'sNephew,1966)LaReligieuse(tr.TancockasTheNun,1974tr.FrancesBirrellasMemoirsofaNun,rev.ednwithpreface
byEN.Furbank,1992),afictionalmemoirwhichbeganasajokeandJacquesleFatalisteetsonMaitre(asJacquestheFatalistandHisMastertr.Tancock
1979tr.WesleyD.Camp,1984),acomicextravaganzawhosestartingpointisSTERNEseealsoThisIsNotaStonyandOtherStories,ed.andtr.P.N.Furbank
(1993).In1765,toraiseadowryforhisdaughter,hesoldhislibrarytoCatherinetheGreatofRussia,retainingtheuseofitduringhislifetime.In1773hetravelledto
StPetersburgtothankher.LettershewrotetoSophieVolland(171684),withwhomhefellinlovein1755,constituteaphilosophicalautobiographyseeLetters
toSophieVolland,tr.PeterFrance(1972).SeeSelectedWritingsonArtandLiterature,tr.GeoffreyBremner,1994EN.Furbank,Diderot:aCritical
Biography,newedn1993.
Dinesen,Isak
seeBLIXEN.
Disraeli,Benjamin(1stEarlofBeaconsField)(180481)
statesmanandnovelist,wasborninLondonofJewishparentage,andeducatedprivately.Whenhewas13,hisfather,IsaacD'Israeli(17661848),aminorliterary
figurewithprivatemeanswhowroteCuriositiesofLiterature(6vols17811834),wasindisagreementwithhissynagogueandhadallhischildrenbaptized.Disraeli
studiedlaw,butabandoneditforpoliticsandliterature.Between1826,whenhepublishedanonymouslythefirstpartofVivianGrey,whosecynicalheromanipulates
hiswaytopoliticalpower(anddisaster),and1837,when,afterseveralunsuccessfulattempts,hewaselectedtoParliament,hewrotetennovelsofvaryinggenres.
ThemostnotableoftheseareContariniFleming(1832),'apsychologicalautobiography',andTheWondrousTaleofAlroy(1833),anorientalromancewitha
Jewishhero.Thesubsequenttrilogy,Coningsby(1844),Sybil(1845),andTancred(1847),highlightsthedutiesofChurchandCrown,thedichotomybetweenrich
andpoor,andthedifferenceswhichaffectrelationsbetweenChristiansandJews.Whenhehadbecomeaseniorpoliticalfigure,hereturnedtofictionwithLothair
(1870),aquestnovelinwhichtheheroistornbetween(andtemptedby)threewomenandtheconflictingclaimsofAnglicanism,Catholicism,andItalianpatriotism.
Endymion(1880)isareflectionofhisownearlypoliticalcareer.In1852heservedthefirstofthreetermsasChancelloroftheExchequer,andhewasPrimeMinister
in1868andagainfrom1874to1880.HewascreatedEarlofBeaconsfieldin1876.HewasthefirstBritishpoliticalnovelistandthefirstmajornovelistinEnglishwho
wasofJewishoriginandwroteaboutJewishthemes.Hisconsiderableverbalandliterarywit,however,wasoftheflamboyantEnglishkindratherthanofthemore
deprecatorynatureusuallyassociatedwithJewishhumour.SeeStanleyWeintraub,Disraeli:aBiography,1993PaulSmith,Disraeli:aBriefLife,1996Daniel
Schwarz,Disraeli'sFiction,1979JohnVincent,Disraeli,1990(studyofhisideasandwritings).
Dobson,Rosemary(b.1920)
Australianpoet,granddaughteroftheVictorianpoetandcritic,AustinDobson(18401921),wasborninSydneyandeducatedatFrensham,Mittagong,NewSouth
Wales,andSydneyUniversity.Whileatschoolshewrote,designed,andprintedPoems(1937),aforetasteoftheinterestinartwhichinformsmuchofherverse.
DuringWorldWarIIsheworkedforthepublisherAngusandRobertson.HerfirstcommercialpublicationwasInaConvexMirror(1944).ThetitlepoemofThe
ShipofIceandOtherPoems(1948)dramaticallyrecallsthediscoveryintheAntarcticin1860ofashipanditscrew,preservedintheice.In1951shemarriedthe
editorandpublisherAlecBolton(b.1926),duringwhoseassignmentinLondonbetween1966and1971shevisitedculturalandartisticcentresinEurope.Overthe
Frontier(1978)hasasection'Poems

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forPausanias',directlyinspiredbythe2ndcenturyIVGreektravelwriterandincludingthesequenceoffourlineepigrammaticobservations,'GreekCoins'.The
ContinuanceofPoetry(1981),incorporatedinThreeFatesandOtherPoems(1984),containsaseriesofpoemsinmemoryofDAVIDCAMPBELL,withwhomshe
translatedMoscowTrefoil(1975)andSevenRussianPoets(1979),includingpoemsbyAKHMATOVAandMANDELSTAM.ShewasmadeAOin1987.SeeCollected
Poems,1991.
Doctorow,E(dgar)L(awrence)(b.1931)
Americannovelist,wasborninNewYorkCityandrecallsthatatten,'WheneverIreadanythingIseemedtoidentifyasmuchwiththeactofcompositionaswiththe
story.'HewenttotheBronxHighSchoolofScience,KenyonCollege(wherehestudiedpoetrytextsunderRANSOM),andforapostgraduateyeartoColumbia
University,afterwhichhedidtwoyearswiththeUSArmyinGermany.Hewasanairportreservationsclerkandreaderforafilmcompanybeforebecominganeditor
atNewAmericanLibrary,in1959,andthenEditorinChief(1964)andPublisher(1969)ofDialPress,NewYork.Heresignedtowritefulltimein1971,sincewhen
hehasalsotaughtatSarahLawrenceCollege,NewYorkhebecameanadjunctprofessorofEnglishatNewYorkUniversityin1982.WelcometoHardTimes
(1960inUKasBadManfromBodie,1961)andBigasLife(1966),arepostmodernistreinterpretationsoftheWesternandofthesciencefictionnovel.TheBook
ofDaniel(1971)isastudyofthecollectiveAmericanconsciousnessduringcircumstancesbasedontheRosenbergaffair,whichculminatedin1953withtheexecution
ofamiddleagedcoupleforspyingfortheUSSR.Aseriouspoliticalwriter,evenwhenathismostentertaining,asinRagtime(1975)andWorld'sFair(1985),or
mostcompelling,asinBillyBathgate(1989),heoffersarevisionistviewofAmericanhistory,inwhichhistoricalfiguresoftenplayfictionalparts.Theindividual
elementsofLivesofthePoets:SixStoriesandaNovella(1984)differinformbutcontainimagesandideaswhichrecurthroughthebook.TheWaterworks
(1994)islargelyapasticheofPOE.SeealsoJackLondon,Hemingway,andtheConstitution:SelectedEssays19771992(1993).SeePaulLevine,E.L.
Doctorow,1985(criticalstudy).
Dodgson,CharlesLutwidge
seeCARROLL.
Domett,Alfred(181187)
statesmanandpoet,wasborninCamberwellGrove,Surrey,waseducatedatStJohn'sCollege,Cambridge,withouttakingadegree,andstudiedlawattheMiddle
Temple,beingcalledtotheBarin1841.Hepublishedabookofversein1833,andalongpoemonVenicein1839.In1842hepurchasedlandinNewZealand,and
emigratedthere,totheconsternationofhisfriendROBERTBROWNING,ofwhose'What'sbecomeofWaring/Sincehegaveusalltheslip...'heisthesubject.
Neverthelessheprospered,beingMemberoftheNewZealandHouseofRepresentativesforNelson185563,andPremier186263,afterwhichheheldprominent
positionsinlandadministration.HeretiredtoEnglandin1871.NeitherRanolfandAmohia:aSouthSeaDayDream(1872rev.edn1883),aphilosophicalpoetic
romanceinwhichEast,inthepersonofaMaoriprincess,meetsandultimatelymateswithWest,norFlotsamandJetsam:RhymesOldandNew(1877)drawon
thepracticalexperienceinNewZealandofthisableadministratorandpolitician,whowasmadeCMGin1880.Hisdiariesof187285seeTheDiaryofAlfred
Domett,ed.E.A.Horsman(1953)includeadelightfulpictureofBrowningbutteringup'aratherfinelydressedlady'atanexhibitionofhisson'swork,not
recognizinghertobehisowncook.
Donleavy,J(ames)P(atrick)(b.1926)
Irishnovelistanddramatist,wasbornofIrishparentsinBrooklyn,NewYork,andwaseducatedataprivateschool.HeservedintheUSNavyduringWorldWarII,
afterwhichhewenttoTrinityCollege,Dublin.Hisfirstnovel,TheGingerMan,whoseprotagonistwasdrawnfromacollegedrinkingcompanion,waspublishedin
ParisandLondonin1955,butinitsunexpurgatedformnotuntil1963.Bythistimehisstageadaptationhadbeenperformed(1959),andinDublinwithdrawn,and
FairyTalesofNewYork(1961)hadalsobeenstaged.In1967DonleavybecameanIrishcitizen,inwhichcapacityhehascontinuedtobringIrishgusto(aswellas
anAmericanflavour)tohisnovels.TheBeastlyBeatitudesofBalthazarB.(1968)hasamainlyIrishsetting,whilethethreeintheDarcyDancersequenceThe
DestiniesofDarcyDancer,Gentleman(1977),Leila(1983),andThatDarcy,ThatDancer,ThatGentleman(1990)recreatealargelyfictitiousruralIreland
inwhichthehuntfeaturesstronglybutnotallthehuntedareanimal.Donleavy'scolourfulandeccentriccharacters,hisrelishforthebawdy,hisrich,idiosyncraticprose,
andhisstylisticdevices,notablythetailpiecehaiku,makehimoneofthemostdistinctiveaswellasunusualmodernIrishwriters.TheHistoryoftheGingerMan
(1994)isarichautobiographicalstudyofDublin(includingsketchesofBEHAN)andNewYork,andoftheproblemsofgettingandbeingpublished.Sincetheearly
1970shehaslivedina250yearoldcountryhouseintheIrishmidlands.Heconfessedinanarticle(1996):'ThereIam,thesquireandpasha,oftenbereft,lonely,and
havingagainandagainbeenleftinthelurchbyonebeautifulwomanafteranother.'

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Donne,John(15721631)
Englishpoet,prosewriter,andcleric,wasborninBreadStreet,London,ofaprominentCatholicfamily.HestudiedatbothOxfordandCambridge,thoughprevented
byhisfaithfromtakingadegree.HeandhisbrotherHenryenteredLincoln'sInnin1592,butin1593Henrywasarrestedforharbouringapriest,anddiedinjail
beforecomingtotrial.Fromthisperiodcome'SatireIII',anagonizedexpressionofthedoubtsthatledtoDonne'sapostasy,andthehalfbanteringprose'Paradoxes
andProblems',aswell,nodoubt,assomeofhissecularsongsandelegies.Aftertwoyearsservingwiththefleet(seehispoems'TheStorme'and'TheCalme')he
becamein1597secretarytotheLordKeeperoftheGreatSeal,SirThomasEgerton(c.15401617),inwhichcapacityhewaselectedtoParliamentin1601.
Unfortunatelyforhiscareerprospects,hehadfalleninlovewith,andin1601secretlymarried,Egerton's16yearoldniece,Ann,whosefatherhadhimimprisoned
anddismissedfromhispost.Afairlymiserableperiodfollowed.Donnespentmuchtimelookingforpatronageorajob.Hewasalsowritingsuchworksas
Biathanatos,atreatiseonsuicide(notintendedforpublication)manyofthe'HolySonnets'andotherreligiouspoemsandversestoorder,includingtheeroticSt
Valentine'sDay'AnEpithalamion...ontheLadyElizabethandCountPalatineBeingMarried',andthediplomatic'Epithalamion'fortheEarlofSomersetandhis
'virgin'bride,theformerwifeoftheEarlofEssex(seealsoCAMPION).'AFunerallElegie'(forElizabethDrury,died1610)anditstwoAnniversariessopleasedthe
girl'sfatherthathepressedfortheirpublication,embarrassingthepoet,whodidnotwanthispraiseofthesubjecttooffendtwofemalepatronshewascourting.
DefinitelyintendedforpublicationwasPseudoMartyr(1610),anargumentinfavourofCatholicstakingtheOathofAllegiancetoJAMESVI,acopyofwhichhe
astutelypresentedtotheKinginperson.James'sresponsewasequallyshrewd.HeturneddownallDonne'srequestsforpoliticalandotherposts,andinsistedthathe
entertheChurch,whichhedidin1615afteraterribleyearinwhichhewasill,hiswifemiscarried,andtwoofhischildrendied.
TheKingnowappointedhimaroyalchaplain,andobtainedforhimaCambridgedoctorateandseveralbenefices.DonnealsobecameReaderinDivinityatLincoln's
Innin1616,whichentailedgivingfiftysermonsayeartoaninfluentialandintelligentcongregation.In1617Anndiedgivingbirthtotheir12thchild.Donne'sgriefis
apparentfromthesonnet'SinceshewhomIloved...',whichbeginsasaconventionalhymntothegoodnessofGodandthenbreaksdown:'ButthoughIhavefound
thee,andthoumythirsthasfed,/Aholythirstydropsymeltsmeeyett...'.In1619hewaschaplaintoViscountDoncaster'smissionofmediationbetweenthe
ProtestantBohemiansandtheEmperorofGermany.Thesummitofhisambitionsandtheculminationofyearsofassiduoussolicitingcamein1621withhisnomination
asDeanofStPaul'sCathedral.Thoughhewasrequiredtopreachonlythreetimesayear,hedidsofrequently.Itwasasapreacherratherthanasapoetthathe
expectedtoberemembered,withsomejustification,inthelightofhispowersofimagery,rhetoric,andfrequenteconomyofthought.Thefirstvolumeofhissermons
waspublishedin1622,andeightmorebefore1633.HediedafewweeksafterpreachinghisowndeathsermonbeforeKingCharlesIatWhitehall,andhavingacted
asmodelforhisowneffigyinStPaul's.
Whilemanyofhispoemswerecirculatedinmanuscriptinhislifetime,thefirstpublishededitionofhispoetrywasin1633,andincludedbothsecularanddivineworks.
HisapparentlackofmelodyandthedoubtssparkedoffinDRYDEN'SADiscourseConcerningSatire(1693),'Heaffectsthemetaphysics..whereonlynatureshould
reign'(fromwhichcametheterm'Metaphysicalpoets'),hinderedhisrecognition.Itistheverydepth,allusiveness,andaboveallrevelationofexperiencethat
distinguishhisworkandinfluenced20thcenturypoetry,especiallythatofT.S.ELIOT.Thesequalitiesaretobefoundparticularlyinhispoemsoflove,suchas'Loves
Infiniteness','TheSunneRising','ALectureupontheShadow','ElegieXIX:GoingtoBed','ElegieXII:HisPartingfromHer',andthesongs'Goe,andcatchafalling
starre...'and'Sweetestlove,Idonotgoe...'.Hispoetryisalsodistinctiveforthewayinwhichconceitsgraphicallyyoketogetherheterogeneouselements.See
[Works],ed.JohnCarey,1990(comprehensiveselection)SelectedPoems,ed.RichardGill,1990SelectedPoetry,ed.JohnCarey,1996TheDivinePoems,
ed.HelenGardnernewedn1982LovePoems,ed.CharlesFowkes,newedn1989SelectedProse,ed.NeilRhodes,1987R.C.Bald,JohnDonne:aLife,new
edn1986JohnCarey,JohnDonne:Life,MindandArt,newedn1990.
Doolittle,Hilda(H.D.)(18861961)
Americanpoet,wasborninBethlehem,Pennsylvania,theeldestchildbyhissecondmarriageofCharlesLeanderDoolittle(18341919),whoin1896wasappointed
FlowerProfessorofAstronomyandDirectoroftheObservatory,UniversityofPennsylvania.ShewenttotheFriends'CentralSchool,Philadelphia.Whenshewas
just15shemetPOUNDataHalloweenparty,andbecamehisprotgeand,atonepoint,hisfiance.SheenteredBrynMawrin1904,butdroppedouttwoyearslater
becauseofillness.In1911shewenttoEuropewithfriendsforaholiday,anddidnotreturn,havingsettled,withher

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parents'approval,inEngland,wherePoundwasnowensconced.In1913heplacedinthefourthissueoftheChicagobasedPoetry:aMagazineofVersethree
poemssigned'H.D.,Imagiste',thusestablishingherasthemostrepresentativememberoftheImagistmovement.LaterthatyearshemarriedALDINGTON,withwhom
shestudiedclassicalGreekliterature,themaininfluenceinherfirstcollectionof27poems,SeaGarden(1916).Aldington'swarservicewasafactorinthe
breakdownoftheirmarriage.Thebaby,Perdita,bornshortlyaftertheyseparatedin1919(theydivorcedin1938),wasnothis.H.D.wasrescuedfromtheseand
othertribulationsbyWinifredEllerman(18941983),thenovelist'Bryher',whohadsentherafanletterafterreadingSeaGarden,andwhobecameherlover,close
friend,andpatron,andlateradoptedPerdita.
H.D.nowpublishedtranslationsofchorusesfromEURIPIDES(1916,1919),furthercollectionsofverse,Hymen(1921)andHeliodora,andOtherPoems(1924),
and,assolidevidenceofhercraftsmanship,CollectedPoems(1925).ShesettledinSwitzerland,andin193334underwentanalysisinViennabyFREUD,aprocess
whichreleasedseveralautobiographicalandsemiautobiographicalstudies,notablyTributetoFreud(1956),BidMetoLive(1960),TheGift(1969),andHER
mione(1981).WhilesufferingthebombinginLondonduringWorldWarII,shewrotethreelinkedpoemsinfreeversecouplets,inspiredbyaspiritualconvictionthat
warcanbeendured:TheWallsDoNotFall(1944),TributetotheAngels(1945),andTheFloweringoftheRod(1946),publishedtogetherasTrilogy.Helenin
Egypt(1961)isapoeticreworkingoftheTrojanlegend,toldintheformofadramaticmonologuebyHelen,whomshetranslatesfromGreecetoEgypt.Endto
Torment(1979)isanaccountofherrelationshipwithPound,andalso(duringWorldWarI)withD.H.LAWRENCEandhiswife.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.LouisL.
Martz,newedn1988JaniceS.Robinson,H.D.:theLifeandWorkofanAmericanPoet,1982.
Dorris,Michael
seeERDRICH.
DosPassos,John(18961970)
Americannovelist,wasborninaChicagohotel,theillegitimatesonofawealthyPortugueseAmericanattorneyandaMarylandwidow,bywhosesurnameof
Madisonhewascalleduntil1912,afterhisparents'marriageonthedeathofhisfather'swife.HehadanuprootedchildhoodbeforegoingtoChoateSchool,
Connecticut,andHarvardCollege,wherehewrotestoriesforandeditedHarvardMonthly,andgraduatedcurelaudein1916,shortlyafterthedeathofhismother.
ThoughhewasoneofthecontributorstoEightHarvardPoets(1917),hehassaidofthisjunctureinhislife,'Ineverwantedtobeawriter.'Havingsignedupfor
ambulanceserviceoverseas,hewaspersuadedbyhisfather,whohadfoughtintheAmericanCivilWar,togotoSpaininstead,tostudyarchitecture,hismaininterest
atthetime.Onhisfather'sdeathin1917,hereturnedtotheUSA,enlistedintheambulanceserviceagain,andservedinFranceandItaly,beingdraftedintothe
MedicalCorpswhentheUSAenteredWorldWarI.OneMan'sInitiation1917(1920reissuedasFirstEncounter,1945)isanobserver'sfictionalviewofthe
warThreeSoldiers(1921)isapacifistinterpretationofthecombatitself.InManhattanTransfer(1925)heusedtechniquessimilartothoseofthefilmeditorto
weavenumerouscharactersintothefabricofhisnovel,whichisessentiallyastudyoffrustrationandfailureinadepersonalizedsociety.Thesametechniques,
intensifiedbytheuseofsketchesofrealfigures,collagesofnewsheadlinesandsnatchesofsongs,andimpressionisticinterludes,informhismajortrilogy,The42nd
Parallel(1930),1919(1932),andTheBigMoney(1936),publishedtogetherasU.S.A.(1938newedn,ed.TownsendLuddingtonandDanielAaron,1996),a
historicalandsocial,aswellasapersonal,visionofAmerica'sevolutionfrom1900totheonsetoftheGreatDepressionin1929,fromaradical1930s'pointofview.
Incommonwithotherradicalwriters,hesupportedthecause(andin1927publishedadefence)ofthetwoanarchistsintheSaccoVanzettiaffair,whowere
convictedofmurderin1921andexecutedin1927.Between1926and1934hewasactiveinCommunistaffairs,withoutbeingamemberoftheparty,butbecame
disillusioned.AfterWorldWarIIhesawsocialismasagreaterthreattopersonalfreedomthanfreeenterprise,aphilosophyreflectedinafurthertrilogy:Adventures
ofaYoungMan(1939),inwhichtheprotagonist'sexperienceofCommunismreflectshisown,NumberOne(1943),andTheGrandDesign(1942)published
togetherasDistrictofColumbia(1952).MidCentury:aContemporaryChronicle(1961)revertstotheformatofU.S.A.Ajournalist,travelwriter,andhistorian,
healsowrotethreeplaysinwhichtheindividual'splaceinsocietydependsoncomingtogripswithtime.ChosenCountry(1951)isanautobiographicalnovelwhich
followshisearlylifeandhisromancewithhisfirstwife,whowaskilledin1947inthecarcrashinwhichhelostaneye.SeeTheBestTimes:anInformalMemoir,
1968LindaWWagner,DosPassos:ArtistasAmerican,1979(criticalstudy).
Dostoevsky,Fyodor(Mikhailovich)(182181)
Russiannovelist,wasborninMoscowinthehospitalforthepoorwherehisfatherwasresidentdoctor.HeenteredthemilitaryengineeringschoolinStPetersburgin
1838,theyearafterhismotherdied.In1839hisfather,whohadretiredtoa

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countryestate,wasmurderedbyhispeasantserfs.Dostoevskywascommissionedasa2ndlieutenantin1842andjoinedtheengineeringdepartmentoftheWar
Ministry,fromwhichheresignedtwoyearslaterforaliterarycareer.Hepublishedtheshortnovels[PoorPeople]and[TheDouble]in1846,theyearhebeganto
haveepilepticfits.In1849hewasarrestedforallegedparticipationinasocialistconspiracy,sentencedtodeath,ledtothescaffold,andthenreprieved.Twodays
later,inmidwinter,hewastakeninironstoSiberiabysled.AfterfouryearsinalabourcamphewastransferredtoSemipalatinsk,ontheMongolianborder,toserve
asacommonsoldier.Hewaspromotedtoensignin1856,andin1857hemarriedMaryaDmitrevnaIsaeva,neConstant,awidow,inKuznetsk.In1859,having
beendischargedfromthearmy,hereturnedtoStPetersburgandbeganwritingagain.[MemoirsfromtheHouseoftheDead](tr.MarievonThiloasBuriedAlive:
or,TenYearsofPenalServitudeinSiberia,1881tr.JessieCoulson,1983)wasprintedinfullinhiselderbrotherMikhail'sjournal,Vremya[Time],in1861.After
themagazinewassuppressedin1863heembarkedonatriptoFranceandItalywithafemalecompanion,ApollinariaSuslovashelatermarriedthecriticV.V.
Rozanov(18561919).TheyreturnedviaHomburg,wherehegambledcompulsively.MaryadiedinApril1864,MikhailinJuly,shortlyafterthedemiseoftheirnew
journal,Epokha[TheAge],throughlackoffunds.
[CrimeandPunishment](tr.1886tr.Coulson,,ed.RichardPeace,2ndedn1995),thefirstofhisreallysignificantnovels,withadepththatbeliesitsromantictheme
ofmurderandremorse,wasserializedthroughout1866,duringwhichhedictated[TheGambler](1866)toAnnaGrigorevna,whomhemarriedin1867.Theyspent
thenextfouryearsinGermany,wherehegambledandworkedon[TheIdiot](serialized1868tr.EWhishaw,1887tr.DavidMagarshack,1955)inSwitzerland,
wheretheyhadadaughterwhodiedinItalyandinGermanyagain,wheretheyhadaseconddaughter,whosurvived.TheyreturnedtoStPetersburgin1871,eight
daysbeforethebirthofason.Henowcompleted[ThePossessed](tr.ConstanceGarnett,1913tr.MagarshackasTheDevils,1953),whichbeganserialization
laterthatyear.Asecondsondiedin1878ofepilepsyattheageoftwo.With[TheBrothersKaramazov](serialized187980tr.Garnett,1912tr.Magarshack,
1958tr.RichardPevearandLarissaVolokhonsky,1992tr.DavidMcDuff,1993asTheKaramazovBrothersed.andtr.IgnatAvsey,1994)heconfirmedhis
reputationasareligiousandpoliticalspokesmanaswellasaninterpreterofcharacterandaskilfulnarratorofstrongplots.Hediedtwodaysafteralunghaemorrhage.
ThejudgmentsofEnglishcriticsduringthefiftyyearsafterhisdeathweremixed.STEVENSON,whoreadCrimeandPunishmentinFrench,wasenthusiastic,aswere
WILDE,GISSING,BARING,andBENNETTnotsoCONRAD,HENRYJAMES,GALSWORTHY,andD.H.LAWRENCE,whoreadTheBrothersKaramazovthreetimesandconcluded:'Each
timeIfinditmoredepressingbecause,alas,moredrearilytruetolife.Atfirstithadbeenluridromance.'Subsequentlyhehasbecomerecognizedasoneofthe
foundersofthemodernpsychologicalnovel,whohadaprofoundinsightintothehumanconditionandintohumanbehaviour.AWriter'sDiary(tr.KennethLantz,two
vols18731876,1993,and18771881,1994),whichbeganasaweeklyjournalcolumnandby1876hadbecomeaperiodicalinitsownfight,wasthemedium
throughwhichhesharedhisthoughtsonliteratureandtopicalandsocialissueswiththeRussianpublic.SeeFrankJoseph,Dostoevsky:TheSeedsofRevolt1821
1849,newedn1979TheYearsofOrdeal18501859,newedn1986,TheStirofLiberation18601865,newedn1988,TheMiraculousYears18651871,
1995.
Doughty,CharlesMontague(18431926)
Britishpoetandtraveller,wasbornatThebertonHall,Suffolk,thesonofalandowningcleric,andwaseducatedfortheRoyalNavyatBeachHouseSchool,
Portsmouth.Afterfailinghismedical,hewenttoGonvilleandCaiusCollege,Cambridge,toreadgeology.Findingtheteachinguncongenial,hetransferredtoDowning
College,spendingninemonthsduring186364aloneinNorway,examiningglaciers.Hisconsuminginterest,however,wasmedievalandElizabethanliterature,andhis
aimwastowritepoetrywhichwouldrecaptureitsflavourandlanguage.Asastart,hevisitedEuropeanculturalandhistoricalcentres,andbydegreesreached
Damascus.Here,havingbeenrefusedhelpbytheRoyalGeographicalSociety,failedlocallytogetpermissiontojoinapilgrimcaravantoMecca,andbeendisowned
forhisinitiativebytheBritishConsul,hespentayearlearningArabic.Thenin1876hesetout,onhisown,dressedasanArabbutwithnoattempttohidethefactthat
hewasChristian.Evenwhenwritinguphisastonishinganddangeroustwoyearpersonalpilgrimage,TravelsinArabiaDeserta(1888),heremainedtruetowhathe
regardedashisliterarypredestination.Theliterarystylewhichheinventedforit,withitsadmixtureofArabicandarchaictermsandusages,ensuredthatwhatwould
otherwisejusthavebeenamasterpieceoftravelwritingandanthropologyisalsoalinguisticcuriosity,ratherthanthephilologicalmilestoneheintended.Nothing
daunted,hespenttherestofhislifeturningoutepicpoemsinwhichheplayedouthispersonaltheoriesoflanguageandprosody,beginningwithTheDawninBritain
(1906).

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Douglas,Gavin(c.14741522)
Scottishpoetandcleric,wasbornatTantallonCastle,thethirdsonofArchibald'BelltheCat',5thEarlofAngus(c.14491514),andwaseducatedatStAndrews
UniversityandprobablyinParis.HewasmuchatthecourtofJamesIV,inwhosehonourhewroteanallegoricalpoemincourtlyItalianatestyle,PaliceofHonour.
AfterthedisasterofthebattleofFloddenandthedeathoftheKingin1513,Douglas'snephew,the6thEarl(c.14891557),marriedJamesIV'swidow(Margaret
Tudor).SheproposedthepoetunsuccessfullyforthevacantarchbishopricofStAndrewsandthensuccessfullyasBishopofDunkeld,whichhebecamein1516.For
therestofhislifehewasmuchindemandasapromoterofcausesandadealerinpoliticalintrigue,buthewasfinallyexiled,anddiedinLondonoftheplague.His
positioninliteraryhistoryisveryproperlyfoundedonEneados,histranslationintoScotsrhymingcoupletsofthe12booksofVIRGIL'SAeneid,plusa13thbookfrom
anoriginalcomposedin1428bytheItalianhumanistMaphaeusVegius,allofwhichhecompletedby1513.Itisregardedasthebesttranslationofthatepicuntil
DRYDEN'S,andlivelierandmoreintunewithitsreadershipinthattheclimate,landscapes,treatmentofthesupernatural,andthebattlesandshipsequences,arerendered
intermsofthecontemporaryScottishexperience.SeePriscillaBawcutt,GavinDouglas:aCriticalStudy,1976.
Douglas,George,pseudonymofGeorgeDouglasBrown(18691902)
Scottishnovelist,wasborninthevillageofOchiltree,Ayrshire,theillegitimatesonofanindependentmindedlocalfarmerandthedaughterofanIrishlabourer.He
waseducatedatAyrAcademyandGlasgowUniversity,wherehegotafirstinclassicsandanexhibitiontoBalliolCollege,Oxford.Hismother'sillnessandhisown
illhealthcontributedtoapoorfinalresult,andonherdeathin1895hewenttoLondon,wherehebecameafreelancejournalistandwroteaboy'sadventurestory,
LoveandSword(1899),underthenameofKennedyKing.Hewasencouragedbyreactionstoastorytoexpanditintoanovel,whichhedidinacottageretreathe
rentedinHaslemere.TheHousewiththeGreenShutters(1901)by'GeorgeDouglas',writtenmuchonthelinesofaGreektragedy(completewith'chorus'ofvillage
gossips)andwithdeliberateintenttocounterthesentimentalityoftheKailyardnovelists,wasverywellreceivedintheUSAaswellasinBritain,forallthatitspower
genuinelytodisturbthereaderisnotfullycarriedthroughtoitsend,whichslidesintomelodrama.Henowbegantowriteupnoteshehadmadeonthecraftofthe
novelistandtobeginanothernovel,tobecalled'TheIncompatibles'.Hediedofpneumoniainafriend'shouseinLondon,havingbeentakenillduringhisreturnfroma
visittoScotland,andwasburiedinhismother'sgraveinAyr.
Douglas,Keith(192044)
Britishpoet,wasborninTunbridgeWells,Kent,andcouldreadandwriteexcellently,andalsodraw,whenhewenttoboardingschoolatsix.Whenhewaseight,his
fatherlefthome,andheneversawhimagain.HewaseducatedatChrist'sHospital,whereheimpressedwithhispersonalityandenergyandhadapoemacceptedby
CRIGSONforNewVerse,andfortwoyearsatMertonCollege,Oxford,whereBLUNDENwashistutor.AsamemberoftheOfficers'TrainingCorps(whichhejoinedfor
thechancetogetsomefreeriding)hewasliableforearlycallupinWorldWarII.Afterbeingcommissioned,hewasselectedforattachmenttotheIndianArmy,but
foundhimselfinsteadintheMiddleEast.Asherecountsinhisvividwarjournal,AlameintoZemZem(1946ed.DesmondGraham,illustratedbytheauthor,1992),
hewalkedoutofastaffposttorejoinhiscompanions,foughtinatankacrossthedesertfromEgypttoTunisia,andsurvivedbeingblownupbyamine.Hereturnedto
Englandin1943tobetrainedfortheinvasionofEurope.HewaskilledonhisthirddayinNormandy,afteraninformationgatheringexploitforwhichhewas
mentionedindispatches.Theendingofhislastcompletepoem,'OnaReturnfromEgypt',expresseshispremonition:'Thenextmonth,then,isawindow/andwitha
crashI'llsplittheglass./BehinditstandsoneImustkiss,/personofloveordeath/apersonorawraith,/IfearwhatIshallfind.'Someofhispoemswerepublished
inwartimecollections,andhewaspreparingavolumeofhisownjustbeforehedied.CollectedPoems(1951)wasthebasisofafurtheredition(1966).See
CompletePoems,ed.DesmondGraham,2ndedn1987DesmondGraham,KeithDouglas19201944,newedn1986(biography).
Douglas(s),(George)Norman(18681952)
Britishnovelistandtravelwriter,wasborninThuringen,Austria,thesonofaScottishcottonmillmanagerandaScottishGermanmother,andspokeGermanashis
firstlanguage.Afterhisfather'sdeathin1874inaclimbingaccident,hewasbroughtupinScotland(hispaternalgrandfatherwasaDeesidelaird)andEngland,and
waseducatedatUppinghamSchooluntilhisrebelliousbehaviourcausedhisremovaltoKarlsruheGymnasiuminGermany.HejoinedtheForeignOfficein1893and
wasonthestaffoftheBritishEmbassyinStPetersburgfrom1894to1896.HeresignedafterforminganindiscreetliaisonwithahighbornRussianlady,andboughta
villainItaly.Hisinterestinnaturalhistoryandrelatedscienceshadalreadyenabledhimtocontribute

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tozoologicaljournalsandtowriteReportonthePumiceStoneIndustryoftheLipariIslands(1895).Henowdevotedhistimetofurthertravelandtoliterature,
publishing(underthejointpseudonymofNormyx)UnprofessionalTales(1901),writtenwithhiswife,theformerElsaFitzgibbon,whomhemarriedin1878and
fromwhomhewasdivorcedin1903.SirenLand(1911rev.edn1923),aboutSorrentino,andOldCalabria(1915)gainedhimaliteraryreputationfortheirgrace,
entertainmentvalue,anderudition.InSouthWind(1917),hisfirstnoveloffourandeasilythemostdistinguished,athinlydisguisedCapriisthebackgroundtoaseries
ofconversationpiecesinwhichhisownhedonismisreflectedandtheeffectofItalyuponforeignersisexplored.Helivedmostofhislifeabroad,andwrotetwo
excursionsintoautobiography,LookingBack(2vols1933)andLateHarvest(1946).SeeMarkHolloway,NormanDouglas:aBiography,1976.
Douglass,Frederick(181795)
Americanpoliticalandsocialphilosopher,wasbornintoslaveryasFrederickAugustusWashingtonBailey,nearEastoninTalbotCounty,Maryland,thesonofa
whitemanwhoseidentityheneverknew,andofHarrietBailey,fromwhomhewaspartedininfancy.Bydeviousmeanshelearnedtoreadandwrite,andin1836
forgedpassesforhimselfandseveralothers,buttheescapefailed.Hefinallyescapedin1838whileworkingasaship'scalkerinBaltimore,andreachedNewYork.
HewentontoNewBedford,Massachusetts,wherehechangedhisnameandbecamealabourer.PersuadedtospeakataconventionoftheMassachusettsAnti
SlaverySocietyinNantucketin1841,hemadesuchanimpressionthathewasinvitedonthespottobeanagentandspeakerforthesociety.NarrativeoftheLife
ofFrederickDouglass,anAmericanSlave(1845),'WrittenbyHimself',adignified,almostunderstatedaccountofhisexperiencesfromchildhoodtofreedom,
confirmedandfurtherpublicizedthecurrentpositionintheSouth.HelecturedthroughoutBritainandIrelandin184647.DuringtheCivilWarof186165he
campaignedforblackstobeeligibleforserviceintheUnionarmy,andthenfoughtforthemtohaveequalrightsandpayhewasachampionofequalrightsfor
everyone,blackorwhite,maleorfemale.Heservedinseveralofficialpositions,beingUSFederalMarshal(187781)andRecorderofDeeds(188186),Districtof
Columbia,andUSMinistertoHaiti188891.Afterthedeathofhiswifein1882,hemarriedawhitewomanwhohadbeenhissecretary.LifeandTimesof
FrederickDouglass(1881rev.edn1892)incorporateshisoriginalautobiography,whichheexpandedasMyBondageandMyFreedom(1855).SeeTheOxford
FrederickDouglassReader,ed.WilliamL.Andrews,1996WilliamS.McFeely,FrederickDouglass,newedn1996(biography).
Dove,Rita(b.1952)
Americanpoet,wasborninAkron,Ohio,andeducatedatMiamiUniversity,graduatingsummacumlaude,afterwhichshestudiedmodernEuropeanliteratureatthe
UniversityofTbingen,Germany,andtookafurtherdegreeattheUniversityofIowa.AfterteachingcreativewritingatArizonaStateUniversityshewasappointed
CommonwealthProfessorofEnglish,UniversityofVirginia,in1989.Fromherfirstcollection,TheYellowHouseontheCorner(1980),incorporatingpoemsdeeply
resonantofadolescence,shehastreateddifficultsubjects,oftenfrommorethanonepointofview,withquietconfidence.ThomasandBeulah(1986),whichwonthe
PulitzerPrize,isaversecycle,basedonhergrandparents'marriage,inwhichablackcouple'sexperienceilluminatesthesocialhistoryofthetimes.MotherLove
(1995),hersixthcollectionandafurthersequence,reflectshercosmopolitanexperienceaswellasattitude,andherconvictionthatpoeticformcanbea'talisman
againstdisintegration':Demeter'sgriefstrickenpursuitofherdaughter,abductedbyHades,isthemythicalframeworkforamodernsociologicalodyssey.Dovehas
alsopublishedavolumeofshortfiction,FifthSunday(1985),andanovel,ThroughtheIvoryGate(1992).ShewasUSPoetLaureate199394.SeeSelected
Poems,1993.
Doyle,(Sir)ArthurConan(18591930)
Britishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninEdinburghofanartisticIrishCatholicfamily,andwaseducatedatStonyhurstCollegeandEdinburghUniversity.He
qualifiedasadoctorin1881,andpractisedinSouthseafrom1882to1890.DuringtheBoerWar(18991902)hevolunteeredasaseniorphysicianinthefieldand
wasknightedforhisservices.Hisfirstfulllengthwork,AStudyinScarlet,inwhichthedetectiveSherlockHolmesisintroduced,waspublishedinBeeton's
ChristmasAnnualin1887.AsecondHolmesnovel,TheSignofFour,appearedin1890,andstoriesabouttheprivatedetectiveandhisworthyhenchmanDr
Watson,includingthelongertaleTheHoundoftheBaskervilles,werepublishedregularlyinStrandMagazinefrom1891to1893,atwhichpointConanDoyle
killedoffhisherobyhavinghimfalloffaprecipice.PopularopinionprevailedandHolmeswasmiraculouslyresuscitatedforTheReturnofSherlockHolmes
(1905)seeCompleteSherlockHolmesandOtherDetectiveStories,introductionbyOwenDudleyEdwards(1994)andSherlockHolmes:theMajorStories,
withContemporaryEssays,ed.JohnA.Hodgson(1994).AnothercreationwasthescientistProfessorChallengerinTheLostWorld(1912)andThePoison
Belt(1913).Doylealsoadaptedhiseasy,narrative

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styletohistoricalromancewithTheWhiteCompany(1891),SirNigel(1906),andthestoriesabouttheNapoleonicBrigadierGerard,beginningwithTheExploits
ofBrigadierGerard(1896)seeTheCollectedBrigadierGerardStories(1995).Hewasavigorouscampaignerforcausesinwhichhebelievednotablythatof
OscarSlater,condemnedtodeath(commutedtolifeimprisonment)in1909andfinallypardonedin1928.Healsodevelopedastronginterestinspiritualism,while
retaininghisloveofboxing,thethemeofRodneyStone(1896).SeeMemoriesandAdventures,newedn1994(autobiography)OwenDudleyEdwards,TheQuest
forSherlockHolmes,1982MichaelCoren,ConanDoyle,newedn1996(biography).
Drabble,Margaret(b.1939)
Britishnovelistandcritic,wasborninSheffield,youngersisterofBYATT,andwaseducatedattheMountSchool,York,andNewnhamCollege,Cambridge.Herfirst
twonovels,ASummerBirdCage(1962)andTheGarrickYear(1964),clearlydrawonherexperienceasarecentlygraduatedyoungmotherwhowasmarriedto
anactor.Subsequentlyshebroadenedherfieldofvisiontoencompassmanypersonalandmoralissueswhichexercisewomenofhergenerationandhertimes,while
oftenlinkingherthemeswithEnglishliterarytradition,asshedoesparticularlyinTheWaterfall(1969)andTheMiddleGround(1980).TheRadiantWay(1987),A
NaturalCuriosity(1989),andTheGatesofIvory(1991)constituteatrilogyaboutcontemporaryrelationshipswhichbreaksnewgroundforitsauthorinthethird
book,involvingtheunravellingofthemysteryofanovelist'sdisappearanceintheFarEast.Mystery,andtension,resurfaceinTheWitchofExmoor(1996),written
afterafiveyeargap.HercriticalworksincludeastudyofWORDSWORTH(1966),abiographyofBENNETT(1974),andAWriter'sBritain:LandscapeinLiterature
(1979)sheeditedandcompiledthefiftheditionofTheOxfordCompaniontoEnglishLiterature(1985).ShewasChairmanoftheNationalBookLeague1980
82,andwasmadeCBEin1980.SheisnowmarriedtoMichaelHolroydCBE(b.1935),thebiographerofSTRACHEYandG.B.SHAW.SeeJoanneV.Creighton,
MargaretDrabble,1985(criticalstudy)ValerieGrosvenorMyer,MargaretDrabble:aReader'sGuide,1991.
Dransfield,Michael(194873)
Australianpoet,wasborninSydney,droppedoutofuniversity,triedbeingagovernmentclerkandajournalist,consideredbecomingamonk,andsuccumbedtothe
drugculture.Latterlyhetravelledround,haphazardlybutprofitably,buyingandsellingoldpropertieshisromanticinterestinthemisreflectedinthe'CourlandPenders'
sequenceinhisfirstbook,StreetsoftheLongVoyage(1970).WhilecultstatusattachestohispoemsexpressingthepredicamentoftheaddictseeDrugPoems
(1972)hewasalsoamaturepoetofprotest,withalyricalbent.In1972hismotorcyclewasforcedofftheroad.Heneverrecoveredmentallyorphysicallyfromhis
injuries,thoughhecontinuedtowritefeverishly,andhediedayearlater.MemoirsofaVelvetUrinal,whichhehadpreparedforpress,waspublishedposthumously
in1975.Heleftsixhundredpoemsinmanuscript.SeeCollectedPoems,ed.RodneyHall,1987LivioDobrez,ParnassusMadWard:MichaelDransfieldandthe
NewAustralianPoetry,1990.
Drayton,Michael(15631631)
Englishpoet,wasborninHartshill,Warwickshire,thesonofatanner.AccordingtohisepistletoHenryReynolds(1627),hedeterminedtobeapoetwhenhewas
ten,whileservingasapageatPolesworthHouse,theseatofSirHenryGoodere(d.1595),whobecamehisfirstpatron.Hedidnotrushintoprint.Idea:the
ShepheardsGarland,inthemannerofSPENSER,appearedin1593underthepseudonymof'Rowland'.IdeasMirrour(1594),asonnetsequence,includes'Since
ther'snohelpe,comeletuskisseandpart...'itwasinspiredbySirHenry'sdaughterAnne(laterLadyRainsford),forwhomhehadalifelonginfatuation.Poly
Olbion(1612)wasretitledAChorographicallDescriptionofGreatBritain(1622),whichbetterdescribesthispatrioticpanoramaofthetopography,traditions,
andantiquitiesofEnglandandWales.Hecomposedthousandsoflinesofchronicleverse,fromEnglandsHeroicallEpistles(1597),inwhich12famouspairsof
loversaddresseachother,toTheBattaileofAgincourt(1627),employingavarietyofforms.Hemadefrequentrevisions,entirelyrewritingMortimeriados(1596)
asTheBarrons'Wars(1603),andchangingthemetrefromrhymeroyaltoottavarima.Whilehishistorypoemsbroughthimsuccessinhistime,hisreputationis
foundedlargelyonhispastoralpoetry,notablythemockheroicNimphidia(1627)andTheMuses'Elizium(1630).Hewasaconvivialpersonaccordingtothe
notebooksofRev.JohnWard,VicarofStratforduponAvonfrom1662to1681,thedrinkingata'merriemeeting'hehadin1616withJONSONandSHAKESPEARE
contributedtothelatter'sdeath.Henevermarried,andthenightbeforehediedhewasstillpenninglinestohisbelovedfriendAnne,whohadbeenawidowfornine
years.SeeCompleteWorks,ed.J.WilliamHebel,KathleenTillotson,andBernardH.Newdigate,5vols,rev.edn1961.
Dreiser,Theodore(18711945)
Americannovelist,wasborninTerreHaute,Indiana,the11thof12childrenofadomineeringGermanCatholicweaver,whothe

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yearbeforehadlosthismillinafire,hismobilityandhearinginanaccident,andhismoneythroughfraud.Thefamilywasrearedinitinerantpoverty,andtheboywas
educatedinparochialschoolsandatahighschoolinWarsaw,whichheleftin1887tofendforhimselfinChicago.Hewasrescuedfromhisjobasahardware
stockboybyaformerteacherfromWarsaw,whopaidforhimtoattendtheUniversityofIndiana,Bloomingtonheleftafterayearinfrustrationathistreatmentby
otherstudents.HebecameareporterinChicagoandthenStLouis,andin1895settledinNewYorkasamagazineeditor.Hisfirstnovel,SisterCarrie,apowerful
storyofragstorichesonthepartofayoungwomanwhofollowsinstinctratherthanpropriety,wasacceptedbyDoubleday,Page.Thefirmthenhadsecondthoughts,
andhavingpublishedanexpurgatedversionin1900withminimalpublicityandmaximumreluctance,promptlywithdrewitfromsale.Disheartenedandsuicidal,Dreiser
wasencouragedbyhisbrother,thesongwriterPaulDresser(18571906),withwhosehelphegotfurthereditorialposts,culminatinginhisbeing(verysuccessfully)
EditorinChiefofButterickPublicationsfrom1907to1910.
InthemeantimehehadworkedonJennieGerhardt(1911),anotherstoryofanoutwardlyamoralwoman,butthistimewithaheart.WiththereissueofSister
Carrie,andthepublicationofTheFinancier(1912),thefirstofa'TrilogyofDesire'basedonthecareerofanotoriousChicagospeculatortheothersbeingThe
Titan(1914)andtheposthumousTheStoic(1947)hiscareerwasrevivifiedandhisreputationassured.The'Genius'(1915)ispartlyautobiographical.The
epitomeofhisphilosophyisAnAmericanTragedy(1925),inwhichheusedanactualmurdercase,intensifiedbydetailandsupportedwithevidence,toarguethat
societyisatfaultforallowingtheenvironmentoftheslumstobreedthecriminalinstinctwhichcomesfrommaterialambition.HisshortstorieswerecollectedinThe
BestShortStoriesofTheodoreDreiser(1956),withanintroductionbyJ.T.FARRELL.DreiserLooksatRussia(1928)andTragicAmerica(1931)areexpressiveof
hissocialistconvictions.Afterthedeathin1942ofhiswife,fromwhomhehadbeenseparatedsince1909,hemarriedhiscousin,HelenRichardson,withwhomhe
hadlivedsince1920,aftermeetingherin1919andpursuinghertoHollywood,whereshehadabriefcareerasanextraandstarlet.SeeNewspaperDays,newedn
(ed.T.D.Nostwich)1991ofABookaboutMyself,1922RichardLingeman,TheodoreDreiser:AttheGatesoftheCity,18911907,1986andTheoodore
Dreiser:anAmericanJourney,19081945,1990,abridgededn1993(biography)PhilipL.Gerber,TheodoreDreiser,1964(criticalstudy).
Drummond,William,ofHawthornden(15851649)
Scottishpoet,wasbornatHawthornden,nearEdinburgh,andeducatedattheHighSchoolofEdinburghandEdinburghUniversity,afterwhichhestudiedlawonthe
Continent.Onhisfather'sdeathin1610hebecameLairdofHawthornden,andretiredintohislibraryof552volumes,whichincludedcontemporarypoetryinseveral
languages.ThefirstfruitsofhisselfimposedcourseoflifelongstudywasaconventionalepitaphonPrinceHenry,TearesontheDeathofMeliades(1613).Poems,
Amorous,Funereall,Divine,PastorallinSonnets,Songs,Sextains,MadrigalswaspublishedinEdinburghin1614,witharevisededitionin1616.Thetriumphal
returntoEdinburghin1617ofJamesI(andVI)occasionedhispanegyric,'ForthFeasting',whichenhancedhisreputationinthesouth.Henowcorrespondedwarmly
withDRAYTON,andin1618hewasfortwoweekshosttoJONSON,whohaddonethejourneyfromLondononfootandwhoserecollectionsandviewsDrummond
recordedforposterity.ThesonnetsandsongsinFlowresofSion(1623)reflecthislonelinessandpersonalmelancholythevolumeincluded'ACypresseGrove',a
masterlyproseessayondeathandthenatureofthesoul.In1627hewasgrantedpatentsfor16mechanicalinventions,mostofwhichhadmilitaryapplications.
CircumstancesledhimtosigntheCovenantin1639,whilesupporting(butnotbeingafraidopenlytocriticize)theKingandcorrespondingwithMONTROSE.Inthe
1630shebecameinvolvedinagenealogicalcontroversyreflectingonthelegitimacyofRobertIII,whohadmarriedDrummond'sancestress,AnnabellaDrummond.
(TherecertainlywassomemysteryaboutthemarriageofRobert'sparents,buttheirchildren'slegitimacywasestablishedbypapaldispensationin1347.)Drummond
wadedinwithvoluminouscorrespondenceandatreatiseaddressedtotheKing,whichgrewintoafullblownhistoryofScotland(published1655),coveringtheyears
14241542.Drummond'sdearlylovedfiancediedin1615hemarriedin1630,havinginthemeantimeenjoyedthecomfortsofamistress,whoborehimthree
children.SeeWilliamDrummondofHawthornden:PoemsandProse,ed.R.H.Macdonald,1976.
Drummond,WilliamHenry(18541907)
Canadianpoet,wasborninIrelandatCurrawnHouse,Co.Leitrim,andcametoCanadawithhisparentsandthreeyoungerbrothersinabout1864.Hewas
educatedatMontrealHighSchool,McGillUniversity,andBishop'sUniversity,Lennoxville,wherehequalifiedasMDin1884,afterwhichhewentintopracticein
Montreal.Duringthesixsummervacationsafterhewas15heworkedasatelegrapheratBordPlouffeontheRiviredesPrairies,nearMon

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treal,wherehemixedwiththeFrenchCanadianhabitants.ThefracturedEnglishthatheheardtherehelaterrecreatedasthelanguageofhispopularballadsand
lyrics,firstcollectedasTheHabitantandOtherFrenchCanadianPoems(1897),followedbyseveralmorevolumes.HediedofastrokeinCobalt,wherehehad
gonetodealwithanoutbreakofsmallpoxinhisbrothers'miningcamps.SeeHabitantPoems,ed.ArthurL.Phelps,newedn1970.
Dryden,John(16311700)
Englishpoet,dramatist,critic,andtranslator,wasborninAldwinckle,Northamptonshire,intoalandowningPuritanhousehold.HewaseducatedatWestminster
SchoolandTrinityCollege,Cambridge,afterwhichhesettledinLondon.Hisfirstpublishedworkwasacontribution,'HeroiqueStanzas...',toavolumeofthree
complimentarypoemscommemoratingthedeathofOliverCromwell(15991658).HegreetedtheRestorationoftheMonarchyin1660inthepersonofCharlesII
withtwoequallyeffusiverenderings,'AstraeaRedux'and'ToHisSacredMajesty',ademonstrationofinconstancywhichJOHNSONjustifiesinTheLivesofthe
Poets'ifhechanged,hechangedwiththenation'.HewaselectedtothenewlyestablishedRoyalSocietyin1662,andin1663marriedadaughteroftheEarlof
Berkshire,LadyFrancesHoward(c.16381714),whofeltthatshehadwedbeneathher.Henowbeganacareerasadramatistwhichlasteduntil1694,duringwhich
hepublishedoverthirtytragedies,tragicomedies,andcomedies.InAnnusMirabilistheYearofWonders(1667),hedescribesinrhymingquatrainstheGreatFireof
Londonandcelebrates,withsomeirony,thewaragainsttheDutchandthegloriesoftheRoyalSociety.In1668,theyearinwhichhepublishedhiscriticalstudy,Of
DramatickPoesie,hewasappointedthefirstPoetLaureate,andhebecameHistoriographerRoyalin1670.
Inthepoliticalupheavalsandlongrunningpersonalanimositiesofthetimehenowfoundtheperfectoutletforhistalents,andintheheroiccouplettheidealmedium.
WithMacFlecknoe:oraSatyruponT.S.,largelywrittenin1678butnotpublisheduntil1682,heroundedonhisformerfriendandnowpoliticalenemy,SHADWELL,
andsilencedhimandhiscronies.AbsalomandAchitophel(1681)asecondpartbyNAHUMTATE,withalonginsertionbyDryden,waspublishedin1682isovertly
political,usingthebiblicalstoryasaparallelinordertodiscredittheEarlofShaftesbury(162183)inhissupportoftheDukeofMonmouth(164985),theillegitimate
sonofCharlesII,againstfutureclaimsontheCrownbytheCatholicJames,DukeofYork,theKing'sbrother(laterJamesII).In1682DrydenpublishedReligio
Laici:or,ALayman'sFaith,apoeminwhichhedefendsthecompromisebetweenCatholicismanddeismofferedbytheAnglicanChurch.Aftertheaccessionof
JamesIIin1685,DrydenbecameaCatholic,andwroteTheHindandthePanther(1687),apoliticalandreligiousallegoryfromthestandpointofCatholicism,to
whichheremainedfaithful,eventhoughontheaccessionofWilliamandMaryin1689helosthisofficialpostsandhissteadyincome.Henowturnedtoverse
translation,includingthesatiresofJUVENAL(1693)andthewholeofVIRGIL(1697)seeDryden'sAeneid,ed.RobinSowerby(1986).FablesAncientandModern
(1700),forwhichhewasbestknownthroughoutthefollowingcentury,containstalesfromCHAUCERaswellasfromHOMER,OVID,andBOCCACCIO.
Drydenwasaconsummatecraftsman.Manyofthesongsandlyricssprinkledthroughhisplaysarejustlymemorable,asarehisodesonthedeathsofJohnOldham
(1684),CharlesII(1685),andAnneKilligrew(1686),andASongforStCecilia'sDay,1687(1687)andAlexander'sFeast(1697),bothofwhichweresetto
music.Ofhismanyplays,thebestarethetragicomedy,SecretLove:or,TheMaidenQueen(1667),andthetragedyAllforLove:or,TheWorldWellLost
(1677).ForthisdeliberateattempttoemulateratherthancopySHAKESPEARE'SAntonyandCleopatra,heabandonedrhymeforblankverse,andbyrestrictingthe
actiontoeventsafterthebattleofActiumandthesettingtoAlexandria,succeededinobservingtheclassicalunitiesoftimeandspace.Hisvalueandsignificanceasa
critic,anartwhichhepractisedthroughouthiscareerintheformmainlyofprefaces,lieinhisincisivemind,hisabilitytoappreciatedifferent(andoftendivergent)
literarytraditions,andhisprosestyle.Thesequalitiesareasapparentinhislastpiece,theprefacetotheFables,astheyareinhisessay,OfDramatickPoesieifheis
contradictoryitisbecausehewasabletochangehismind.Withhiscommandoflanguage(whichbecameacceptedpoeticdiction),hiswit,histechnicalskill,andthe
controlwhichledhimtoperfecttheheroiccouplet,hefoundedaschoolofsatiricalverseinwhichhisfollower,andhisonlyequal,wasPOPE.See[SelectedWorks],
ed.KeithWalker,1987(poetryandprose)SelectedPoems,ed.DonaldThomas,newedn1993[SelectedVerse]ed.KeithWalker,1994OfDramaticPoesy
andOtherCriticalEssays,ed.GeorgeWatson,2vols1962CharlesE.Ward,LifeofJohnDryden,1961PaulHammond,Dryden:aLiteraryLife,1991David
Hopkins,JohnDryden,1986(criticalstudy).
DuBellay,Joachim(152260)
Frenchpoet,wasborninLirofanobleAnjoufamily.Orphanedearlyonandafflictedwithdeafness,hestudiedlawandthehumanitiesatCollgedeCoqueret,
Paris,withhissecondcousinRONSARD.Hebecame

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amemberofRonsard'sgroup,the'Brigade',themanifestoofwhoseinnercircle,the'Pliade',hewroteasLaDeffenceetIllustrationdelaLangueFranoyse
(1549).Thesecond(1550)editionofhisfirstbookofverse,L'Olive(1549),aseriesoflovesonnetsinthestyleofPETRARCH,wasprefacedwithafurtherexposition
ofnationalliteraryaspirations.From1553to1557hewasinRomeassecretarytohiscousin,theambassadorCardinalDuBellay(14921560).OnhisreturntoParis
hepublishedLesAntiquitezdeRome(1558),32sonnetswhichSPENSERtranslatedas'RuinesofRome'inComplaints,andLesRegrets(1558),alongersequence,
morepersonalandmeditative.LatertranslatorshaveincludedLANG(seeespecially'Winnower'sHymntotheWinds')andCHESTERTON('SonnetofExile').
DuBois,W(illiamE(dward)B(urghardt)(18681963)
Americanprosewriterandnovelist,wasborninGreatBarrington,Massachusetts,andeducatedatthelocal,predominantlywhite,highschool,atFiskUniversity,and
atHarvard,wherein1895hebecamethefirstblacktobeawardedthedegreeofPhD,forhisdissertation,TheSuppressionoftheAfricanSlaveTradetothe
UnitedStatesofAmerica16381870(1896).HetaughtsociologyatAtlantaUniversityfrom1897to1910,when,havingbeenafoundermemberoftheNiagara
Movementagitatingforblackcivilrights,hebecameDirectorofResearchandPublicationsofthenewNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople,
inNewYork.ThepatienttoneofTheSoulsofBlackFolk(1903),askilfulblendofessaymaterialexploringhisconvictionthat'theproblemoftheTwentiethCentury
istheproblemofthecolorline',gavewaytotheexasperationreflectedinDarkwater:VoicesfromwithintheVeil(1920).In1934hereturnedtoAtlantaas
ChairmanoftheSociologyDepartment,fromwhichhewasunwillinglyretiredin1944.Hetravelledtheworldintheinterestsofpeacewhenallowedtodosobythe
USauthorities,andin1959wasawardedtheLeninPeacePrizeoftheUSSR.HejoinedtheAmericanCommunistPartyin1961,andsettledinGhana,ofwhichhe
becameacitizenin1963.TheQuestoftheSilverFleece(1911),hisfirstandmostsuccessfulnovel,intowhichheblendedafeministstrain,centresontheeffectsof
theNortherncontrolofthecottontradeattheturnofthecentury.ThePhiladelphiaNegro(1899)wasoneofthefirstworksinsocialsciencetoincorporateurban
ethnography,socialhistory,anddescriptivestatistics.SeeW.E.B.DuBois:aReader,ed.DavidLeveringLewis,1995TheOxfordW.E.B.DuBoisReader,ed.
EricJ.Sundquist,1996DavidLeveringLewis,W.E.B.DuBois:BiographyofaRace,newedn1994JackB.Moore,W.E.B.DuBois,1981
(biographical/criticalstudy).
Dudek,Louis(b.1918)
Canadianpoetandcritic,wasborninMontrealofPolishimmigrantparents,andwaseduatedatMontrealHighSchoolandMcGillUniversity,afterwhichheworked
asafreelancejournalist.HewenttoNewYorkin1943,wherehegraduatedinhistoryatColumbiaUniversityin1946,andcompletedhisstudiesin1955withathesis
publishedasLiteratureandthePress:aHistoryofPrinting,PrintedMedia,andTheirRelationtoLiterature(1960).HetaughtEnglishatCityCollege,New
York,from1946to1951,whenhereturnedtoMcGill.HewasappointedGreenshieldsProfessorofEnglishin1969,andestablishedandlargelyfinancedtheMcGill
PoetrySeries',whosefirstvolumewasLEONARDCOHEN'SLetUsCompareMythologies.In1952hefounded,withLAYTONandSOUSTER,ContactPress,Toronto,which
until1967publishedsignificantworksofpoetryandhewasfounderEditoroftheliteraryjournalDeltafrom1957untilhecloseditdownin1966.Hisownfirstbook
ofversewasEastoftheCity(1946).Subsequently,booklengthphilosophicalpoems,suchasEurope(1954)andEnMxico(1958),alternatedwithcollectionsof
lyricalandmetaphysicalverses.HiscriticalworksincludeSelectedEssaysandCriticism(1978),InDefenceofArt:CriticalEssaysandReviews(1980),and
Paradise:EssaysonArt,MythandReality(1992)hehasalsopublished(1974)hiscorrespondencewithPOUNDduringthe1950s.SeeCrossSection:Poems
19401980,1980ContinuationI,1981ContinuationII,1990Notebooks19601994,1994TerryGoldie,LouisDudekandHisWorks,1985.
Duggan,Eileen(18941972)
NewZealandpoet,wasborninTuaMarina,theyoungestoffourdaughtersofanIrishimmigrantrailwayworker,andwonascholarshiptoMarlboroughHighSchool.
Afterbeingapupilteacher,shegraduatedinhistoryfromVictoriaUniversityCollegein1918.ShetaughtbrieflyinhighschoolandatVictoriaUniversityCollege
beforeiiihealthforcedherintoretirementinWellington,whereshelivedwithherwidowedsisterandaclosefriend,andfrom1927untilherdeathwrotethewoman's
pageoftheTablet,NewZealand'sCatholicjournal.InPoems(1921)sheconfessedthat'Songcomestome/Buthaltingly...',butinthatslimvolumeandtwo
others,Poems(1937)andNewZealandPoems(1940),shesuccessfullyfusedMaoritermsandtraditionswithnationalhistoryinpursuitofacorporateidentity,and
shewasthefirstNewZealandpoettogaininternationalrecognition.Adeeperexperience,borderingonthemetaphysical,isreflectedinMorePoems(1951).She
wasmadeOBEin

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1937.SeeEM.McKay,EileenDuggan,1977(criticalstudy).
Duggan,Maurice(192275)
NewZealandshortstorywriter,wasborninAuckland,lefthisCatholicboardingschoolat13,andfouryearslaterhadalegamputatedbecauseofosteomyelitis.He
begantowritestoriesasaformofcompensationforhisinabilitytoparticipateintheaction:'AnyoneI'deverknown,orsoitseemed,wasmakingorpreparingforthe
journeytoawar.'Hewasconscriptedintoindustry,manhandlingametalpress.In1945,theyearhisfirststorywaspublished,hemarriedayoungwomanfromthe
NorthShore,wherehehadspenthisearliestyears.HewasadmittedtoAucklandUniversityin1947,andin1948editeditsliteraryannual,Kiwi.In1950hewentto
Europe,havingpublishedninestorieswhichhelaterreferredtoas'juvenilia',andalso'SixPlaceNamesandaGirl'(Landfall1949),whichappearedinhisfirst
collection,Immanuel'sLand(1956),mostofwhichwaswritteninLondon.AftertwoyearshereturnedtoNewZealandprecipitatelywithtuberculosis('InSpainI
brightlyandvoluminouslycoughed'),andspentmuchoftherestofthedecadeasasemiinvalid.Duringthistimehefinallyabandonedanovel,'AlongthePoisoned
River',andwroteachildren'sstory,FalterTomandtheWaterBoy(1958),whichhehaddevisedtotellhisson.AfterbeingRobertBurnsFellowatOtago
University('mybestwritingyear'),hewentin1961intoadvertising,inwhichheremaineduntilhisdeath.SummerintheGravelPit,whichincludedthreestoriesfrom
theearliervolume,waspublishedin1965,andO'Leary'sOrchardandOtherStoriesin1970.The'otherstories'were'AnAppetiteforFlowers'and'Riley's
Handbook',amonologuewhoseriotoususeoflanguageconstituted,intheopinionofC.K.STEAD,'surelyanimportantnewdevelopmentinthehistoryofourfiction'.By
1973Dugganhadmanagedtoconquerhisalcoholism,onlytobediagnosedassufferingfromcancer,ofwhichhedied.Hedestroyedallhisunpublishedfictionexcept
anunfinishednovel,'MissBratby',onwhichhehadworkedsporadicallyforyears.Hispublishedoutputcomprises30pieces,theformandstyleofwhichdictatedthe
length.Charactersrecurinareassuringwaythatbeliesthebleaknessofhisvisionandthesometimesdisturbingdepthofhisimagination.SeeCollectedStories,ed.C.
K.Stead,1981andinBeginnings:NewZealandWritersTellHowTheyBeganWriting,ed.RobinDudding,1980.
Dumas(DavydelaPailleterie),Alexandre(knownasDumaspre)(180270)
Frenchnovelistanddramatist,wasborninVillersCotterets,thesonofageneralwhosemotherwasaHaitiannegress.Hisfatherdiedin1806andhewasbroughtup
byhismother,thedaughterofaninnkeeper.Havingbeenarticledtoalocalsolicitoranddismissedin1822forgoinghuntinginofficehours,hewenttoParis,where
throughhisfather'soldcontactshegotajobinthesecretariatoftheDucd'Orlans(LouisPhilippe,KingoftheFrench183048),whoseassistantlibrarianhebecame
afterthesuccessofhisplay,HenriIII(1829).InAntony(1831)hebroughtthesettingoftheRomanticdramaintomoderntimes.Withnoletupinhisflowofplays,
heturnedin1835tohistoricalsketches,andin1838tonovels,hisoutputcentringontheservicesofanequallyinexhaustiblesupplyofwillingcollaborators,noneof
whomeverachievedanythingonhisownin1845hesuccessfullysuedforlibeltheauthorofapamphletaccusinghimofplagiarism,whowassentencedto15daysin
jail.HischiefcollaboratorwasAugusteMaquet(181388),withwhomhewroteLesTroisMousquetaires(1844tr.W.BarrowasTheThreeMusketeers,1846)
andLeComtedeMonteCristo(184445tr.EmmaHardyasTheCountofMonteCristo,1846),whichfollowedthenovelsofWALTERSCOTTingenrebut
exceededtheminpopularitylargelybecausetheywerecreatedforserialformat.Aprodigiousloveraswellaswriterandtraveller,heissaidtohaveremarkedinhis
sixties:'Ineedseveralmistresses.IfIonlyhadoneshewouldbedeadwithinaweek'hislastseriousfling,in186667,waswithAdahIsaacsMenken(183168),the
Americanactressandpoet.In1840hemarriedIdaFerrier(d.1859),aminoractress(realnameMargueriteFerrand)whohadbeenforseveralyearsoneofhis
mistresses:theypartedin1844.Themostnotableofhischildrenbyseveralwomenwasthefirst:thedramatist,novelist,andcriticAlexandreDumasfils(182495),
authorofLaDameauxCamlias(1848)fromhisownnovel,whowasthesonofCatharineLabay(17941868),adressmaker.DumasprediedatAlexandre's
houseinPuys,withhisfinancialaffairsinchaos,leavingunfinishedhisfinalchefd'oeuvre,GrandDictionnairedelaCuisine(1873).
DuMaurier,Daphne(190789)
Britishnovelistandshortstorywriter,thedaughteroftheactormanager,(Sir)GeraldduMaurier(18731934),andgranddaughterofGEORGEDUMAURIER,wasbornin
LondonandeducatedprivatelyandinParis.Shemarried(LieutenantGeneralSir)FrederickBrowning(18961965)in1932,theyearafterthepublicationofherfirst
novel,TheLovingSpirit.ManyofhernovelsandstorieshaveabackgroundofCornwall,wheretheyboughttheoldmansionofMenabilly.Thoughprimarily
regardedasawriterwhoprovidedentertainment,andsuspense,qualitiesreadilyfoundintheGothicromanticismofRebecca(1938),towhichSusanHill,Mrsde

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Winter(1993)isanadequatesequel,shewrotesomefinehistoricalnovels,includingJamaicaInn(1936),Frenchman'sCreek(1941),TheKing'sGeneral(1946),
andTheGlassBlowers(1963),whichfeaturesherfamily'shistoryandformeroccupation.Hercentralcharactersareofteninterestinglytreated,asinTheParasites
(1949),astudyofcomplexsiblingrelationships,MyCousinRachel(1951),andmanyofhershortstories,andshecancompellinglydevelopunusualsituations,asin
TheFlightoftheFalcon(1965)andRuleBritannia(1972).Shealsowroteanextremelyreadable(ificonoclastic)theatricalbiographyofherfather,Gerald:a
Portrait(1934),composedinfourmonthsafterhisdeaththescholarlyTheInfernalWorldofBranwellBront(1960)andthreeplays,includingthestageversion
ofRebecca(produced1940).LettersfromMenabilly:PortraitofaFriendship,ed.OrielMalet(1993)isvaluableasarecordofacorrespondencewithanother
writerwhichcontinueduntilherdeath.LatterlyduMaurierlivedinseclusion.ShewasmadeDBEin1969.SeeMyselfWhenYoung:theShapingofaWriter,new
edn1993ofGrowingPains,1977,anditscontinuationTheRebeccaNotebookandOtherMemories,newedn1993MargaretForster,DaphneduMaurier,new
edn1995(biography).
DuMaurier,George(183496)
Britishnovelistandillustrator,wasborninParis,theeldestsonofaFrenchfatherandanEnglishmotherwhocametoEnglandwhenhewasfive,butreturnedto
Francelater.HewaseducatedatthePensionFroussard,Paris,andUniversityCollege,London,wherehereadchemistry.Hethenworkedfortwoyearsasan
analyticalchemistinhisownlaboratory,providedbyhisfather,whodiedin1856.InthemeantimeduMaurier,whoseheartwasnotinscience,hadgonebackto
Paristostudyart.HethenwenttoAntwerp,whereinadrawingsessionhesufferedasuddendetachmentoftheretina,andpermanentlylostthesightofoneeye.In
1860hesettledinLondon,wherehebegantoworkasanillustrator,andmarriedanEnglishwoman.In1864hebecameamemberoftheeliteeditorialboardof
Punch.From1863forthenexttwentyyearsheillustratedforCornhillMagazineworksbysuchnovelistsasMEREDITH,HARDY,GASKELL,andHENRYJAMES.Thetechnical
transitionfromwoodengravingtoblockmakingbyphotographyenabledhimtoretainandsellhisoriginals,givinghimanextrasourceofincomeatatimewhenhehad
noideahowlonghissingleeyewouldholdout.ThisledhimtodiscusswithHenryJames,hisclosefriend,thepossibilityofbecominganauthortheoutcomewasan
offerfromtheAmericanpublisherHarpertoproducePeterIbbetson(1892),adreamrelatednovelbasedonhisyouthinParis.Trilby(1894),whichfirstappeared
ininstalmentsinHarper'sMagazine,withitsinnocentheroineunderthemesmericinfluenceofthesinisterSvengali,isoneofthemostfamousVictorianmelodramasit
isnotablealsoforitsdescriptionofbohemianlifeandforitsviewofthechangingpositionoftheartistinsociety.TheMartian(1897)waspublishedposthumously.
Dunbar,William(c.1460c.1520)
Scottishpoet,wasprobablyborninEastLothian,ofthefamilyoftheearlsofDunbarandMarch,andalmostcertainlystudiedatStAndrewsUniversityfrom1473to
1479.Byhisownaccount,hebecameanitinerantFranciscanfriar,butrenouncedthecalling,andwasemployedbyJamesIVondiplomaticassignmentsabroad.In
1500hisnameappearsasbeinggrantedaroyalpensionforlife,oruntilpromotedtoabenefice.In1501hewasoneofamissiontoLondon(acitywithwhichhewas
muchimpressed)toarrangeJames'smarriagetoMargaretTudor,theeldestdaughterofHenryVII,aboutwhichhewrote'TheThrissillandtheRois'[TheThistleand
theRose].HecomposedacelebrationofAberdeenfortheQueen'svisittherein1511.Hisnamedisappearsfromtherecordsafter1513,whichmaysuggestthathe
gothisbeneficeintheend,foritisimprobablethathefollowedtheKingtoFloddenandparticipatedinthedisastrousdefeatoftheScotsatthehandsoftheEnglish.In
themeantimeheseemstohavebeenmucharoundthecourt,writingreligiouspoems,satiricalpoems,lovepoems,autobiographicalpoems,rudepoems,moralpoems,
andpoemsofadmonitionandpetitiontotheKing,whilecontinuallycomplainingabouthispension,grousingabouttheweatherandhishealth,andharpingonabouthis
benefice.
NotuntilBURNS,whowasalsoScottish,isthereapoetwhoserangeofthemesismatchedbysuchversatilityintheuseofmetricalforms,noronesoconfidentinhisart
thatintrueScottishfashionhecanimbueitwithsuchfranknessoftone.Atitsbest,whichisoften,hispoetryhasaplangentrhythm,enhancedbyalliterationand
internalaswellasendrhymes.ThesequalitiesareapparentevenwhenheisaddressingtheKingabouthisentourage('Schir,yehavemonyservitouris...')orthe
Queenaboutherwardrobemaster('ThewardraipperofVenushouse...').Hisrevelationsaboutcourtlifeareascolourfulandcomicasthoseaboutfemalesexuality
inhisalliterativesatireontheepicofcourtlylove,'TheTwaMariitWemenandtheWedo'norisheaversetoendingablessingforthepracticalskillsoftailorsand
shoemakers('Betuixtwellhourisandellevin...')withaquietdigattheirhonestyinbusinessmatters.Thereis,too,astrongimaginationatworkinvisionarypoems
suchas'TheGoldynTarge'and'TheDanceoftheSevinDeidlySynnis',andanhonestdepthoffeelinginhisdivinepoems,especiallythaton

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theNativity,'Roratecelidesuper...',andtheresoundinghymntotheResurrection,'Doneisabattellonthedragonblack...'.Whilethesheerpanicof'Ithatinheill
wesandgladness...'(knownalsoas'LamentfortheMakaris'),withitsLatinrefraineveryfourthline,'Timormortisconturbatme',makesitoneofthemost
engaginglysympatheticofpoemsaboutdeath.
SixofDunbar'spoemswereprintedin1508,and24(inadaptedversions)byRAMSAYinTheEverGreen(1724).Thefirsteditionproperofhisworkswasin1834.
SeeThePoemsofWilliamDunbar,ed.W.MackayMackenzie,newedn1990SelectedPoems,ed.PriscillaBawcutt,1996PriscillaBawcutt,Dunbarthe
Makar,1992(criticalstudy).
Duncan,Robert(191988)
Americanpoetandcritic,wasbornEdwardHowardDuncaninOakland,California.Afterthedeathofhismother(inchildbirthorfromflu),hewasadoptedbya
couplewhoweretheosophistsandwhochosehimforhisastrologicalconfiguration.HewasbroughtupasRobertEdwardSymmes,underwhichnamehepublished
abouttwentypoemsbeforerevertingtoDuncanin1942.Fromhisadoptiveparentshereceivedthegroundingofhermeticloreandfairytales,which,togetherwith
dreams,wereintegraltohispoeticvision.Afallwhenhewasthreepermanentlyaffectedhissight:'Ihadthedoublereminderalways....Oneimagetotherightand
abovetheother.Reachoutandtouch.Pointtotheonethatisreallythere'(1964).Having'recognizedinpoetrymysoleandrulingvocation',helefttheUniversityof
California,Berkeley,aftertwoyearstomoveeastwithamalelover.HewasforatimeassociatedwiththecircleofNIN,whichthenincludedHENRYMILLER,DURRELL,and
BARKER.Afteramarriagein1943whichonlylastedafewmonths,hepublishedinPolitics(August1944)asignedessay,'TheHomosexualinSociety'.In1946he
returnedtoBerkeleytostudymedievalandRenaissanceculturethefollowingyearhevisitedPOUNDinhisWashingtonasylumandspenttwodayswithhim'Homage
andLamentforEzraPound'isinTheYearsasCatches:FirstPoems19391946(1966).Duncanwasforsometimeembarrassedbyhisfirstbook,thepoem
HeavenlyCity,EarthlyCity(1947),onlylatterlyrecognizingitasanacceptedpartofhiscanon.In1950hemetandestablishedapermanentrelationshipwiththe
painterandcollagistJess(Collins),whichinfluencedthesubsequentworkofbothmen.
TheFirstDecade:Poems19401950(1968)juxtaposedaseriesof'DomesticScenes'withMedievalScenes(1950),andincluded'TheVenicePoem',akeywork
inthedevelopmentofhispoetics.DuncantaughtatBlackMountainCollegeforfivemonthsin1956,afterwhichhehelpedtofoundandwasAssistantDirectorofthe
PoetryCenter,SanFranciscoStateCollege195657.TheOpeningoftheField(1960)isregardedashismostaccessiblecollection.Ataboutthistimehestartedto
writeanextendedcritiqueofthepoetryofDOOLITTLE,TheH.D.Book,ofwhichindividualchapterswerepublishedinvariousjournals196385.BendingtheBow
(1968)hadamessagethatwas'political'inthesenseof'concernedwithtruecitizenship'.Inhisdespairathisinabilitytoconfronttheenormityofcurrentevents,he
publiclyannouncedintheprefacetothenewedition(1972)ofCaesar'sGate:Poems19491950withPasteupsbyJessthathewouldpublishnomajorbookof
poetryuntil1984.GroundWork:BeforetheWar(1984),comprisingpoemswrittenlargelybetween1968and1975,wasreproducedinwideformatfromhisown
typescriptsGroundWorkII:IntheDark(1987)waspublishedtheyearbeforehisdeathfromkidneyfailure.Hispoetrylooksbacktomanytraditions,includingthe
occult,Celticmythology,andJewishmysticism,andtotheworkofpoets,novelists,philosophers,linguists,andpaintersfromclassicalthroughmedievaltomodern
timesitalsosuggestsavenuesofmeaningbeyondthewordsthemselves.In1985hewasgiventheNationalPoetryAward,createdinhishonourbythreehundred
otherwriters.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.RobertJ.Berthoff,1993TheTruthandLifeofMyth:anEssayinEssentialAutobiography,newedn1973Fictive
Certainties:FiveEssaysinEssentialAutobiography,newedn1986EkbertFaas,YoungRobertDuncan:PortraitofthePoetasHomosexualinSociety,new
edn1984(biographyto1950)MarkAndrewJohnson,RobertDuncan,1988(criticalstudy).
Dunn,Douglas(b.1942)
Scottishpoetandshortstorywriter,wasborninInchinnan,Renfrewshire,wherehegrewup,andwaseducatedatCamphillSeniorSecondarySchool,Paisley,and
theScottishSchoolofLibrarianship.AfterworkingasalibrarianinGlasgowandattheAkronPublicLibrary,Ohio,hereadEnglishatHullUniversity,wherehewent
ontobeanassistantlibrarian(underLARKIN)intheBrynmorJonesLibraryfrom1969to1971,whenhebecameafreelancewriter.Hisfirstbookofverse,Terry
Street(1969),dealshonestlyandcompassionatelywithurbanworkingclasslife.Subsequentvolumes,inwhichtherangeofsubjectmatterismuchwider,metwith
lessenthusiasticcriticalacclaim,butwithBarbarians(1979)andStKilda'sParliament(1981)hiselegiacvisionofordinarypeoplewaspresentedpreciselyandwith
technicalexpertise.ThepoemsinElegies(1985),writtenafterandaboutthedeathofhiswifefromcancerin1981,andrecallingtheirlifetogether,performthe
miracleofpreservingtheprivacyofthepersoninthepublicplaceofprint,andthevolumewontheaccoladeofWhitbreadBookoftheYear.Dante'sDrumKit
(1993)is

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acomparativelysubstantialcollectioninfiveparts.SecretVillages(1985)isacollectionofshortstories,mostofwhichreflectinanelusivefashionthetraditionally
closedcommunitiesofruralScotlandthestoriesinBoyfriendsandGirlfriends(1995)aremorewideranginginsettingandsituation.HelivesinnorthFifewithhis
secondwife,whomhemarriedin1985,andtheirchildren.Hewas1991appointedaprofessorinEnglishattheUniversityofStAndrews,whereheisalsoDirectorof
theStAndrewsScottishStudiesInstitute.SeeSelectedPoems19641983,1986RobertCrawfordandDavidKinloch(eds),ReadingDouglasDunn,1992.
Dunsany,(Plunkett,EdwardJohnMoretonDrax),18thLord(18781957)
Irishshortstorywriter,dramatist,andnovelist,wasborninLondonandeducatedatEton,fromwhichhewenttoSandhurstviaacrammer,beingcommissionedinthe
ColdstreamGuardsin1899,theyearhesucceededtohisgrandfather'stitle.HefoughtintheBoerWar,afterwhichheassumedthefamilyestatesnearTara,Co.
Meath.Heexercisedhispassionforsportwithcricket,shooting,andbiggamehunting,andforromanticadventurebywriting,whichhedidatterrificspeed,dictating
tohiswifeorstandingathisdeskwithaquillpen.Hisfirstbookofstories,TheGodsofPegana(1905),waspublishedathisownexpenseinthisandsubsequent
collectionsheshowedhowtocombinehumourwiththefabulous.TheGlitteringGate,aplaywithacelestialsetting,waswrittenfortheAbbeyTheatre,whereitwas
performedin1909.TheGodsoftheMountain,ashort,equallyimaginativeplay,stagedinLondonin1911,wasthebeginningofanespeciallyproductiveline.In
WorldWarIheservedinFranceintheRoyalInniskillingFusiliers,withanintervalwhileonEasterleavein1916,whenhewenttoDublintoobservetheRising,and
wasshotintheheadandtakentohospital,whichwasthenbesiegedbytherebels.Betweenthewarshewasaninternationalchessplayer,wrotemoreplays,poetry,
andstories,extendedhisrangeintonovelsnotablyTheCurseoftheWiseWoman(1933)andMyTalkswithDeanSpanley(1936)andinventedJoseph
Jorkens.Thisengagingcharacter,whoseexploitsandfancifuleffusionsmirrorhisown,occupiesseveralvolumesfromTheTravelTalesofMrJorkens(1931)to
JorkensBorrowsAnotherWhiskey(1954).SeeMarkAmory,LordDunsany,1972(biography).
D'urfey,Thomas(16531723)
Englishdramatistandpoet,betterknownasTomDurfey,wasborninExeterofHuguenotdescentonhisfather'sside.Hewas,byhisownaccount,intendedforthe
law,butinsteadbeganalongwritingcareerwithTheSiegeofMemphis:or,TheAmbitiousQueen(1676),arhymingheroictragedy.MadamFickle:or,TheWitty
FalseOne(1677)andTheFoolTurn'dCritick(1678),bothwithmuchfarcicalactionandfirstperformedinthesamemonthin1676,weremoretothepublictaste.
Athirdcomedyofsexualongoings,AFondHusband:or,ThePlottingSisters,sopleasedCharlesIIwhenitopenedin1677thatheattendedthreeofthefirstfive
nights.(Itwasalsochosenin1713forabenefitperformanceforitsauthor,whowasatthattimedownonhisluck.)Insubsequentplays,notablyLoveforMoney:or,
TheBoardingSchool(1691),asentimentalstreakemerged,suchaswastodominate18thcenturydrama.TheobscenitiesintheseveralpartsofTheComical
HistoryofDonQuixote(169496),fromCERVANTES,causedhimtobeincludedinthevitriolicattackonthecontemporarystagein1698byJeremyCollier(1650
1726),andhewasinfactprosecutedforprofanity.HewroteaponderousPindaricodeonthedeathofQueenMaryin1695,andhewasstillwritingplaysinthereign
ofhersister,QueenAnne,whowasthefourthBritishmonarchtoshowhimfavour.Hewasalsoanotablewriterofsongs,whichhesanginpublicwithgreatgusto,
thoughhestammeredinhisnormalspeech.Variouscollectionsoftheseappeared,withadefinitiveedition,calledWitandMirth:orPillstoPurgeMelancholy,insix
volumes(171920).
Durrell,Lawrence(191290)
Britishpoetandnovelist,wasborninJulundur,India,andeducatedatStJoseph'sCollege,Darjeeling,andStEdmund'sSchool,Canterbury.HelivedinCorfufrom
1934to1940foranamusingacountofthisperiod,seeMyFamilyandOtherAnimals(1956)byhisbrother,thezoologistGeraldDurrell(192595).Hewas
attachedtotheBritishInformationOfficeinCairoandAlexandriainWorldWarII,afterwhichheheldgovernmentpublicrelations'postsinGreece,Argentina,
Yugoslavia,andCyprus.HisfirstnovelwasPiedPiperofLovers(1935)TheBlackBook:anAgonwaspublishedsubterraneouslyinParisin1938,andnotinthe
UKandUSAuntil1977.HispoetrybeganwithQuaintFragment:PoemsWrittenBetweentheAgesofSixteenandNineteen(1931)andcontinuedintothe
1970s.Quiet,sometimeshumorous,oftenlyrical,andespeciallyeffectivewhenevokingplaces,itishispoetry,withhisthreesocalled'travelbooks',Prospero'sCell
(1945),aboutCorfu,ReflectionsonaMarineVenus(1953),aboutRhodes,andBitterLemons(1957),aboutCyprus,whichmanyBritishcriticsregardashismost
lastingwork.Durrell'sinternationalreputation,however,isbasedonhis'AlexandriaQuartet'ofnovels,Justine(1957),Balthazar(1958),Mountolive(1958),and
Clea(1960).Thefirstthree,intheauthor'swords,'interlap,interweaveinapurelyspatialrelation',whilethelastisasequelintime.Multilay

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eredpatternsofsexualinvolvementsandintrigues,withtheactionandcharactersseenfromdifferentviewpoints,illuminateaninherentlydramatic,attimesromantic,
plot.InthefivenovelswhichmakeupTheAvignonQuincunx(197485),theKnightsTemplarofoldandtheirlosttreasurerepresentameansofsurvivalinthe
modernworld.SeeCollectedPoems19311974,ed.JamesA.Brigham,3rdrev.edn1985GordonBowker,ThroughtheDarkLabyrinth:aBiographyof
LawrenceDurrell,1996G.S.Fraser,LawrenceDurrell:aStudy,rev.edn1973.
Drrenmatt,Friedrich(192190)
Swissdramatistandnovelist,wasborninKonolfingen,Bern,thesonofaProtestantclergymanofanotablefamily.OriginallyintendedfortheChurch,hestudied
literature,philosophy,theology,andthehistoryofartattheuniversitiesofZurichandBern,abandonedanyclaimstofaith,anddeterminedtobeawriter.Hisfirstshort
storywaspublishedin1945,andDerRichterundseinHenker(1952tr.CyrusBrooksasTheJudgeandHisHangman,1955),adetectivenovel,wasserialized
in1950.Havinghadacontroversialplayaboutreligiousrevivalismperformedin1947,heturnedseriouslytothestagewithRomulusderGrosse[Romulusthe
Great](performed1949),'anunhistoricalcomedy'inmockheroicstyle.Hebecameinthe1960sthemostfrequentlyperformedplaywright(afterSHAKESPEAREand
BRECHT)intheGermanspeakingtheatre,andaleadingexponentofblackcomedy,whichheimbuedwithadisturbing,oftennihilistic,message.Twoplayshavebeen
particularlyeffectiveontheBritishandAmericanstage:DerBesuchderaltenDame(published1956tr.PatrickBowlesasTheVisit,1958),inwhichtherichest
womanintheworldreturnstothedepressedvillageofherbirthandofferstosaveit,atapriceandDiePhysiker(1962tr.JamesKirkupasThePhysicists,1964),
astrongdiscussionpieceontheuseandabuseofnuclearpower,setinalunaticasylumpublished,withRomulustheGreat,TheMarriageofMrMississippi(first
produced1952),andAnAngelComestoBabylon(1953),inFourPlays(1964),whichalsoincludeshisstudy,[ProblemsoftheTheatre](1955),originallya
seriesoflecturesgiveninSwitzerlandandWestGermany.
Dutton,Geoffrey(b.1922)
Australianpoet,novelist,historian,travelwriter,critic,andeditor,wasbornandbroughtuponthefamilypropertyofAnlaby,Kapunda,SouthAustralia:'Mymother
longedforLondon,asherequivalentinChekhovlongedforParis.Myfather,stifledbytheboredomofAdelaide,hidhimselfawayinthecountryorbythesea,and
drankhimselftodeath.'HewasatGeelongGrammarSchoolandfortwoyearsatAdelaideUniversity.HeservedasaflyinginstructorinAustraliainWorldWarII,
duringwhichhepublishedhisfirstbookofverse,NightFlightandSunrise(1944).AfterthreeyearsatMagdalenCollege,Oxford,andseveralmoreinLondon,
wherehebecamefriendswithROYCAMPBELLandALDINGTON,andinFrance,hereturnedtoAustraliaandwasSeniorLecturerinEnglish,AdelaideUniversity195462.
AfterthenbeingEditorofPenguin,Australia,hecofoundedin1965thepaperbackpublisher,SunBooks,ofwhichhewasEditorialDirectoruntil1983.Hehelpedto
establishandeditedthejournalsAustralianLetters(195768)andAustralianBookReview(196170),andinauguratedandeditedthequarterlyliterary
supplementswhichappearedintheBulletinfrom1980to1985,andthenintheAustralianfrom1985to1990.MuchofhisverseseeFindingsandKeepings:
SelectedPoems19401970(1970),NewPoemsto1972(1972),andNewandSelectedPoems(1993)isautobiographicalandinformedbytravel,particularlyto
theUSSR,inwhichhetravelledinthelate1960swithYEVTUSHENKO,whosepoetryhehastranslatedintoEnglish.
Innocence,usuallythatofAustraliansinthefaceoftheexperienceof'outsiders',isthemotivatingfeatureofhisfiction,whichhebeganpublishingwithTheMortaland
theMarble(1950).Tamara(1970),inwhichanunsophisticatedAustralianscientistisenmeshedincontemporarySovietliterarypolitics,isaparticularlythoughtful
socialcomedy.TheinnocenceinQueenEmmaoftheSouthSeas(1976),ahistoricalnovelofthelate19thcentury,isthatoftheSamoans,oneofwhom
transcendedtheinfluencesof'civilization'tobuildherowntradingempire.Dutton'soeuvrealsoincludesbiographies,notablyTheHeroasMurderer:theLifeof
EdwardJohnEyre(1967),andcriticalstudiesofPATRICKWHITE(rev.edn1971)andWHITMAN(1960)andoftheartistsS.T.Gill(1962)andRussellDrysdale(rev.
edn1981).SnowontheSaltbush(1984),ananalysisofthegrowthofanindigenousliterarycultureinthecontextofBritishattitudes,includesanaccountoftheErn
Malleyaffair(seeMCAULEY).TheInnovators(1986)isastudyofthemodernistmovementsinartandliteratureinSydney.HeeditedTheLiteratureofAustralia
(rev.edn1976),thefirstpopularcriticalstudyofthesubject,andwasoneofthosemostinstrumentalintheliftingofcensorshiprestrictionsin1972.Duttonwas
marriedin1944.In1983helefthiswifeforawomanconsiderablyyoungerthanhimself.Hisautobiography,OutintheOpen(1995),wascriticizedforitsfrankness
abouthisrelationswithpeoplewhowerestillalive:hiswife'sbook,Firing:anAutobiography(1995)thetitlereferstoherartisticcallingasanenameller,makes
noreferencetohismoresensationalrevelations.HewasmadeAOin1976.

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E
East,Michael
seeWEST,MORRIS.
Eastaway,Edward
seeTHOMAS,EDWARD.
Eberhart,Richard
seeLOWELL,ROBERT.
Eco,Umberto(b.1932)
Italiancriticandnovelist,wasborninAlessandroandwasReaderinAestheticsatTurinUniversitybeforebecomingProfessorofSemioticsatBolognaUniversity.He
cameintoprominenceasacriticin1962withavolumeofessaysonelectronicmusic,television,thecinema,andliterature,whichincludedastudyofJOYCE.Hisseminal
workinhisparticularfieldisSemioticsandthePhilosophyofLanguage(1984).IntheessaysinTheLimitsofInterpretation(1991)hefocusesonbringingunder
controlthevagariesintowhichpoststructuralismhadbeenvergingseealsoTheSearchforthePerfectLanguage,tr.JamesFentress(1995).MALCOLMBRADBURY,
inanarticleinTheTimesLiterarySupplement(1990),referstohimas'animportantcontributortocontemporaryhermeneuticandsemioticdiscussion,aradical
voicenowplacedbycurrentdevelopmentsinapositionmoreresemblingconservatism',whosenovels'showtheripebenefitsofamodernhermeneuticselfawareness
aswellasanabilitytoreachawidecontemporaryaudience'.FurtheressaysandoccasionalpiecesareinMisreadings,tr.WilliamWeaver(1993),HowtoTravel
withaSalmonandotherEssays,tr.Weaver(1994),ApocalypsePostponed,ed.RobertLumley(1994),andSixWalksintheFictionalWoods(CharlesEliot
NortonLectures,1994).IlNomedellaRosa(1980tr.WilliamWeaverasTheNameoftheRose,1983)isametaphysicalsearchfortruthandmeaningintheform
ofathrillersetinamedievalmonastery,somekeystowhoseinterpretationareinPostilloaIlNomedellaRosa(1983tr.WeaverasReflectionsonTheNameof
theRose,1984).IlPendolodiFoucault(1988tr.WeaverasFoucault'sPendulum,1989),whichhetoldpeoplehewrote'becauseonenovelcouldhavebeenan
accident',isbycontrastanexperimentalnovelfeaturingcomputerscienceandRosicrucianism.Histhird,L'IsoladelGiornoPrima(1994tr.WeaverasTheIsland
oftheDayBefore,1995),setin1643inashipwreckedontheInternationalDateLine,isarichamalgamoflanguage,learning,andphilosophicalspeculation.See
ReadingEco:anAnthology,ed.RoccoCapozzi,1997.
Edgeworth,Maria(17671849)
Irishnovelist,wasborninOxfordshire,theeldestdaughteroftheeducationistandinventorRichardLovellEdgeworth(17441817)andhisfirstwife.Shewas
educatedinEngland.In1782sheaccompaniedherfatherandhisthirdwifetothefamilyestateofEdgeworthstown,Co.Longford,whereshelivedfortherestofher
life,andwhereshediedinthearmsofherfather'sfourthwife.HerfirstpublishedworkswereTheParent'sAssistant(1795),aseriesofdidacticandmoraltalesfor
childrenwhichbyits1800editionhadgrowntosixvolumes,andPracticalEducation(1798),writtenwithherfather,whowasuntilhisdeathaferventsupporterof
herliteraryendeavours,andwhoseMemoirs,writtenbythemjointly,appearedin1820.CastleRackrent(1800),publishedanonymously,wasaliterarymilestonein
thatitwasthefirstregionalnovelinEnglish.Narratedbyaservant,itfollowsthefortunesofafamilythroughseveralgenerationsthespeechistheEnglishwhichwas
usedinIreland.Initshistoricaldetailandspirit,italsolooksforwardtoWALTERSCOTT,whorepaidMaria'svisittoAbbotsfordin1823withonetoEdgeworthstownin
1825,afterwhichtheytouredIrelandtogether,ftedwherevertheywent.TalesofFashionableLife(180912)includes'Ennui'and'TheAbsentee',whichpresent
accurateimpressionsofIrishcontemporarylifeforapredominantlyEnglishreadership.Patronage(1814),oneofherfournovelsaboutEnglishsociety,isunusualfor
itsdiscussionofhowtogetajobanother,Harrington(!817),writtenpartlyasreparationforantiSemiticattitudesinearlierbooks,contains(inthepersonofMr
Montenero)thefirstindepth,sympatheticstudyofaJewinEnglishfiction.InOrmond(1817),anovelofGaelicandascendancyIrelandwhichisalsothefirstto
exploretheeffectsoffictionalcharactersonyoungpeople,theorphanhero'sbehaviourisinfluencedbytheprotagonistsofHENRYFIELDING'STomJonesandSAMUEL
RICHARDSON'SSirCharlesGrandison.Hefinallysobers

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upandactsresponsibly.SeeMarilynButler,MariaEdgeworth:aLiteraryBiography,1972.
Edwards,Jonathan(170358)
AmericantheologianandPuritandivine,wasborninEastWindsor,Connecticut,fifthchildandonlysonofRev.TimothyEdwardsandEstherStoddardEdwards,who
livedtotheagesof89and98respectively,andgrandsonofRev.SolomonStoddard(16431729),for57yearsministertothecongregationatNorthampton,
Massachusetts.TheboywaseducatedathomeandatYaleCollege,wherefromtheageof15hewrotephilosophicalandscientificpapers.Hegraduatedfirstinhis
classin1720,stayingontoreadtheology.In1721heunderwentaformofselfinducedconversionsee'PersonalNarrative'(1765).Afterayearasministertoa
ScottishPresbyterianchurchinNewYork,hewasin1723offeredatutorshipatYale.Thatyearhemadeanoteofa13yearoldgirlinNewHaven,Sarah
Pierrepont,'ofawonderfulsweetness,calmnessanduniversalbenevolenceofmind'.In1727,havingbecomeassistanttohisgrandfather,hewasordained,and
marriedSarahtheyhad11children.
OnStoddard'sdeath,Edwardssucceededhim.Hispowersofcommunicationweresoonevidencedbythepublication,bypopulardemand,ofGodGlorifiedinthe
WorkofRedemption(1731),apubliclectureADivineandSupernaturalLight(1734),asermonandAFaithJillNarrativeoftheSurprisingWorkofGodin
theConversionofManySoulsinNorthampton(London1737,Boston1738).ThoughhisphilosophywasinfluencedbyNEWTONandLOCKE,heaimedtooffera
refinedversionofthetheologyofCALVIN.ThearrivalinBostonin1740oftheEnglishMethodist,Rev.GeorgeWhitefield(171470),increasedthemomentumofthe
GreatAwakening,astateofreligiousfervourmarkedbyextremeemotionalism,oneofthoseaffectedbeingSarahherself.Edwards'ssermonatEnfield,Connecticut,
SinnersintheHandsofanAngryGod(1741),wasaboutasmuchhellfireascongregationscouldtake,andthemovementsubsided.Drawnoutargumentsabouta
fixedsalary,hispubliccondemnationofyoungcongregantsforreadinganddistributinga'badbook'(itturnedouttobecalledTheMidwifeRightlyInstructed),and
hisfinalrefusaltoacceptasfullchurchmembersthosewhohadnotpubliclyprofessedtohavingbeensaved,resultedin1750inhisdismissal(by200votesto20).
Forsevenyears,duringwhichhiswritingsincludedFreedomoftheWill(1754)andTheNatureofTrueVirtue(1765),hewasmissionarytotwohundred
HousatonicIndians,towhomhepreachedthroughaninterpreter,andpastortoahandfulofsettlersintheoutpostvillageofStockbridge.In1757,hewaschosenas
PresidentoftheCollegeofNewJersey(Princeton)onthedeathoftheincumbent,whowashissoninlaw.HewasinductedinFebruary1758,anddiedamonthlater
fromasmallpoxinoculation.HisdaughterEstherdiedinPhiladelphiafourdaysafterhim,probablyfromthesamecauseSarahwenttolookafterEsther'schildren,
anddiedsixmonthslater,ofdysentery.SeeAJonathanEdwardsReader,ed.JohnE.Smith,HarveyS.Stout,andKennethEMinkema,1995DavidLevin,
JonathanEdwards:aProfile,1969M.X.Lesser,JonathanEdwards,1988(biographical/criticalstudy).
Ekwensi,Cyprian(b.1921)
Nigeriannovelist,wasbornofanIbofamilyinMinna,NorthernNigeria,andwaseducatedatGovernmentCollege,Ibadan,YabaHigherCollege,Lagos,andthe
SchoolofForestry,Ibadan,afterwhichhejoinedthegovernmentForestryDepartment.'InthedaysintheforestIwasabletoreminisceandwrite':folklorehehad
learnedfromhisparents,publishedasIkolotheWrestlerandOtherIboTales(1947),andshortstories,fiveofwhichappearedinAfricanNewWriting(1947).In
1947hebecameateacherofEnglishandscienceatIgbobiCollege,Yaba,whilestudyingpharmacy,andtellingaweeklystoryonRadioNigeria,aspinofffrom
whichwasacommissiontoproducearomanticnovella.WhenLoveWhispers(1948),publishedinOnitsha,isoneofthefirstNigerianworksoffictioninEnglish,and
isregardedasaforerunneroftheOnitshamarketliterature.HetaughtattheSchoolofPharmacy,Lagos,from1949to1951,whenhewenttodofiveyears'training
atChelseaSchoolofPharmacy,LondonUniversity.OnthevoyageouthewrotePeopleoftheCity(1954rev.edn1963),anovelofthepressuresofmodern
Lagos.InEngland,whennotdispensingdrugs,hewroteandbroadcastfortheBBC.BackinNigeria,afterayearasagovernmentsuperintendentpharmacist,he
switchedcareerstobeHeadofFeatures,NigerianBroadcastingCorporation,andthenin1961DirectorofInformation,FederalMinistryofInformation,inwhich
capacityhecontrolledthenationalmedia.JaguaNana(1961)isacharacterstudyofanageingprostitutewhofirstemergedin'FashionGirl'seeinLokotownand
OtherStories(1966).Asequel,JaguaNana'sDaughter,appearedin1986.InIska(1966)heprojectedcivilwarbetweenHausaandIbo.Whenitactually
materialized,hereturnedtohishomelandofthebreakawaystateofBiafrauntilitsdefeatin1970heservedasControllerofBroadcasting.Hefictionalizedtheconflict
inSurvivethePeace(1976).SubsequentlyheexercisedinEasternNigeriaallhisprofessionalinterests:asproprietorofapharmaceuticaltradingcompany,managing
directorofanewspapergroup,astatecommissionerforinformation,andchairmanofastatelibraryboardandastatehospitals'board.Athoughtfulstoryteller/social
commentatorwithfewpretensionsasaliterarystylist,he

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acknowledgestheinfluenceofSIMENONandWALLACEonhisworkingmethods.Hehasalsowrittenfictionforchildren.SeeErnestEmenyonu,CyprianEkwensi,1974
(criticalstudy).
Eldershaw,M.Barnard
seeBARNARD.
Eliot,George,pseudonymofMaryAnnEvans(181980)
Britishnovelist,wasborninAstley,Warwickshire,theyoungestsurvivingchildofanestatemanagerandhissecondwife,whosoonafterthebirthmovedtoGriff
House,ChilversCoton.Shewenttoboardingschoolatfive,andleftNantglynSchool,Coventry,in1835,shortlybeforehermother'sdeath.OnherbrotherIsaac's
marriagein1841,sheandherfathermovedtoFoleshill,ontheedgeofCoventry,whereshebecamecloselyassociatedwiththefamilyofthefreethinkerand
philosopher,CharlesBray(181184).In1842sheshockedherownfamilybyrefusingtoattendchurch,andthoughsheresumedgoing,shewasnowanagnosticin
thatherfaithwasinhumanityratherthaninGod.ThroughtheBraysshegotthejoboftranslatingTheLifeofJesusCriticallyExaminedbyDrDavidFriedrich
Strauss,whichwaspublishedwithouthernamebyJohnChapman(182194)in1846.ThisstudyoftheGospelsinthelightofbothorthodoxandrationalistviewswas
wellreceivedbyradicalthinkers.Afterthedeathofherfatherin1849,shewenttotheContinentandthenlodgedinLondoninanuneasyrelationshipwithChapman,
hiswife,andhismistress,whileworkingasassistanteditoroftheWestminsterReview.InJuly1854ChapmanpublishedLudwigFeuerbach'sTheEssenceof
Christianity,'translatedbyMarianEvans'.On20JulysheandGeorgeHenryLewes(181778),thewriteronscienceandphilosophy,lefttogetherforGermany.On
theirreturntheylivedasmanandwifeLewes,havingcondonedhiswife'sadulterybyregisteringinhisnameseveralofherchildrenbyherlover,ThorntonHunt
(18101873),sonofHUNT,waspreventedfromobtainingadivorceseeRosemaryAshton,G.H.Lewes:aLife(1991).
ItwasLeweswhosuggested,foreconomicmotives,thatMarianshouldtrywritingfiction.In1856shebeganastory,'TheSadFortunesofReverendAmosBarton',
whichLewessubmittedtoBlackwood'sofEdinburgh,whoprinteditandtwofurtherstoriesinBlackwood'sEdinburghMagazine,andpublishedtheminvolume
formasScenesofClericalLifeby'GeorgeEliot'(1858).ThiswasfollowedbyAdamBede(1859),whichreceivedexcellentnotices.Speculationwasnowrifeabout
theidentity,andsex,oftheauthor,whosealarmthatherirregulardomesticarrangementswouldharmherliteraryreputationwasjustifiedinthatthereceptionofThe
MillontheFloss(1860),publishedafterthetruthbroke,wasmixed.SilasMarner:theWeaverofRaveloe(1861)restoredherstandingastheleadingnovelistof
theday,withoutmakinghersociallyacceptable.Romola(1863),publishedbySmith,Elder,wasafinancialfailure.WhenFelixHolt,theRadical(1866)was
rejectedbySmith,Elder,shereturnedtoBlackwood's,whoweresubsequentlypersuadedbyLewestopublishMiddlemarch:aStudyofProvincialLife(187172)
initiallyineightvolumesininstalmentsoverayear.Itwashailedasamasterpieceandmadeher8000betweenthenand1879.Inthemeantimeshehadbeen
strugglingwithpoetry,whichwaspublishedasTheSpanishGypsy(1868)andTheLegendofJubal,andOtherPoems(1874)seeinSelectedEssays,Poems
andOtherWritings,ed.A.S.ByattandNicholasWarren(1990).HerfinalnovelwasDanielDeronda(1876).In1880,twoyearsafterLewes'sdeath,Marian
married,whichledherbrothertocommunicatewithherafter23years.Herhusbandwasheraccountant,JohnCross(18401924),whoontheirhoneymoonin
Venicetriedtocommitsuicidebyjumpingfromthebalconyintothecanal.Shediedonlyafewmonthslaterand,intermentinWestminsterAbbeyhavingbeenrefused,
wasburiedinunconsecratedgroundinHighgateCemetery.
DAICHESinACriticalHistoryofEnglishLiterature(newedn1969)beginshisassessmentofGeorgeEliot,'Before[her]theEnglishnovelhadbeenalmostentirely
theworkofthosewhoseprimarypurposewastoentertain'andconcludes:'Asagewhosemoralvisionismosteffectivelycommunicatedthroughrealisticfiction[was]
anunusualphenomenon...whenGeorgeEliotbegantowrite.Ifithasbeenlessunusualsince,thatisbecauseGeorgeEliotbyherachievementinfictionpermanently
enlargedthescopeofthenovel.'Shewasdifferentinthatthelogicaldevelopmentofasituationtranscendsmereconsiderationsofdramaticplot.Herintellectenabled
hertoinvestigateshadesofmoralityandtopresentcharacterswhicharepsychologicallyconsistentonlywhendealingwithchildren,andthennotafterSilasMarner,
thelastnovelinwhichshereexploredherownchildhood,doesherperceptionfalter.Thedilemmasofhercharactersarealwaysexpoundedinthecontextoftheir
environmentandoftenreflectactualexperiences.Thebreadthanddepthofherinterests,andtheunderstandingandmakingofherart,aredemonstratedinSelected
CriticalWritings,ed.RosemaryAshton(1992).SeeGordonS.Haight,GeorgeEliot:aBiography,newedn1994FrederickKarl,GeorgeEliot:aBiography,
newedn1996RosemaryAshton,GeorgeEliot:aLife,1996RosemarieBodenheimer,TheRealLifeofMaryAnnEvans:GeorgeEliot,HerLettersand
Fiction,newedn1996(criticalbiography)JoanBennett,GeorgeEliot:HerMindandArt,rev.edn1962RosemaryAsh

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ton,GeorgeEliot,1983(introductiontoherthought).
Eliot,T(homas)S(tearns)(18881965)
poet,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninStLouis,Missouri,andeducatedatSmithAcademy,StLouis,andHarvardUniversity.Aftergraduatinginphilosophyand
logic,andthenspendingayearattheSorbonneinParis,wherehereadFrenchliterature,hereturnedtoHarvardtostudyepistemologicaltheory,ancientIndian
languages,andmetaphysics.Duringthistimehewrote'TheLoveSongofJ.AlfredPrufrock','Preludes','PortraitofaLady',and'RhapsodyonaWindyNight',all
poemsofconsiderablesignificance.Theoutbreakofwarin1914interruptedhisfurtherstudiesatMarburgUniversity,andhetransferredtoMertonCollege,Oxford,
toreadGreekphilosophy.Aftertwoyearsteachingatboys'schools,hejoinedtheColonialandForeignDepartmentofLloydsBank,forwhichheworkeduntil1925.
Hisfirstvolumeofpoetry,PrufrockandOtherObservations,waspublishedin1917,followedbyPoems(1919)andAraVosPrec(1920).Hewasnownotonly
givinganewdirectiontoEnglishandAmericanpoetry,butinTheSacredWood:EssaysonPoetryandCriticism(1920)heofferedinteraliaanewassessmentof
partsoftheacceptedcanonofEnglishliteratureitself,andarguedthatapoetshouldwritefroma'historicalsense'ofEuropeanliteraturefromHOMERonwardsas
wellasfromhisownnationalliterarytradition.Hiswife'sillness(hehadmarriedin1915)andotherworriescontributedtoatemporaryboutofwriter'sblockthe
suddenreleasefromitonaSwissholidayresultedinthecreationof'TheWasteLand'.Thislong,beautiful,symbolicpoemofdisillusionment,inaformincorporating
suggestionsbyhisfriendPOUND,hehimselfpublishedin1922inthefirstissueofanewliterarymagazine,TheCriterion,whichhefoundedandediteduntil1939.
In1925hebecameadirectorandaneditoroftheLondonpublisherFaber&Faber,forwhomheworkedfortherestofhislifeandbuiltupanenviablelistofmodern
poets.Poems,190925(1925)broughttogetherwhathadalreadybeenpublished,withtheadditionof'TheHollowMen',andrepresentedtheendofonepoetic
phaseandthebeginningofanother,morequestioningone,epitomizedinthestylized,DanteesqueworldofAshWednesday(1930).In1927hetookBritish
nationalityandalsobecameamemberoftheChurchofEngland.Theultimateexpressionofhisspiritualredemptionintermsoftimeandeternityisinthepoems'Burnt
Norton'(1936),'EastCoker'(1940),'TheDrySalvages'(1941),and'LittleGidding'(1942),publishedtogetherasFourQuartets(1944).
WithSweeneyAgonistes:FragmentsofanAristophanicMelodrama(1932)heexploredthepotentialofthemodernpoeticdrama,aboutwhichhehadwrittenin
TheSacredWood.MurderintheCathedral(1935),foritsreligiousassociationsinparticular,isoftenperformed.Thoughthecomedy,TheCocktailParty(1950),
andthemorefarcicalTheConfidentialClerk(1954)wereadmiredintheirtimeasstageplays,heis,incontrasttoFRY,moreapoetthanadramatist.Amusical
adaptationofhisjuvenileorientatedbutsophisticatedrhymes,OldPossum'sBookofPracticalCats(1939),hasbeenproducedunderthetitleofCats(1981).
Asapoet,Eliotmakesconsiderabledemandsonhisreaders,anditisuptothemtorespond.Heisregardedasthefounderofmodernisminpoetry,ofwhomasearly
as1932LEAVIScouldwriteinNextBearingsinEnglishPoetry,'Wehavehere...poetrythatexpressesfreelyamodernsensibility,thewaysoffeeling,themodes
ofexperience,ofonefullyaliveinhisownage.'AsapoetcriticinthetraditionofDRYDEN,COLERIDGE,andARNOLD,hisinfluenceontheunderstandingandappreciationof
literaturehasbeenprofound.HepointedthewaytoamoreincisiveinterestinElizabethanandJacobeandrama,particularlyMASSINGERandWEBSTER,andinDONNEand
otherMetaphysicalpoets.InTheIdeaofaChristianSociety(1939)andNotesTowardstheDefinitionofCulture(1948)heturnedhisattentiontothecriticismof
modernsociety.HisClarkLecturesatCambridge(1926),followedbytheTurnbullLecturesatJohnsHopkinsUniversity(1933),wereeventuallypublishedasThe
VarietiesofMetaphysicalPoetry,ed.RonaldSchuchard(1994).HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiterature,andalsotheOM,in1948.
Eliot'swife,fromwhomhehadbeenpermanentlyseparatedsincetheearly1930s,diedin1947.HemarriedValerieFletcherin1957.QuestionsofhisantiSemitism
resurfacedpubliclyin1996withanadversarialstudybyAnthonyJulius,T.S.Eliot,AntiSemitismandLiteraryForm,andherbravedecisiontoallowthe
publication,underthetitleofInventionsoftheMarchHare:Poems19091917,ed.ChristopherRicks(withvoluminousannotationsrevealingthepoet'ssources),of
anotebookofearlyverseswhichEliothadexpresslystatedshouldneverbepublished.SeeTheCompletePoemsandPlaysofT.S.Eliot,1969SelectedProseof
T.S.Eliot,ed.FrankKermode,1975LyndallGordon,Eliot'sEarlyYears,newedn1988,andEliot'sNewLife,newedn1989(biography)TonySharpe,T.S.
Eliot:aLiteraryLife,1991HelenGardner,TheArtofT.S.Eliot,newedn1968A.DavidMoody,ThomasStearnsEliot:Poet,2ndedn1995(criticalstudy)
DavidE.Jones,ThePlaysofT.S.Eliot,newedn1963.
Elliot,Jean(17271805)
Scottishpoet,wasbornatthefamilyseat,MintoHouse,Roxburghshire,thethirddaughterofSirGilbertElliotofMinto(16931766),ajudgeoftheCourtofSession.
Itissaidthatonenight

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in1756,whiletheywerebeingdrivenhomeinthefamilycoach,herbrotherGilbert(172277),manoflettersandfutureeminentpolitician,bether'apairofglovesor
asetofribbons'thatshecouldnotwriteasuccessfulsongaboutthebattleofFlodden(1513).'TheFlowersoftheForest',writteninScots,andarguablythemost
popularandcertainlythemostmovingofballadsonthesubject,waspublishedanonymouslyandwasinitiallybelievedtobeagenuinerelic.Onthedeathofherfather,
sheandhermotherandsistersmovedtoahouseinBrownSquare,Edinburgh,whereshelivedonaloneaftertheydied.Shewassaidtobethelastwomaninthecity
regularlytogooutinherownsedanchair.Theidentityoftheauthoroftheballadwasdiscovered,longafteritwasknowntobeamoderncomposition,byatrioof
folklorists,oneofwhomwasWALTERSCOTT,whoprinteditinMinstrelsyoftheScottishBorder(180203)as'byaladyoffamilyinRoxburghshire'.HENRYMACKENZIE,
whowasherneighbourinEdinburgh,describedheras'oneofthemostsensiblewomenofhertime,tho'shewrotepoetry'.Nootherpoemknowntobebyherhas
survived.
Ellis,Havelock
seeSCHREINER.
Ellison,Ralph(Waldo)(191494)
Americannovelistandcritic,wasborninOklahomaCity,andeducatedatalocalhighschoolandTuskegeeInstitute,Alabama,wherehemajoredinmusic,his
instrumentbeingthetrumpet.Hehassaid:'In19351discoveredEliot'sTheWasteLandwhichmovedandintriguedmebutdefiedmypowersofanalysissuchas
theywereandIwonderedwhyIhadneverreadanythingofequalintensityandsensibilitybyanAmericanNegrowriter.'In1945hereturnedfromservingatseain
theUSMerchantNavy,havingbeenunabletostartthenovelwhichhehadbeenawardedaRosenwaldFellowshiptowrite.Hestruggledforseveralyearswith
InvisibleMan(1952),whichwontheNationalBookAward.AfirstpersonodysseyofanamelessblackfromtheSouthtoNewYork,itwascriticized,aswasthe
workofBALDWIN,fornotreflectingthe'protest'philosophyofRICHARDWRIGHT,whohadbeenoneofEllison'searlypatrons.Inanessayincludedinhiscollection,
ShadowandAct(1964),herepliedtothechargebypostulatingthathumanexperienceisbothmorecomplexandricherthanmereprotest.Alatervolumeofessaysis
GoingtotheTerritory(1986).From1958hetaughtfolklore,blackstudies,creativewriting,andRussianandAmericanliteratureatseveralcollegesanduniversities,
beingAlbertSchweitzerProfessorintheHumanitiesatNewYorkUniversity197079.AmonghisretirementpastimeswerebirdwatchingandgrowingAfricanviolets.
Fragmentsofanuncompletedsecondnovelappearedinliteraryjournals,mostnotably'AndHickmanArrives'(NobleSavage,March1960).SeeTheCollected
Essays,ed.JohnECallahan,1995AmritjitSingh(ed.),ConversationswithRalphEllison,1995RobertG.O'Mealley,TheCraftofRalphEllison,1980(critical
study).
luard,Paul
seeDIVLINELYTIS.
Elyot,(Sir)Thomas(c.14901546)
Englishprosewriter,wasprobablyborninWiltshire,wheretherewerefamilyestates.HewaseducatedathomeandattheMiddleTemple,finallytakingadegreein
civillawatOxfordin1524.In1511,attheinstigationofhisfather,SirRichardElyot(d.1522),ajudgeoftheKing'sBench,hewasappointedClerkofAssizeonthe
WesternCircuit.Inabout1525,throughtheinfluenceofCardinalWolsey(c.14751530),hebecameChiefClerkoftheKing'sCouncilhewasforciblyretiredafter
Wolsey'sfallin1530,butwasrewardedwithaknighthood.AthismanornearCambridgehenowwroteTheBokeNamedtheGovernour(1531),inwhichhe
broughttheprinciplesoftheNewLearningtobearontheeducationofyoungmenforleadership.Whileheadvocatedathoroughknowledgeofclassics(suchas
survivedinBritishindependentschoolsuntilthemiddleofthe20thcentury),and,forrecreation,artisticpursuitsandsport(exceptfootball,'whereinisnothingbut
beastlyfuryandextremeviolence'),hewroteinEnglish,inadeliberateattempttoencourageotherstouseand'augment'thelanguageandtoimprovestandardsof
translation.HewasrewardedbyHenryVIIIwithadiplomaticpostinEurope,butafter1532heconcentratedonliteraryworks.Themostsignificantofthesearea
seriesofPlatonicdialoguesincludingOftheKnowledgeWhicheMakethaWiseMan(1533)andTheDefenceofGoodWomen(1545),thefirstLatinEnglish
dictionary(1538),andTheCastelofHelth(1539),alayman'sguidetomedicineandhygiene,whichwasattackedbydoctorsbecausehewasnotqualifiedandby
membersofhiscirclebecauseitwasnotasuitablesubjectforaknight.
Elytis,Odysseus,pseudonymofOdysseusAlepoudelis(191196)
Greekpoet,wasborninHeraklion,Crete,thesixthchildofawealthysoapmanufacturer.ThefamilymovedtoAthenswhenhewasthree.HereadlawatAthens
University,butdidnottakehisdegree.Hepublishedhisfirstbookofversein1939,andservedasalieutenantinAlbaniaduringWorldWarII.Afterthewarhe
workedfortheNationalBroadcastingInstitution,withabreakforfurtherstudyinParisattheSorbonne.HewassubsequentlyPresidentoftheGoverningBoardof
GreekBallet195658,andAdvisertotheGreekNationalTheatre196568.Headoptedapseudonymtoavoidthelinkwiththebrandofsoapmade

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byhisfamily,thechoicebeingascribedtovariouslinguisticconnectionswiththename:Hellas[Greece]elpida[hope]eleftheria[freedom]Eleni[Helen]alytis
[wanderer],whichinitsclassicalGreekformisusedbyHOMERtodescribeOdysseus(theseaisarecurrentmotifinElytis'sverseandotherwritings)andPaulluard
(18951952),theFrenchSurrealistpoetwhosework,withthatofsimilarwritersofhistime,wasoneoftheearlyinfluencesonElytisseePaulluard,Ombreset
Soleil/ShadowsandSun:SelectedWritingsof19131952,tr.LloydAlexanderandCicelyBuckley(bilingualedn1995).In[TheAxionEsti](1959tr.Edmund
KeeleyandGeorgeSavidis,1980),along,complexpoemindenselyallusivelanguagewhichwas14yearsinthewriting,lifeandthecreativepowerofNatureandthe
poethimselfarerangedagainstthedestructiveforceofhiscountry'senemies.Hewasareclusivepersonthoughmanyofhispoemswereinspiredbywomen,hewas
apparentlytoodevotedtohisworkevertomarry.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1979.SeeTheCollectedPoems,tr.JeffreyCarsonandNikos
Saris,1997TheSovereignSun:SelectedPoems,tr.KimonFriar,1990.
Emecheta,(Florence)Buchi(b.1944)
Nigeriannovelist,wasborninLagos,thedaughterofarailwayporter,onwhoseearlydeathhermother,whoasachildhadbeensoldasafamilyslave,returnedto
hernativevillageinIbusa,EasternNigeria.Emecheta,whowouldotherwisehavebeenforcedtomarryat12,secretlysatforascholarshipattheMethodistGirls'High
School,Lagos,whereshewentasaboarder.Sheleftat16,andbowedtofamilypressuretomarry(buttothemanofherchoice).Stillonly17,andnowamotherof
two,sheearnedenoughinajobattheAmericanEmbassyinLagostojoinherstudenthusbandinLondon.Shelefthimfinallyin1964,'alittleovertwenty,dragging
fourcoldanddrippingbabieswithme,andpregnantwithafifth'.ShegotworkasalibrarianintheBritishMuseum,tookanAlevelinLatin,andembarkedona
courseofstudywhichledtoadegreeinsociologyatLondonUniversityin1972.ShebrowbeatRichardCrossman(190774),thenEditoroftheNewStatesman,
intopublishingaseriesofarticlesonherexperiencesinLondon,'LifeintheDitch',whichbecamehernovel,IntheDitch(1972),withasequelSecondClassCitizen
(1974)publishedtogetherasAdah'sStony(1983).TherefollowedthreenovelsexploringthetraditionalpositionofwomeninNigeria:TheBridePrice(1976),the
originalmanuscriptofwhich,writteninherearlyLondondays,herhusbandhadburnedTheSlaveGirl(1977)andTheJoysofMotherhood(1979).Nowalsoa
communityworkerandadviseronracerelations,shelecturedintheUSAin1979.DestinationBiafra(1982)isanonlymarginallyfictionalizedaccountofthe
sufferingsinherhomeregionduringthecivilwar.Shehadreturnedtherein1980,asavisitingprofessoratCalabarUniversity,theexperienceofwhichisthebasisof
DoubleYoke(1982).InGwendolen(1989),theeffectsofchildabuseandthegrowingapartofAfroCaribbeanandAfricanculturaltraditionsextendherrange
beyondimmediate,orvicarious,experience.SeeHeadAboveWater,newedn1994(autobiographyto1977).
Emerson,RalphWaldo(180397)
Americanphilosopherandpoet,wasborninBoston,Massachusetts,thefourthofeightchildrenofaUnitarianministerwhodiedwhentheboywasseven.Hismother
keptaseriesofboardinghousesinordertoeducatehersons,andEmersonwenttotheBostonPublicLatinSchoolandHarvardCollege,fromwhichhegraduated
30thinaclassof59in1821.In1825,afterteachingathisbrother'sschoolforyoungladies,andwritingpoetry,dramacriticism,essays,andfictioninhissparetime,
heenrolledatHarvardDivinitySchool,onlytohavetogobacktoteachingbecauseofeyetrouble.HereturnedtoHarvardin1827.In1829hewasordainedajunior
pastorofBoston'sSecondChurch,andmarriedEllenTucker.Shewas19,anddiedoftuberculosis16monthslater.In1832,havingdeliveredasermoninwhichhe
questionedtheorthodoxviewoftheLord'sSupper,heresignedfromtheministry,andsailedforEurope.HesawLANDORinItaly,andattendedaFourthofJulydinner
with98ofhiscountrymeninParis.InLondonhemetMILLandsatforanhourwithCOLERIDGE,whomonopolizedtheconversation.Hetravelledintothedesolation
roundCraigenputtockFarm,whichwasthebeginningofalifelongandfruitfulfriendshipwithCARLYLE,andvisitedRydalMounttoseeWORDSWORTH,'thehardlimits'of
whosethoughtdisturbedhim.
OnhisreturnhesettledinConcord,abletosubsistasalectureronalegacyfromEllen.In1835hemarriedLydiaJackson(180292),whomherenamedLidianbut
preferredtocall'Queenie',andwhostressfullyboretheburdenofrunningahouseholdoftenpeopledbyvisitingeccentrics.HehelpedtofoundtheTranscendental
Club,fortheinformalexchangeofmodernviewsonphilosophy,theology,andliterature.Theessenceoftranscendentalismisexpressedinhisfirstbook,Nature
(1836),inwhichhearguesthatmancanstretchbeyondhisknowncapabilitiesbytranscendingreason,throughfaithinhimselfandinthebenevolentpowerofthe
universe.THOREAUandMARGARETFULLER,whofortwoyearseditedthemovement'sjournal,theDial,werenotableliterarydisciplesofhisthoughtatthistime.In1837
hedeliveredbeforethePhiBetaKappaSociety,Harvard,inthepresenceofThoreau'sgraduatingclass,hiscelebratedorationon'The

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AmericanScholar',whichHOLMEShailedas'ourintellectualDeclarationofIndependence'.
In1838hedeliveredtheDivinitySchoolAddressatHarvard,onthestateofChristianity,whichcausedhimtobebannedfromspeakingthereforoverthreedecades.
Essays(1841)andEssays:SecondSeries(1844),drawnfromhisjournalsandlectures,earnedhimthestatusofprophetPoems(1846)confusedthepublicwithits
philosophicalimplicationsbutpleasedrefinedcritics.RepresentativeMen(1850),studiesofgreatfiguresintermsoftheirtimes,andEnglishTraits(1856),sketches
developedfromhistwovisits(thesecondin184748),weremoretopopulartaste,andhenow,toemphasizehisclubbablenature,tooktosmokingcigars.He
espousedthecauseoftheabolitionists,andspokeoutpubliclyagainsttheFugitiveSlaveActof1850.In1872hismemorybegantobeerratic,andafteraseverefire
athishome(ALCOTTwasamongthosewhocametothescene,andmadeherselfresponsibleforsavingmanuscripts),anotherEuropeantripwasfelttobetherightthing
forhishealth.WithhisdaughterEllen(18391909)hevisitedFrance,Italy,Egypt,andGreece,aswellasBritain,andreturnedtoConcordtotheplayingofbandsand
thecheeringofcrowds.Hecontinuedtogotomeetingsofhisclubs,butrecognizedlittle,noteventhefaceofthecorpseatthefuneralofLONGFELLOW.Specialtrains
werelaidonforhisownfuneral,towhichoverathousandmournerscamefromoutsideConcord.Nosinglepersonhashadsuchaninfluenceonthecourseof
Americanliterature.SeeRalphWaldoEmerson,ed.RichardPoirier,1990(selectionfromlectures,essays,andpoetry)EssaysandPoems,ed.TonyTanner,1992
CollectedPoemsandTranslations,ed.HaroldBloomandPaulKane,1994Emerson'sLiteraryCriticism,ed.EricW.Carlson,newedn1996RalphL.Rusk,
TheLifeofRalphWaldoEmerson,1949RobertD.Richardson,Jr,Emerson:theMindonFire,1995(criticalbiography)CarlosBaker,EmersonAmongthe
Eccentrics:aGroupPortrait,introductionandepiloguebyJamesR.Mellow,1996(hisfamily,hisfriends,andtheirattitudes)DonaldYanella,RalphWaldo
Emerson,1982(criticalstudy).
Empson,(Sir)William(190684)
Britishpoetandcritic,wasbornatYokefleetHall,Howden,Yorkshire.Hisfatherdiedwhenhewasten.HewaseducatedatWinchesterCollegeandMagdalene
College,Cambridge,wherehehadpoemspublishedintheCambridgeReviewandCambridgePoetry1929,andsubmittedtohistutor,inplaceofaweeklyessay,
thebasisofthefirstofhismajorcriticalworks,SevenTypesofAmbiguity(1930).Anallegedbreachofchastitycausedtheremovalofthefellowshipathiscollegeto
whichhehadbeenelected.InsteadhebecameProfessorofEnglishatTokyoUniversityofLiteratureandSciencefrom1931to1934.Whilehewastherehewrote
SomeVersionsofPastoral(1935),inwhich,fromastartingpointofadiscussiononproletarianliterature,heprovocativelytreatsthepastoralelementinCARROLL'S
AliceinWonderland,aswellasinSHAKESPEARE,MILTON,andGAY.HewasProfessorofEnglishatPekingNationalUniversity193739and194752,afterwhichhe
wasProfessorofEnglishatSheffieldUniversityuntilhisretirementin1971.InthepostwarperiodhepublishedTheStructureofComplexWords(1951)and
Milton'sGod(1961).Hebelievedthatcriticismshouldembracemanyrelevantexperiences,andhewrotewithhumouraswellaswithwideranginginsight.Hisverse
makesupinimpressivenessandsomebrilliantindividuallinesforwhatitlacksingeneralaccessibility.Severalvolumesofcriticalessayshavebeenpublished
posthumously,ofwhichTheStrengthofShakespeare'sShrew:Essays,MemoirsandReviews,ed.JohnHaffenden(1996)alsocontainsautobiographicalmaterial.
Hewasknightedin1979.SeeCollectedPoems,newedn1984.
Engels,Friedrich
seeMARX.
Enright,D(ennis)J(oseph)(b.1920)
Britishpoet,novelist,andcritic,wasborninLeamingtonSpa,Warwickshire,anddescribeshisworkingclassupbringinginthepoemsinTheTerribleShears:Scenes
fromaTwentiesChildhood(1973).HewonscholarshipstoLeamingtonCollegeandDowningCollege,Cambridge,wherehewasapupilofLEAVIS.Hewas
subsequentlyawardedaDLittdegreebyAlexandriaUniversityforhisthesisACommentaryonGoethe's'Faust'(1949),afterapublicvivaconductedinFrench
beforeanEgyptianacademicboard.Hisperipatetic,oftenunconventionalandoccasionallycontroversialacademiccareerseehiscausticMemoirsofaMendicant
Professor(1969)tookhiminturntoEgypt,Japan,WestGermany,Thailand,andSingapore,wherehewasProfessorofEnglishattheuniversity196070.Muchof
hispoetry,fromthatpublishedinTheLaughingHyenaandOtherPoems(1953)tothatinInstantChronicles:aLife(1985)hasbeeninspiredbyforeignparts,
particularlytheEast,andisoftenironicwhilealsorespondingtothemiseryhehaswitnessedthereUndertheCircumstances:PoemsandProses(1991)dealsin
quirksandoddities.TheEastfeatures,too,inhisnovels,ofwhichthefirst,AcademicYear(1955),wasreissuedin1985withanintroductionbyTHWAITE.Interplay:
aKindofCommonplaceBook(1995)comprisesphilosophical,literary,andnostalgicrecollections.HiscriticalworksincludeManisanOnion:Essaysand
Reviews(1972)andFieldsofVision:EssaysonLiterature,Language,andTelevision(1988).TheWorldofDew:Aspects

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ofLivingJapan(1955)isbothaccuratelyrealizedandamusing.HehaseditedTheOxfordBookofContemporaryVerse19451980(1980).HewasmadeOBE
in1991.SeeCollectedPoems,rev.edn1987SelectedPoems1990,1990OldMenandComets,1993(subsequentcollection).
Erasmus,Desiderius(14661536)
DutchhumanistscholarandprosewriterinLatin,wasborninRotterdam,thesecondoftwoillegitimatesonsofawidowandofascholarlyscribewhoatsomepoint
becameapriest.HewaseducatedatchapterschoolsatGouda,Deventer,and,afterthedeathofhisparentsinabout1484,atBoisleDuc('sHertogenbosch),from
whichin1487,reluctantlyaccedingtohisguardians'wishes,heenteredtheAugustinianOrderatSteyn.Hewasordainedpriestin1492.AfterservingasLatin
secretarytotheBishopofCambria,hestudiedtheologyatCollgeMontaigu,ParisUniversity,supportinghimselfbytakinginprivatepupilsfromEngland.Oneof
thesewasWilliamBlount(d.1534),LordMountjoy,atwhoseinvitationhevisitedEnglandin1499,meetingTHOMASMOREandtheroyalchildrenofHenryVII.Backin
Paris,hepublishedAdagiorumCollectanea(1500),acollectionof818GreekandLatinadages,whichheexpandedovertheyearsandwhichbecameasourceof
inspirationformanyEuropeanwriters.InbetweenContinentaltravel(hewasawardedadoctorateintheologyatTurinin1506),privateteaching,research,andstudy,
hemadethreefurthervisitstoEngland.Duringthesecondofthese(150914),helecturedinGreekstudiesatCambridge,andwrote,whileiiiatMore'shouse,the
playfulsatireEncomiumMoriae(authorizededn1512tr.BettyRadiceasPraiseofFolly,1971),whoseLatintitleisapunonthenameofhishost.
From1517to1521ErasmuslivedmainlyinLouvain,wherehepreparedthefirstauthorizededitionofColloquia[Colloquies](1522),aseriesofwitty,irreverent
dialoguesandessays,whichhadbegunasexercisesinconversationalLatinandbecameaninstrumentofreligiousreform.Aftersettlingin1521inBasel,wherehe
actedasgeneraleditorfortheprinterJohnFroben(d.1549),hecontinuedhiscampaignwithDeLiberoArbitrio[OnFreeWill](1524),aprotestagainstthe
extremismofLUTHERwhichhadbeensuggestedbyHenryVIII,towhomhesentanadvancecopyofthetext.NowalignedneitherwithorthodoxCatholicsnorwith
theLutherans,hemovedin1529toFreiburg,fromwhichhereturnedtoBaselin1535tosupervisethepublicationofEcclesiastes(1535),histreatiseontheartof
preaching.HerefusedPopePaulIII'sofferofacardinal'shat,anddiedinseclusion,maintainingthemottoonhispersonalseal,'Cedonulli'[Iyieldtonoone].Prolific
writer,overthreethousandofwhoseletterssurvive,andeditoroftheGreekNewTestamentandthewritingsofSTJEROME,heistheembodimentofhumanism.See
TheErasmusReader,ed.ErikaRummel,1990LonE.Halkin,Erasmus:aCriticalBiography,tr.JohnTonkin,newedn1994JamesMcConica,Erasmus,
1991(introductiontohislifeandworks).
Erdrich,(Karen)Louise(b.1954)
Americannovelistandpoet,wasborninWahpeton,NorthDakota,theeldestofsevenchildrenofGermanAmericanandFrenchChippewadescent.AtDartmouth
College,whichsheenteredin1972,hertutorinNativeAmericanStudieswasMichaelDorris(b.1946),NativeAmericanwriter,whomshelatermarriedandwho
hasinfluencedthedevelopmentofherworkthenovelTheCrownofColumbus(1991)waspublishedundertheirjointnames.Afterexperienceinseveraldifferent
jobs,includingeditorfortheCircleBostonIndianCouncilandatextbookwriterforCharlesMerrillInc.,shedeterminedtobeaprofessionalauthor.Forpartofa
furtherdegreeatJohnsHopkinsUniversityshesubmittedpoemswhichweresubsequentlypublishedinherfirstcollection,Jacklight(1984).LoveMedicine(1984
rev.edn,withfivenewsections,1993),TheBeetQueen(1986),Tracks(1988),andTheBingoPalace(1994)compriseatetralogyofnovelsinwhichthe
Chippewacultureandexperiencearethebackgroundtoaseriesoflinkedcharacterstudiesspanningtheyears1912tothepresent.TalesofBurningLove(1996)is
anemotionpackedstudyofaman'sfivemarriages.TheBlueJay'sDance:aBirthYear(1995)isalushproseaccountofErdrich'sexperienceofthebirthofher
thirddaughter,fromconceptiontobabyhood.
Ervine,StJohn(18831971)
Irishdramatistandcritic,wasborninBelfast,wenttoLondonasaninsuranceclerkwhenhewas17,gottoknowG.B.SHAW,andbecamehookedonthestage.The
MagnanimousLover,aoneactplaywrittenin1907,wasoneoffourrealistic,unsparingUlsterdramaswhichwereproducedattheAbbeyTheatre,Dublin,between
1911and1915seeFourIrishPlays(1914).Hewasalsowritingnovels,ofwhichMrsMartin'sMan(1914),whichdealswiththe1798RebellioninIreland,is
bestregarded.HebecameManageroftheAbbeyin1915,butwasreplacedafterabriefregimeduringwhichtheactorscouldacceptneitherhispolicynorhisviews.
HethenjoinedtheArmyasatrooper,andlostalegin1918whileservinginFranceasalieutenantintheRoyalDublinFusiliers.AfterWorldWarIhebecameDrama
CriticoftheObserver,whilecontinuinghimselftowriteplays.Themostsuccessfulofthese,Mary,MaryQuiteContrary(1923),AnthonyandAnna(1925),and
TheFirstMrsFraser(1929),werelightpieces

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farremovedintoneandmilieufromhisIrishdramas.HereturnedtoUlstersettingswithBoyd'sShop(1936)andFriendsandRelations(1941,published1947),in
whichthebitterrealismhasgivenwaytoamoregenialapproachtoquitedifferentformsofintolerance.HewasProfessorofDramaticLiteratureoftheRoyalSociety
193336.Healsowroteanumberofbiographicalstudies,ofwhichthebestisBernardShaw,HisLife,WorkandFriends(1956),thelongestGod'sSoldier:
GeneralWilliamBooth(1934),andthemostunbalancedOscarWilde:aPresentTimeAppraisal(1951).SeeSelectedPlays,ed.JohnCronin,1988.
Eschenbach,WolframVon
seeWOLFRAMVONESCHENBACH.
Esson,(Thomas)Louis(Buvelot)(18791943)
Australiandramatist,wasborninEdinburghandwasattheageoffourbroughtbyhiswidowedmothertoMelbourne,wherehegrewupinthehouseofhisuncle,who
wasanartist.HewaseducatedatCarltonGrammarSchoolandattendedlecturesatMelbourneUniversity.Hebecameafreelancejournalistandcritic,andembarked
onaworldtour,whichtookinavisittotheAbbeyTheatre,Dublin,in1905.YEATSadvisedhim'tokeepwithinyourownborders'asawriter,towhichSYNGEadded
thattheremustbeplentyofmaterialforfolkdramaintheoutback,'withshepherdsgoingmadinlonelyhuts'.TheTimeisNotYetRipewasfirstperformedbythe
MelbourneRepertoryCompanyin1912,andpublishedthesameyear.Thistopical,andstilltopical,Australianpoliticalcomedy,whichsparkleswithwit,wasnot
producedagainuntil1972,andwasrepublishedin1973(ed.PhilipParsons).ThreeShortPlays(1911)wasreissuedinLondonasDeadTimberandOtherPlays
(1920),andincludedTheDrovers.Thisstudyofthesituationofaninjureddroverleftbehindwhentheherdhastomoveonhasbeencomparedinimpactwith
Synge'sRiderstotheSea.Afteranotherextendedoverseastrip,EssonfoundedwithPALMERin192122thePioneerPlayers,apredominantlyamateurcompany.
Thefirstproductionwashiscomedy,TheBattler:thelast,in1926,washisMelbourneunderworlddrama,TheBrideofGospelPlace.SeeVancePalmer,Louis
EssonandtheAustralianTheatre,1948PeterFitzpatrick,PioneerPlayers:theLivesofLouisandHildaEsson,1996andinLeslieRees,TheMakingof
AustralianDrama,1973.
Etherege,(Sir)George(1634/591)
Englishdramatist,cameofawelltodoOxfordshireorBerkshirefamily,travelledabroad,studiedlawinLondon,andbecameamanabouttown.Thefirstofhisthree
comedies,TheComicalRevenge:or,LoveinaTub(1664),waswellreceived.SheWou'difSheCou'd(1668),whichSHADWELLcalled'thebestComedythathas
beenwrittensincetheRestaurationoftheStage',failedinitiallybecauseofpooracting.HisfriendanddrinkingcompanionROCHESTER,inhiscriticalessay'ASessionof
Poets'(1675),complainedthatonewhohadsuch'fancy,sense,judgment,andwit'shouldbesoidle.Whatevertheeffect,EtheregenowproducedinTheManof
Mode:or,SrFoplingFlutter(1676)aconsistentlywitty,wellcharacterized,andwellcontrolledplay,andintheloverDorimant,'aDevil,buthehassomethingof
theAngelyetundefac'dinhim',acharacterwhosetraitswereidentifiedwiththoseofRochesterbythecriticJohnDennis(16571734)inADefenceofSirFopling
Flutter(1722).TheplaywasfirstperformedbeforetheKinginMarch1676,inthecastbeingElizabethBarry(16581713),mistressofRochesterandprobablyalso
ofEtherege,bywhomsheissaidtohavehadachild.InJuneofthatyear,therewasanincidentinEpsomwhichbeganasadrunkenfrolicandendedwithadeath,
afterwhichRochesterandEtheregelaylowtoavoidcommittalproceedings.Inabout1680Etheregereceivedaknighthood,whichpeoplesaidhehadpurchasedin
ordertoimpressarichwidow,whomhethenmarried.HewasambassadortotheGermanassemblyatRatisbon168589,fromwherehewroteentertainingletters
seeLettersofSirGeorgeEtherege,ed.FrederickBracher(1974).AftertheabdicationofJamesIIhelivedinParis,wherehedied.
Euclio
seePASCAL.
Euripides(480406BC)
classicalGreekdramatist,wasborninSalamis,traditionallyonthedayoftheGreeknavalvictorythereoverthePersians.Hisfamilyweremiddleclasslandowners.He
wroteaboutninetyplays,ofwhich18completetragediesandonesatyricdramasurvive.HefirstcompetedattheDionysiain455,andwontheprizein441.Hehad
threemorevictories,thelastwithOrestesin408.HethenwenttothecourtoftheKingofMacedonia,whosehounds,itissaid,accidentallytorehimtopieces.He
wasamasteroftheatricalsurprises.Byrepresentinggods,monarchs,andheroesasrealpeople,heeffectivelyinventeddomesticdrama.Heintroducedfromforensic
oratorythedeviceofargumentuponthestage,andmadeafeatureoftheprologue.Hedetachedthechorusesfromtheactionandpresentedthemaslyricalinterludes
ofpoeticbeauty.EspeciallynotableworksareMedea(431),Hippolytus(428),TrojanWomen(415),andBacchae(405).Hissatyricplay,Cyclops,wastranslated
in1819byP.B.SHELLEY,whowrotetoHUNTthattheGreekplaysweretemptinghim'tothrowovertheirperfectandglowingformsthegreyveilofmyownwords'.
SeeAftertheTrojanWar:TheWomenofTroy,Hecuba,Orestestr.KennethMcLeish,

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1994AlcestisandOtherPlays,tr.JohnDavie,ed.RichardRutherford,newedn1996.
Evans,MaryAnn
seeELIOT,GEORGE
Evelyn,John(16201706)
Englishprosewriteranddiarist,wasbornonthefamilyestateofWottoninSurrey,butwasboardedoutwithhisgrandparentsinSussex,whosehomeherefusedto
leavetogotoEton.Sohewaseducatedlocally,thenatBalliolCollege,Oxford(withouttakingadegree),andsubsequentlystudiedlawinLondon.Hejoinedthe
armyofCharlesItoolatetoparticipateinthedefeatatBrentfordin1642,andthen,perhapsprudently,returnedhomebeforehecouldbeassociatedwiththecause.
Thiskindofdiscretiongovernedhislife,whichhededicatedtolearningandpublicservice,withouteverseeking,oraccepting,theoutwardtrappingsofsuccesshe
evenrefusedaknighthood.Hisfamousdiary,whichhekeptfrom1641untilhisdeath,wasfirstpublishedashisMemoirsin1818,havingapparentlybeenfoundthe
yearbeforeinaclothesbasketatWotton.Itisarecordofanageratherthantherevelationsofanindividual.Eventsandplaces(hewasaninveteratetravellerand
guide)areoftendescribedwiththehelpofnewspaperandotherrecords.Thereare,however,graphicfirsthandaccountsoftheGreatFireofLondonin1666andof
thefreezeof168384,andpenetratingobservationsonunusualaspectsoflife,andontheimpactofreligionupondailyexistenceatdifferentlevels.Amongthebooks
publishedduringhislifetimewereFumifugium(1661),apleaforasmokelessLondonandSylva:oraDiscourseonForestTrees(1664),onwhichhewasan
authority.SeeTheDiary,ed.JohnBowle,1985TheDiaryofJohnEvelyn,ed.GuydelaBdoyre,newedn1995TheWritingsofJohnEvelyned.Guydela
Bdoyre,1995JohnBowle,JohnEvelynandHisWorld:aBiography,1981.
Ewart,Gavin(191495)
poet,wasborninLondonandeducatedatWellingtonCollege,whoseheadmasterheoffendedwithanotherwisecelebratorylyricinspiredbyarugbyfootballvictory
andwith'TheFourthofMay',publishedin1934,afterhehadleft,inOutofBounds,anantipublicschoolmagazine.At17hehadalsocontributedpoemstoGRIGSON'S
NewVerse.HewenttoChrist'sCollege,Cambridge,andwaslatercommissionedintheRoyalArtilleryinWorldWarII,servinginNorthAfricaandItaly,andfinding
himselfincapableof'rushingaboutinatanklikeKeithDouglas[seeKEITHDOUGLAS]writingpoemsbetweenbattles'.HeworkedfortheBritishCouncilfrom1946to
1952,afterwhichhewasanadvertisingcopywriteruntil1971,whenhelosthisjobandbecameafreelancewriter.Twentyfiveyearsseparatedthepublicationofhis
firstbook,PoetnsandSongs(1939),fromhissecond,Londoners(1964),aseriesofmainlytopographicalpoemswhichALANROSShadcommissionedin1959,but
hisfavouredtopicsremainedunchanged,thelightnessoftouchandtechnicalingenuitysurvived,andbothremainedfeaturesofsubsequentcollections.Pleasuresof
theFlesh(1966)containssomeofhismoreeroticverse:atenderness,bornnodoubtofage,infusessomeofhislaterwork.Aqualityofcompassionaswellasof
graphicdescriptiondistinguishhorrificpoemsofcontemporarybrutality,suchas'Thriller'and'TheGentleSex'.Ewartwasamasteroftheepigraminmanyformssee
AllMyLittleOnes:theShortPoemsofGavinEwart(1978).HeeditedandcontributedtoOtherPeople'sClerihews(1983).Latterlyhefoundsuccess,and
rewards,onthepoetryreadingcircuit,regularlyappearingonAmericancampusesinthespring.SeeTheCollectedEwart19331980,1980CollectedPoems
19801990,199185Poems,1993SelectedPoems19331993,1996(hisownfinalchoice).
Ezekiel,Nissim(b.1924)
Indianpoet,wasborninBombayofaJewishfamilylongestablishedthere,andwaseducatedatAntonioD'SouzaHighSchoolandBombayUniversity.Hespentthe
years194852inLondon,afterwhichhecombinedtheteachingofEnglishwitheditingliteraryjournals,andwasArtCriticofTheTimesofIndiafrom1964to1967.
HewasVisitingProfessoratLeedsUniversityin1964,andatChicagoUniversityin1967,andwasReaderinAmericanLiteratureatBombayUniversity197281,
andProfessor198185.AnIndianwhowritespoetryinEnglish'becauseonecannotwriteitinanyotherlanguage'(forthatwaswhatwasspokenathome),hehas
describedhismainthemesas'love,personalintegration,theIndiancontemporaryscene,modernurbanlife,spiritualvalues'.HisfirstcollectionwasATimetoChange
andOtherPoems(1952).HisunusualblendofculturalbackgroundsenableshimtointerprettheIndiansceneasacloseobserverwhoalsohasaninherent
understandingofit,whichheoftendoeswithsharpwitorgentlehumour,factorsnotnormallyassociatedwithIndianverse.SeeCollectedPoems19521988,new
edn1992SelectedProse,introductionbyAdilJussawalla,1993.

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F
Fair,A.A.
seeGARDNER.
Fairburn,A(rthur)R(ex)D(ugard)(190457)
NewZealandpoet,wasborninAucklandandeducatedatAucklandGrammarSchool,whichheleftat16andbecameaclerkinaninsurancecompany.Hewasa
labourerandfreelancewriterbetween1926and1930,whenhewenttoEngland.'TheRhymeoftheDeadSelf'('TonightIhavetakenallthatIwas/andstrangled
himthatpalelilywhitelad...'),thefinalpoeminHeShallNotRise(1930),suggestedadisavowalofitscontents.OnhisreturntoNewZealandherepudiatedmost
contemporaryEnglishliteraryinfluencesandbecamealeadingmemberoftheradicalPhoenixgroupinAuckland.HewasareliefworkerduringtheDepression,after
whichheeditedtheAucklandFarmers'Unionjournal,FarmingFirst.Dominion(1938)isapartsatirical,partlyricalnationalistepicpoem.Hewasaradio
scriptwriterfrom1943to1946,afterwhichhetutoredinEnglishandlatertaughthistoryandtheoryoffineartsatElamSchoolofFineArts.TheRakehellyManand
OtherVerses(1946)includespossiblyhisbestcomicverse.SeeCollectedVerse,ed.DenisGlover,1966DenysTrussell,Fairburn,1985(criticalbiography).
Falconer,William(173270)
Scottishpoet,wasborninEdinburgh,thesonofawigmaker.Hewassecondmateofamerchantship,Britannia,whenitwaswreckedofftheGreekcoastin1750.
HehadpoemspublishedintheGentleman'sMagazinefrom1751.Hismajorwork,TheShipwreck,'aPoeminThreeCantos,byaSailor',was'printedforthe
author'in1762.Thereisthestatutoryloveinterestandsomeexpendableclassicalallusions,butthenauticalsequencesanddescriptionsaresplendid.Hethenjoined
theRoyalNavyasamidshipman,transferringtothesuppliesbranchasapurser,whilecontinuingtowrite.In1768heturneddowntheofferofapartnershipfromJohn
Murray(174593),founderofthepublishingcompany.ThenextyearhesailedinthefrigateAurora,boundforIndia.AftercallinginattheCape,shewasneverseen
again.Hiswidow,Jane(neHicks),whominhisverseheaddressedmorepoeticallyasMiranda,livedcomfortablyuntil1796ontheproceedsfromhisreference
work,TheUniversalMarineDictionary(1769).
Falkner,J(ohn)Meade(18581932)
Britishnovelist,wasborninManningfordBruce,Wiltshire,theeldestsonofthecurate,andwaseducatedatMarlboroughCollegeandHertfordCollege,Oxford.He
thenbecametutortothesonsof(Sir)AndrewNoble(18311915),thearmsmanufacturer,whoappointedhimhisprivatesecretarywhentheboysgrewup.When
Noble'sbusinessbecamealimitedcompanyin1897,Falknerwasappointedcompanysecretary,becomingamemberoftheboardin1901andultimatelyits
Chairman,inwhichcapacitieshenegotiatedmanycontractswithEuropeangovernments,fromwhomhereceivedappropriatedecorations.Hisrealinterests,however,
layelsewhere.WalkingandbicyclingholidaysprovidedthebackgroundandinspirationforguidebooksonOxfordshire(1894)andBerkshire(1902)hisknowledge
ofantiquitiesledtothehonoraryappointmentsofLibrariantoDurhamCathedralandReaderinPalaeographyatDurhamUniversity.Hewrotethreenovels.TheLost
Stradivarius(1895)hassupernaturalaswellasantiquarianelements,whiletheNebulyCoat(1903)centresontheimminentcollapseofthetowerofanancient
church.Moonfleet(1898),anovelofsmugglersinthemid18thcenturywhosesettingisarealDorsetvillage,thoughnotregardedatthetimeashisbest,has
effortlesslysurvivedasanadventurestoryforchildreninthetraditionofSTEVENSON.FalknerwasagenerousbenefactoroflibrariesandoftheCotswolds'townof
Burford,inwhosechurchyardheisburied.Healsowrotepoetryofadescriptivenaturewhichhaspleasingrhythms.
Farquhar,George(16781707)
Irishdramatist,wasborninLondonderry,oneofsevenchildrenofapoorChurchofEnglandcleric,andwaseducatedatTrinityCollege,Dublin,initiallyasasizar(a
studentwithamaintenancegrantinreturnforcertaindomesticduties).HebecameanactorwithDublin'sSmockTheatre,butleft(togotoLondon),having
inadvertentlywoundedacolleagueinastageduelthroughnotusingabluntedsword.Hisfirstcomedy,Loveanda

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Bottle(1698),wasmoderatelysuccessful:TheConstantCoupleoraTriptotheJubilee(1699)didbetter.Severalflopsfollowed,andFarquhar'sfinancial
positionwasnotadvancedwhenhediscoveredthatthewidowwithtwochildrenwhomhehadmarriedwaspenniless.HewascommissionedinLordOrrery's
regimentandsenttoLichfieldandShrewsburytodrumuprecruits.HedrewonthisexperiencetowriteTheRecruitingOfficer(1706),whichwassohighlythought
ofbyaLondonimpresariothatheadvancedhim162s.6d.Havingresignedhiscommission,Farquharfellillandintofinancialstraitsagain.HisactorfriendRobert
Wilks(16651732)gavehim20guineasasanencouragementtowriteTheBeaux'Stratagem(1707),whosefirstperformanceheonlyjustlivedtosee.Stock
situationsandcharactersabound(thoughthenameofLadyBountifulhassinceenteredthelanguage),butthedialoguehasasplendidvitality,andtheultimate
denouementisnottheconjoiningofthelovers,AimwellandDorinda,butthedivorcebyconsent(afteranexchangewhichdrawsheavilyonMILTON'Spamphleton
divorce)oftheSullenssothatthewifemaymarryAimwell'scompanion.InbothplaystheactionismovedoutofLondonandthetreatmentismorehumanethanitisin
earliercomedy.SeeWorks,ed.ShirleyStrumKenny,2vols1988TheRecruitingOfficerandOtherPlays,ed.WilliamMyers,1995.
Farrell,JamesT(homas)(190479)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,andcritic,wasborninChicagoofIrishdescent,andwasbroughtupbyhismaternalgrandparents,histeamsterfatherbeing
unabletosupportagrowingfamily.HestudiedclassicsatStCyrilHighSchool,afterwhichhetooknightclassesatDePaulUniversitywhileworkingasatelephone
clerk.AfterfouryearsatChicagoUniversityhedroppedout,tobeawriter.YoungLonigan:aBoyhoodinChicagoStreets(1932),whichgrewintoStuds
Lonigan:aTrilogy(1935),representedareversiontothenaturalismofapreviousgenerationofwriters,exposingtheIrishCatholic'apartmentculture'ofChicago's
SouthSide,inwhichthepursuitofmaterialwealthleadstospiritualdestitutionand,inthecaseofLonigan,toaviolentdeath.Chicagoisalsotheenvironmentor
startingpointofthreefurthernovelsequences:featuringDannyO'Neill,beginningwithAWorldINeverMade(1936)BernardCarr,withBernardClare(1946)
andthewriterEddieRyan,whosebackgroundhasparallelswithFarrell's,withTheSilenceofHistory(1963).Manyofhisshortstoriesinteractwithorcomplement
thenovelsseeTheShortStoriesofJamesT.Farrell(1937),AnOmnibusofShortStories(1957),JudithandOtherStories(1973).Inresponseto
counterattacksbyMarxistcriticswhomhehadaccusedofsubjectingliteraturetopoliticalexpediency,hepublishedANoteonLiteraryCriticism(1936),thefirstof
severalcriticalstudiesandcollectionsofessays.TheCollectedPoemsofJamesT.Farrell(1965)containsjust42shortreflections,mainlywritteninthe1930sand
1960s.
Farrell,Michael(18991962)
Irishnovelist,wasborninCarlowandreadmedicineattheNationalUniversityduringhistimetherehewasinvolvedinthe'Troubles'andbrieflyimprisoned.Hethen
workedasamarinesuperintendentintheBelgianCongo,afterwhichhereturnedtoIrelandandmarriedtheproprietorofahandweavingbusiness.Henowresumed
hismedicalstudiesatTrinityCollege,Dublin,butgavethemupforjournalismandforworkwithRadioEireann.HewroteregularlyforTheBellunderO'FAOLAIN'S
editorshipduringWorldWarII,afterwhichhesuccessfullymanagedhiswife'sbusiness.Intheearly1930shehadbeguntowriteanovelinwhichanorphanCatholic
boygrowsupincomfortablesurroundings,butwhoselife,beliefs,andcharacterareradicallyalteredbythe1916Rising.In1937O'Faolainwasreluctantlyallowed,
orsurreptitiouslymanaged,totakethevastmanuscriptinasuitcasetoLondon,whereapublisherreadilyagreedtobringitoutwhenithadfinallybeenrevised.Farrell,
unabletoletitgo,workedonthebookfortherestofhislife.ItwaspublishedafterhisdeathasThyTearsMightCease(1963),editedandshortenedbysome
hundredthousandwordsbytheIrishpoetandcriticMonkGibbon(18961987).Inthisformdefectsareapparentwhichmightnotbesoobviousinalongerversion,
butitisconvincinginitsportrayalofvariouspeople'slivesatthetimeandoftheeffectsoftheeventsonthecommunity.
Fast,Howard(Melvin)(b.1914)
Americannovelist,wasborninNewYorkCityofJewishparents,andwithhistwoolderbrotherswasbroughtupbytheirfather,afactoryworker,aftertheirmother's
earlydeath.HewaseducatedatGeorgeWashingtonHighSchool,NewYork,whichheleftat16tojointhenavy.Rejectedastooyoung,hedidvariousjobs,and
whileamessengerboyintheNewYorkPublicLibrarywasintroducedtoG.B.SHAW'STheIntelligentWoman'sGuidetoSocialismandCapitalism,which'tookthe
senselesshateandresentment[againstclassoppressionandclassinjustice]anddirectedittopathsofunderstanding,reasonandcreation'.Hepublishedhisfirstnovel,
TwoValleys,in1933.InConceivedinLiberty:aNovelofValleyForge(1939),TheLastFrontier(1941),TheUnvanquished(1942),CitizenTomPaine
(1946),andFreedomRoad(1944)heexploresradicalthemesthroughincidentsandfiguresinAmericanhistory.HefoundthemtooinancienthistoryforMy
GloriousBrothers(1948),aboutJudasMaccabeus,andSpartacus(1951),whichwas

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privatelyprintedintheUSAafterhehadservedthreemonthsinjailandbeenblacklistedforrefusingtocooperatewiththeCommitteeonUnAmericanActivities.He
describeshisbreakwithCommunisminTheNakedGod:theWriterandtheCommunistParty(1957),andincludesanaccountoftheAmericanCommunistParty
inBeingRed:aMemoir(1990).ASanFranciscofamilysagabeginsatthetimeofthe1906earthquakewithTheImmigrants(1977)subsequentvolumessweep
throughAmericanandworldhistory,culminatinginTheImmigrant'sDaughter(1985).TheBridgeBuilder'sStory(1995)beginswithaEuropeanhoneymoonin
1939andcoversthecentralcrisesofthetimes.AsE.V.Cunninghamhehaswritten'entertainments',includingarangeofthrillerseachnamedafteritsfemale
protagonist,fromSylvia(1960)toCynthia(1968).SeeAndrewMacDonald,HowardFast:aCriticalCompanion,1996.
Faulkner,William(18971962)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasbornWilliamCuthbertFalknerinNewAlbany,Mississippi,theeldestoffoursonsofaharddrinkingrailroadoperator
(wholaterdiversifiedhisinterests),andagreatgrandsonofColonelWilliamClarkFalkner(18251889),railroadpioneerandnovelist.In1902thefamilymovedto
Oxford,Mississippi,wherehelivedformostofhislife.Asavidareaderashewasahorserider,hewasboredbyschool,whichheleftin1915toworkasabook
keeper.In1918EstelleOldham(18961972),whomhehadbeendatingforseveralyears,marriedsomeoneelse.HeenlistedintheRoyalCanadianAirForceand
spentfivemonthsinToronto,trainingasapilotcadet,anexperiencewhichhelaterromanticized.HewasaspecialstudentattheUniversityofMississippifrom1919
to1921,whenhefinishedasequenceoflovepoems,'VisioninSpring',whichheboundupandpresentedtoEstelle.In1924,havingresignedasapostmasteratthe
universityunderthreatoflegalproceedings,andbeendismissedasascoutmasterfordrinking,hewenttoNewOrleans,havingatlasthadabookofpastoralverse,
TheMarbleFaun(1924),acceptedforpublication.Herehewrotehisfirstnovel,Soldiers'Pay(1926),astudyofpostwardisillusionment,whichANDERSON
recommendedtohispublisher.OntheadvancehetravelledinEurope,fromwhichhereturnedtoOxfordandwroteMosquitoes(1927),asatiricalnovelbasedonthe
NewOrleansartisticset.Sartoris(1929),cutandeditedbyafriendfromarejectednovel,'FlagsintheDust',establishedtheSouthernterritoryofYoknapatawpha
CountyandtheSartorisfamily,basedonhisown,whichweretorecurinmanynovelsandstories.In1929hemarriedEstelle,nowdivorcedandwithtwochildren
(born1919and1923):ontheirhoneymoonshetriedtocommitsuicidebywalkingintothesea.Theyhadtwodaughters,Alabama(bornin1931),wholivedforonly
ninedays,andJill(b.1933).
TheSoundandtheFury(1929)isananalysisofatragicfamilysituationfromfourdifferentpointsofview,usingstreamofconsciousnesstechniques.AsILayDying
(1930),withitsunusualmilieu,thejourneyofapoorSouthernwhitefamilytotownwiththemother'sbody,itsnarrativeformof59monologuesby15characters,and
itsblendofthecomic,grotesque,andpoignant,wasacriticaltourdeforce.Thestory,putoutbyhimselfintheintroductiontoaseparateeditionofSanctuary
(1931),thattogainapopularfollowingatlast,'IinventedthemosthorrifictaleIcouldimagineandwroteitinaboutthreeweeks',hasbeenshowntobefalse.It
certainlyhashorrificelements,anditsjudiciousmixtureofsex(includingtherapeofacollegestudentwithacorncob),violence,corruption,perjury,androughjustice,
madeitspopularappealinevitable,butitwasconceivedandwrittenoverseveralmonthsin1929,andsubsequentlyrevised.LightillAugust(1932)isasearching
analysisofSouthernsocietyanditsracialbigotry.
In1932FaulknermadethefirstofseveralturbulentvisitstoHollywood(thelastwasin1951),wherehewastheprincipalscreenwriterofHEMINGWAY'SToHaveand
HaveNot(1945)andCHANDLER'STheBigSleep(1946).InAbsalom,Absalom!(1936),forsomehismostdifficultbookbecauseofitselusivemeanings,forothers
hismostbrilliant,elementsofthehistoryunderlyinghisfictionalcountyareintroducedbyfournarrators,eachofferingadifferentinterpretationofthefacts.TheHamlet
(1940)featurestheSnopesfamily,counterpointtothatofSartoristheirrapacitiesandotherinterventionsintothelifeofthecommunityarefurtherobservedinThe
Town(1957)andTheMansion(1960).HisovertlyantiracistnovelofthemodernSouth,IntruderintheDust(1948),cameoutjustbeforehisnominationforthe
NobelPrizeforLiterature,forwhichhefailedbythreevotestogainthenecessaryunanimity.Theawardwasconfirmedin1950,andwithhisreputationfurther
enhancedbythepublicationofCollectedStories(1950),hewenttoStockholmtoacceptit,withaspeechwhichbecauseofhisnervousness(onthisoccasionhewas
sober)andthickSouthernaccentwaslargelyunintelligible,butwhichinprintmadememorablereading.Hehadbeenworkingsince1943onAFable(1954),which
wonboththeNationalBookAwardandthePulitzerPrize,andforwhichhedepartedfromhisusualenvironmenttoreenacttheCrucifixionandResurrectionofJesus
ChristthroughthepersonaoftheUnknownSoldierofWorldWarI.Thelastdecadeofhislifewasoneofcontinuinghonours,asuccessionofaffairs,and
selfdemolitionbydrinkingandbeingthrownoffhishorse.Threeweeksafteronesuchfallhewastakentohospital,wherehediedthat

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nightofaheartattack.SeeJosephL.Blotner,Faulkner,condensedandrev.edn1984ofFaulkner:aBiography,2vols1974FrederickR.Karl,William
Faulkner:AmericanWriter,1989(criticalbiography)RichardGray,TheLifeofWilliamFaulkner:aCriticalBiography,newedn1996JoelWilliamson,
WilliamFaulknerandSouthernHistony,1993(criticalbiography)DavidDowling,WilliamFaulkner,1989(criticalstudy)OlgaW.Vickery,TheNovelsof
WilliamFaulkner:aCriticalInterpretation,rev.edn1993.
Feinstein,Elaine(b.1930)
neCoolin,Britishpoet,novelist,andtranslator,wasborninBootle,Lancashire,ofJewishoriginfromOdessa,andwaseducatedattheWyggestonGirls'School,
Leicester,andNewnhamCollege,Cambridge.Shemarriedanimmunologist,andafterworkingforCambridgeUniversityPressfrom1960to1962,wasLecturerin
English,Bishop'sStortfordCollege196366,andAssistantLecturerinEnglish,EssexUniversity196770.Herinitialpoeticinspirationcamefromthewest,theBlack
MountainpoetOLSON,withwhomshecorrresponded,aswellasfromEMILYDICKINSONandotherAmericanwriters,andthenfromtheeast,intheformofTSVETAEVA,
whoseselectedpoemsshetranslated(1971rev.edns1981and1993)andwhosebiographyshehaswritten(1987).Herownpoetry,fromInaGreenEye(1966)
toCityMusic(1990),celebratesandreflectsuponemotionsandthecomparativefreedomsofdifferentstylesoflifeinavarietyofsettings,metropolitan,EastAnglian,
EuropeanseealsoSelectedPoems(1994).Hernovels(andshortstories),initallyanextensionofherpoetry,haveenabledhertobroadenandatthesametime
intensifyherviewofarangeoffamilyrelationships.Herfirst,TheCircle(1970),isastudyofmarriage.TheSurvivors(1982)andTheBorder(1984)haveJewish
themeswhichintraditionalfashionspangenerationsandgeographicallocations.LovingBrecht(1992)follows,throughthepersonaofafictitiouslover,the
experiencesoftherealwomeninthelifeofBRECHT,againstthetraumaticbackgroundoftheeventsofthetime.Dreamers(1994)imbuestheJewishsituationinmid
19thcenturyViennawiththetrappingsofaromance.LawrenceandtheWomen:aLifeofD.H.Lawrence(1992)isabiographicalstudyfromtheangleofthe
womenwhoknewhim.
Ferber,Edna(18871968)
Americannovelist,wasborninKalamazoo,Michigan,ofJewishparents,andwasbroughtupinAppleton,Wisconsin,whereshewenttoRyanHighSchool.Shegave
uptheideaofthestagewhenherfather,astorekeeper,wentblind.ShebecameareporterontheAppletonDailyCrescent,andthentheMilwaukeeJournaland
ChicagoTribune,whichsheleftin1910towritefictionfulltime.ShepublishedastoryinEverybody'sMagazinein1910.Aftershehadthrownawayherfirstnovel,
DawnO'Hara:theGirlWhoLaughed(1911),hermotherrescueditandsentittoapublisher.RoastBeefMedium:theBusinessAdventuresofEmma
McChesney(1913),andtwosequels,wereunusualfortheirtimeascheerfulrevelationsofanemancipateddivorce,andFerber'sjournalisticinstinctandabilityto
createromanceenabledhertofindbigstoriesandpresenttheminapopularway.SuchwereSoBig(1924),thestrugglesofawomanfarmer,whichwonthePulitzer
Prize,Cimarron(1930),abouttheOklahomaoilboom,andGiant(1952),anexposoftheTexannouveauricheculture.ShowBoat(1926)became,inthehandsof
JeromeKern(18851945)andOscarHammerstein(18951960),thefirstmusicalseriouslytotackleadultthemes.FannyHerself(1917)isasemiautobiographical
studyofaJewishfamilyinaMidwesttownasubjectshetreatedautobiographicallyinAPeculiarTreasure(1939),towhichAKindofMagic(1963)isthesequel.
WithGeorgeS.Kaufman(18891961)shewroteseveralstagecomedies,ofwhichDinneratEight(1932)wasespeciallysuccessful.
Ferguson,(Sir)Samuel(181086)
Irishpoetandantiquary,wasborninBelfastandeducatedattheAcademicalInstitution,Belfast,andTrinityCollege,Dublin,afterwhichhestudiedlaw,beingcalled
totheIrishBarin1838andappointedQueen'sCounselin1859.In1867hebecameIreland'sfirstDeputyKeeperofPublicRecords,andwasknightedforhis
servicesin1878.HecontributedtotheDublinUniversityMagazineonitsinceptionin1833,andbeforethathadworkacceptedbyBlackwood'sEdinburgh
Magazine.HedislikednationalisticnotionsandarguedinsteadforabetterunderstandingbytheAngloIrishoftheirCatholiccountrymentowhichendhesetabout
translatingandrecastingineffectiveverseversionsofGaeliclegendsandsagas,whichbegantoappearinprintin1834.Hismostsubstantialworksinthisfieldare
LaysoftheWesternGael,andOtherPoems(1865)andCongal:aPoeminFiveBooks(1872),buthewasalsoanoriginalpoetinhisownright(seeespecially
'TheFairyThorn','TheFairHillsofIreland','LamentforThomasDavis'),towhoseinfluenceYEATStestifiedinanarticleintheDublinUniversityReviewin1886.
FergusonwaselectedPresidentoftheRoyalIrishAcademyin1882.SeePoems,ed.PadraicColum,1963PeterDenman,SamuelFerguson:theLiterany
Achievement,1990.
Fergusson,Robert(175074)
Scottishpoet,wasborninEdinburghofparentsfromAberdeenshire.HewaseducatedattheHighSchoolofEdinburghandthen,onabursaryprovidedbyaRev.
DavidFergussonofStrathmartinefor'twopoormalechildren'

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ofhisownsurname,atDundeeGrammarSchoolandStAndrewsUniversity,wherehebegantoreadfortheChurch.Heabandonedhisstudiesin1768afterhis
father'sdeath,havingalready,attheageof14,demonstratedhisprecocioustalentwithawittyelegyonthedeathoftheProfessorofMathematics,writteninScotsin
the'standardhabbie'stanzaformpopularizedbyRAMSAY.Tosupporthismotherandhimself,hetookajobasacopieroflegaldocuments,andoutofofficehours
mixedwiththeatricalpeoplehisfirstpublishedworkswerethreesongsinEnglishfor'FavouriteScottishAirs'incongruouslyaddedtoaperformancein1769ofan
operabyMetastasio(16981782)withmusicbyThomasArne(171078).During1771heregularlycontributedtotheWeeklyMagazineorEdinburgh
Amusement,foundedin1768byWalterRuddiman(171981),occasionalpoems,mockheroics,andpastorals,allinEnglish,whichwereamusingenoughas
Augustanimitations,andhugelypopular.Histruemtiersurfacedon2January1772,withtheappearanceof'TheDaftDays',writteninScotsandcelebratingthe
ChristmasandNewYearholidays.TherefollowedoverthenexttwoyearssomethirtypoemsinaliteraryformofScotsforwhichhelacedthelanguagespokenin
EdinburghwithtermsandusagesfromAberdeenshire.Theseincludedsatiresoncitypretentiousandlowlifeandonlocalandnationalpoliticalissuesacutelyobserved
naturepoems('OnSeeingaButterflyintheStreet','OdetotheGowdspink')aruralevocation('TheFarmer'sIngle')andvarioustopicalandoccasionalverses
rangingfromhistributetoStAndrewsUniversityforitsgastronomichospitalitytoJOHNSONin1773,to'ToMyAuldBreeks',andtotheunfinished'AuldReekie',a
colourfulpanegyricofEdinburghinwhichonecanpracticallysmellthestreetsoftheteemingcity.
In1773RuddimanpublishedPoemsbyR.Fergusson,butlaterthatyearthepoetlapsedintoreligiousmania,gaveuphisjob,destroyedhisunpublishedmanuscripts,
andbecamearecluse.InJuly1774hewaswellenoughtovisitfriendsandtoshareinanelectioncelebration,butshortlyafterwardshecaughthisfootinastairrodat
homeandcrasheddownstairsontohishead.Whenherecoveredconsciousnesshewasravingsoviolentlythathismotherprevailedontwofriendstotakehimina
sedanchairtotheEdinburghlunaticasylum,wherehediedon16October.Hewasonlyjust24,buthehadconfirmedtheuseofScotsasavitalandvigorousmedium
ofpoetry,inwhichhewasfollowedbyBURNS.SeeDavidDaiches,RobertFergusson,1982(criticalstudy)alsoRAMSAY.
Ferlinghetti,Lawrence(MendesMonsanto)(b.1919)
Americanpoetandpublisher,wasborninYonkers,NewYork,andspenthisinfancyinFrance.HewaseducatedatMountHermonSchool,Greenfield,
Massachusetts,andtheUniversityofNorthCarolina,wherehegraduatedinjournalism.AfterservingasalieutenantcommanderintheUSNavalReserveinWorld
WarII,hewentontoColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,andtheSorbonne,Paris,wherehereceivedhisdoctoratein1949.HetaughtFrenchinSanFrancisco,and
thenin1952cofoundedCityLightsBooks,thefirstallpaperbackstoreinthecountry,ofwhichhebecameownerin1955.Itwasthefirstvenueandtheprimefocus
oftheSanFranciscoRenaissance,andaspublisherbroughtoutGINSBERG'SHowlreissuedinHowlandOtherPoems(1996),andsubsequentlyworksbyauthors
includingBOWLES,BURROUGHS,LEVERTOV,KEROUAC,FRANKO'HARA,andOLSON.HeeditedCityLightsJournal(4vols196378)and(withNancyPeters)CityLights
Review(1987).Aspoetaswellasimpresario,FerlinghettiwasaninstigatoroftheBeatmovement,andhaspublishedmanyvolumesofmainlyexperimentalverse
sincePicturesoftheGoneWorld(1955)seealsoEndlessLife:theSelectedPoems(1981)andTheseAreMyRivers:NewandSelectedPoems19551993
(1994).Her(1960)isanovelsetinParis,'asurrealsemiautobiographicalblackbookrecordofasemimadperiodofmylife'.Hehadaonemanexhibitionofhis
paintingsinSanFranciscoin1985.SeeNeeliCherkovsky,Ferlinghetti:aBiography,1979.
Ferrier,Susan(17821854)
Scottishnovelist,wasborninEdinburgh,theyoungestoftenchildrenofJamesFerrier(17441829),WritertotheSignetandlegaladvisertothe5thDukeofArgyll
(17231806),throughwhoseinfluencehebecameaclerkofsessionandthusacolleagueofWALTERSCOTT.In1804,afterthedeathofhermotherandthemarriageof
hersister,shetookovertherunningofherfather'shouse.Inabout1810shebegan,initiallyincollaborationwithCharlotteClavering,the22yearoldnieceofthe
DukeofArgyll,anovelofcontemporarymanners,publishedanonymouslyasMarriage(1818).Itsdidacticism,whichshestrengthenedinalatereditionof1841,is
quitesubmergedinthewit,shrewdobservation,andsocialcomment.Scott,inhisratherprecipitateannouncementattheendofALegendofMontrose(1819)ofhis
withdrawalfromtheScottishnovel,nominatesasasuccessor'theauthoroftheverylivelyworkentitledMarriage'.InTheInheritance(1824)andDestiny(1831),
forwhichScottnegotiatedonherbehalfapaymentof1700forthepublishingrights,thecharacterizationandhumouraremorecrudelydone.Scottrecordsinviting
hertodinnerin1830tocharmanawkwardAmericanguest.Hereyesightwasnowfailing,andafterafinalvisittoLondonthatyeartoconsultanoculist,shelivedina
darkenedroom,thoughshevisitedScottat

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Abbotsfordshortlybeforehisdeathandwasmuchcomforttohimwithhertactandconversation.Onlyin1850didsheallowherauthorshiptobeacknowledged,
whichhasbeenattributedtoherreluctancetobeassociatedwithanewformofwritingwhichhadanappealtoabroaderpublicthanhadhithertoreadfiction.See
MaryCullinan,SusanFerrier,1984(biographical/criticalstudy).
Field,Barron(17861846)
Britisheditorandpoetaster,wasthesecondsonoftheapothecarytoChrist'sHospital,wherehemayhavebeeneducated.WhilestudyinglawattheInnerTemple,he
supportedhimselfbywritingreviewsanddramacriticismandwasamemberofthecircleofCOLERIDGEandLAMB.HewascalledtotheBarin1814,but,findingwork
hardtoget,acceptedapostasajudgeoftheSupremeCourtofNewSouthWales,wherehearrivedin1817.Duringhissevenyearstinthewrote,andhadprinted
bythegovernmentprinterforprivatecirculationtohisfriends,FirstFruitsofAustralianPoetry(1819),thefirstvolumeofversetobeproducedinAustralia.It
consistedof'BotanyBayFlowers'and'TheKangaroo',ofwhichLamb,enteringintothespiritofthepublication,wroteintheExaminer:'Wecanconceiveittohave
beenwrittenbyAndrewMarvell,supposinghimtohavebeenbanishedtoBotanyBay.'FieldeditedandhadpublishedinLondonMemoirsoftheFirstThirtyTwo
YearsoftheLifeofJamesHardyVaux(1819),thefirstfulllengthautobiographywritteninAustralia.Vaux(1782after1841)wasthreetimestransportedfortheft
andforgery,andthevolumeincorporatedhis'VocabularyoftheFlashLanguage',thefirstdictionarytobecompiledinAustralia.OnhisreturntoEngland,Fieldedited
GeographicalMemoirsonNewSouthWales(1825).HislastofficialpostwasthatofChiefJusticeinGibraltar.
Fielding,Henry(170754)
Britishnovelist,dramatist,andjournalist,wasbornatSharphamPark,Somerset,theeldestsonofanarmyofficer,whobecamealieutenantgeneralin1739.Hewas
educatedatEton,whichhehadbarelyleftwhenhefellviolentlyinlovewithanorphanheiress,whoseguardianwassofrightenedofhersuitorthathehadhersent
away.FieldingnowthrewhisconsiderableandathleticbulkintothepleasuresofLondon,topayforwhichhestartedtowriteplays,thefirstbeingacomedyof
manners,LoveinSeveralMasques(1728).Afteraperiodabroad,studyinglawatLeyden,heresumedadramaticcareer,completinginalloverthirtyplays.Of
these,TomThumb(1730),subsequentlyreworkedandpresentedasTheTragedyofTragedies(1731),andPasquin(1736),bothburlesquesofstageconventions,
playwrights,andpoliticiansofthetime,arenotablefortheirwit.Hemarriedin1734andin1736tookaleaseontheHaymarketTheatre,onlytobeforcedoutof
businessbythecensorshipandtheatreLicensingActof1737,totheframingofwhichhisownplaysandproductionshadcontributedseeRobertD.Hume,Henry
FieldingandtheLondonTheatre17281737(1988).HewasadmittedtotheBar,andpractisedontheWesternCircuit.ThesuccessofSAMUELRICHARDSON'S
Pamela(1740),whichhefeltexhibiteddubiousmorality,nettledhimintoproducingaburlesquenovel,AnApologyfortheLifeofMrsShamelaAndrews(1741).
Hefollowedthis,inalessboisterousandmorecomicvein,withTheHistoryoftheAdventuresofJosephAndrews,andofHisFriendMrAbrahamAdams,
WritteninImitationoftheMannerofCervantes(1742),whichasitdevelopsceasestobeaparodyandbecomes,beneaththepicaresqueplot,anattackon
affectationandhypocrisyingeneral.ThewriterofburlesquesurfacesagaininTheLifeofMrJonathanWildtheGreat(1743),askilfullypresentednovel,basedon
theexploitsofacriminalwhowashangedin1725,inwhichnormalstandardsareupturned:greatnessisdeliberatelyconfusedwithgoodness,andkindnesswith
weakness.
Afterhiswife'sdeath,probablyin1743,Fieldingreturnedtopoliticaljournalism,whichhehadpractisedbrieflybefore.HeeditedtheprogovernmentTheTrue
PatriotduringtheRebellionof1745,andTheJacobite'sJournalfrom1747to1748seeTheJacobite'sJournalandRelatedWritings(1974)andTheTrue
PatriotandRelatedWritings(1987),bothed.W.B.Coley.Hemarriedhislatewife'smaidin1747(theirfirstchildwaschristenedthreemonthslater),andfrom
1749to1753servedenergeticallyandwithdistinctionasamagistrateforWestminsterandMiddlesexhislegalandsocialpamphletsofthisperiodareinAnEnquiry
intotheCausesoftheLateIncreaseofRobbers,andRelatedWritings,ed.MalvinR.Zirker(1987).InTheHistoryofTomJones,aFoundling(1749)he
succeededinputtingtogetherandsustainingthroughonemockheroicmasterpiecealltheaimshehadpreviouslyexpressedaboutstructureandnarrative,morals,and
artisticstandards.Amelia(1752),Fielding'sownfavourite,isbycontrastanovelofharshdomesticincidentandsocialcomment,modelledonclassicalepiclines.Its
lackofsparkhasbeenregardedbysomecriticsasareflectionoftheauthor'sillhealthhesufferedbadlyfromgout.In1754,withhiswifeanddaughter,hesailedfor
thewarmerweatherofPortugal,ashedescribeswithgoodhumourandrealisminTheJourneyofaVoyagetoLisbon(1755).Itwashislastbook,andhislast
journey,forhediedinLisbontwomonthsaftertheirarrival.
IntheprefacetoJosephAndrews,Fieldingdescribeshisnovelasa'comicepicpoeminprose'.InBookIX.i.ofTomJoneshesetsoutthequalificationswhichare
'inaprettyhigh

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degreenecessarytothisorderofhistorians'(i.e.novelists).Theyare1)'genius',whichhedefinesas'inventionandjudgment'2)a'goodsenseoflearning'3)
'conversation'(i.e.beingfullyconversant)with'thecharactersofmen'of'allranksanddegrees'4)'NorwillallthequalitiesIhavehithertogivenmyhistorianavailhim,
unlesshehavewhatisgenerallymeantbyagoodheart,andbecapableoffeeling.'Whileinsomewayshisbrandofmorality,wherebygoodnessofheartand
generosityoutweighthenaturalproclivitiesofyouth,maybenomoreadmirablethanthatofRichardson,subsequentgenerationsofreadershaveresponded
enthusiasticallytotheingenuityofthethreefoldplotofTomJones,itssatireaswellasitsmockheroicbanter,theattentiontodescriptivedetail,thecleverdrawingand
contrastingofcharacters,andthegustoofthewriting.SeeMartinC.Battestin,HenryFielding:aLife,newedn1993DonaldThomas,HenryFielding,1988
(biography)JenniferUglow,HenryFielding,1995(criticalintroduction).
Fielding,Sarah(171068)
Britishnovelist,youngersisterofFIELDING,wasborninEastStour,Dorset.Familyconflictsfollowedhermother'sdeath,whenshewasseven,andherfather's
remarriagetoaCatholicwidowatonepointheattemptedtokidnapallsixchildrenfromtheirgrandmother'shome.Shewasforatimeataboardingschoolin
Salisbury.Afterhergrandmother'sdeathin1733sheandherthreeunmarriedsisterssharedahouseinHammersmith.InMay1744shepublishedTheAdventuresof
DavidSimple,amoralfableintheformofapicaresqueromance,thesecondeditionofwhich,thatautumn,wasrevisedbyHenryFielding,withwhomshewentto
liveafterhiswife'sdeathinNovemberuntilheremarriedin1747.TheGoverness:or,LittleFemaleAcademy(1749),moralstoriesandfairytaleswithina
frameworkofaseriesofboardingschooldays,makesherthefirstwriteroffictiontousesuchasetting.ItwasprintedbySAMUELRICHARDSON,whobecame,inspiteof
hisaversiontoherbrother,afirmfriendandaferventadmirerofherwork.TheAdventuresofDavidSimple,VolumetheLast(1753)continuesherfirstnovel,and
containshermosttragicwriting,aswellasskilfulanalysisofenigmaticcharacters.InTheCountessofDellwyn(1759)shedelveddeeperintocharactercontrasts,in
thiscaseawifewithamucholderhusband,whileinTheHistoryofOphelia(1760)shetartlyobservedandoverturnedsocietycustoms.Shenevermarried,andafter
Henry'sdeathin1754wassupportedfinanciallybyherhalfbrother,SirJohnFielding(d.1760),magistrateandsocialreformer,whohadbeenblindedinanaccident
whenhewas19.ShediedinBath,whereshewasthenliving.SeeTheAdventuresofDavidSimple:andVolumetheLast,ed.MalcolmKelsall,1987.
Fields,AnnieAdams
seeJEWETT
Fields,JamesT.
seeJEWETT.
Figes,Eva(b.1932)
neUnger,Britishnovelistandcritic,wasborninBerlinandescapedwithherfamilytoBritainin1939seeherautobiographicalLittleEden:aChildatWar(1978).
ShewaseducatedatKingsburyGrammarSchoolandQueenMaryCollege,LondonUniversity,afterwhichsheheldeditorialpostsinpublishinguntil1967.She
marriedin1954,andwasdivorcednineyearslater.Herfirstnovel,Equinox(1966),isaboutthereshapingoflifeafterabrokenmarriage.KonekLanding(1969)
featurestheHolocaust,imagesofwhichrecurinothernovels,mostofthembeingmodernistintechniqueandreflectingthecharacters'innerconsciousness.Waking
(1981)describestheexperienceofawakeningatseveralpointsinthelifeofthefemalenarrator:inTheSevenAges(1986),theresponsesarebywomenatdifferent
pointsinhistoricaltime.InTheTreeofKnowledge(1990)sheusesreminiscencesofMILTON'Syoungestdaughterasabasisforaddressingsomeuniversalissues,
includingtherightsofwomenandthepurposeofeducation.TheKnot(1996)isaworkingdemonstration,infictionalform,oflinguistictheoryandthedevelopmentof
aperson'slanguage.TheinfluentialPatriarchalAttitudes:WomeninSociety(1970)isanearlycontemporaryfeministstudy.InSexandSubterfuge:Women
Writersto1850(1982)sheexaminesthewayinwhichwomenfromBURNEYonwardsreshapedtheEnglishnovel.Shehasalsowrittenchildren'sbooksand
translatednovelsfromFrenchandGerman.
Finch,Anne
seePOPE.
Findley,Timothy(b.1930)
Canadiannovelist,dramatist,andactor,wasborninTorontoandeducatedatStAndrewsCollege,Aurora,JarvisCollegiate,Toronto,andtheRoyalConservatoryof
Music.Heappearedattheinauguralseasonin1953oftheStratfordShakespeareanFestival,andthenstudiedattheCentralSchoolofSpeechandDramainLondon.
HetouredwiththeH.M.Tennentcompanyforthreeyears,andactedinWILDER'STheMatchmakerinLondonandtheUSA,afterwhichhespentayearasastudio
writerinHollywood.HethenreturnedtoCanada,wherehewasastage,television,andradioactoruntil1962,whenhebecameafulltimewriter.Asanadolescenthe
hadoccupiedhimselfduringayearinbedwithablooddisorderbywritinglongromanticnovels,lateraccidentallydestroyed.Nowheembarkedonaseriesofnovels
whichdrawon

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pasteventstohighlightpresentpreoccupations,oftenthroughbizarreconfrontationsandparadoxes.Inhisfirst,TheLastoftheCrazyPeople(1967),thesebuildup
duringahotsummerinsouthernOntarioinTheWars(1977),whichwontheGovernorGeneral'sAward,theyilluminatetheperpetualfutilityofwar.Thenarratorof
FamousLastWords(1981)isacharacterinapoembyPOUND,whohasaroleinanovelwhichexplorestherelationshipbetweenaestheticismandFascism.Hehas
alsopublishedavolumeofshortstories,DinnerAlongtheAmazon(1984).Theplay,CanYouSeeMeYet?(1977),setin1938,isastudyoftheborderline
betweendespairandinsanity.Asscriptwriterhewasresponsibleforsevenepisodesofthetelevisionpresentationin197172fromDELAROCHE'S'Whiteoaks'saga.See
CarolRoberts,TimothyFindley:StoriesfromaLife,newedn1994(biographical/criticalstudy).
Finlay,IanHamilton(b.1925)
Scottishpoet,wasborninNassau,Bahamas,andwasbroughtupinScotland,whereheleftschoolat13.Hepublishedabookofshortstoriesin1958,andaslim
volumeofshort,epigrammaticalpoemsandOrkneylyrics,TheDancersInherittheParty,in1960reissuedwithGlasgowBeasts,anaBurd(1995).In1961he
andhiswifeestablishedtheWildHawthornPress,whichhaspublishedmostofhissubsequentprintedworkinavarietyofmedia:books,booklets,cards,prints,and
ceramictiles.In1963heexplainedhisconversiontoamoreconcreteformofexpressionasbeginning'withtheextraordinary(sincewhollyunexpected)sensethatthe
syntaxIhadbeenusing,themovementoflanguageinme,ataphysicallevel,wasnolongertheresoithadtobereplacedwithsomethingelse,withasyntaxand
movementthatwouldbetrueofthenewfeeling(whichexistedinonlythevaguestway,sinceIhad,then,noformforit...)'.Hisfirstbookinhisnewmodewas
Rapel(1963)thefirstpoemintherevolutionarystyleofsandblastingontoglass,'WaveRock',wascreatedin1966.ThegardenofhishomeatStonypath,near
Dunsyre,Lanarkshire,towhichhemovedin1967,isbothaphilosophicalexpositionofhiscraftandadisplayofhisworkinthecontextoflandscapewithwater,in
whichevenimagesofwarfindexpression.Theassociationswithwhichheaimstoinvesthislanguageareaural,aswellasvisualandtangible.
Finlayson,Roderick(190492)
NewZealandshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasborninAucklandandeducatedatSeddonMemorialTechnicalCollegeandAucklandUniversitySchoolof
Architecture.Hisapprenticeshipasanarchitecturaldraughtsmanwascutshortbytheslumpin1928.Asasomewhatrebelliousyouthhehad'turnedawayfromthe
PakehaandturnedtotheMaori',bywhomintheBayofPlentyhehadbeen'welcomedintoaMaorihome,acceptedasoneofthefamily,andsoonadmittedtoand
evenconsultedintheirfamilydiscussions'.ThediscoveryinalibraryofCavalleriaRusticana,storiesabouttheSicilianpeasantrybyVERGA(translatedbyD.H.
LAWRENCE)gavehimthemodelandtheinspirationtowriteoftheMaori,inwhichhewasencouragedbythepoetandessayistD'ArcyCresswell(18961960).Indue
coursetheinnatedubiousnessof'bluffNewZealandeditors'wasdispelled,andwiththecollectionsBrownMan'sBurden(1938)andSweetBeulahLand(1942)he
wasconfirmedasthefirstwritertoinvestMaoriswiththeirtrueidentity.Duringthe1950shewasawriterfortheDepartmentofEducationSchoolPublications
Branch,andhealsoworkedasaprintroomassistantfortheAucklandCityCouncil.Ofhistwonovels,TidalCreek(1948)isaseriesoflinked,humoroussketches,
andTheSchoonerCametoAtia(1952)amelodramaticmissionarytale.BrownMan'sBurdenandLaterStories,ed.BillPearson(1973)demonstratedthathehad
notlosttouchwiththechangingneedsoftheMaoricommunity,andthethreenovellasinOtherLovers(1976)thathehadawiderawarenessoftraditionsandsocial
issues.
Firbank,(ArthurAnnesley)Ronald(18861926)
Britishnovelist,wasborninLondon,thesonofaMemberofParliamentandgrandsonofaselfmaderailwaytycoon.Nervous,shy,andsufferingalreadyfromthe
throatconditionthatultimatelykilledhim,hewenttoschoolforthefirsttimeat14,toUppingham,wherehelastedtwoterms.Hehadprivatetuition,andspenta
summerinToursandoneinMadrid,beforegoingtoCambridge,havingalreadyprivatelypublishedtwostories,Odetted'AntrevernesandAStudyinTemperament
(1905),andwrittenothersseeTheEarlyFirbank,ed.StevenMoore(1991).HewasatTrinityHallforonlyfiveterms,satnoexamination,andwasreceivedinto
theCatholicfaith.Thoughonhisfather'sdeathin1910thefamilyfortunewasfoundtohaveevaporated,hecontinuedtotravelandtohauntthemeetingplacesofthe
Londonliteraryset.In1914heannouncedthathewasnowtobecalledRonald,notArthur,andwentvirtuallyintoretreatinOxford.Hepersuadedapublishertolet
himpayfortheproductionofhisfirstnovel,Vainglory(1915).Inclinations(1916),Caprice(1917),andValmouth(1919),proceedingmainlybymeansofallusive
dialogue,arehismostdistinctive,witty,andleastbizarrebooks,ofwhichhesaidinselfparody,'Hisworkcallstomindafriezewithfiguresofvaryingheightsall
trottingthesameway.'PrancingNigger(1924),publishedintheUSAasSorrowinSunlight,wasthelasttoappearbeforehisdeathinRome.Solittlewasknown
abouthimlocallythathewasburiedinthe

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Protestantcemetery(inthecompanyofKEATSandtheashesofP.B.SHELLEY),fromwhichhisbodywaslatertransferredtoaCatholicburialplace.SeeBrigidBrophy,
PrancingNovelist,1973(biography)MervynHorder(ed.),RonaldFirbank:MemoirsandCritiques,1977.
Fitch,Clarke
seeSINCLAIR,UPTON.
FitzGerald,Edward(180883)
Britishpoetandtranslator,wasbornnearWoodbridge,Suffolk,andeducatedatKingEdwardVI'sGrammarSchool,BuryStEdmunds,andTrinityCollege,
Cambridge.Withabriefintervalforadisastrousmarriagein1856tothedaughterofhislatefriend,theQuakerpoetBernardBarton(17841849),helivedquietly
withornearhisparentsuntiltheirdeaths,andtheninvariouspartsofEastAnglia,wherehecouldindulgeinhisoutdoorpursuitofsailing.Fromhisselfimposed
seclusionhecultivatedliteraryfriendshipsbymeansofavoluminous,elegant,andwittycorrespondenceseeLetters,ed.J.M.Cohen,1960.Hisfirstliterarywork
wasafreetranslationofsixdramasofCALDRON,publishedin1853.In1857hewassentamanuscriptofepigramsbyOMARKHAYYM.Theverseformofrhyming
quatrainsandthepoet'sphilosophyappealedtoFitzGeraldenoughtoattemptapoetictranslation,firstpublishedanonymouslyin1859athisownexpenseasThe
RubiytofOmarKhayym.Heissuedanenlargededitionin1868,whichwasreviewedintheNorthAmericanReviewin1869,andinBritaininFraser's
Magazinein1870,butitwasnotuntil1872thatevenhisfriendsknewtheidentityofthetranslator.Furthereditions,withvariations,followed.Hisaimwasto
reproducethespiritandformofthework,ratherthantheprecisemeaningthefamous'BookofVersesunderneaththeBough'isintheoriginalPersianalegof
mutton,butthatwouldhaveoffendedhisreaders'poeticsensibilities.Theresult,inwhatevereditionitisread,isafinelypolished,rhythmicalexpressionofVictorian
hedonism,whosenostalgicmelancholyappealed,andstillappeals,togenerationswhoseexistenceishauntedbyperplexity.SeeRobertBernardMartin,WithFriends
Possessed:aLifeofEdwardFitzGerald,1985.
Fitzgerald,F(rancis)Scott(Key)(18961940)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninStPaul,Minnesota,theonlysurvivoroffourchildrenofuppermiddleclassparentswhomarriedintheirthirties.
HewaseducatedatStPaulAcademy,NewmanSchool,NewJersey(aCatholicboardingschool),andPrinceton,fromwhichhewithdrewin1917andjoinedthe
armyasaprovisional2ndlieutenant.InMontgomery,Alabama,nearwherehewasstationed,hemetandfellforZeldaSayre(190048),aflightySouthernbelle.She
brokeofftheirengagementafterhehadbeendischargedfromthearmyattheendofhostilities,hisjobwithaNewYorkadvertisingagencyhadcometonothing,and
hisnovelaboutcollegelifehadbeenrejected.He'crepthometoStPaul',andrewroteit.Itwasaccepted(aswerenineshortstoriesbymagazines),andaweekafter
itspublicationasThisSideofParadise(1920)ZeldamarriedhiminNewYorktheyhadadaughter,Frances(Scottie)(192188).Fitzgeraldconsolidatedhis
reputationastherepresentativeoftheyoungergenerationwithtwobooksofshortstories,FlappersandPhilosophers(1920),inwhichwas'BerniceBobsHerHair',
andTalesoftheJazzAge(1922),whichincluded'TheDiamondasBigastheRitz'amongsomeearlier,lessgoodpieces.Hissecondnovel,TheBeautifuland
Damned(1922),whichheconceivedastheaccountofhowa25yearold'andhisbeautifulyoungwifearewreckedontheshoalsofdissipation'wasonlytoo
prophetic.HeandhisevenmoreerraticwifemanagedbywildlivingtogothroughhisearningsataratethateventwoyearsofcomparativelyeconomiclivinginEurope
couldnotassuage.Yethewasmaturingasawriter,andinTheGreatGatsby(1925)heproducedastructured,stylishnovelaboutthecorruptinginfluenceofhisage
whichstandsasamemorialtoit.Therefollowedabarrenperiod,afterasummerwhichhedescribedas'1000partiesandnowork'.
Whenin1930Zeldahadthefirstofseveralschizophrenicbreakdowns,Fitzgeraldconcentratedonwritingstoriesformagazinestopaythebills.TenderistheNight
(1934)isinpartacomplementtoZelda'sautobiographicalnovel,SaveMetheWaltz(1932).Written,andseveraltimesrewritten,undervarioustitles,overtheyears
whichfollowedTheGreatGatsby,itchartsthedeclineofapsychiatristwhomarrieshisdesirablepatient.In1937,withZeldaalmostapermanentresidentin
HighlandHospital,Asheville,NorthCarolina,andFitzgeraldsufferingfromcirrhosis,tuberculosis,andcontinuedalcoholism,hewenttoHollywoodforthethirdtimeto
tryandearnalivingbywritingforthescreen.TherehemetSheilahGraham(190588),anEnglishborngossipcolumnist,whoselifewithhimsherecountedin
BelovedInfidel(1958),writtenwithGeroldFrankthereisalessfantasizedaccountoftheaffairbyherson,RobertWestbrook,IntimateLies:F.ScottFitzgerald
andSheitahGraham(1995).WhenFitzgeralddiedofaheartattackat44,heleftanunfinishedmelodramaticHollywoodromance,TheLastTycoon(1941),based
onthecareerofthecreativemoviemogul,IrvingThalberg(18981936),andpreparedforpublicationbyEDMUNDWILSONadifferentversion,ed.MatthewJ.Bruccoli
asTheLoveoftheLastTycoon:aWestern,waspublishedin1995.WilsonalsoeditedTheCrackUp(1945),acol

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lectionofessaysandotherautobiographicalitems.ZeldawasoneofninepatientswhodiedinafireatHighfieldin1948herstoryisinNancyMilford,Zelda
Fitzgerald:aBiography(1970),andherworksinTheCollectedWritings,ed.MatthewJ.Bruccoli(1992).SeeTheShortStoriesofF.ScottFitzgerald,ed.
MatthewJ.Bruccoli,newedn1995EScottFitzgeraldonAuthorship,ed.MatthewJ.BruccoliandJudithS.Baughman,1996MatthewJ.Bruccoli,SomeSortof
EpicGrandeur:theLifeofF.ScottFitzgerald,newedn1993JeffreyMeyers,ScottFitzgerald:aBiography,newedn1995JohnB.Chambers,TheNovelsof
F.ScottFitzgerald,1989(criticalstudy)AndrewHook,EScottFitzgerald,1992(criticalstudy).
Fitzgerald,Penelope(b.1916)
neKnox,Britishnovelistandbiographer,wasborninLincoln(ofwhichhermaternalgrandfatherwasBishop),theonlydaughterofE.V.Knox(18811971),writer
andEditorofPunch,whosejointbiography(withhisthreebrothers)shewrote(1977).ShewaseducatedatWycombeAbbeySchool,Buckinghamshire,and
SomervilleCollege,Oxford,andmarriedDesmondFitzgerald(d.1976)in1941.Eachofhernovels,ofwhichthefirstwasTheGoldenChild(1977),acomic
murdermysterywithaspyelement,hasadistinctivesettinginwhichthecharactersglowandsituationsdevelopnaturally.TheBookshop(1978),runbyanintelligent
middleagedwidow,isinasmallSuffolktown.ThefamiliesinOffshore(1979),whichwontheBookerprizeforfiction,inhabitoneofthosefascinatingconglomerates
ofhouseboatsontheThames,asdidherownfamilyatonetime(theboatsank).HumanVoices(1980)recalls,withmuchhumour,herownexperiencesintheBBC
duringWorldWarII.InAtFreddie's(1982)thechildrenatarundownLondondramaschoolalmoststealtheshowfromthemonstrousproprietor.Innocence
(1986)issetinItaly,TheBeginningofSpring(1988)inMoscowbeforetheRevolutionof1917,andTheGateofAngels(1990)inaCambridgecollegein
Edwardiantimes.TheBlueFlower(1995)centresonthetragicengagementofHARDENBERGto12yearoldSophievonKuhn.Herotherbiographiesareofthepainter
EdwardByrneJones(1975)andofMEWandhercircle(1984).
Fitzgerald,RobertD(avid)(190287)
Australianpoet,wasborninHuntersHill,NewSouthWales,andeducatedatSydneyGrammarSchool.In1921hegaveuphissciencecourseatSydneyUniversity
totrainasasurveyor.ToMeettheSun(1929)incorporatedTheGreaterApollo:SevenMetaphysicalSongs,whichhadbeenprivatelyprintedin1927.After
spendingtheyears193136surveyingtribalboundariesfortheNativeLandsCommissioninFiji,hebecameamunicipalsurveyor,andthenworkedforthe
DepartmentoftheInteriorfrom1939untilhisretirement.MoonlightAcre(1938),inwhichwerethetwolongerphilosophicalpoems,'TheHiddenBole'and'Essay
onMemory',establishedhim(withSLESSOR)asthemostsignificantAustralianpoetofthe1930s.HeemskerckShoals(1949)andBetweenTwoTides(1952)recall
incidentsinthehistoryrespectivelyofFijiandTonga.Othernotablepoemsare'TheFaceoftheWaters'(1944),andtwofromhistory,'FifthDay'(1953)and'The
WindatYourDoor'(1958).HiscriticalproseiscollectedinOfPlacesandPoetry(1976).HewasmadeOBEin1951andAMin1982.SeeFortyYears'Poems,
1965Product:LaterVerses,1977A.GroveDay,RobertD.Fitzgerald,1973(criticalstudy).
Fitzmaurice,George(18781963)
Irishdramatist,wasborninCo.Kerry,thetenthof12childrenofaChurchofIrelandministerandhisCatholicwife.HebecameaclerkinthecivilserviceinDublin,
whichhewasfortherestofhisworkinglife,apartfromtwoyears'BritisharmyserviceinWorldWarI.Hissentimentalcomedyofshatteredillusions,TheCountry
Dressmaker,wasproducedattheAbbeyTheatrein1907,andwasrevivedseveraltimes.OftheotherplayspublishedinFivePlays(1914),ThePieDish(1908)
andTheMagicGlasses(1913),twooneactdramasinwhichthefantasyvergesonthegrotesque,wereperformedattheAbbey,whileTheDandyDolls,whichhas
anevenmorebizarrequalityaboutitsthemeandlanguage,andTheMoonlighter,atragedyoftheLandWars,wererejected.Afterhispeasantcomedy,'Twixtthe
GiltinansandtheCarmodys,hadbeenperformedin1923,buttocriticalnotices,Fitzmauricebecamealiteraryrecluse,onlyoccasionallyallowingoneofhisplaysto
beperformedorprinted,thoughhecontinuedtowritethem.Theextentandqualityofhisactivitycouldonlybeappreciatedafterhisdeath,withtheposthumous
publicationofhiscompleteoeuvre.SeeThePlaysofGeorgeFitzmaurice,Vol.IDramaticFantasies,introductionbyAustinClarke,1967,Vol.2FolkPlaysand
Vol.3RealisticPlays,introductionsbyHowardK.Slaughter,1970CarolW.Gelderman,GeorgeFitzmaurice,1979(criticalstudy).
Flaubert,Gustave(182180)
Frenchnovelist,wasborninRouen,thesonofaprosperousdoctor,andwaseducatedthereasaweeklyboarderatCollgeRoyal,fromwhichhewasexpelledinhis
finalyearforleadingarevoltagainstaclasspunishment.Hepassedhisbaccalaureatefromhomeandthenspenttheyears184145unenthusiasticallystudyinglawin
Paris.Aftersufferingthefirstofaseriesofepileptoidattacksin1844,heestablishedtheoutwardpatternofhiscareer:tospendthewinteratthefamilyhorneinRouen
andthesummerattheir

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holidaychaletinCroisset,reading,contemplating,writing,andsmoking.ThereweretripstoParis,wherein1846hebegananaffairwiththepoetLouiseColet(1810
76)whichlasteduntil1854seeFrancineduPlessixGray,RageandFire:aLifeofLouiseColetPioneerFeminist,LiteraryStar,Flaubert'sMuse(1994).In
1855hebecameattractedtohisniece'sEnglishgoverness,26yearoldJulietHerbert,whomhewasstillmeetingforamorouspurposesinEnglandorFranceover
twentyyearslater.Heworkedonhisfirstnovel,MadameBovary,forfiveyears,andwasengagedincuttingitshortlybeforesendingittoLaRevuedeParis,in
whichitwasserializedin1856.Itsauthor,publisher,andprinterwereprosecutedforan'outragetopublicandreligiousmoralsandtomorality',andwereacquitted
onlyafterFlaubert'scounselhadarguedforfourhours.Published,withadedicationtohislawyer,involumeformin1857(tr.EleanorMarxAveling,1891tr.Gerard
Hopkins,1949tr.FrancisSteegmuller,1957,reissued1993tr.GermainBree,1990tr.GeoffreyWall,1993),thispainful,realistictragedyofmiddleclass
provinciallifeandmoralswasasuccsdescandalewhichbecamerecognizedasalandmarkinEuropeanfiction.HedidafieldtriptonorthAfricaforSalammb
(1862tr.M.FrenchSheldon,1886tr.A.J.Krailsheimer,1977),aratheroverwroughthistoricalromanceoftherevoltoftheRomanmercenariesafterthedefeatof
Carthage,whichwasenthusiasticallyreviewedbySAND.AwarmliteraryfriendshipensuedseeFlaubertSand:theCorrespondence,ed.AlphonseJacob,tr.
FrancisSteegmullerandBarbaraBray(1993).L'EducationSentimentale(1869asASentimentalEducationtr.D.EHannigan,1898tr.DouglasParme,1989)
ishisultimateexpressionofthepessimismwhichinvestshiswork.Thestrangephilosophicalallegory,LaTentationdeSainteAntoine(1874asTheTemptationof
StAntonytr.Hannigan,1895tr.KittyMrosovsky,1983)hadfirstbeenconceivedin1848andwasreworkedseveraltimes.TroisContes(1877tr.George
BurnhamIvesasStories,1903tr.A.J.KrailsheimerasThreeTales,1991),newpieceswrittenin187576,illustrateshisexpertiseasashortstorywriter.
Flecker,JamesElroy(18841915)
Britishpoet,wasborninLewisham,London,andeducatedatDeanCloseSchool,Cheltenham(ofwhichhisfatherwasHeadmaster),UppinghamSchool,andTrinity
College,Oxford,whereacontemporaryrememberedhimasanimmatureyouth,withapenchantforconversationandafacilityforverse.In1908hedecidedtoenter
theConsularService,andtookacourseinorientallanguagesatCaiusCollege,Cambridge.Hewastakenillwithtuberculosisduringhisfirstassignmentin
Constantinopleand,havingservedinvariousplacesintheEast,gaveuphiscareerin1913.HespentthelasteighteenmonthsofhislifeinSwitzerlandonhisdoctor's
advice.Hisfirstbookofpoems,TheBridgeofFire,waspublishedin1907,andwasfollowedbythreemore,includingTheGoldenJourneytoSamarkand(1913).
Initiallyhetendedtowardstheclassicalandromantic,andpractisedhiscraftbytranslatingclassicalandEuropeanmodels.LatterlyhewasattractedtotheFrench
literarymovement,theParnassians,inwhoseworkhesawareactionagainstthe'perfervidsentimentalityandextravaganceofsomeFrenchRomantics',andwhoseaim
wastocreateastatuesqueandobjectivebeauty.HisbestknownworkisHassan,publishedposthumouslyin1922,anorientalplayinverseinwhichthesparenessof
theapproachservestoheightenthelushnessofthesettingandthedramaofthesituation.Itwasfirstproducedin1923,withincidentalmusicbyFrederickDelius
(18621934).SeePoems:aNewSelection,ed.StephenParry,1980.
Fleming,Ian(190864)
Britishnovelist,wasborninLondon,ayoungerbrotherofthetravellerandwriterPeterFleming(190771),theirfatherbeingkilledinthewarin1917.Hewas
educatedatEtonand,athismother'swish,attheRoyalMilitaryAcademy,Sandhurst,fromwhichhewithdrewafterayearandstudiedlanguagesattheuniversitiesof
MunichandGeneva.HewasReuter'sMoscowCorrespondentfrom1929to1933,duringwhichhecoveredthetrialofsomeBritonsforspyingandsabotage.He
workedinthecityuntilWorldWarII,whichhespentaspersonalassistanttotheDirectorofNavalIntelligence.AfterthewarhewasforatimeForeignManagerof
theKemsley(laterThomson)newspapergroup.HehadbuiltahouseinJamaicain1946,whereafterhismarriagein1952heusedtospendthewintermonthswriting
thenextinstalmentoftheexploitsofhissecretagenthero,JamesBond,alias'007',amanwithseveraltraitsincommonwithhiscreator.CasinoRoyale(1953)wasa
firstnovelofanunusualnatureandofunusualpromise.Suchwastheresponsetothejudiciousblendofsex,violence,intrigue,andhealthyadventure,andtothe
meticulouslysketchedbackgroundofsophisticatedhighliving,that,SherlockHolmeslike,Bondhadtoberesuscitatedafterbeingingeniouslykickedtodeathatthe
endofFromRussia,withLove(1957).Insubsequentbooks,whiletheenormityincreasesofthecrimesBondiscalledupontofrustrate,theauthor'sessentialhold
onrealityismaintainedbysomefinegolf,cardplaying,andskiingsequences.Flemingwasalsoaknowledgeableandenthusiasticbookcollector,andwaspublisherof
theBookCollectorfrom1949untilhisdeath.SeeAJamesBondQuartet:CasinoRoyaleLiveandLetDieMoonrakerFromRussia,withLove,1992A
JamesBondQuintet,1993JohnPear

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son,TheLifeofIanFleming,newedn1989AndrewLycett,IanFleming,newedn1996(biography)KingsleyAmis,TheJamesBondDossier,1965.
Fleming,Marjory(15Jan.180319Dec.1811)
ScottishauthorandtheyoungestsubjectintheDictionaryofNationalBiography,wasborninKirkcaldy,Fife.Herfatherwasanaccountantandhermotherwasof
aprofessional,culturedEdinburghfamilyamongwhoseacquaintanceswasWALTERSCOTT.Avisitfromhermother'sniece,IsabellaKeith(c.17901837),wholater
marriedabrotherofJOHNWILSON,ledtoMarjoryspendingagreatdealoftimefromtheageoffivestayingwithherauntandbeingtaughtbyIsabella,forwhosescrutiny
andcorrectionshewrotein1810and1811threejournals,comprisingsomeninethousandwordsofproseand560linesofverse.These,witheightlettersandapoem
writtenfourdaysbeforeherdeathathomefromcomplicationsafteranattackofmeasles,compriseherliterarycanon.Herundoubtedprecocityandthecharming
eccentricityofherspellingshouldnotbeallowedtoobscurehergenuinepowersofobservationandexpressionandhercheerfullycriticaljudgmentsandphilosophical
commentsonpeople,literature,history,religion,andlifeingeneral.TWAINwroteofherinanarticleinHarper'sBazaar(1909):'Shewasmadeoutofthunderstorms
andsunshine,andnotevenherlittleperfunctorypietiesandshopmadeholinessescouldsquelchherspiritsorputoutherfiresforlong.'SeeTheCompleteMarjory
Fleming,herJournals,Letters,andVerses,ed.FrankSidgwick,1934.
Fletcher,Andrew,ofSaltoun(16531716)
Scottishpoliticalphilosopher,wasthesonofSirRobertFletcherofSaltounandInnerpeffer(d.1665),whoentrustedtheboy'seducationtoGilbertBurnet(1643
1715),laterBishopofSalisbury,towhomhehadpresentedtheEpiscopalianlivingofSaltoun.Fletcherfinishedhiseducationabroad.IntheScottishParliamentin
1681,heopposedandthenproposedamendmentstotheTestAct,andthencausedsufficientembarrassmenttohavetoretiretotheContinent.Hereturnedasjoint
commanderofthecavalryoftheDukeofMonmouth(164985)intherebellionagainsttheCrown.Hewasfortuitouslydismissedforamilitarymisdemeanourjust
beforethecrucialdefeatatSedgemoor,andfledtotheContinent,wherehewasputinprisonbutextricatedbyamysteriousstranger.Inhisabsencehewassentenced
todeathandtoforfeitureofhispossessions.HesailedforEnglandwiththenewKing,William,in1688,andreturnedtoScotland,beingrestoredtohisestatesin
1690.InitiallyhefavouredunionoftheScottishandEnglishparliamentsasameanstowardseconomicprosperity,intheinterestsofwhichhewroteADiscourse
ConcerningMilitiasandStandingArmies(1697)andTwoDiscoursesConcerningtheAffairsofScotland(1698).HewaselectedtoParliamentagainin1703
SpeechesbyaMemberofParliamentwhichBeganatEdinburghthe6thofMay,1703(1703)reflectshisconcernatthewaythingswereturningout.An
AccountofaConversationConcerningtheRightRegulationofGovernmentsFortheCommonGoodofMankind(1704),intheformofaPlatonicexposition,
arguesnotforunionassuch,butforakindofdevolution,withthecontinuanceofaseparateScottishparliament.AftertheActofUnionin1707hewasimprisonedon
suspicionofbeingaJacobite.Onhisrelease,thiscourageous,hottemperednationalistbecameafarmer,andrevolutionizedtheprocessingofbarleyinhisdistrict.See
SelectedPoliticalWritingsandSpeeches,ed.DavidDaiches,1979.
Fletcher,John(15791625)
Englishpoetanddramatist,wasborninRye,Sussex,theyoungersonofthefutureDeanofPeterboroughwhoinsensitivelydelayedtheexecutionofMary,Queenof
Scots,withhispreparedsermon.HewaseducatedatBenetCollege,Cambridge.HisassociationwithBEAUMONTbeganinabout1606,andheiscreditedwithhavinga
handinoverfiftyplays,includingSHAKESPEARE'SHenryVIIIandTheTwoNobleKinsmen.TheearliestplayknowntobebyFletcheraloneisTheFaithfull
Shepheardesse(c.1609),atragicomedy,whichhedefinesasaplayoffamiliarpeopleinsituationswhichcouldresultindeathbutdonotdoso.Thisparticularplayis
acomplexexpositionofpastorallovebothspiritualandphysical,withadashofthesupernatural.OthertragicomediesincludeTheHumorousLieutenant(c.1619),in
whichanaphrodisiactakenbythewrongvictimcausesmuchfarce,andTheIslandPrincess(c.1621),amoreromanticdrama.Sheercomedyisbestrepresentedby
TheWildGooseChase(c.1621),whoseinfightingbetweenthesexesandwittydialoguelookforwardtoRestorationcomedy.Healsowrotetwotragediesof
ImperialRome,Bonduca(c.1612)andValentinian(c.1614).FletcherbecamechiefplaywrightoftheKing'sMen.Amonghissongswhichhavepassedintoliterary
heritageare'Melancholy'('Henceallyouvaindelights...')and'Hear,yeLadies'.Hediedoftheplague,havingstayedinLondontohaveasuitmadeupbeforegoing
intothecountry.SeeCliffordLeech,TheJohnFletcherPlays,1962.
Florio,John
seeBOCCACCIOMONTAIGNIE.
Fontane,Theodor(181998)
Germannovelistandpoet,wasborninNeuruppin,theeldestchildofapharmacistwithaweaknessforgambling,andwasbroughtupinSwinemunde,wherehewas
educated

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mainlybyhisfather.AfterfouryearsatKlodenscheGewerbeschule,atechnicalcollegeinBerlin,hetrainedasapharmacist,andpractisedinLeipzig,Dresden,and
(afterayear'smilitaryservice)Berlin.In1850hegaveupdispensingmedicinesforwritingverse,ofwhichhepublishedabook.Hewasonhiswaytojointheforces
ofSchleswigHolsteinintheirrevoltagainstDenmarkwhenhereceivedtheofferofapositionintheliterarybureauofthePrussianMinistryoftheInterior.Hemarried
onthestrengthofit,andthoughthebureauwassoonmaderedundant,hemanagedtoscrapealivingfromparttimejournalism.In1855hewenttoEnglandasa
journalistandpressagentforthePrussianGovernment.Hereturnedin1859,andpublishedJenseitdesTweed(1859tr.BrianBattershawasAcrosstheTweed,
1965),arelaxedaccountoftwoweeksinScotlandasatourist,duringwhichheintensifiedhisinterestinthetraditionwhichhadledhimtoGermanizeScottishballad
themesin'ArchibaldDouglas'(1853)and'LieddesJamesMonmouth'(1854).In1870hegaveuphispositionaseditoroftheLondoncolumnoftheKreuzzeitung
andbecameTheatreCriticoftheVossischeZeitung.AtthistimehewasknownprimarilyasahistorianandballadistanenlargededitionofBalladen(1860)was
publishedin1875.Hisfirstnovel,VordemSturm(1878tr.R.J.HollingdaleasBeforetheStorm,1985),exploresthemoodinPrussiaduringthewinterof1812
13,beforetheWarofLiberationagainstNapoleon.SubsequentlyhebecameasignificantexponentofthenovelofclasshypocrisyIrrungen,Wirrungen(1888tr.
SandraMorrisasASuitableMatch,1968)andofadulteryEffiBriest(1895tr.DouglasParme,1967tr.HelenChambersandHughRorrison,1995):see
alsoTwoNovellas:TheWornanTakeninAdulteryThePoggenpuhlFamily,tr.GabrieleAnnan(1979).Hislastnovel,DerStechlin(1899tr.WilliamL.
ZwiebelasTheStechlin,1995),itsactionconfinedtooneweddingandafuneralanditsnarrativelargelytohumorousdialogue,presentsananalysisofcurrentcultural
andpoliticalthemes.
Ford,FordMadox(18731939)
Britishnovelist,essayist,poet,andcritic,wasbornFordHermannHuefferinMerton,Surrey,changinghisnamein1919.HewasthesonoftheGermanbornmusic
criticFrancisHueffer(184589)andagrandsonoftheartistFordMadoxBrown(182193).Hismother'ssistermarriedD.G.ROSSETTI'SyoungerbrotherWilliam.He
waseducatedatUniversityCollegeSchool.EarlypublicationswereTheBrownOwl:aFairyStory(1892)withafeministprincess,animalguardian,wicked
chancellor,andadultasidesandstudiesofFordMadoxBrown(1896)andRossetti(1902).In1894heelopedwiththe17yearoldElsieMartindale(d.1949),
whoin1910successfullysuedhimforrestitutionofconjugalrightsshesubsequentlyobtaineddamagesfromanewspaperfordescribingthenovelistVioletHunt
(18661942),withwhomhehadastormyaffair,as'MrsFordMadoxHueffer'.WithCONRAD,hewrotethenovelsTheInheritors(1901)andRomance(1903).In
TheFifthQueen(1906),PrivySeal(1907),andTheFifthQueenCrowned(1908),aboutHenryVIII'sfifthwife,KatharineHoward,themaincharactersarethe
historicalprotagonistsintheconflictsofthetimes.TheGoodSoldier:aTaleofPassion(1915)isanovelofcomplexrelationships.
Inspiteofhisage,FordservedasanofficerinFranceduringWorldWarI,andwasseverelywoundedandgassed.Thefournovelscalled'Tietjen'sSaga'aftertheir
principalcharacterSomeDoNot...(1924),NoMoreParades(1925),AManCouldStandUp...(1926),andLastPost(1928),whichhewroteasan
afterthoughtandthenregrettedspanthewaryears.Impressiveandaheadoftheirtimeintheirportrayalofthemiseriesoftheconflict,theywerelaterpublished
togetherasParade'sEnd(1950).After1923ForddividedhistimebetweenFranceandtheUSA,wherehewasappointedLecturerinComparativeLiteratureat
OlivetCollege,Michigan,in1937.Hewasanearlyadvocateofimpressionisminfictionandpoetry,andaninspirationaleditor.HeeditedTheEnglishReviewfrom
1908to1910,andfoundedthetransatlanticreviewin1924.HiscriticalworksincludePortraitsfromLife(19371938asMightierThantheSword),andstudies
ofHENRYJAMES(1913)andCONRAD(1924).SeeTheBodleyHeadFordMadoxFord,Vols14(introductionbyGrahamGreene)196263,Vol.5(ed.Michael
Killigrew)1971AlanJudd,FordMadoxFord,newedn1993(biography)MaxSaunders,FordMadoxFord:aDualLifeVol.1,TheWorldBeforetheWar,
Vol.2,TheAfterWarWorld,1996.
Ford,John(1586?c.1655)
Englishdramatist,wasborninDevonofalandowningfamily.HemayhavebeentoOxfordhecertainlystudiedlawattheMiddleTemplefrom1602.Afewpoems
andpamphletsareattributedtohimbetween1606and1620,afterwhichheprobablycollaboratedwithDEKKERandothersonanumberofplays,includingTheWitch
ofEdmonton(performed1621)andTheFaireMaideoftheInne(1626).ThefirstknownplaybyhimaloneisTheLover'sMelancholy(published1629),which
drawsonROBERTBURTONforterminologyandsymptoms.BurtonisalsothesourceofthereactionsofjealousyagainsthiswifedisplayedbyBassanesatthediscovery
ofhissterilityinTheBrokenHeart(1633),atragedyoffrustratedsexualpassions.InLove'sSacrifice(1633)Fordaskshimselfwhatmighthappennotifahusband
suspectshiswifeofadulterywithaclosefriend(asinSHAKESPEARE'S

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Othello),orifshehasactuallydoneso(asinHEYWOOD'SAWomanKilledwithKindness)butifshehasprofessedloveforthefriendbutrefusestoconsummateit.'T
isPittySheesaWhore(performedc.1624,published1633)hasaffinitieswithRomeoandJulietexceptthattheloversarebrotherandsister.Whilethequiet,
pervasivequalityofthepoetryiswidelyacknowledged,thereissomedisagreementabouttheplayitself.T.S.ELIOTinElizabethanDramatists(1963)iscriticalof'the
passionofGiovanniandAnnabella[which]isnotshownasanaffinityoftemperamentduetoidentityofbloodithardlyrisesabovethepurelycarnalinfatuation'.ToH.
J.OliverinTheProblemofJohnFord(1955)it'is,Ibelieve,oneofthefinesttragediesoutsideShakespeare'.(PEPYS,whosawitin1661,callsit'asimpleplay,and
illacted,onlyitwasmyfortunetositbyamostprettyandmostingeniouslady,whichpleasedmemuch'.)TheChronicleHistorieofPerkinWarbeck(published
1634)hasearnedsimilarlyconflictingjudgments,butitwasanunusualplayforitstime,andthemotivationiscleverlyhandledandthecharacterizationconvincing.See
'TisPityShe'saWhoreandOtherPlays,ed.MarionLomax,1995CliffordLeech,JohnFordandtheDramaofHisTime,1957.
Forester,C(ecil)S(cott)(18991966)
Britishnovelist,wasbornCecilLewisTroughtonSmithinCairo,thesonofaschoolmaster,andtookthenameofForesterin1923.HegrewupinLondon'ssuburbs,
wherehehauntedthepubliclibraryandstartedthehabit,whichhemaintainedallhislife,ofreadingabookaday.FromAlleyn'sSchoolhewenttothesciencesixth
formofDulwichCollege.HefollowedabrothertoGuy'sHospital,butwithdrewwithoutqualifyinginordertobeawriter.Thethriller,PaymentDeferred(1926),
washisfifthnovelbutthefirsttogainhiminternationalrecognition.Henowestablishedanewformula,withfivenovelsofsuspenseandhighadventurewhichoffer
unusualanglesonthePeninsularWar,theSouthAfricanWar,andWorldWarI:DeathtotheFrench(1932)andTheGun(1933)BrownonResolution(1929)
andTheAfricanQueen(1935)andTheGeneral(1936).HebeganwritingHollywoodfilmscriptsin1932,waswarcorrespondentforTheTimesinSpain1936
37,andwasinCzechoslovakiain1939whentheNazisinvaded.OntheoutbreakofwarhejoinedtheMinistryofInformation,andwrotestoriesandarticlesabout
BritainatwarforpublicationintheUSA.HesailedinawarshiptogainfirsthandexperienceanddetailforTheShip(1943),butonasimilarmissiontotheBeringSea
withtheUSNavyhecontractedarteriosclerosis,whichultimatelycrippledhim.Hisindomitable,sensitive,oftenseasick,butalwaysresourcefulseamanatthetimeof
theNapoleonicWars,HoratioHornblower,firstappearedinTheHappyReturn(1937).Writtenoutofchronologicalorder,the12novelsspanhiscareerfrom
midshipmantoadmiral(andpeeroftherealm).SeeLongBeforeForty,1967(autobiography)TheHornblowerCompanion,newedn1991.
Forster,E(dward)M(organ)(18791970)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,andcritic,wasborninDorsetSquare,London,theonlysurvivingchildofanarchitect,whodiedofconsumptionayearlater.The
boy'screativetalentswereinspiredandhispsychologicaldevelopmentaffectedbythreewomen:hismother,whodiedin1945hismaternalgrandmotherandhis
father'saunt,MarianneThornton,whodiedin1887,leavinghim8000intrustandthecapitalwhenhewas25,whichenabledhimtotravelandtowrite.Hisearly
childhoodinaHertfordshirecountryhousewashappyandidyllic,andherehehadanemotionalrelationshipwithamemberofhisownsex,symbolicallyrecalledinhis
story'Ansell',writteninabout1903.HeattendedTonbridgeSchoolasadayboy,whichwasthesourceofhislifelongantipathytowardsthemiddleclassvalueshe
foundthere.AtKing'sCollege,Cambridge,hehadamoderateacademiccareer,andabandonedreligion,butdiscoveredcomradeshipandfreedomofthoughtand
expression.HissubsequentContinentaltravels,partlywithhismother,confirmedhisattitudetotheEnglishmiddleclassbutalsofosteredhisfirststory,'TheStoryofa
Panic'seeCollectedShortStories(1947)whichwasinspiredbyandsetinandaroundRavello.Itwasprintedin1904intheIndependentReview,foundedby
someofhisCambridgecontemporaries.Ofthefournovelshethenpublished,WhereAngelsFeartoTread(1905)andARoomwithaView(1908)involve
differencesbetweentheEnglishandItaliantemperaments.InTheLongestJourney(1907),thecontrastisbetweenconventionalandpersonalvalues,andinHowards
End(1910)betweenthecreativeimaginationandcommercialgain.Alltheseworksaredistinguishedbyhismanipulationofhischaractersintheirsearchforharmony
andbyhisquiet,pervasivehumour.
In191314hewroteahomosexualnovel,Maurice,whichwasposthumouslypublishedin1971,aswereanumberofstorieswrittenbetween1903and1958which
werecollectedintoTheLifetoCome(1972).BetweenvisitstoIndiain1913and1921,ForsterservedwiththeRedCrossinEgyptinWorldWarI,wherehewrote
Alexandria:aHistoryandaGuide(1922),thestockofwhich,accordingtothepublishers,wasburntinafireshortlyafterpublication.Theyenclosedacheckas
compensationoutoftheinsurancemoney.Afewweekslatertheyreportedthatthebookshadbeenfoundsafe,butinviewoftheinsurance

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situationtheyhaddecidedtoburnthem!OutofForster'seasternexperiencescamewhatprovedtobehislastnovelandfinalfictionalstatementonuniversalharmony
anddiversity,APassagetoIndia(1924)itsthreeparts,Mosque,Caves,Temple,symbolizerespectivelytheMuslim,Western,andHinduapproachestotruth,
rationality,andspirituality.HisClarkLecturesatCambridgein1927onelementsoffictionfromDEFOEtoD.H.LAWRENCEwerepublishedasAspectsoftheNovelnew
edn,ed.OliverStallybrass(1976).CollectionsofhiscriticalessaysandreviewsareAbingerHarvest(1936)andTwoCheersforDemocracy(1951).In1946he
wasappointedanHonoraryFellowofKing'sCollege,whereheliveduntilhisdeath,beingmadeCHin1953,andawardedtheOMin1969.SeeP.N.Furbank,E.
M.Forster:aLife,2volsnewedn1994NicolaBeauman,Morgan:aLifeofE.M.Forster,newedn1994JohnColmer,E.M.Forster:thePersonalVoice,
newedn1983(criticalstudy).
Foulis,Hugh
seeMUNRO,NEIL.
Fournier,AlainHenri
seeALAINFOURNIER.
Fowler,William(15601612)
Scottishpoet,wasborninEdinburgh,thesonofaburgessofthetown,andwasprobablyeducatedatStAndrewsUniversitybeforegoingtoFrance,likemany
Scottishstudents,tocompletehisstudies.HereopencommitmenttoProtestantismledhimintoanargumentwithJohnHamilton(fl.15681609),Professorof
PhilosophyattheRoyalCollegeofNavarre,andtohisbeingattackedinthestreet.HereturnedhastilytoScotland,wherehecontinuedthedisputationwithAn
AnswertotheCalumniousLetterandErroneousPropositionsofanApostatenamedM.Io.Hammiltoun(1581).AvisittotheFrenchAmbassadorinLondon
in1582wasmisconstruedbytheauthoritiesandhewasimprisoned.Onhisreleasehecontinuedthevisits,butasaspyforSirFrancisWalsingham(c.153090),
secretaryofstatetoElizabethI.In1584hisliteraryqualificationsgainedhimanentretothecourtofJAMESVI,andhewasin1585appointedlayparsonofHawick.
Hewasinvolvedinthenegotiationsin1589forJames'smarriagetoAnneofDenmark,andbecametheQueen'sMasterofRequestsandDeputySecretary.HisA
TrueReportarie...ofthebaptismofPrinceHenryin1594isofmuchhistoricalinterest.OnthedeathofElizabethin1603heaccompaniedtheroyalcoupleto
London,thoughhiseffectivenessasacourtierwasunderminedbypoorhealthandfrequentvisitstoScotlandtosupervisehisaffairs.Hediedarichman,leavinghis
property,whichincludedtheDean'sHouse,Restalrig,tohiseldestson,andhismanuscriptstohisnephew,DRUMMOND.Hewas,withMONTGOMERIEandJohnStewartof
Baldynneis(c.1539c.1606),aprominentScottishcourtpoetandwriterofsonnets,ofwhichhis'TarantulaofLove'comprises75.HetranslatedPETRARCH'STriumphs
andMACHIAVELLI'SThePrince.SeeTheWorksofWilliamFowler,ed.HenryW.Meikle,JamesCraigie,andJohnPurves,3vols191440.
Fowles,John(b.1926)
Britishnovelist,wasborninLeighonSea,Essex,andeducatedatBedfordSchool,EdinburghUniversity,and,withagapforNationalServiceintheRoyalMarines,
NewCollege,Oxford,wherehereadFrench.HelecturedinEnglishatPoitiersUniversityin195051,atAnargyriosCollege,Greece195152,andthentaughtin
Londonuntil1963.TheCollector(1963),intheformofapsychologicalthriller,wasthefirstandisthemostdirectofhisnovels.TheMagus(1965),long(617
pages),complex,mysterious,andambiguous,eveninitsrevisedversion(1977),isacritic'sratherthanageneralreader'scornucopia.Thesamenarrativeimpulse,in
thiscasederivingfromVictorianmodels,isafeatureofTheFrenchLieutenant'sWoman(1969),whichhasthreeendings,andinwhichthe19thcenturycharacters
inhabitboththehistoricalandthesubconsciousworlds.InDanielMartin(1977),theselfseekingheroisconductedthroughhistoryandbetweenseveralgeographical
settings.WithAMaggot(1985)thefocusoftherelationshipbetweenthesexesshiftstothefemale.InTheAristos:aSelfPortraitinIdeas,begunatOxfordand
publishedin1965(rev.edn1968)aristosistheGreekwordmeaning'best'Fowlesexpresseshisaimasbeing'topreservethefreedomoftheindividualagainstall
thosepressurestoconformthatthreatenourcentury'.MALCOLMBRADBURYhasconcluded:'Themodernnovelistcanbeboththegodoffreedomandthetricky
impresario,andFowles,aidedbyhisenigmaticmuses,hasfoundextraordinarywaystodoboth.'HispoetrywasfirstpublishedinbookforminPoems(1973).See
SimonLoveday,TheRomancesofJohnFowles,newedn1988.
Frame,Janet(b.1924)
NewZealandnovelist,shortstorywriter,andpoet,wasborninDunedin,thethirdchildofanenginedriverofScottishparentage,andinheritedfromhermotherthe
'habitofwritingpoems'.Herprizeasduxofherprimaryschoolwasayear'ssubscriptiontotheOamaruPublicLibrary,fromwhichthewholefamilybenefited.She
wentontoWaitikiGirls'HighSchool,andthentoOtagoUniversityTeachers'TrainingCollege.In1945,shortlyafterhavinghadherfirststory,'UniversityEntrance',
publishedintheListener,shewalkedoutofherclassroomduringteachingpractice,'knowingIwouldneverreturn'.Afterattemptingsuicideandspendingsixweeksin
hospital,shewasdiagnosedasschizo

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phrenic.Shewas'declaredsane'thefollowingyear,butthedeathofheryoungersisterwhileswimming,mirroringexactlythetragedyofhereldersistertenyears
earlier,wasaterriblesetback.Fromthenuntil1954,whenshewasfinallydischarged,shespentmostofhertimeinhospital,beingsubjectedtoelectricalshock
therapy.Inbetweentimessheworkedasahotelwaitressorhousemaid,andmanagedtowriteTheLagoon:Stories(1952).SARGESONbefriendedher,givingher
accommodationandaplacetoworkintheformofanarmyhutinhisgarden.InOwlsDoCry(NewZealand1957,UK1961),herfirstnovel,manyofthe
circumstancesofherownupbringingarereflectedintheexperiencesoftheWithersfamily.AgrantfromtheNewZealandLiteraryFundenabledhertotravel
overseas.ShestayedinAndorra,Ibiza,andLondon,wherepsychiatristsattheMaudsleyHospitalpronouncedthatshehadneversufferedfromschizophreniaand
prescribedwritingasacure,backedbyoutpatienttreatment.Duringthenextfouryears,duringmostofwhichshesubsistedonNationalAssistance,shecompletedher
WithersfamilytrilogywithFacesintheWater(1961),anightmaredescentintotheatmosphereofamentalhospital,andTheEdgeoftheAlphabet(1962),inwhich
anunsuccessfulquestbyanepileptic(suchaswasherownbrother)hasasymbolicresolution.Shealsowrotethedisturbingallegory,ScentedGardensfortheBlind
(1963),and'twovolumesofstoriesfromwhichtheNewYorkerandothermagazinesthatIlearnedwereknownas''glossies"chosestories'.
Herfather'sdeathprecipitatedherreturntoNewZealandafterbeingawayforsevenyears.TheawardoftheScholarshipinLettersfor1964andtheRobertBurns
FellowshipatOtagoUniversityin1965gavehersomeimmediatesecurity.ThemirrorimageinTheAdaptableMan(1965),heronlynovelsetentirelyinEngland,is
anextensionofthe'MirrorCity'whichisherownworldandwithoutwhichshecannotrationallyexistintherealworld:theimpressionswhichcontributedtothenovel
weregarneredduringanotherwiseunproductivesojourninanisolatedcottageinEastSuffolk.InTheRainbirds(1968)theprotagonist'svoyageisintodeath,afterhe
hasbeendeclareddeadandcometolifeinhospital.DaughterBuffalo(1972)alsoexploresdeath,throughtheobsessionwithitthatFramehadobservedinNew
ZealandandintheUSA,wherethebookwaswritten.AlsowrittenintheUSAwasIntensiveCare(1970),inwhichNewZealandbecomesasymbolicVietnamand
destructionthreatensanylivingthing,animalorvegetable.C.K.STEAD,reviewingLivingintheManiototo(1979),pickedouttheproposition,'Ifeelthatlanguageinits
widestsenseisthehawksuspendedaboveeternity',andsuggestedthatherfictionalsoleavesthereaderwiththesensethatitis'avastillusorypalaceerectedoverthe
chasmofdeath'theimageofthehawkhaspersistedwithFramesinceitsappearance('Ahawkcameoutofthesky')inherfirststory,composedwhenshewas
three.InTheCarpathians(1988)theinhabitantsofastreetinaNewZealandprovincialtownsufferacollapseoflanguageundertheinfluenceoftheGravityStarand
oftheMemoryFlowerwhich'growsalwaysfromthedead'.HerpoetryhasbeenpublishedasThePocketMirror(1967).Inthreeautobiographies,TotheIsland
(1982),AnAngelatMyTable(1984),andTheEnvoyfromtheMirrorCity(1985),sherecountsinaspareanddignifiedmanneraspectsofherlifeuptoher
returnhomein1964,withoutdwellingonthefears,realandunreal,suchassheexploresinherfictioninonevolumeasAnAutobiography(1989).Shewasmade
CBEin1983.SeeTheJanetFrameReader,ed.CaroleFerrier,1995(feministcollection)MargaretDalziel,JanetFrame,1982(criticalstudy).
France,Anatole,pseudonymofJacquesAnatoleFranoisThibault(18441924)
Frenchnovelistandcritic,wasborninParis,theonlychildofanantiquarianbooksellerwhousedthepennameFranceLibraireforbibliographicalarticles.Hewas
educatedatCollgeStanislaus,aJesuitschool,whichhehated,andhavingbeengivenupbyhisfatherasuseless,heededhisFlemishmother'surgingtobecomea
writer.Apublisher'sreaderandformanyyears,untilin1891hefelloutwithhissuperior,alibrarianattheSenate,hepublishedpoetry,criticism,shortfiction,anda
poeticdramainthe1870s,andthenanovel,LeCrimedeSylvestreBonnard(1881tr.LafcadioHearnasTheCrimeofSylvestreBonnard,1891),acharacter
studyofagentlebibliophile.HewasLiteraryEditorofLeTemps188891.Hiselectionin1896totheAcadmieFranaiseconfirmedhiscredentialsasaninfluential
literaryfigure:hissupportofZOLAinthecaseofAlfredDreyfusin1898establishedhimasapoliticalnotability.LesDieuxOntSoil(1912tr.AlfredAllinsonasThe
GodsAreAthirst,1913tr.FrederickDaviesasTheGodsWillHaveBlood,1979),agraphicportrayal,beginningin1793,oftheconflictbetweenidealsand
actionsduringtheFrenchRevolution,ishismostsatisfyingworkandmostlastingnovel.Hisdivorcein1892wasprecipitatedbyhisliaisonwiththeParisianliterary
hostess,MmeArmandeCaillavet,afterwhosedeathin1910heinstalledinhishouse,andultimatelymarried,hermaid.AbanquetgiveninhishonourinLondonin
1913wasattendedbyKIPLING,WELLS,BARRIE,G.B.SHAW,ARNOLDBENNETT,MASEFIELD,andGALSWORTHY.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1921.
Francis,Dick(b.1920)
Britishnovelist,wasborninTenby,Pembrokeshire,andeducatedatMaidenheadCountyBoys'School,

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Berkshire.HeservedintheRoyalAirForceasaflyingofficerinWorldWarII.HerodeasanamateurNationalHuntjockeyfrom1946to1948,whenhewent
professional,beingchampionjockeyin195354.Heretiredafterhishorse,ownedbytheQueenMother,mysteriouslysanktothegroundthirtyyardsfromthe
winningpostwhenleadingtheGrandNationalby10lengths.HewasracingcorrespondentoftheSundayExpressfrom1957to1973.WithDeadCert(1962)he
establishedaliterarymilieu(theworldofhorseracing),astockherotype(tough,heneedstobe,andonlymarginallyinvolvedromanticallyduringthecourseofthe
story),andaformula(amystery,criminalskulduggery,oftenmurder)onwhichbyTotheHilt(1996)hehadworked35terselytitledandingeniousvariations.The
booksscorebecauseofthecompellingnatureofthedetail,thevarietyofthesettings,andtheoverridingsoundnessoftheirvalues.TheSportofKings:the
AutobiographyofDickFrancis(1957)hasbeen,andhashadtobe,severaltimesupdatedanewedition,SportofQueens,waspublishedin1995.Hewasmade
OBEin1984.
Frank,Anne(LieseMarie)(192945)
Dutchdiarist,wasborninGermanyinFrankfurtamMainofJewishparents,whoin1933emigratedtoAmsterdam,wherethefamilybecamemembersoftheLiberal
Jewishcongregationandassimilatedintothecommunity.In1941sheandhereldersisterwereforcedtotransferfromtheMontessorischooltothesecondaryschool
forJewsonly.On14June1942shebeganadiaryinamanuscriptbookgiventoherforherbirthdaytwodaysbefore.On9July,theFranks,withanotherfamilyand
adentist,wentintohidinginasecretannexewhichherfatherhadconstructedintheofficebuildinginwhichheworked.On4August1944,threedaysafterthelast
entryinthediary,theGestaporaidedthebuildingandarrestedtheoccupantstheeightJewsweresenttoconcentrationcamps.Sevenmonthslater,andafewdays
afterhersister,AnnediedoftyphoidinBergenBelsen,towhichtheyhadbeentransferredfromAuschwitz.Thediary,inaseriesofnotebooksandloosesheets(the
lattercontainingrewrittenversionsoftheentries,whichshehopedtopublish'afterthewar'),wasdiscoveredintheannexe,andpreserved.Inaformtranscribedby
herfather,OttoFrank(18891980),theonlyoneoftheeightwhosurvived,itwaspublishedinHollandasHetAchterhuis(1947tr.B.M.MooyartDoubleday,
incorporatingadditionalpassages,asTheDiaryofaYoungGirl,introductionbyEleanorRoosevelt(inUKbyStormJameson),1952asTheDiaryofAnne
Frank,1954).Aswellasbeingalucidaccountoftheinnerexperiencesofanarticulateteenager,ofherrelationswithothers,andofherunderstandingofwhatwas
happeningtoherworldandherpeople,ithasbecomeasymbolofJewishsufferingduringWorldWarII.Bythemid1980sithadsold16millioncopiesworldwide
in199394,itwasthethirdmostborrowednonfictionworkinlibrariesintheUK.
FurtherinsightandbackgroundareinTheDiaryofAnneFrank,CriticalEdition,ed.DavidBarnouwandGerroldvanderStroom(1989)seealsoTheDiaryof
aYoungGirl:theDefinitiveEdition,ed.OttoH.FrankandMirjamPresslet,tr.SusanMassotty(1995).OtherwritingsareinVerhaaltjesenGebeurtenissenuit
hetAchterhuis(1982tr.RalphManheimandMichelMokasAnneFrank'sTalesfromtheSecretAnnex,1983).Thereisanexcellent,objectivecriticalessayby
BERRYMANinhisTheFreedomofthePoet(1976).LawrenceGraver,AnObsessionwithAnneFrank:MeyerLevinandthe'Diary'(1995)isanaccountofthe
traumasthatattendedthedramatizationofthebookandofthebitterthirtyyearcampaignbythewriterMeyerLevin(190581)toachievewhathebelievedtobehis
rightsinthematter.(AnobsessionwithFrankofadifferentkindispositedbythefictionalnarratorofPHILIPROTH'STheGhostWriter.)
Frank,Waldo
seeTOOMER.
Franklin,Benjamin(170690)
Americanphilosopher,politicalcritic,scientist,statesman,prosewriter,andprinter,wasborninBoston,theeighthoftenchildrenbyhissecondwifeofa
Northamptonshiretallowchandlerandsoapboilerwhohadimmigratedin1683.'PuttotheGrammarSchoolatEightYearsofAge,myFatherintendingtodevoteme
astheTitheofhisSonstotheServiceoftheChurch',hewasremoved(hisfatherhavingreconsideredthecost)andputintothefamilybusiness.At12,herebelled,
andtostophimgoingtoseahewasapprenticedtohishalfbrother,JamesFranklin(16971735),alocalprinter.In1721JamesestablishedtheNewEngland
Courant,thefourthAmericannewspaper,andthemostoutspoken,whichsoonembroileditself,albeitonthewrongside,inthecontroversyoversmallpoxinoculation.
In1722Franklingothimselfintoprintbyshovingasatiricalarticle,signed'SilenceDogood',undertheprintinghousedooritbecamethefirstof14suchcontributions.
Thefollowingyear,havingbeenpublisherofthepaperforthreemonths(JamesbeingdisbarredafterservingamonthinjailontheorderoftheSpeakerofthe
Assembly),hebrokehisindenturesandwenttoPhiladelphia.In1728,afteradisastroustimeinLondon,heestablishedhisownbusiness,andin1729boughtthe
bankruptUniversalInstructor,whichherenamedthePennsylvaniaGazetteandspicedwithhumourandsatire,enlivenedbyhisownstylishcontributions.Poor
Richard'sAlmanackfor1733,acompilationoftagsandhomespunphilosophy,was

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thefirstof25suchannualpublications.Thefinalone(1757)wasprefacedwith'aconnectedDiscourse',knownasTheWaytoWealth,promotingindustry,frugality,
andprudence,whichwasreprintedmanytimesandtranslatedintosevenlanguagesbeforetheendofthecentury.
In1730hemarriedDeborahReadRogers(170874)itwasatangledarrangement,forherhusbandwasprobablystillalive,andtheFranklinelderson,William
(c.17311813),wasprobablynothers.Nevertheless'sheprov'dagoodandfaithfulHelpmate,assistedmemuchbyattendingtheshop,[and]wethrovetogether'.He
foundedthePhiladelphiaLibraryCompanyin1731,andtheUnionFireCompanyin1736,whenhealsobecameClerktothePennsylvaniaAssembly.Thenextvear
hebecamePostmasterofPhiladelphia,whichledtohisbeingappointedjointDeputyPostmasterGeneralofNorthAmericain1753andPostmasterGeneralin1775.
AProposalforPromotingUsefulKnowledge(1743)initiatedtheformationoftheAmericanPhilosophicalSociety,ofwhichhewasthefirstsecretary.In1748he
retiredfromactiveparticipationintheprintingbusiness(heremainedapartneruntil1766)and,havingalreadyinventedthe'Franklinstove',busiedhimselfwith
electricalexperiments.ThesehedescribedinletterstoEnglandtoPeterCollinson(16941768),aFellowoftheRoyalSociety,whopublishedthemasExperiments
andObservationsonElectricity,MadeatPhiladelphia(3parts175154expanded4thedn1769),alandmarkinscientificliterature.Bythemiddleof1752he
hadeffectivelyinventedthelightningconductor.TheRoyalSocietyawardedhimamedal,andelectedhimaFellowin1756.
Franklinnowcameintohisownasastatesman.InEnglandbetween1757and1762hewasagentforPennsylvaniainnegotiationswiththeproprietorsofthestate,
ThomasPenn(170275)andhisyoungerbrotherRichard(d.1771),andpublishedTheInterestofGreatBritainConsideredwithRegardtoHerColonies
(1760),arguingfortheretentionofCanadaafterthewarwithFrance.HewasbackinEnglandin1764,whereherepresentedalsoGeorgia,Massachusetts,andNew
JerseyindiscussionsonthecoloniesseeDavidT.Morgan,TheDeviousDrFranklin,ColonialAgent:BenjaminFranklin'sYearsinLondon(1996).In1775,
havinggivenuphopeofapeacefulsettlement,hereturnedhome,wherehiswife,whomhehadnotseenfortenyears,haddiedonlyafewmonthsbefore.Hehelped
preparetheDeclarationofIndependence,andwhenthewarbeganwassentbyCongressasoneofthreecommissionersinFrance.Hewasaccompaniedbytwo
grandsons(agedsevenand16),andinthecomfortableresidenceintheParissuburbofPassywhichhadbeenassignedtohimheinstalledapress,onwhichheprinted
officialpapersand,forprivatecirculation,aseriesofhumorousessayswhichhecalled'bagatelles',includingTheDialoguebetweenFranklinandtheGoutsee
Franklin'sWitandFolly:theBagatelles,ed.RichardE.Amacher(1953).OfficiallyappointedMinisterPlenipotentiaryin1779,hewasapowerinthepeace
negotiationswithBritainwhichconcludedwiththeTreatyofParis(1783).Hewasallowedtoreturnhomein1785,havingfirstaskedtoberelievedofhispostin
1781.Hefinallyretiredfrompubliclifeattheageof82,whenheresignedasPresidentoftheSupremeExecutiveCouncilofPennsylvania.Athisdeathhewasstill
workingonhisAutobiography,whichhehadbeguninEnglandin1771,andwhich,thoughitbreaksoffin1757,isforitsstyleandeternaloptimismasmuchan
ornamenttoAmericanliteratureasthemanhimselfwastohisage.SeeTheAutobiographyofBenjaminFranklin,ed.LeonardW.Labareeandothers,1964
AutobiographyandOtherWritings,ed.OrmondSeavey,1993RonaldW.Clark,BenjaminFranklin:aBiography,rev.edn1989.
Franklin,(StellaMariaSarah)Miles(18791954)
Australiannovelist,wasborn,afifthgenerationAustralian,onthefamilypropertyofTalbingo,NewSouthWales,andwasbroughtuponherfather'scattlestation
seetheposthumouslypublishedChildhoodatBrindabella(1963)and,from1889,atBangalore,nearGoulburn.At16shewroteanovelwhichwassentto
LAWSON.Herecommendedittohispublisher,Blackwood'sofEdinburgh.TheypublisheditasMyBrilliantCareer(1901),withaforewordbyhim,inwhichhe
revealedthatitwaswrittenby'justalittlebushgirl'.Ebullientandoutspoken,anddescribedbythecriticA.G.Stephens(18651933)as'theveryfirstAustralian
novel....Thereisnotoneoftheothersthatmightnothavebeenwrittenbyastrangerorsojourner',itcausedoffencelocally,whereitwastakentobe
autobiography.Anevenmoreemphaticallyfeministsequel,MyCareerGoesBung,'plannedasacorrective'andwrittenin1902,wasnotpublisheduntil1946
becauseoflibelfears.Afterbeingahousemaid,whilewritingfortheBulletinasMaryAnneandmixingwiththeMelbourneliteraryset,FranklinwenttotheUSA,
wheresheworkedfortheWomen'sTradeUnionLeaguewiththeAustralianfeminist,AliceHenry(18571943).SheservedintheBalkanswiththeScottishWomen's
HospitalUnitinWorldWarI,afterwhichshebecamepoliticalsecretaryoftheNationalHousingandTownPlanningCouncilinLondon.HereshewroteUpthe
Country(1928)andtwomorenovelsinthesequenceofsixcoveringthepioneeringdays,publishedasbyBrentofBinBin,anidentitysherefusedtoacknowledge
untiljustbeforeherdeath.ShefinallyreturnedtoAustraliain1933,andpublishedunderherownnameAllThatSwagger(1936),

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afamilysagacoveringthe1830sto1930s.Sheleft9800inherwillforanannualawardforanovelofAustralianlifeof'thehighestliteraryquality'.Thefirstwinner
wasPATRICKWHITE(1957).Seethecomplementarybiographicalstudies:MarjorieBarnard,MilesFranklin,newedn1989VernaColeman,MilesFranklinin
America,1981andColinRoderick,MilesFranklin:HerBrilliantCareer,1982.
Fraser,G(eorge)S(utherland)(191580)
Scottishpoetandcritic,wasborninGlasgowandbroughtupinAberdeen,wherehisfatherwasTownClerk.HewaseducatedatAberdeenGrammarSchoolandSt
AndrewsUniversity,afterwhichheworkedasajournalistontheAberdeenPressandJournal.HewasatthistimeassociatedwiththeNewApocalypse(see
TREECE),towhoseanthology,TheWhiteHorseman(1941),hecontributedanintroduction.HisTheFatalLandscapeandOtherPoemswaspublishedin1941.He
servedintheMiddleEastinWorldWarII,duringwhichhewrotesomeofhisbestreflectiveverse,exemplifiedbythetitlepoemsofHomeTownElegy(1944)and
TheTravellerHasRegretsandOtherPoems(1948).AfterthewarhemarriedandsettledinLondon,wherehewrotereviewsandleadingarticlesforTheTimes
LiterarySupplementandothercriticaljournals,withabreakinJapanin195051asCulturalAdviserinsuccessiontoBLUNDEN.HewasLecturerinEnglishat
LeicesterUniversity195863,andthenReaderinModernEnglishLiteratureuntilhisdeath.HiscriticalworksincludeLawrenceDurrell:aStudy(1968)andthe
formativeTheModernWriterandHisWorld(19532ndrev.edn1970).SeePoemsofG.S.Fraser,ed.IanFletcherandJohnLucas,1981AStrangerand
Afraid:theAutobiographyofanIntellectual,1983.
Frayn,Michael(b.1933)
Britishdramatist,novelist,andjournalist,wasborninMillHill,London,andeducatedatKingstonGrammarSchoolandEmmanuelCollege,Cambridge,wherehehad
amusicalplayproducedin1957.HewasacolumnistontheGuardian(195962)andtheObserver(196268).HisfirstWestEndplaywasTheTwoofUs(1970),
fouramusingsketches.SubsequentplaysincludeAlphabeticalOrder(1975inAlphabeticalOrderandDonkeys'Years,1977),acomicsituationpiecesetinthe
cuttings'libraryofaprovincialnewspaper,whichwonhimthefirstoffourEveningStandarddramaawards,andNoisesOff(1981),abouttheatrelife.Hehasalso
adaptedplaysofCHEKHOV,TOLSTOY,andANOUILH.Fromhisfirstnovel,TheTinMen(1965),throughtoALandingontheSun(1991)andNowYouKnow(1992),he
hasfoundintheworldofbureaucracyfantastical,farcical,sometimespoignant,situationstoembellishwithhisparticularbrandofwitandsatire.HemarriedClaire
Tomalin(b.1933),biographerofWOLLSTONECRAFTandofDICKENS'SmistressNellyTernan,in1993.SeePlays1,1985,Plays2,1992.
Frazer,(Sir)J(ames)G(eorge)(18541941)
Britishanthropologistandclassicist,wasborninGlasgowandeducatedatLarchfieldAcademy,Helensburgh,GlasgowAcademy,andTrinityCollege,Cambridge,
wherehereadclassicsandwasin1879electedtoafellowshipforlife.HewascalledtotheBarin1882,butneverpractised.Hisactivitiesinthefieldofclassical
scholarshipresultedinanannotatedSallust(1884)andamonumentaleditionofPausanias(1898),whileinspiringwhatwastobecomethepreoccupationofalifetime.
ForinattemptingtounravelacruxinVIRGIL'SAeneidaboutthesuccessiontothepriesthoodofDianaatAricia,hefoundhimselfexploringmysteriesofreligion,magic,
superstition,mythology,andprimitivecustomsinallpartsoftheglobe.TheGoldenBough:aStudyinComparativeReligionwaspublishedintwovolumesin1890,
witharevisedversioninthreevolumesin1900.Frazerwasalreadycontemplatingandpreparinganenlargededition,whichwasfinallycompletein1915in12
volumes.Henowbeganworkontheonevolumeabridgededition,withthesubtitleAStudyinMagicandReligion(1922),towhichheaddedan'Aftermath'in
1936.Thiswasbynomeansallthathecontributedtotheexegesisoftheseandotheraspectsofsocialanthropology,andwhilehiseffectonsucceeding
anthropologistshasbeenslender,therearemanynovelistsandpoetsinwhosewritingshisinfluencecanreadilybetraced,includingBELLOW,BUCHAN,CONRAD,T.S.ELIOT,
D.H.LAWRENCE,MAILER,MURDOCH,POWELL,SPARK,SYNGE,andYEATS.Hewasknightedin1914andawardedtheOMin1925.HisdeathinCambridgewasfollowedonlya
fewhourslaterbythatofhiswife.SeeTheGoldenBough,abridgedanded.RobertFraser,1994RobertAckerman,J.G.Frazer:HisLifeandWork,newedn
1990RobertFraser,TheMakingoftheGoldenBough:theOriginsandGrowthofanArgument,1990RobertFraser(ed.),SirJamesFrazerandthe
LiteraryImagination,1990.
Freeling,Nicolas(b.1927)
Britishnovelist,wasborninLondon'sGray'sInnRoad,andeducatedatschoolsinEnglandandFrance,andalsoatDublinUniversity.Sincethenhehaslivedonthe
Continent,firstasachefinmanycountries,andlatterlyasanovelistinStrasbourg:TheKitchen(1970)isaquirkymemoirofhisformerexistenceandCookBook
(1971)ofhismetamorphosisintothelatter.Hisfirsttwodetectivenovels,LoveinAmsterdam(1962)andBecauseoftheCats(1963),setinHolland,wherehis
wifecomesfrom,wereimmediatelydistinctivenotjustfortheirsetting,butalsoforthedepthofcharacterizationandmotives,andforthe

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style,withitsswiftandoftenstaccatodialogueandwiderangingliteraryallusions.Thoughtherewasnoresurrectionforhisdetective,VanderValk,whometaviolent
deathaftertennovels,hiswidowArlette,remarriedtoanEnglishacademic,reappearsasaprivatedetectiveinherownrightinTheWidow(1979).InLadyMacbeth
(1988)sheinteractswithFreeling'ssecondmajorcreation,InspectorHenriCastangofthePoliceJudiciaireinaFrenchprovincialcity,whofirstappearsinTheNight
Lords(1978).WiththeadventofCastang,Freeling'snovelshavebecomeevenmorerefreshinglycosmopolitan,andGerman,EnglishandBelgianlocationsandhabits
havecomeunderhisscrutiny.Thoughheisclaimedasagenrenovelist,thereisnoformulaabouthiscomposition.'WhenIstarted,crimefictionwasstuckwiththeold
whodunnitandeveryonegotboredwiththat.Then,inthe1960s,theformgotmoreambitious,thewhydunnitcameinandIplayedmypartinthat.NowIthinkI'm
boredwiththat,too.SoI'mtryingtomakethecrimenovelrejointhemainstreamofliterature.'ACitySolitary(1985)isapsychologicalthrillerinwhichthemindsand
motivationofallthemaincharactersareexplored.TheSeacoastofBohemia(1994),his33rdnovel,vastlyextendsourknowledgeofthecharacter,andelliptical
thinking,ofCastang,andofhiswife.ThisIstheCastle(1968),thoughitcontainsaviolentdeath,isastudyofrelationshipsandoftheimaginationofDuthiel,a
novelistinwhomthosethatlookmayfindsomeofthecharacteristicsandyouthfulexploitsofhiscreator.CrimeandFiction(1993)isacriticalstudyseealso
CriminalConvictions(1994),essays.
Freeman,MaryE(leanor)Wilkins(18521930)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasbornMaryEllaWilkinsinRandolph,Massachusetts,thedaughterofacarpenter.In1867heboughtahalfshareina
storeinBrattleboro,Vermont,whereshewenttothehighschool,afterwhichshespentayearatMountHolyokeFemaleSeminar).Herfather'sbusinessfailed,he
returnedtocarpentry,andin1877theymovedintothehomeofaclergyman,towhomMrsWilkinswashousekeeperitwasablowforafamilywhosePuritanbelief
wasthatpovertyisapunishmentforsin.Leftalonein1883afterthedeathsofherparentsandsister,sheturnedtoherwriting,ofwhichshehadhadsomechildren's
poemsandanadultstorypublished.In1884shereturnedtoRandolphafterHarper'sNewMonthlyhadaccepted'AHumbleRomance',whichwastobethetitle
storyofherfirstcollection(1887).ANewEnglandNun,andOtherStories(1891),liketheearlierbook'studiesofthedescendantsoftheMassachusettsBay
colonists',isexpressiveofthePuritanwillatatimewhenwomenwerebeginningtoassertthemselvesagainsttheoldpressuresseeespecially'TheRevoltof
"Mother"'.Thoughshecontinuedtowriteforthirtyyears,andtheNewEnglandnovelsJaneField(1892)andPembroke(1894)havepowerfulmoments,andThe
ShouldersofAtlas(1908)wontheNewYorkHeraldtransatlanticcontest,nothingquitematchesuptotheinsightoftheearlystories.In1902shemarriedDr
CharlesFreemanofMetuchen,NewJersey,aqualifiedphysicianwhopreferredtorunacoalandlumberbusiness.Shewaslegallyseparatedfromhimin1922after
hisconfirmedalcoholismhadcausedhimtobecommittedtoanasylum.Hediedthenextyear,havingdisinheritedher.Shesuccessfullycontestedthewill.See
SelectedStoriesofManyE.WilkinsFreeman,ed.MarjoriePryse,newedn1984PerryD.Westbrook,ManyWilkinsFreeman,1988(biographical/critical
study)LeahBlattGlasser,InaClosetHidden:theLifeandWorksofMaryE.WilkinsFreeman,1996.
Freneau,Philip(17521832)
Americanpoetandjournalist,wasborninNewYorkofHuguenotancestry,andwaseducatedattheLatinschoolatPenelopenandattheCollegeofNewJerseyin
Princeton,whereathisgraduationin1771BRACKENRIDGErecitedtheirjointpoem,'TheRisingGloryofAmerica'.In1775,havingtaughtinMaryland,andpublishedin
NewYorkTheAmericanVillage(1772),incorporating'severalotheroriginalPiecesinVerse',andsomeindividualpoemsontopicalsubjects,hesailedfortheisland
ofSantaCruz.Whenthematediedatsea,hewasinvitedbythemaster,whowasalsohishost,totaketheman'splace,thusinitiatinghissecondcareer.Hestayedin
theWestIndiesforthreeyears,andwrotemorepoetry,including'TheIslandFieldHand'(alsoknownas'ToSirToby'),expressinghorroratslaveconditionsona
Jamaicansugarplantation.In1780,onareturntriptotheWestIndiesasapassenger,hisshipwasattackedandcapturedbyaBritishfrigateandtakentoNewYork.
HedescribedhissubsequentprivationsinthefourcantosofTheBritishPrisonShip(1781).From1781to1784heeditedinPhiladelphiatheFreeman'sJournalor
NorthAmericanIntelligencer,inwhichhepublishedtheantiBritishpoemswhichearnedhimthetitleof'PoetoftheAmericanRevolution'.Between1784and1790,
andagainfrom1803to1807,hewasmasterofshipsplyingbetweenAmericanports,andlatterlybetweenCharlestonandtheAzores,whichhedidforthemoney.
HewasfounderEditoroftheNationalGazette179193,whosecolumnshefilledwithpoemsontheRightsofMan,theAgeofReason,andRepublicanismfor
FranceandAmerica.Whenthepaperfolded,heretiredtoMountPleasant,Monmouth,wherehefoundedtheJerseyChronicle.Furthercollectionsofhisverse
appearedin1786,1788,

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1795,and1815.Hediedinablizzard,havingdeterminedtowalkthetwomileshome,and'gotlostandmiredinabog'.SeeThePoemsofPhilipFreneau,ed.Fred
LewisPattee,3vols,newedn1963.
Freud,Sigmund(18561939)
Austrianpsychoanalyst,wasborninFreiburg,theeldestofeightchildrenbyhissecondmarriageofaJewishwoolmerchant.Hewaseducatedatthegymnasiumin
ViennaandatViennaUniversity,wherehequalifiedasMDin1881,havingfelt'anoverpoweringneedtounderstandsomethingoftheriddlesoftheworldinwhichwe
live'.Committedtoacareerinneuropathology,andneedingtoestablishahome,hetookapostattheViennaGeneralHospitalwhilebeingattachedtotheuniversity
asprivatdozent,whichgavehimanopeningtostudyforayearinParisunderJeanMartinCharcot(182593).Hereturnedin1886,married(afterafouryear
engagement),andwhileworkingintheInstituteforChildren'sDiseasessetupinprivatepracticeasapsychopathologist,inwhichfieldhisfirstwork,withJosefBreuer
(18421925),wasStudienuber*Hysterie[StudiesinHysteria](1895).InDieTraumdeutung[TheInterpretationofDreams](1900)andDreiAbhandlungen
zurSexualtheorie[ThreeEssaysontheTheoryofSexuality](1905)heelucidatedhistheoriesoftheinfantilelibidoasadrivingforceinthedevelopmentof
personality.In1902hewasappointedtoan'extraordinary'professorshipatViennaUniversity,andthoughhecollectedopponentsaswellasdisciples,psychoanalysis
becameacceptedasabranchofscience.
In1938internationalpressuresecuredhisextricationfromNazicontrolledAustriatoEngland,wherehediedofcancer,forwhichhehadhad33operationsover
sixteenyears,includingtheexcisionofhislowerjaw.Hisinterestsextendedtocultural,social,andliteraryaswellasscientificandmedicalconcerns,demonstratedin
suchworksasThePsychopathologyofEverydayLife(tr.1914)andTotemandTaboo(tr.1919)fromthe1920sheobstinatelyadheredtohisconvictionthatthe
worksofSHAKESPEAREwerewrittenbyEdwarddeVere(15501604),EarlofOxford.AnAutobiographicalStudywaspublishedinBritainin1935.His
theoriesencouragedcritics,andreaders,tosearchbeneaththesurfaceofatextforhiddenmotivesandconnections,andlargelyputpaidtotheonedimensional
biography.TheyhaveinfluencedwritersaswidelydiverseasD.H.LAWRENCEandSTRACHEY,whoseElizabethandEssexwaswrittenwiththeminmindandthen
subjectedtocriticalanalysisbyFreud.Strachey'syoungerbrother,JamesStrachey(18861967),translatedandeditedFreud'sworks.SeePeterGay,Freud:aLife
forourTime,newedn1995ErnestJones,TheLifeandWorkofSigmundFreud,newedn1993AnthonyStorr,Freud,1989(introductorystudy).
Friel,Brian(b.1929)
Irishdramatistandshortstorywriter,wasborninOmagh,Co.Tyrone,andeducatedatStColumba'sCollege,Derry,StPatrick'sCollege,Maynooth,andSt
Joseph'sTrainingCollege,Belfast.HethentaughtinschoolsinDerryuntil1960,whenhebecameafulltimewriter,havinghadtworadioplaysproducedbytheBBC
andseveralstoriespublishedintheNewYorker.In1963,havingnow,,hadthreeplaysproduced,includingTheEnemyWithin(published1975),whichisaboutSt
Columba'sbandofexiles,hespentfivemonthsinMinneapoliswatchingSirTyroneGuthrie(190071)direct.Theplaywhichimmediatelycameoutofthis,
Philadelphia,HereICome!(1965),playedinDublin,NewYork,andLondon.ItexplorestheveryIrishthemeofemigration,usingtwoactorstorepresentthe
complementarybutchangefulmoodsoftheprincipalcharacter.InTheLovesofCassMcGuire(1967),anoldwomanreturnsfromherAmericanexileto
disillusionment,whileinLovers(1968),itishopesofyounglovewhichareshattered.ContemporaryviolenceisthebackgroundtoTheFreedomoftheCity(1974),
inwhichprivateconfusionscannotundersuchcircumstancesbemaintainedwithanyillusionofhope.In1980Frielcofoundedandbecameaworkingdirectorofthe
FieldDaytheatrecompany,Derry,whichperformedhisTranslations(1980)andCommunicationCord(1982)andforwhichin1990HEANEY,alsoadirector,
contributedaversionofSOPHOCLES'SPhiloctetesasCureatTroy.DancingatLughnasa(1990),setintheDonegalcountrysidein1936,hasastaticscenario,within
whichtimeflickersbackandforth,andthevariedcharacterswhichmakeuptheeccentricfamilyrecallorplayoutaspectsoftheirlives.Friel'sshortstoriessee
SelectedStories(1979)alsotendtohaveruralIrishsettings,andarehumorousandnostalgic.HewasappointedtotheIrishSenatein1987.SeePlays,One,new
edn1996ofSelectedPlays,1984GeorgeO'Brien,BrianFriel,newedn1990(criticalstudy)RichardPine,BrianFrielandIreland'sDrama,1990Elmer
Andrews,TheArtofBrianFriel:NeitherDreamsnorReality,1995GeorgeO'Brien,BrianFriel:aReferenceGuide,1995.
Frisch,Max(191191)
Swissdramatistandnovelist,wasborninZurichandbecameafreelanceforeigncorrespondentin1933afterstudyingGermanliteratureandphilosophyatZurich
University,whichheleftwithoutadoctorateowingtoshortageofmoney.Hesubsequentlytookadiplomainarchitecture,whichhepractisedinZurichfrom1945to
1954,havingremainedinneutralSwitzerlandduringWorldWarII.Afterwritingthebildungsromantypeoffictionoutofhissystemduringtheprewaryears,he
turnedinthe1950stonovelssuchasStiller(1954tr.MichaelBullockasI'mNotStiller,

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1958)andHomoFaber(1957tr.Bullock,1974),inwhichidentityisexploredandman'sabilitytocontrolhislifeinthetechnologicalageischallenged.Hebecamea
fulltimewriterin1955afterextensivetravelsinNorthandSouthAmerica,hesettledinRome,returningtoZurichearlyinthe1980s.Hisfirstplay,Nunsingensie
wieder[NowtheyAreSingingAgain](1946)wasalsothefirstsignificantGermandramatotrytodealwithWorldWarII.BiedermannunddieBrandstifter(1958
tr.asTheFireRaisers,1961),'adidacticplaywithoutamessage'originallywrittenforradio,isasatirical,attimesfarcical,attackonmiddleclasscomplacency,
whichwasappreciatedbyBritishaudiencesforitsaffinitytotheTheatreoftheAbsurd.MoredisturbingisAndorra(1961tr.1964),inwhichawrongfulassumption
thatamanisJewishisthebasisofanexplorationofimagemaking.SeeThreePlays:FireRaisers,Andorra,Triptych,tr.MichaelBullockandGeoffreySkelton,
1992Novels,Plays,Essays,ed.RolfKieser,1989.
Froissart,Jean(c.1337c.1410)
Frenchchroniclerandpoet,wasborninValenciennesandin1361wenttoEngland,whereheattachedhimselftothecourtoftheQueen,PhilippaofHainault(the
territoryinwhichhewasborn),asahouseholdclerkandpoet.HealsotravelledtoScotlandandintoWales.In1368hewasamemberofthesparklingretinuewhich
accompaniedLionel(133868),DukeofClarence,theKing'sthirdson,toMilanforhisshortlivedsecondmarriage.OnthewaybackhelearnedoftheQueen's
death,anddecidedtostaywherehewas,intheNetherlands.ForRobertofNamur,thefirstofthreenoblelordswhowerehispatrons,hebeganhis'Chronicles',
whicheffectivelycoverthepreliminariestoandthefirstsixtyyearsoftheHundredYears'WarbetweenEnglandandFrance,whichtechnicallybeganin1337.In
1373,aboutthetimehefinishedthefirstofthreeversionsofBookI,theearlierpartofwhichisbasedonthechronicleofJeanLeBel(c.1290c.1370),hetookholy
ordersandbecameparishpriestofEstinnesauMont,Brabant.In1383hewasappointedacanonofChimay,nearLige,fromwherehedidafieldtriptoFoixinthe
Pyreneesin1388.In1395hereturnedtoEngland,wherehepresentedaspeciallycopied,illuminated,andboundcollectededitionofhis'writingsonloveand
morality'toRichardII,withwhosedownfallanddeathfiveyearslaterheconcludedthefourthandfinalbookofhisgreatwork.Vividlytold,withtouchesofdetailthat
addverisimilitude,itisacontemporary'srecordofthetempoaswellasthetemperofthetimes,andarichsourceofsocialhistory.AnEnglishtranslationbySirJohn
Bourchier(14671533),LordBerners,waspublished152325.CHAUCERdrawsonfourofFroissart'spoemsinthespaceof25linesoftheProloguetoTheLegend
ofGoodWomen.SeeChronicles,ed.andtr.GeoffreyBrereton,newedn1978.
Frost,Robert(18741963)
Americanpoet,wasborninSanFranciscoandtakenbyhismothertoLawrence,Massachusetts,onthedeathofhiswastrelfatherat34.Hewaseducatedat
LawrenceHighSchool,butdroppedoutofDartmouthCollegeinhisfirstterm(hesubsequentlyspenttheyears189799atHarvardasaspecialstudent).'My
Butterfly',litteredwithpoeticdiction,wascommerciallypublishedinamagazinein1892.HereprinteditprivatelywithfourotherpoemsinTwilight,inaneditionof
twocopies,oneofwhichhepresentedtoElinorWhite,hisfiance,withwhomhehadbeenatschool.Whenshedidnotseemsuitablyimpressed,hetoreuptheother
copyandconsideredsuicide.Theyweremarriedin1895,andin1900,afterthedeathoftheirfirstson,theymovedintoafarmnearDerry,NewHampshire.There,
hefarmedunsuccessfullywhilemorechildrenwereborn(anddied)earnedsomemoneybyteachingparttimeatPinkertonAcademyandwrotepoetry,mostofit
inspiredbythecountryside,theseasons,andthedailydoingsandrecurrenttragediesofrurallife.In1912,havingsoldthefarmandtaughtforayearatNew
HampshireStateNormalSchool,Plymouth,hepackeduptheirbelongingsandhismanuscripts,andsailedwithhiswifeandfourchildrentoEngland,wherehe
establishedhimselfinBeaconsfield,Buckinghamshire,and,now38,lookedforapublisher.ThefirstonehetriedacceptedABoy'sWill(1913)inthreedays.POUND
sentanappreciativereviewtoPoetry:aMagazineofVerse,Chicago,andafterthepublicationofNorthofBoston(1914),FrostwasabletoreturntotheUSAwith
somethingofareputation.HeboughtafarminNewHampshire,withwhichregionandVermont,wherehemovedin1920,hewouldnowalwaysbeidentified.
SelectedPoems(1923)illustrateshisownjudgmentofhisworkatthattimeandhismethodofgroupingit.NewHampshire(1923),whichwonthefirstofhisfour
Pulitzerprizes,containedtheextensive'NewHampshire'('ImetaladyfromtheSouthwhosaid...'),aswellas'TheAxeHelve','FireandIce',and'Stoppingby
WoodsonaSnowyEvening'.
Academianowwelcomedhimasateacher:AmherstCollegeandUniversityofMichiganbetween1917and1938Harvard(193942)DartmouthCollege(1943
49)andthenAmherstagain.Yaleawardedhimhisfirsthonorarydoctoratein1924:33yearsandmanydoctorateslater,hewenttoEnglandattheageof83,to
receivesimilardistinctionsfrombothOxfordandCambridge.Asanationalinstitutionhewashonoured(ayearlate,asittranspired)byaresolutionoftheUSSenate
celebratinghis75thbirthdayin1961,attheinaugurationofPresidentKennedy(1917

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63),herecitedfrommemory'TheGiftOutright',beingunable,becauseoftheweather,toseetoreadthepoemhehadcomposedfortheoccasion.CompletePoems
ofRobertFrost(1949)provedamisnomer,asIntheClearing(1962)followed.Frost'srhythmicallyricsandnarrativepoems,andhisdialoguesanddramatic
monologuesinwhichordinaryspeechissouncannilyreflected,aredistinguishedbyunusualpowersofobservationandbymoralandpsychologicalinsights.The
underlyingdarknessisareflectionofhisowntroubledemotionalstate,andofpersonaltragedy.Hisyoungersisterwascommittedtoamentalinstitution,whereshe
diedin1929.ThedeathofhisdaughterMarjoriefrompuerperalfeverin1934wasfollowedsuddenlybythatofhiswifein1938,andbythesuicideofhisonly
survivingson,Carol,in1940.SeeCollectedPoems,Prose,andPlays,ed.RichardPoirierandMarkRichardson,1995ThePoetryofRobertFrost,ed.Edward
C.Lathem,newedn1990SelectedPoems,ed.IanHamilton,1973LawrenceThompsonandRichardWinnick,RobertFrost,3vols196676,abridgedednas
RobertFrost:aBiography,ed.EdwardC.Lathem,newedn1990JeffreyMeyers,RobertFrost:aBiography,1996JeffreyS.Cramer,RobertFrostamong
HisPoems:aLiteraryCompaniontothePoet'sOwnBiographicalContextsandAssociations,1996RichardPoirier,RobertFrost:theWorkofKnowing,
rev.edn1990(criticalstudy)PhilipL.Gerber,RobertFrost,rev.edn1982(criticalstudy).
Fry,Christopher(b.1907)
Britishdramatist,wasborninBristol,hadaChristianupbringing,andwaseducatedatBedfordModernSchool.Heworkedasaschoolmaster,andasanactorand
producerinlocal'rep',beforewritingTheBoywithaCart(1939),aboutStCuthmanofSussex,asanexperimentforalocalcastofamateurs.TheFirstborn,
writtenin1945butnotproducedinLondonuntil1952inarevisedversion,hastheplaguesofEgyptasitsthemeandMosesasitschiefcharacterThorwithAngels
(1949)waswrittentobeperformedintheChapterHouseofCanterburyCathedral,andASleepofPrisoners(1951)issetinachurch.Inthemeantimehehad
showninAPhoenixTooFrequent(1946),aoneactplaylooselybasedonanincidentinPETRONIUS,thathisverseformcouldbeadaptedtobroadcomedy,andin
VenusObserved(1950)tothemodernromanceofmanners.TheLady'sNotforBurning(1949),setinastylizedsegmentoftheMiddleAges,hasasitschief
charactersaworldwearyvagabondwhowishestobehangedandasuspectedwitchwhohasnodesiretobeburned.TheDarkisLightEnough:aWinter
Comedy(1954),setin1848,theyearofrevolutionsinEurope,explorestheworkingsofprovidence.Fryhasalsosuccessfullytranslatedandadaptedplaysby
ANOUILHandGIRAUDOUX.SeeSelectedPlays,1985GlendaLeeming,ChristopherFry,1990(biographical/criticalstudy).
Frye,Northrop(191291)
Canadiancritic,wasborninSherbrooke,Quebec.Thesonofahardwaresalesman,hewastaughtbyhismothertoreadandplaythepianowhenhewasthree.He
waseducatedathighschoolsinMoncton,NewBrunswick,andthentookacourseinbusinessstudies,whichinvolvedparticipatinginatypingcompetitioninToronto.
Hecamesecond,andlikedtheplacesomuchthatheenrolledatVictoriaCollege,TorontoUniversity,wherehereadEnglishandphilosophy.Hewentontostudy
theologyatEmmanuelCollege,andwasordainedaministeroftheUnitedChurchin1936.AfterpreachingintheprairiesofSaskatchewanforashorttime,hedecided
tobecomeanacademicandwriter,inpreparationforwhichhedidfurtherstudiesinEnglishatMertonCollege,Oxford.HereturnedtoVictoriaCollegeasalecturer
inEnglish,becomingChairmanoftheEnglishDepartmentin1952,andPrincipaloftheCollegein1959.In1967hebecameTorontoUniversity'sfirstProfessorof
English,andin1978hewasappointedChancellorofVictoriaUniversity,Toronto.HecontributednotonlytothedevelopmentandwiderappreciationofCanadian
literature,onwhichhepublishedTheBushGarden:EssaysontheCanadianImagination(1971)andDivisionsonaGround:EssaysonCanadianCulture
(1982),butalsotothegreaterunderstandingofEnglishliteratureitself.FearfulSymmetry:aStudyofWilliamBlake(1947)threwbrilliantlightonawriterwhohad
uptillthenbeenregardedashardlyinthemainstreamofEnglishpoetry.InAnatomyofCriticism(1957)hearguedfor'acoordinatingprinciple,acentralhypothesis
which,likethetheoryofevolutioninbiology,willseethephenomenaitdealswithaspartsofawhole'.OthersignificantworksincludeANaturalPerspective:the
DevelopmentofShakespeareanComedyandRomance(1965)andTheGreatCode(1982),astudyoftheBibleintermsofitsliteraryformandasaliterary
archetype.Hiscollectionoflectures,NorthropFryeonShakespeare(1986),wontheGovernorGeneral'sAwardseealsoMythandMetaphor:SelectedEssays
19741988(1992)andTheEternalActofCreation:Essays19791990(1993),bothed.RobertC.Denham.HewasmadeCompanion,OrderofCanada,in
1972.SeeTheLegacyofNorthropFrye,ed.AlvinA.LeeandRobertD.Denham,1994JosephAdamson,NorthropFrye:aVisionaryLife,1993A.C.
Hamilton,NorthropFrye:AnatomyofHisCriticism,newedn1991.
Fuentes,Carlos(b.1928)
Mexicannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninMexicoCity,thesonofacareerdiplomat.HewenttoschoolinWashington,D.C.,toanEnglishtypeprep
schoolinChile,andtoCole

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gioFrancesMorelos,MexicoCity,afterwhichhestudiedattheCatholicUniversity,Washington,andtheNationalUniversityofMexico,wherehereadlaw.Hewas
amemberoftheMexicandelegationtotheInternationalLaborOrganization,Geneva(195052),andthenrebelledagainsthisfamilybackgroundandjoinedthe
CommunistParty.Afterpostsinpressandculturalrelations,hewasHeadoftheDepartmentofCulturalRelations,MinistryofForeignAffairs195759.Hisfirst
novel,LaRgionMsTransparente(1958tr.SamHilemanasWheretheAirIsClear,1960),astudyofthedeathofMexicoCity,waswritteninanexperimental
stylenewtoMexicanliterature.Histhird,LaMuertedeArtemioCruz(1962tr.HilemanasTheDeathofArtemioCruz,1964),employsseveralnarrative
techniquestofollowindeathbedflashbackstheriseofapeasantatthetimeoftheMexicanRevolutionof1910toindustrialtycoon.TerraNostra(1975tr.Margaret
SayersPeden,1977)isafancifulexplorationofMexicanandSpanishhistory.HewasMexicanAmbassadortoFrancefrom1974to1977,duringwhichtimehe
wrotenothing('Diplomacyinasenseistheoppositeofwriting')immediatelyafterwardsherentedahouseoutsidePariswherehewroteUnaFamiliaLejana(1980
tr.PedenasDistantRelations,1982).ElNaranjo,olosCirculosdelTiempo(1988tr.AlfredMacAdamasTheOrangeTree,1994)comprisesfivelinked
novellasreflectingthequestforaMexicanidentity.ThereallifeprotagonistofDianaolaCazadoraSolitaria(1995tr.MacAdamasDiana:theGoddessWho
HuntsAlone,1995)isJeanSeberg,theAmericanfilmactresswhocommittedsuicideinParisin1979attheageof41,andwithwhomFuenteshadhadabriefaffair
in1970inMexicowhileshewasfilmingthere.CollectionsofshortfictionincludeBurntWater:Stories,tr.Peden(1980),andConstanciaandOtherStoriesfor
Virgins,tr.ThomasChristianssen(1990)SeeRaymondLeslieWilliams,TheWritingsofCarlosFuentes,1996.
Fugard,Athol(b.1932)
SouthAfricandramatist,wasborninMiddleburg,CapeProvince,ofmixedAfrikanerandEnglishparentage('MymotherwasanAfrikaner,apeasantsoulwithan
incrediblesenseofjustice'),andwaseducatedatPortElizabethTechnicalCollegeandCapeTownUniversity.His'traumatic'experienceasaclerkintheNative
Commissioner'sCourtinJohannesburgdealingwithpassviolationsdirectlyinspiredhisfirsttwoplays,NoGoodFridayandNongogo,writtenforandperformedin
1958byhismultiracialtheatregrouppublishedinDimetosandTwoEarlyPlays(1977).Whathelatertermed'TheFamilyTrilogy'powerfullyandmovingly,and
withtheuseofonlytwoorthreeactors,exploresaseriesofrelationships.InTheBloodKnot(1963)twohalfbrothersplayouttherealitiesandfantasiesofinterracial
tensionHelloandGoodbye(1966)centresonthedesperationofapoorwhitebrotherandsisterastheyawaittheirfather'sdeathandanonexistentinheritancethe
coupleinBoesmanandLena(1969)representcolouredmanandwoman,andparentandparent.Fugardwasassociatedwiththeestablishmentin1963ofanAfrican
dramagroupinPortElizabeth,theSerpentPlayers,ofwhichhebecameadirectorin1965in1972hecofoundedTheSpacetheatreinCapeTown.In1967he
begantoexperimentwithimproviseddrama,anoutcomeofwhichwasSizweBansiisDead(performed1972),aboutthepasslaws,TheIsland(1973),setin
RobbenIslandprison,andStatementsafteranArrestundertheImmoralityAct(1974attheRoyalCourt,London)publishedasStatements:ThreePlays
(1974).
Fugard'splaysareinthemainstreamofmoderndramatictechnique,andwhileofferingaprotest,explorehumannatureandhumanidentity.Oneofhisbestknown
works,MasterHarold...andtheBoys(1982),comesfromaperiodofdisillusionment,ofwhichFugardsays,'Ireallybegantodespairofseeingtheendof
apartheidinmyownlife.'The1990sbroughttheannouncementofitsdemise,andherespondedwithPlayland(1992),atwohanderbetweenablacknight
watchmanandawhiteveteranoftheconflictontheNamibianborder.SetinatravellingfunfaironNewYear'sEve1989,thisanguishedstudyofguiltand,ultimately,
reconciliationhasanunderlyingandcourageousoptimism.Oftheendofapartheid,hesaid:'Mywritingcareerhascoincidedwiththose40yearsofofficialapartheid.I
wastellingstoriespeopledidn'twanttohear,tryingtomakepeopleawareofthatotherworldwhichapartheidhadsealedthemfrom.Iwasthefirstplaywrighttoput
blacksandwhitesonthestagetogetherinSouthAfrica.'HisresponseasadramatistwasValleySong,atwohanderabouttherealmeaningofchangesandthe
uneasecausedbysuddenfreedom,whichhedirectedandinwhichheplayedthedualpartoftheauthorandanoldcoloredmanatitsworldpremireinLondon
(1996).Hisonlynovel,Tsotsi(1980),astarktaleofaSophiaTownthugwhofindsultimatebutfleetingredemption,waswrittenin195960.SeeSelectedPlays,
1987TheTownshipPlays,ed.DennisWalder,1993Cousins:aMemoir,1994(autobiographicalstudy).
Fuller,(Sarah)Margaret(181050)
Americancriticandjournalist,wasborninCambridgeport,Massachusetts,theeldestbyfiveyearsofninechildrenofaprominentlawyer,whotaughtheruntilat13
shewentfortwoyearstotheMissesPrescotts'schoolinGroton.Onhisdeathin1835shebecamethefamilybreadwinner,andtaughtinBostonandthenProvidence,
while

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translatingfromGerman.In1839shemovedthefamilytoBoston,wheresheestablishedherregularwinter'Conversations'forwomen.Havingbecomefriends,and
intellectuallyifnotphysicallyinlove,withEMERSON,sheeditedforitsfirsttwoyears(184042)theTranscendentalistjournal,theDial,inwhichappearedin1843
her'TheGreatLawsuit:ManversusMen,WomanversusWomen',aseminalfeministtextwhichwaspublishedinanextendedformasWomanintheNineteenth
Century(1845).SummerontheLakes,in1843(1844),discursivereflectionsonaWesterntrip,soimpressedHoraceGreeley(181172),founderoftheNew
YorkDailyTribune,thatheappointedheritsliterarycritic,andraisednoobjectiontohergoingabroadin1846.ShesawCARLYLEinLondon,MARTINEAUand
WORDSWORTHintheLakeDistrict,andSANDandMICKIEWICZinParis,beforesettlinginRome,whereshebeganresearchforanItalianhistory.ShealsomettheMarchese
d'Ossoli,tenyearsherjunior,bywhomshebecamepregnant.Theymarriedsecretlyin1848.AfterthefallofRepublicanRomein1849,theywenttoFlorencewith
thebabytogetapassagetotheUSA.TheshipwaswreckedoffFireIsland,NewJersey,andallthreeofthemweredrowned.E.B.BROWNING,whohadbefriended
theminFlorence,wrotetoM.R.MITFORDthatthe'socialist'booktheMarchesad'OssoliwaswritingonItalywouldhavedrawnsuchfiercecriticismthat'itwasbetter
forhertogo',andwenton:'Wasshehappyinanything,Iwonder?Shetoldmethatsheneverwas.'SeeTheEssentialMargaretFuller,ed.JeffreySteele,1992
ThePortableMargaretFuller,ed.MaryKelley,1995WomanintheNineteenthCenturyandOtherWritings,ed.DonnaDickenson,1994CharlesCapper,
MargaretFuller:anAmericanRomanticLife,thePrivateYears,newedn1995(firstof2vols)DonnaDickenson,MargaretFuller:WritingaWoman'sLife,
1993JoanvonMehren,MinervaandtheMuse:aLifeofMargaretFuller,newedn1996.
Fuller,Roy(191291)
Britishpoet,novelist,andlawyer,wasborninFailsworth,Lancashire,andeducatedatBlackpoolHighSchool,whichheleftat16tobecomeanarticledclerktoa
localsolicitorandsupporthiswidowedmother.Hequalifiedasasolicitorin1934,andin1936joinedthestaffoftheWoolwichEquitableBuildingSocietyinLondon,
withwhomhewas(withanintervalforwarserviceasaradiomechanicintheRoyalNavalVolunteerReserve)fortherestofhisworkinglife,becomingadirectorin
1969.HewasChairmanoftheLegalAdvisoryPaneloftheBuildingSocietiesAssociation195869.Incontrasttothissettledbusinesslife,hisearlypoetry,first
publishedinbookforminPoems(1940),was,likethatofotherpoetsofthe1930s,ofapoliticalorsocialnature.Subsequentlyhedemonstratedapreoccupationwith
thefrailtyofnaturalexistenceandtheimminenceofcatastrophe,whilealsoreflectingonthecreativeprocess,inparticularart,inacontrolledandcarefulstylesee
NewandCollectedPoems19341984(1985).Hebeganwritingnovelsinthe1950s,developinghistechniqueinthisalternativeformofexpression,inwhichheis
particularlyconcernedwithinnerstrugglesandambiguousrelationships.AfterTheCarnalIsland(1970)hewrotenonewnoveluntilStares(1991),setinthe
claustrophobiccommunityofaprivatementalhome.Inhiscreativepersona,FullerwontheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1970,andwasProfessorofPoetryat
Oxford196873,whilestillworkingfulltimeathisLondonofficevolumesofhisOxfordlectureswerepublishedin1971and1973.Hisinfluenceasagovernorof
theBBCfrom1972to1979drewontheexperiencegainedinbothhisprofessionallives.HisonlysonJohnFuller(b.1937),alsoapoetandnovelist,editedhis
father'sLastPoems(1993).SeeTheStrangeandtheGood:CollectedMemoirs,1989SpannerandPen,1991(laterautobiography)NellPowell,RoyFuller:
WriterandSociety,1995(criticalbiography).
Furphy,Joseph(18431912)
Australiannovelist,wasbornatYeringintheUpperYarraValley,thesecondsonofProtestantIrishimmigrantswhohadarrivedin1841.Hewenttoschoolin
KangarooGroundandKyneton,andwasgolddigger,labourer,tenantofthefarmvineyardbelongingtothemotherofhis16yearoldFrenchwife,andsmallholder,
beforemovingtoHayintheRiverinaasabullockdriver.Forallthehardships,hewroteinSuchisLife,'theAustralianattainsfullconsciousnessofhisownidentity...
inplaceslikethis....Tomethemonotonousvarietyofthisinterminablescrubhasacharmofitsown.'Ruinedbythedroughtof1883,hewenttoworkinhiselder
brother'sfoundryinShepparton,Victoria,whereforrelaxationandmentalstimulationhewroteanovel.In1897,withabriefnoteinwhichhedescribedits'bias'as
'offensivelyAustralian',hesentittotheBulletin,towhichhehadcontributedshortpiecessince1889asWarrigalJackandTomCollins.SuchisLife:BeingCertain
ExtractsfromtheDiaryofTomCollinswasfinallypublishedbytheBulletinitselfin1903inamuchrevisedandshorterversion,andsoldonly1100copiesinhis
lifetime.Whileoutwardlyarealisticrecreationofbushlifeandexploitswithoutromantictrimmings,itisalso,intheintriguingrelationshipbetweenauthorand
mouthpiece,initsphilosophyofthepatternofhumanexistence,andinitsvarietyofmodesofexpression(Furphywasextremelywellread),amostsignificant
developmentinAustralianfiction.ItmighthavesunkwithouttracebutforKateBaker(18611953),whofirstmetFurphywhenshewasayoungteacher,andwho
encouragedhim

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whilehewasaliveandpromotedhisworkthereafter.HereffortsresultedultimatelyinthepublicationofRigby'sRomance(1921)andTheBulnBulnandtheBrolga
(1948),whichhehadfashionedoutofabandonedchaptersofSuchisLife.Shealsoedited,andpaidforthepublicationof,ThePoemsofJosephFurphy(1916),
andwithMILESFRANKLINwroteJosephFurphy:theLegendofaManandHisBook(1944).ShewasmadeOBEin1937forherservicestoliterature.SeeJohn
Barnes,TheOrderofThings:aLifeofJosephFurphy,1991.
Fuseli,Henry
seeWOLLSTONECRAFT.

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G
Gaddis,William(b.1922)
Americannovelist,wasborninNewYorkCity.AtHarvard194145,hewasPresidentoftheLampoon,whichpublishedsomeofhiswork,butdidnottakehis
degree.AfterbeingacheckerfortheNewYorker(194647),helivedandtravelledinSouthAmerica,NorthAfrica,andEuropeforeightyears.TheRecognitions
(1955),hismassivefirstnovel,acosmopolitanstudyofdeceptionandartisticforgery,reflectsthepostmodernistpreoccupationwithdisentanglingstrandsoftruthfrom
awealthoferudition.TwentyyearslatercameJR(1975),writtenentirelyinspeech,andsuggestinganAmericanlifeinwhichwealthandconspiracy,loveand
betrayal,andpoweranddecadencegohandinhand.InacceptingtheNationalBookAwardforit,Gaddismadeapublicpleafortheidentityandcharacterofa
writer,andtheirviewsonwriting,tobesubordinatetothetexthehasdefinedhisliterarytechniqueas'authorialabsence'.Afurtherdecadepassedbefore
Carpenter'sGothic(1985),inwhichthespreadofaparticularpieceofdisinformationisthepointofdepartureforanexplorationofdisorderonaglobalscale.A
FrolicofHisOwn(1994NationalBookAward)thetitleisalegaltermopenswithanechoofHOLMES:'Justice?Yougetjusticeinthenextworld,inthisworld
youhavethelaw.'AbouttheAmericanlegalsysteminthesamewayasGaddis'sfirstnovelwasaboutforgeryandhissecondbusiness,itdevelops,throughhis
distinctivestyle,intoacomicexposofadementedsociety.SeeStevenMoore,WilliamGaddis,1989(biographical/criticalstudy).
Galds,BenitoPrez
seePREZGALDS.
Gallant,Mavis(MavisdeTraffordYoung)(b.1922)
Canadianshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasborninMontreal,andwasbroughtupbilingual.Afterherfather'searlydeathshewentto17schoolsinCanadaandthe
USA,fromwhichshereturnedin1941toworkinMontreal.ShehadabriefmarriagetopianistJohnnyGallant.ShewasafeatureswriterfortheStandardfrom1944
to1950,thentravelledtoSpain.AftersellingstoriestotheNewYorker,shewenttoliveinParis.Awriteralmostexclusivelyofshortfiction,shehassincethe
publicationofherfirstcollection,TheOtherParis(1956),offeredwithineachaseriesofstorieswhicharealsocommentsonacentraltheme.Shehasexpressedher
tieswithhernativecountryintheIntroductiontoHomeTruths:SelectedCanadianStories(1981),whichwontheGovernorGeneral'sAward:'Isupposethata
Canadianissomeonewhohasalogicalreasontothinkheisone.MylogicalreasonisthatIhaveneverbeenanythingelse.'Herselfanexpatriate,sheisparticularly
concernedwithculturalfrontiers,asinOverheadinaBalloon:StoriesofParis(1985)andInTransit(1988),whileinThePegnitzJunction(1973)thealienation
isthatofawholepeople,thepostWorldWarIIGermans,fromtheirpast.Herskilfullyetchedcharactersareofteninnocentsinananxiousalliancewithexperience,or
peopleforwhomexperiencehasnotentirelyeradicatedearlieruncertainties.MostofthestoriesinAcrosstheBridge(1994)areseteitherinMontrealorinParisand
areconcernedwithsurvivalinthefaceofchangingattitudesandvalues.ParisNotebooks:EssaysandReviews(1988)isacollectionofincisivecriticalessaysand
socialandpoliticalcommentaries.ShewasmadeOfficer,OrderofCanada,in1981.SeeCollectedStories,1996JaniceKulykKeefer,ReadingMavisGallant,
1989JudithSkeltonGrant,MavisGallantandHerWorks,1994.
Galsworthy,John(18671933)
Britishdramatist,novelist,shortstorywriter,andpoet,wasbornatKingstonHill,Surrey,andeducatedatHarrowandNewCollege,Oxford.Onaseavoyageto
complementhisstudyofmarinelaw,hemetCONRAD,whoinfluencedhisultimatechoiceofcareerandbecamealifelongfriend.Afterpublishingavolumeofstoriesand
severalnovelsunderthepseudonymofJohnSinjohn,Galsworthyachievedaremarkable'double'in1906withhisfirstplay,TheSilverBox,astudyofthe
comparativejusticemetedouttorichandpoor,andwiththenovel,TheManofProperty,whichbytheadditionoftwosequels,InChancery(1920)andToLet
(1921),andtwolinkingpassages,grewintoTheForsyteSaga(1922).Onlyaverygoodnovelistcouldhavesustainedthereader'sinterestinsomanycharacters
fromasinglestrandofsocietyand

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intheprocessevokesympathyforthesoullessSoames,butattemptstoexpandthesagafurtherwerenotsoeffective:betterfictionistobefoundinhisshorterstories,
especiallythoseaboutlove.(ThereisaparallelbetweenthepredicamentofIrene,Soames'sunhappywife,andthatofAda,neCooper,whobecameGalsworthy's
wifein1905,afterbeingmarriedtohisfirstcousin.)Galsworthy'spreoccupationwiththeiniquitiesoftheclasssystemisdisplayedwithscrupulousfairnessinhisplays,
notablyStrife(1909),aboutindustrialrelations,andTheSkinGame(1920),inwhichlandedrichconfrontsnouveauriche.Galsworthyrefusedaknighthoodin1918.
HewasawardedtheOMin1929,andtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1932.SeeFivePlays,1984CatherineDupr,JohnGalsworthy:aBiography,1976
JamesGindin,JohnGalsworthy'sLifeandArt:anAlien'sFortress,1987.
Galt,John(17791839)
Scottishnovelist,biographer,andpoet,wasborninIrvine,Ayrshire,thesonofthecaptainofaWestIndiesmerchantship,andwaseducatedatthegrammarschoolin
Greenock,towhichthefamilyhadmoved.HeworkedintheCustomsHouseandthenasaclerkwithalocalmerchant,whilecontributingarticlesandversestolocal
andScottishnewspapersandjournals.In1804hewenttoLondon,studiedlaw,andgotajobwhichentailedContinentaltripstoassessexportpotentials.Ononeof
thesehemetBYRON,ofwhomhelaterwroteabiography(1830).Duringtheensuingdecadehisliterary,bentasserteditself,andanaccountofhistravels(1812)anda
biographyofCardinalWolsey(1812)werefollowedbyavolumeoffivetragedieswithfemaleheroines(1812),andbysomeearlyattemptsatfictionandotherminor
works.Healsowroteforliteraryperiodicalsandlatterlyactedasaparliamentarylobbyistforcommercialconcerns.Ithadbeenhisambitiontowritewhat'wouldbe
forScotlandwhattheVicarofWakefieldisforEngland',butwhenheofferedsuchabooktoWALTERSCOTT'Spublisher,ArchibaldConstable(17741827),itwas
turneddown.TheAyrshireLegatees:or,ThePringleFamily,inwhichafamilydescribesinlettersatriptoLondon,waspublishedin1821,afterbeingserializedin
Blackwood'sEdinburghMagazine.ItspopularityencouragedWilliamBlackwood(17761834)toaskforsomethingsimilar.AnnalsoftheParish:or,The
ChronicleofDalmailingDuringtheMinistryoftheReverendMicahBalwhidder(1821),thebookwhichConstablehadrejected,chartsintheformofdelightful
sketchesofrurallifethesocialchangesoftheprecedinghalfcentury,whicharereexaminedfromasmalltownangleinTheProvost(1822).TheEntail:or,The
LairdsofGrippy(1823)isanearlysaganovel,inwhichanobsessionwithrecoveringfamilypropertyaffectsthreegenerations.
In1826GaltwenttoCanadatosupervisethelandsettlementoperationsoftheCanadaCompany,andfoundedthetownofGuelph.Illhealthandpersonalityclashes
ledtohisreturnin1829,whereuponhewasimprisonedfordebt,andhadonhiseventualreleaseoncemoretosupporthisfamilywithhispen.Tothisperiodbelong
TheMember(1832),aforerunneroftheEnglishpoliticalnovel,andTheRadical(1832),anotherofhisimaginaryautobiographies.In1834,paralysedbyseveral
strokes,andwithhiswifedeadandhisthreesonshavingemigratedtoCanada,hewenttolivewithasisterinGreenock,wherehebravelydictatedtothelast.Gait
wrotetoorapidly(heoftenhadto)tobeconsistent,andhisdirectionsufferedfromthefailureofhisparticulargiftstobefullyrecognizedduringhislife.Yethewasnot
onlyamosteffectiveinterpreterofScottishlowlandlifeandthusasignificantcontributortothedevelopmentoftheScottishnovel,butalsoaninstigatorofthenovelof
political,economic,andsocialreality.Ofhissons,SirThomasGait(18151901)becameachiefjustice,andSirAlexanderTillochGalt(18171893)FinanceMinister
ofCanada.SeeSelectedShortStories,ed.IanA.Gordon,1996AnAutobiography,ed.IanA.Gordon,1985IanA.Gordon,JohnGalt:theLifeofaWriter,
1972P.H.Scott,JohnGalt,1985(criticalstudy).
GarcaLorca,Federico(18981936)
Spanishpoetanddramatist,wasborninFuentevaqueros,nearGranada,thesonofalandownerandhissecondwife,whohadbeenalocalteacher.Hewaseducated
attheCollegeoftheSacredHeart,Granada,andGranadaUniversity,wherehefailedthreecourseswhilealsopursuingelsewherehismaininterestofmusic.In1919
hetransferredtoMadridUniversity,whereheestablishedhimselfforthenexttenyearsintheResidenciadeEstudiantes,andmanagedin1923tocompletethe
requirementsforalawdegree.Hepublishedavolumeofearlylyricsin1921,andcameundertheinfluenceof,andinfluenced,theyoungSurrealistpainterSalvador
Dali(190489),whocontributedasubversivearticletoLorca'sartsjournal,ElGallo,whichlastedfortwoissuesin1928.ForPrimerRomanceroGitano(1928tr.
RolfeHumphriesasTheGypsyBallads,1953)heinventedagypsymythologyasamediumthroughwhichtoexpresshisownconcernsandfrustrations.
AtriptoNewYorkin1929openedhiseyestowhatwastohimanalienworld,reflectedintheposthumouscollection,PoetaenNuevaYork(1940tr.BenBelittas
PoetinNewYork,1955).LaZapateraProdigiosa(produced1930tr.JamesGrahamLujnandRichardL.O'ConnellasTheShoemaker'sProdigiousWifein
FivePlays,1964),afarceinwhichheover

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laidnewideasontraditionalmaterials,washisfirstplaytomakeaninternationalimpact.Hisexperienceintheearly1930sasdirectorofatravellingtheatre,which
broughtSpanishclassicaldramatopeasantaudienceswhowereseeingaplayforthefirsttime,influencedthechoiceofthemesaswellasformsinhisown
developmentasaplaywright.BodasdeSangre[BloodWedding](1933),Yerma(1934),andLaCasadeBernardaAlba[TheHouseofBernardaAlba](written
in1934firstperformedin1945)tr.GrahamLujnandO'ConnellasThreeTragedies(1959)betweenthemconstitutehisdramaticstatementsonpassion,reality,
andfate,withindividualexcursionsintotheforcesofauthorityandthematernalinstinctseealsoBloodWedding,tr.BrendanKennelly(1996),tr.TedHughes
(1996).In1936hereturnedhometoGranadafromMadridtowaitfortheendofthepoliticalcrisiswhichwasthecauseoftheSpanishCivilWar,butarrivedasthe
Nationalistforceswereconductingapurgeofintellectuals.Hewascapturedandshotbyfiringsquad.SeeFourMajorPlays,tr.JohnEdmunds,ed.NicholasG.
Round,1997SelectedVerse,ed.ChristopherMaurer,newedn1996SelectedPoems,tr.MerrynWilliams,1992(bilingualedn)IanGibson,FedericoGarca
Lorca:aLife,newedn1990.
GarcaMrqyez,Gabriel(b.1928)
Colombiannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninAracataca,wherehelivedwithhisgrandparentsforhisfirsteightyears.HewaseducatedataJesuithigh
schoolandtheNationalUniversityofColombia,Bogota,andthenbecameajournalist,whichheinsistsishis'trueprofession'.HisfirstwritingsappearedinEl
Spectador,whosecorrespondenthewasinParisin195455untilitwassuppressed.HebecameDirectoroftheCubanpressagencyinBogotain1959,andretired
fromfulltimejournalismin1965.Hisfirstnovel,LaHojarasca(1955tr.GregoryRabassaasthetitlestoryofLeafstormandOtherStories,1972),wasinspiredby
atripbacktoAracataca,whichhehadnotseensincehewasachild.HisfirstmajorworktoappearinEnglishwasCienAosdeSoledad(1967tr.RabassaasOne
HundredYearsofSolitude,1970),inwhichhecombinesjournalistictechniqueswiththestorytellingtoneofhisgrandmothertorecountsevengenerationsofdisaster
inthemythicaltownofMacondo.InElOtoodelPatriarca(1975tr.RabassaasTheAutumnofthePatriarch,1976),'magicrealism'illuminatesthe
characteristicsofdictatorshipdisplayedbyamonstrousimaginaryarchetype.Bycontrast,ElGeneralenSuLaberinto(1989tr.EdithGrossmanasTheGeneralin
HisLabyrinth,1990)usesimaginativerealismtorecreatethelastjourneyofSimonBolvar(17831830),liberatorofSouthAmericafromSpain.
The12storiesinDoceCuentosPeregrinos(1992tr.GrossmanasStrangePilgrims,1993),whichhadbeengestatingfor18yearsandwhichtogetherconstitutea
book'closesttotheoneIhadalwayswantedtowrite',areabout'thestrangethingsthathappentoLatinAmericansinEurope'.WithDelAmoryOtrosDemoinios
(1993tr.GrossmanasOfLoveandOtherDemons,1995),whichsprangfromanexperiencewhentheauthorwasayoungnewspaperreporterin1949,hereturns
tohishyperbolicveinandtotheidentityofLatinAmericathroughatragiclovestoryaboutcrossingdivides.SeealsoCollectedStories,tr.RabassaandJ.S.
Bernstein(1991).GarcaMrquezwasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1982.SeeMichaelBell,GabrielGarciaMrquez:SolitudeandSolidarity,1993
(criticalstudy).
Gardner,ErleStanley(18891970)
Americannovelist,wasborninMalden,Massachusetts,andasachildfollowedhisfather,aminingengineer,throughCalifornia,Oregon,andtheKlondike.Hewas
educatedatPaloAltoHighSchool,California,andclaimstohavebeenexpelledfromcollegeforsluggingateacher,askillheputtomoreprofitableuseintheringin
histeens.Hestudiedlawinlocalfirms,andwasadmittedtotheCaliforniaBarin1911.HepractisedfirstinOxnard,wherehesuccessfullydefendedaclientbygetting
severalChinamentoexchangeidentitiesandthusconfuseakeyprosecutionwitness,andtheninVentura.Inthe1920shebegantowritewesternandmysterystories
formagazines,andonthepublicationofhisfirstnovel,TheCaseoftheVelvetClaws(1933),writteninthreedays,whichwashisusualrateofoutput,hegaveupthe
lawforthedictatingmachine.PerryMason,whofeaturesinthatbookandin81subsequentones,changedhisdemeanour,hisethics,andhistacticsovertheyears
undertheinfluenceofthetelevisionpresentationsandchangesinthelaw,butthedialogueandthecourtroomdramalargelycontinuetosparkle.Thereader
experiencestheoppositesideoftheforensiccoinintheseriesaboutDouglasSelby,beginningwithTheD.A.CallsitMurder(1937).AsA.A.Fair,oneofthree
pennames,hewroteafurtherextensiveseriesofthrillers,aboutaprivateeyeandhislarge,femaleassociate.
Garioch,Robert,pennameofRobertGariochSutherland(190981)
Scottishpoetandtranslator,wasborninEdinburghandeducatedattheHighSchoolofEdinburghandEdinburghUniversity,afterwhichhebecameateacher.He
servedintheRoyalCorpsofSignalsinWorldWarIIandwastakenprisonernearTobrukinJune1942,spendingtherestofthewarinItalianandGermanprisoner
ofwarcamps.Hisexperiences,writtendownshortlyafterwardsandpublishedasTwoMenandaBlanket(1975),are

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describedwithsoundsenseandconsiderablegoodhumour.HissatiricalbentandhiseasyfamiliaritywithScots,alegacyofhischildhood,werepubliclydemonstrated
in1933inTheMasqueofEdinburgh(publishedinanenlargedversionin1954),buthisfirsttwobooksofversewereprivatelyprinted.SelectedPoemswas
publishedin1966,shortlyafterwhichhereturnedfromLondontoEdinburgh,whereheresearchedfortheDictionaryoftheOlderScottishTongueandcontinued
tocasthispoeticeyeoverthequirksandhypocrisiesofdailyandpubliclife.Hissonnet'AtRobertFergusson'sGrave'isamarkofhisaffinitywithFERGUSSON,whose
metreshesometimesimitatedandwhoseattitudeofquietrebellionandpowersofincisiveobservationheshared.Hecouldbeasdevastatingandamusingaboutthe
EdinburghFestival('EmbrotothePloy'),theprofessionofteaching('Sisyphus'),andthelocalcouncil('InPrincesStreetGardens'),asabouttheemotionsofdog
lovers('NemoCanemImpuneLacessit').HetranslatedintoScotsJephthahandTheBaptist(1959)fromtheLatinofBUCHANAN,FrenchpoemsofAPOLLINAIRE,and
ItaliansonnetsofGiuseppeBelli(17911863).SeeCompletePoeticalWorks,ed.RobinFulton,1983.
Garland,(Hannibal)Hamlin(18601940)
Americanshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasbornnearWestSalem,Wisconsin,intoastrugglingruralfamily,andgrewupashisfather'slaboureronfarmsinthe
Midwest.HegraduatedfromCedarValleySeminary,Iowa,in1881,andwasahomesteaderintheDakotasuntil1884,whenhewenttoBoston.Hewasbefriended
byHOWELLS,andtakenonasateacherattheBostonSchoolofOratory.Shatteredafteravisittohisfamilyin1887,whenhesawafreshtheconditionsoftherural
poor,andencouragedbyanotherrealistwriter,JosephKirkland(183094),tousehisfarmbackgroundasabasisforfiction,hewrotethetalesthatappearedin
MainTravelledRoads:SixMississippiValleyStories(1891)andPrairieFolks(1892).JasonEdwards:anAverageMan(1892)andASpoilofOffice(1892)
arepropagandistnovelsinRoseofDutcher'sCoolly(1895)heproducedafeministstudyofsomemerit,whichfollowsafarmgirl'sescapefrommanuallabourand
spiritualbarrennesstocollegeandthenacareerasawriter.Subsequentlyheturnedtowritingpopularromanticfiction,fromwhichhefirmlyvergedin1917withA
SonoftheMiddleBorder,adistinguishedautobiography,whosesequel,ADaughteroftheMiddleBorder(1921),wonthePulitzerPrize.Inacriticalwork,
CrumblingIdols(1904),hedescribesas'veritism'thekindofrealismtowhichhehadearliersubscribed.SeeJosephB.McCullough,HamlinGarland,1978
(biographical/criticalstudy).
Garneau,HectordeSaintDenys
seeHEBERT.
Garnett,David(18921981)
Britishnovelist,wasborninBrighton,theonlychildofEdwardGarnett(18681936),thedistinguishedpublishers'reader,andConstanceGarnett(18611946),the
Russiantranslator,andwaseducatedatUniversityCollegeSchoolandtheRoyalCollegeofScience,wherehestudiedbotany.Hewasaconscientiousobjector
duringWorldWarI,butservedinFrancewiththeFriends'WarVictims'ReliefMission.HewasamemberoftheBloomsburyGroup,andlatermarriedashis
secondwifethedaughterofVanessaBell(18791961),sisterofVIRGINIAWOOLF.ItwasinBloomsburythatafterthewarheopenedwithFrancisBirrell(18891935)
thebookshopinwhosecellar(Sir)FrancisMeynell(18911975)setupin1923theNonesuchPress,withwhichGarnettbecamecloselyassociated.Hehadbynow
begunhiscareerasanovelist.InLadyintoFox(1922)andAManintheZoo(1924),heextendedthenaturalcircumstancesoflifeinanallegoricalmannerintoa
realizationofwheretheymightlead.Animalnatureisadrivingforceinsubsequentnovels,notablyTheSailor'sReturn(1925),GoSheMust!(1927),andNoLove
(1929),inwhichresignationanddespairmayironicallystillbefoundtobringtheircompensations.HewasLiteraryEditoroftheNewStatesmanandNationbefore
WorldWarII,atthebeginingofwhichhejoinedtheAirMinistrywiththerankofflightlieutenanthehadearlierlearnedtofly,ashedescribesinARabbitintheAir
(1932).HethenbecameamemberofthePoliticalWarfareExecutive.HewasadirectorofthepublishinghouseofRupertHartDavisfrom1946to1952,afterwhich
hereturnedtowritingnovels.HewasmadeCBEin1952.SeeTheGoldenEcho,1953,FlowersoftheForest,1955,TheFamiliarFaces,1962(autobiography).
Garrick,David
seeBROOKE,FRANCESHOMEJOHNSONMACKLINMORE,HANNAH.
Garrison,Frederick
seeSINCLAIR,UPTON.
Gaskell,Elizabeth(181065)
neStevenson,Britishnovelistandbiographer,wasborninChelsea,London,thedaughterofacivilservant.Hermotherdiedthefollowingyear,andshewasbrought
upbyherauntinKnutsford,Cheshire(theCranfordofherwritings).Afterlessonsathome,shespentseveralusefulyearsatagirls'boardingschoolatStratfordupon
Avon.Whenshewas21shemarriedWilliamGaskell(180584),aUnitarianministerandclassicalscholar.TheylivedinManchester,andhadfourdaughters,anda
son,afterwhosedeathininfancyonafamilyholidayin1845Mr

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Gaskellencouragedhiswifetowriteanovel.MaryBarton(1848)wasunusualforitstimeinthatitsbackgroundisworkingclassanditsthemeindustrialrelations.It
impressedDICKENS,inwhosejournalsmuchofhersubsequentworkfirstappeared.Cranford(1853),herbestknownnovel,isaseriesoflinkedsketchesofprovincial
lifeinwhichthecharactersarebeautifullydrawn.InNorthandSouth(1855)shereturnstotheindustrialnorth,contrastingitwiththemannersoftheruralsouth.She
hadin1850beenintroducedtoCHARLOTTEBRONT,whoseconfidanteshebecameandonwhosedeathMrBrontinvitedhertowriteanauthorizedbiography.The
LifeofCharlotteBront(1857)isoneofthefinestEnglishliterarybiographies.Gaskelldiedsuddenlyatafamilygatheringinthecountryhouseshehadboughtfor
herhusband'sretirement.Sheleftanunfinishednovel,WivesandDaughters(1866),aperceptive,wittystudyoffamilyrelationships.ShorterfictionisinThe
MoorlandCottagesandOtherStories,ed.SuzanneLewis(1995).SeeWinifredGrin,ElizabethGaskell,newedn1980(biography)JennyUglow,Elizabeth
Gaskell:aHabitofStories,newedn1994(biography)TerenceWright,ElizabethGaskell:'WeAreNotAngels'Realism,Gender,Values,1995(critical
study)WA.Craik,ElizabethGaskellandtheEnglishProvincialNovel,1975.
Gautier,Thophile(181172)
Frenchnovelist,poet,andcritic,wasborninTarbesandin1814takenbyhisparentstoParis,whereheenteredCollgeLouisleGrandasaboarderin1822.After
threemonthshewasremovedinastateofshock,andwenttoCollgeCharlemagneasadayboy.CloselyassociatedwithNERVALandHUGO,atthefirstperformanceof
whoseHernaniheledtheRomanticclaque,hepublishedabookofversewhenhewas18,andacollectionofsatiricalstoriestwoyearslater.Mademoisellede
Maupin(183536tr.1887tr.JoannaRichardson,1981),ahistoricalromanceaboutthe17thcenturybisexualadventuress,ismoresignificantforitspreface.
Writteninresponsetopressuresofstatecensorship,andprobablyaddedtofilloutthetwovolumes,itexpoundsthedoctrineof'artforart'ssake',whichhelater
redefinedas'formforbeauty'ssake'.Thisisespeciallyreflectedinhisfinalvolumeofpoetry,EmauxetCames[EnamelsandCameos](1852expandededn
1872)seealsoTheGentleEnchanter:ThirtyFourPoems,tr.BrianHill(1960).Hewrotethestorylinesofseveralballets,mostnotablyGiselle(1841),music
byAdolpheAdam(180356),whichhecomposedforhisidol,CarlottaGrisi(181999).Rejectedbyherasalover,hetookupinsteadwithhersister,Ernesta,with
whomhelivedfortwentyyears(withanintervalfrom1849to1852foramorepassionateandmorepoeticallyinspiringattachmentelsewhere)andwhowasthe
motherofJudithGautier(18451917),theauthorandtranslator.
Gay,John(16851732)
Britishpoetanddramatist,wasborninBarnstaple,Devon,andcaredforbyanuncleafterbeingorphanedattheageoften.HewaseducatedatBarnstapleGrammar
SchoolandthenapprenticedtoaLondonsilkdealer,whomhelefttojointheliterarycircleofthetime.Hepublishedananonymousburlesqueinblankverse,Wine
(1708),andthenseveralplaysandvolumesofminorpoetry,includingamockpastoral,TheShepherd'sWeek(1714),andTrivia:ortheArtofWalkinginthe
StreetsofLondon(1716),regardedastheprototypeofthe'urbaneclogue'.SuchweretheinfluenceofhisfriendsandtheattentionofhisvariouspatronsthatPoems
onSeveralOccasions(1720)earnedhimalargesumwhichheinvested,andlost,intheSouthSeaCompany(afterwhichhewas,perhapsappropriately,appointed
LotteryCommissioner).Fables(1727)comprisesmoraltalesinverseinwhichtheacerbicandoftentopicalmoralusuallyoutweighsthetale.Allhispreviouswriting
experiencecrystallizedinTheBeggar'sOpera(1728),amusicalcomedyofLondonlowlife,incorporatingparallelswiththecurrentpoliticalsituation,andsongssetto
populartunesoftheday,someofwhichechoedcontemporaryclassicalcomposers.Itssuccesswasalsoduetothesituations,characters,andlyricsthesourceof
thelines'Ifwithmeyou'dfondlystray/Overthehillsandfaraway'and'HowhappycouldIbewitheither/Weret'otherdearcharmeraway'.JOHNSONinLivesofthe
PoetsrecordsthatTheBeggar'sOpera'hadtheeffect,aswasludicrouslysaid,ofmakingGayrichandRichgay'JohnRich(c.16921761)putitonafterCIBBER
hadturneditdown.Asequel,Polly(1729),wasbannedfromthestageforpoliticalreasonsbutpublishedtoacclaim.Apastoralopera,AcisandGalatea,setto
musicbyGeorgeFrederickHandel(16851759),wasperformedin1731.Gay'slastyearswerespentasthepermanentguestoftheDukeandDuchessof
Queensberry.SeeDramaticWorks,ed.JohnFuller,2vols1983DavidNokes,JohnGay:aProfessionofFriendship,1995(biography).
Gee,Maurice(b.1931)
NewZealandnovelistandchildren'swriter,wasborninWhakatane,BayofPlenty,andeducatedatAvondaleCollege,Auckland,andAucklandUniversity,after
whichhedidayearatAucklandTeachersCollege.Heworkedasateacher,casuallabourer,andlibrarian(hewasCityLibrarian,Napier197072),beforebecoming
afulltimewriterin1976.HebegantohavestoriespublishedinLandfallinthelate1950s,ofwhich'TheLoser'(1959),whosesettingisthemurkiersideofhorse
racing,wasespeciallyadmiredseehiscollectionAGloriousMorning,Comrade(1975).

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Afterafirstnovelofyouth,TheBigSeason(1962),heembarkedonarangeinwhichfamilyrelationshipsandtensesituationsareexploredinsmalltownsettings.
Especiallynotableisthetrilogy,Plumb(1978),Meg(1981),andSoleSurvivor(1983),whichencapsulatesahundredyearsofNewZealandlifeandpoliticalhistory
whileplayingoutthesagaofafamily.InProwlers(1987)andTheBurningBoy(1990)hefurtherilluminatestheNewZealandmind.GoingWest(1992),an
ingeniousinvestigationintothelife,anddeath,ofanantisocialpoet,incorporatessatiricalsketchesofNewZealandliterarysocietyinthe1950s.CrimeStory(1995)
encompassesasocietyinflictedwithpersonalviolenceandtensions.Bycontrast,hisbestchildren'snovels,whichincludeUndertheMountain(1979)andThe
HalfmenofO(1982),haveanalternativeworldunderlyingtherealone.SeeBillManhire,MauriceGee,1987(criticalstudy).
Genet,Jean(191086)
Frenchnovelistanddramatist,wasborninParisandbroughtupbyapeasantfamilyintheMorvanregionundertheauspicesoftheNationalFoundlingSociety.Atten
hebegantosteal,andat16hewasconsignedtotheMettrayReformatory,fromwhich,nowhomosexualaswellascriminal,heescapedin1926andjoinedthe
ForeignLegion.Hedesertedafterafewdayswithsomeofficers'suitcases.From1932to1940hebummedaroundEurope,samplingthejailsashewent.InFresnes
prisonin1942,hewroteNotreDamedesFleurs(1944tr.asOurLadyoftheFlowers,1949),adark,symbolicnovelofhomosexualcriminallifeinMontmartre.
Afterafurthernovel,theproductionin1947ofhisfirstplay,LesBonnes(tr.asTheMaids,1957),andthepublicationofanautobiography,JournalduVoleur
(1948tr.asTheThief'sJournal,1965),hewasin1948,havingservedtentermsinjail,sentencedautomaticallytolifeimprisonment.Apetitionorganizedbyliterary
figures,includingCOCTEAU,GIDE,MAURIAC,andSARTRE,securedhisreleaseandapresidentialpardon.Hiswork(translatedbyBernardFrechtman)usuallyfeatures
conflictsbetweenauthorityandservitudeinavarietyofforms,andbetweenillusionandreality,suchasaregivendramaticexpressioninLeBalcon(1956tr.asThe
Balcony,1958).SeeEdmundWhite,Genet,newedn1994(biography).
GeoffreyofMonmouth(c.110055)
chronicler,wasprobablyborninMonmouth,andbetween1129and1151livedinOxford,possiblyasacanonofthesecularcollegeofStGeorge.Herehewrote,in
Latin,HistoriaRegumBritanniae[HistoryoftheKingsofBritain],whichheclaimstohavetranslatedfrom'acertainveryancientbookwrittenintheBritish[i.e.
Welsh]language',giventohimbyWalter(d.c.1151),ArchdeaconofOxford.Itismorelikelythatheusedawiderangeofwrittenandoralsourcestocreatehis
imaginativehistorywithabasisoffact,coveringnineteenhundredyearsfromthebirthofamythicalBrutus,greatgrandsonofAeneasofTroy,tothedeathofthe
historicalCadwalladerinAD689.AconsiderablepartisdevotedtoaKingArthurwhoistheprototypeoftheArthuroflaterlegend.Geoffreyalsowrote,inLatin
verse,alifeofMerlin,whichhededicatedtoRobertdeChesney(d.1166),BishopofLincolnfrom1148.In1151hewasappointedBishopElectofStAsaph,
Flintshire,forwhichhewasordainedapriestatWestminster,beforehecouldbeconsecrated.His'History',whichhefinishedin1136,quicklybecamepopular,to
judgefromthefactthatovertwohundred12thcenturymanuscriptssurvive.ItwastranslatedintoFrenchversebytheNormanpoetRobertWace(c.1100c.1175)
asRomandeBrut(1155),whichisthebasisofLAYAMON'Sversion.SeeTheHistoryoftheKingsofBritain,tr.LewisThorpe,newedn1968.
Geoghegan,Edward(1812after1852)
Australiandramatist,arrivedinSydneyonaconvictshipin1840,havingbeensentencedinDublin,wherehewasamedicalstudent,tosevenyears'deportationfor
obtaining'goods'byfalsepretences.Forparticipatinginillegaltradeinshoesandcurios,heservedhisfulltermonCockatooIsland,asamedicaldispenser.Healso
wroteseveralplaysanonymously,becauseasitwasanoffenceforaconvicttoappearonthestage,managerswereconcernedthatthelawmightalsoapplytoa
dramatist.TheHibernianFather,describedbyhimas'Original5ActTragedy',andTheCurrencyLass,'Original2ActOpera',thefirstplaywithanAustralian
themetobeperformedinAustralia,wereproducedattheRoyalVictoriaTheatre,Sydney,in1844aswerehisadaptationsofBULWERLYTTON'STheLastDaysof
PompeiiandDICKENS'SAChristmasCarol.ThelastrecordofhimisalettertotheColonialSecretary,writtenfromVictoriain1852.SeeTheCurrencyLass,ed.
RogerCovell,1976.
GeraldofWales
seeGIRALDUSCAMBRENSIS.
Gerhardie,William(18951977)
Britishnovelistandprosewriter,wasbornGerhardiinStPetersburg,Russia,thesonofaBritishindustrialist,andaddedthefinal'e'lateinlife.Hewaseducatedatthe
ReformierteSchule,andwassenttoLondonin1913totrainforacareerorfindarichwife.Thewarinterruptedthecareer,andheenlistedintheArmyasatrooper,
wascommissioned,servedintheBritishEmbassyinPetrogradandthenwiththeMilitaryMissioninVladivostok,andwasmadeOBEin1920.Hethenwentto
WorcesterCollege,Oxford,andwroteAntonChekhov:aCriticalStudy(1923)

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andFutility:aNovelonRussianThemes(1922),awittydissectionofRussianmanners.HisownexperienceswerealsothebasisofThePolyglots(1925),which
earnedhimcriticalacclaim,especiallyforitsfusionofcomicandtragicelementsintheevolutionofthecharacters.Hetravelledwidely,andwrote(whereverhe
happenedtobe)severalvolumesofstoriesandafurthernovel,PendingHeaven(1930),beforefinallysettlinginLondonandpublishinghisautobiography,Memoirs
ofaPolyglot(1931).Hislastnovel,MyWife'stheLeastofIt,appearedin1938,andanextensivehistoryoftheRomanovsin1940whereuponhesigneda
contractforGod'sFifthColumn,ahistoricalstudyofthepreviousfiftyyears.Itwasannouncedforpublicationin1942,buthewithdrewitforrevisiononbeing
appointedtothestaffoftheBBC,forwhomhewentontodeviseandeditthe'EnglishbyRadio'series.Heresignedin1945'toconcentratemorefullyonliterary
work',effectivelybecomingarecluseinhisflat.Forthenext32yearshewassaidtobewritingamonumentalfourpartnovelcalled'ThePresentBreath',ofwhichthe
finaltwochapterswereprintedinaliterarycompilationin1962.Onhisdeaththerewasnotraceofanyotherpartofthenarrative,onlyacomplexfilingsystemina
massivearrayofcardboardboxes.Therewerealsomanuscriptsofwhatseemedtobeseverallengthynonfictionworks,whichturnedouttobedifferentdraftsofthe
stillunfinishedGod'sFifthColumnaversionofit,editedbyMichaelHolroydandRobertSkidelsky,finallyappearedin1981.SeeDidoDavies,William
Gerhardie:aBiography,newedn1991.
Ghose,Manmohan(18691924)
Indianpoet,wasborninBhagalpore,thesonofasurgeonwhotookhisfamilytoEnglandwhentheboywasten,andlefthimandhistwobrotherstheretobe
educated.HewenttoManchesterGrammarSchoolandStPaul'sSchool,wherehestruckupafriendshipwithBINYON,andthenonascholarshiptoChristChurch,
Oxford,wherewithBINYONandtwoothershepublishedabookofverse,Primavera(1890).Aftereighttermsheleft,pleadingfinancialreasons.Havingfailedtofind
ajobinLondon,hereturnedtoOxfordandtookapassdegree.In1904hewentbacktoIndia,wherehetaughtEnglishliterature,beingappointedtoPresidency
College,Calcutta,in1902.In1898hehadmadeanarrangedmarriagewitha16yearoldBengali,whodisintegratedphysicallyandmentallyafterafallin1905.His
careersufferedbecauseofhisbrothers'revolutionaryactivitiesthiswasprobablythecausealsoofhisabandoningworkonhisepicpoem,'Perseus',whichwas
wronglysuspectedofbeingsubversive.Hiswifediedinthefluepidemicof1918,toberememberedin'TheDewdrop','TheRiderontheWhiteHorse',andother
mysticallyrics.In1921hissightfailedandheretiredfromteaching.Hereceivedstoicallyin1923thenewsthatthebankwhichheldhissavingshadcollapsed.Hedied
onlyminutesafteraskinghisdaughtertostopreadingaloudWALTERSCOTT'SQuentinDurward,whichshehadbeendoingathisrequestforseveralhours.Hewasa
poetintheEnglish,notIndian,orevenAngloIndiantradition,whoseonlycollectioninhislifetimewasLoveSongsandElegies(1898).Possiblyontheadviceofhis
lawyer,hewrote'NolloandDamayanti:anIndianMysteryPlay'atatimewhenhispoliticalloyaltieswereunderscrutiny.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.LotikaGhose,
1974.
Ghose,Zulfikar(b.1935)
Britishpoet,novelist,andcritic,wasborninSialkot(nowinPakistan),andwentwithhisfamilytowhatisnowIndia,andfromtheretoEngland,wherehereadEnglish
andphilosophyatKeeleUniversity.HemarriedaBrazilianin1964.HewascricketcorrespondentoftheObserverfrom1960to1965,andtaughtinLondonschools
until1969,whenhewenttoAustintolectureinEnglishattheUniversityofTexas.Hehasexplainedthat'evenwhenreturningtoPakistanforavisit,Ihaveremained
analienwhoseunconsciousdesireistoattachhimselftoalandwithwhichhecanclaimanidentity'.Hisfirstbookofverse,TheLossofIndia(1964),recallsthe
historyandlandscapesofthecountryheknewasachild.JetsfromOrange(1967)evokesthesightsandsoundsofEnglandandProvenceaswell,andTheViolent
West(1972)thoseoftheUSA.Thesamepreoccupationswithlandscapesandwiththequestfora'home'informhisnovels,ofwhichthefirst,TheContradictions
(1966),hasanEast/WestthemeTheMurderofAzizKhan(1967)isanaturalisticstoryofapeasantfarmer'spointlessstruggleagainstmoderndevelopmentand
contemporaryskulduggery.Inhishistoricaltrilogy,'TheIncredibleBrazilian'(1972,1975,1978),heisineffectdelineatingnewpotentialrootswhileinANew
HistoryofTorments(1982)aSouthAmericanfindsanalternativebutultimatelydestructiveruralEden.TheTripleMirroroftheSelf(1992)isapartphilosophical
novelofasearchfortheidentityofanexpatriateSouthAsianpoet,whichbeginsintheBrazilianrainforestandinitsconcludingsectionreturnstotheprePartition
IndiainwhichGhosegrewup.HiscriticalworksincludeTheFictionofReality(1983),TheArtofCreatingFiction(1991),andShakespeare'sMortal
Knowledge:aReadingoftheTragedies(1992).SeeSelectedPoems,1991ConfessionsofaNativeAlien,1965(autobiography).
Gibbon,Edward(173794)
Britishhistorian,wasborninPutney,London.Abookishbutsicklychild,hewaseducatedatWestminsterSchool(wherehisaunthadsetupa

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boardinghouse,itissaidforhisbenefit)andfor14profligatemonthsatMagdalenCollege,Oxford,wherehebecameaCatholic.InLausanne,towhichhewassent
byhisfatherforfouryears,heacceptedProtestantismagain,learnedFrench,studiedLatin,andbecameengaged(andathisfather'sinsistencethenbrokeoffthe
engagement)toSuzanneCurchod(173794),wholaterbecamethemotherofSTAL.Gibbon'sEssaisurl'tudedelaLittrature(1761)wastranslatedintoEnglish
in1764,thoughhewasnevermuchinterestedintheEnglishedition.SittingontheCapitolHillinRomein1764,hehadtheideaofwritingahistoryofthedecayofthe
ancientcity,laterelaboratedintoTheHistoryoftheDeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire(7vols177688).HeenteredParliamentin1774andservedinaminor
governmentpostfrom1779to1782.HistreatmentoftheriseofChristianityinthefirstvolumeofhisgreatworkcausedcontroversy,andaftertheappearanceofVols
IIandIIIhereturnedtoLausanne,wherehelivedquietlyfortherestofhislife,corpulentfromhissedentaryoccupation,andadandy.Hisgraspofhistoryisexcellent,
thearrangementandflowofhismaterialmasterly,andhisprose,enlivenedbytouchesofhumourandapocalypticdetail,superb.Hewrotefromastandpointwithinthe
Romanworld,andhisreligiousviewsareanticlericalbutnotnecessarilyantiChristian.SeeRoyPorter,EdwardGibbon,newedn1995(biography)J.W.Burrow,
Gibbon,1985(introductiontohiswork).
Gibbon,LewisGrassic,pseudonymofJamesLeslieMitchell(190135)
Scottishnovelist,wasborninacroftinAuchterless,Aberdeenshire,andwaseducatedatArbuthnottVillageSchoolandMackieAcademy,Stonehaven,whichheleft
afterayeartotryjournalism.From1919to1923heservedintheMiddleEastintheRoyalArmyServiceCorps.Havingonhisreleasefailedforfivemonthstoearna
livingasawriter,heenlistedasaclerkintheRoyalAirForceforsixyears.AfterhisdischargehelivedinWelwynGardenCityuntilhisearlydeathfromaperforated
ulcer.AsJ.LeslieMitchellhewroteseveralanthropologicalworks,includingHanno,ortheFutureofExploration(1928)andTheConquestoftheMaya(1934),
andsevennovels.HeusedthepseudonymLewisGrassicGibbonforalifeoftheScottishexplorerMungoPark(1934)andforhisScottishnovels,inwhichhe
employsastylizedformofdialoguetorepresentthespeechoftheNorthEast,thesettingofSunsetSong(1932),CloudHowe(1933),andGreyGranite(1934).
Reissuedin1946asatrilogyentitledAScotsQuair,theyreflect,throughtheexperiencesoftwicemarriedChrisGuthrie,thecontrastsandclashesofculture,
language,andlivingconditionsinherentinScottishlife,andthehypnoticintensityoftheland.Rurallifefeaturesstronglyintwoofhisshortstories,'Clay'and
'Smeddum',whichareasgoodasanythinghewroteafterSunsetSong.SeeIanCampbell,LewisGrassicGibbon,1985(criticalstudy).
Gibbons,Stella
seeWEBB,MARY.
Gide,Andr(18691951)
Frenchnovelist,dramatist,prosewriter,andcritic,wasborninParis,thesonofanacademiclawyerwhodiedin1880,andofawealthyindustrialist'sdaughter,who
broughthimupaccordingtostrictProtestantprinciplesandsenthimtoanumberofdifferentschoolsinthehopeofstraighteningouthispsychologicalmakeup.She
opposedhisdeterminationtobecomeawriter,butwhenshediedin1894shelefthimmorethanenoughtocontinuehisliterarycareer,whichhadbegunwithan
anonymousnovelofthespiritualquestofanadolescent,LesCahiersd'AndrWalter(1891tr.WadeBaskinastheTheNotebookofAndreWalter,1968).His
literarytalentmanifesteditselfinavarietyofforms,includingdrama,aswellasinfurtherphilosophicalnovelssuchasLesNourrituresTerrestres(1897tr.Dorothy
BussyasFruitsoftheEarth,1949)andLesCavesduVatican(1914tr.BussyasTheVaticanCellars,1952).HetravelledrestlesslyinEuropeandAfrica,and
workedforrefugeesofWorldWarIandtheSpanishCivilWar.Hisdocumentaryaccount,VoyageauCongo(1927),ledtotheestablishmentofanenquiryinto
crueltyandothermalpracticesonthepartoffranchiseholders.Apuritanaswellasahomosexualwithpederastictendencies,hemarriedhiscousinMadelaine
Rondeaux(d.1935)in1895,andhadadaughterin1923byElisabethvanRysselberghe.Thetwokeytextsintheexpositionandjustificationofhissexualinclinations
arethequasiPlatonicdialogue,Corydon(1924tr.HughGibb,1950),andtheautobiographicalstudy,SileGrainneMeurt(192021tr.BussyasIfItDie...,
1950).AnadmirerofEnglishliterature,hetranslatedCONRAD'STyphoon(1918)shortlyafterbeginningtostudythelanguagethroughaBerlitzcourseandbyreading
DEFOE'SRobinsonCrusoe,andfolloweditwithhisversionofSHAKESPEARE'SAntonyandCleopatra(performed1920).HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiterature
in1947.
Gilbert,(Sir)W(illiam)S(chwenk)(18361911)
Britishdramatistandpoet,wasborninLondon,thesonofWilliamGilbert(180490),navalsurgeonturnednovelist.'Bab',ashewasknown,wasamuchtravelled
infantwhowaskidnappedbybrigandsinNapleswhenhewastwo,andransomedfor25.HewaseducatedatGreatEalingSchoolandKing'sCollege,London,and
spentfourunhappyyearsasacivilserviceclerk,resigningtostudylawontheproceedsfromalegacy.HewascalledtotheBar

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in1863,andpractisedontheNorthernCircuitwithoutfinancialsuccess.Hewasatthesametimeearningfromversesandarticleswithhisownillustrations,signed
'Bab',intheperiodicalsFunandPunch,whichin1866rejectedhisskitonCOLERIDGE,'TheYarnoftheNancyBell',asbeing'toocannibalistic'foritsreaders.Itwas
subsequentlyoneofthewitty,oftensatirical,andtechnicallyinventivepoemsinTheBabBallads(1869).InitiallyontherecommendationofthedramatistT.W.
Robertson(182971),hewroteseveralburlesquesforthestage,followedbyaseriesofcomedies,ofwhichthebrilliantEngaged(1877)wascriticizedforits
cynicism.Thecollaborationwiththecomposer(Sir)ArthurSullivan(18421900)beganwithaburlesque,Thespis,ortheGodsGrownOld(1871).Thefirstofthe
famousSavoyOperas,whichfrom1881playedattheSavoyTheatre,builtforthepurposebyRichardD'OylyCarte(18441901),wasTrialbyJury(1875).The
partnershiplastedfortwentyyears,continuouslythreatenedandsometimesinterruptedbyGilbert'silltemperandpedanticdemands,andgeneratedsuchlasting
productionsasThePiratesofPenzance(1880),Iolanthe(1882),TheMikado(1885),andTheGondoliers(1889),inwhichthemusicoftenextractspathosfrom
whatotherwisemightseemcynicismormerewhimsy,andenhancestheintricatetextureandsatireofthelibretti.GilbertbuilttheGarrickTheatrefromhisproceeds,
andwasknightedin1907forhiscontributiontothestage.Hediedofaheartattackaftertryingtosaveayoungladywhomhebelievedtobedrowningintheprivate
swimmingpoolonhisHarrowestate.SeeTheCompleteAnnotatedGilbertandSullivan,ed.IanBradley,newedn1996HeskethPearson,Gilbert:HisLifeand
Strife,newedn1978(biography)JaneW.Stedman,W.S.Gilbert:aClassicVictorianandHisTheatre,1996(biography).
Gilman,CharlottePerkins(18601935)
Americannovelistandsocialcritic,wasbornCharlottePerkinsinHartford,Connecticut,agreatnieceofSTOWEthroughherfather,wholefthomepermanentlywhen
hiswife,afterthedeathofafourthchildininfancy,wasadvisednottohaveanother.Shemovedhomewithhermother18timesin14years,duringwhichshehadonly
fouryears'formaleducation.In187879sheattendedtheRhodeIslandSchoolofDesign,withaviewtoearningalivingasanartistandteacher.Herfirstpublished
poem,'InDutyBound'(Women'sJournal,1884),anindictmentofthemarriedstate,appearedfourmonthsbeforeshesuccumbedtoconventionandmarriedWalter
Stetson,anartist.Adaughterwasbornin1885theyseparatedin1888(divorced1894)aftertheconflictingdemandsofmarriageandacreativeandpubliclifehad
givenGilmananervousbreakdown,suchasshegraphicallydescribesinherstory,'TheYellowWallPaper'(1892).Duringthe1890sshewasactiveintheNationalist
cause(seeBELLAMY)inCalifornia.Herfirstbookwasacollectionofverse,InThisOurWorld(1893)seealsoLaterPoetryofCharlottePerkinsGilman,ed.
DeniseD.Knight(1996).AreceptionwasgivenforherbyLesterWard(18411913),thesociologistandreformer,attheWomen'sSuffrageConvention,
Washington,D.C.,in1896,afterwhichsheincreasedherpublicappearancesandvisitedEnglandtospeak.InWomenandEconomics(1898),draftedinfiveweeks,
shesetoutherviewson'theeconomicfactorbetweenmenandwomenasafactorinsocialevolution'.In1900,havingpassedwhatshereckonedwastheageof
childbearing,shemarriedhercousin,HoughtonGilman(d.1934),aNewYorkpatentattorney.ConcerningChildren(1900),TheHome:ItsWorkandInfluence
(1903),andHumanWork(1904),asequeltoWomenandEconomics,arestudiesmainlyoffamilyanddomesticissuesTheManMadeWorld(1911)is
concernedwithsexualdiscriminationinitswiderforms.Shepersonallywrote,edited,andpublishedthe86issuesoftheForerunner(eachof28pages)thatappeared
between1909and1916,inwhichsheserializedherfeministnovels,WhatDianthaDid(1910)andTheCrux(1911),andthreeUtopianromancessatirizingthemale
state,MovingtheMountain(1911),'Herland'(1915),and'WithHerinOurland'(1916).Diagnosedin1932assufferingfrominoperablebreastcancer,she
'promptlyboughtsufficientchloroformasasubstitute',withwhichinduecoursesheendedherownlife,inbed,afterherbath.SeeTheYellowWallPaperandOther
Stories,ed.RobertShulman,1995CarolFarleyKessler,CharlottePerkinsGilman:HerProgresstowardsUtopia,withSelectedWritings,newedn1995The
LivingofCharlottePerkinsGilman:anAutobiography,newedn1991AnnJ.Lane,To'Herland'andBeyond:theLifeandWorkofCharlottePerkins
Gilman,newedn1997GaryScharnhorst,CharlottePerkinsGilman,1985(biographical/criticalstudy).
Gilmore,Mary(18651962)
neCameron,Australianpoetandjournalist,wasbornatCottawalla,nearGoulburn,NewSouthWales,andwasapupilteacherwhenshewas12.Whileteachingin
theminingtownofSilvertonandtheninSydney,shebecameassociatedwiththelabourandradicalmovements.In1896shejoinedtheNewAustraliaschemeof
WilliamLane(18611917)inParaguay,whereshemarriedAlexanderGilmore,ashearerfromVictoria.Theyreturnedin1902toaremotefarminVictoria.In1908
shebecamethefirsteditoroftheWomen'sPageoftheSydneyWorker,whichsheremaineduntil1931,campaigningvigorouslythereandelsewhereforfairtreatment
forthedisadvantagedofallkinds.In1911sheseparatedfromherhusbandandtookhersonto

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Sydney.Marri'dandOtherVerses(1910)wasthefirstofadozencollections,ofwhichthelastwaspublishedwhenshewas89.Herpoems,short,rhythmical,and
tothepoint,embracemanythemespertinenttotheAustralianidentity,nonebeingmoreeffectivethanthepatrioticverseswrittenduringWorldWarII,notably'No
FoeShallGatherOurHarvest'(1941).Twoprosestudies,OldDays,OldWays(1934)andMoreRecollections(1935),arelyricalevocationsoftheoldpioneerlife
anditsvalues.ShewasmadeDBEin1937.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.RobertD.Fitzgerald,1963W.H.Wilde,CourageaGrace:aBiographyofDameMary
Gilmore,1989andinDouglasStewart,TheBroadStream:AspectsofAustralianLiterature,1975.
Ginsberg,Allen(192697)
Americanpoet,wasborninNewark,NewJersey,ofJewishparents.Hisconventionalfather,LouisGinsberg(18961976),wasahighschoolteacherandpoet.His
mother,aRussianemigre,hadpoliticalobsessionsanddiedinamentalasylumin1956,herlifeandlivingdeathbeingimmortalizedinherson'smoving'Kaddish'(the
Jewishprayerofmourning)inKaddishandOtherPoems19581960(1961).HewaseducatedatPatersonHighSchool,NewJersey,andat17enteredColumbia
University,NewYork,fromwhichhewasexpelledaftertwoyearsforavarietyofoffences.Hereturnedin1946aftertrainingattheMerchantMarineAcademy,and
graduatedtwoeventfulyearslater.InaHarlemapartmenthehadthefirstofaseriesofmysticalvisionsofBLAKE,whichgavedirectiontohisearlypoetryseeEmpty
Mirror(1961)andTheGatesofWrath:RhymedPoems19481952(1972).Healsogothimselfinvolvedwithsomestolengoods,andinsteadofjailspenteight
monthsinapsychiatrichospital.Heworkedasabookreviewerandmarketresearcher,andthenwentviaCubatoMexico,whereheexploredMayaruinsandwrote
'SiestainXbalba',beforesettlinginSanFrancisco.W.C.WILLIAMS,hisfriendandliteraryconsultant,wroteinanintroductiontohisfirstcollection,HowlandOther
Poems(1956),'Holdbacktheedgesofyourgowns,Ladies,wearegoingthroughhell.'Theculturalapocalypseprojectedbythetitlepoem,andunsuccessful
litigationtobrandthebookasobscene,ensureditscontinuingstatusasthepoeticbibleoftheBeatGenerationseealsoKEROUAC.Henowtravelledwidely
experimentedwithhallucinogenicdrugsandadoptedBuddhistbeliefs,towhichheformallycommittedhimselfin1972theoriginalexperienceisdescribedin'The
Change:KyotoTokyoExpress'(1963).
Duringthe1960sGinsbergbecameapeacefulpublicprotesterwhosechantinginfluencedcrowdsandthepolice,andapersuasivepresenceathearingsforreform.In
hiscreativepersonahebecameapublicpoet,declaimingtovastaudiencesandpertormingspontaneouslycomposedbluessongstomusicalaccompaniment.He
regularlypublishedcollectionsofverse,ofwhichTheFallofAmerica:PoemsofTheseStates19651971(1972)wontheNationalBookAward.Hisspiritual
interestsfurthermanifestedthemselvesin1974whenhehelpedtofoundtheJackKerouacSchoolofDisembodiedPoetics,oftheNaropaInstitute,Colorado.Ina
journalentryin1984,hedescribedhimselfas:'Poet,butsickofwritingaboutmyself/Homosexualrolemodel,notedforstablerelationship.../Buddhistagitator..
./Scholar.../PeacenikProtester...'.SeeCollectedPoems19471985,1995CosmopolitanGreetings:Poems19861992,newedn1995Journals:Early
Fifties,EarlySixties,newedn1993Journals:MidFifties19541958,ed.GordonBall,newedn1996BarryMiles,Ginsberg:aBiography,1989Michael
Schumacher,DharmaLion:aCriticalBiographyofAllenGinsberg,newedn1994ThomasEMerrill,AllenGinsberg,rev.edn1988(criticalstudy).
Ginzburg,Natalia(191691)
neLevi,Italiannovelistanddramatist,wasborninPalermoofaJewishfather,whowasaprofessorofbiology,andaCatholicmother,andwasbroughtupinTurin,
whereshewaseducatedathomebyagoverness.Herfirststory,publishedin1934,aboutaboredandrepressedchild,reflectedthesubjectmatterofmuchofher
futurefiction,inwhichthecharactersreacttooragainstboredom.In1938shemarriedLeoneGinzburg,aRussianscholar(hebecamealeadingmemberoftheItalian
Resistanceanddiedinprisonin1944afterbeinghandedovertotheGermans).ExiledwithhimbytheFasciststotheAbruzzimountains,shewrotethereherfirst
novel,LaStradachevainCitt[TheRoadtotheCity](1942),underthenameofAlessandraTornimpartebecauseofthelegislationagainstJews.EStatoCos
(1947tr.FrancesFrenayeas'TheDryHeart'inTheRoadtotheCity,1949)isastudyofawomanwhokillsherhusbandsimplyoutofaconvictionthatshewas
fatedtodoso.GinzburgworkedforthepublisherEinaudifrom1944to1949,andin1950marriedGabrieleBaldini(d.1969),translatorintoItalianofthewholeof
SHAKESPEAREtheylivedinLondonfrom1959to1962whenhewasDirectoroftheItalianInstitute.OthernotablenovelsincludeLeVocidellaSera(1961tr.
D.M.LowasVoicesintheEvening,1963),whichespeciallydemonstratesherattractiontotheworkofCOMPTONBURNETT(whomshecalled'lagrandesignorina'),
andLessicoFamigliare(1963tr.LowasFamilySayings,rev.edn1984),basedonrecollectionsofherownupbringing.Havingin1964deniedthatshehadany
intentionofwritingforthestage,shebeganthefollowingyeartodoso,withaseriesofmaritalfarcesinexperimentalstyle,ofwhichL'Inser

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zione(1968tr.HenryReedasTheAdvertisement,1969)wasperformedattheNationalTheatre,London,in1968.Shewaselectedaparliamentarydeputyforthe
independentleftin1983.
GiraldusCambrensis(GeraldofWales),alsoknownasGiralddeBarri(11461223)
Welshclericandprosewriter,wasbornatManorbierCastle,Pembrokeshire,andstudiedinParis.Hewasordainedin1772,andbecameArchdeaconofStDavid's
hewaselectedBishopin1176,butHenryIIblockedtheappointment.Hewaselectedagainin1198,butthistimeitwasArchbishopHubertofCanterbury(d.1205)
whowastheprincipalobjectortothepostbeingheldbyaWelshman.GiraldusmadethreetripstoRomeinpursuitofhisclaim,triedlitigation,andevenattemptedto
raisetheWelshnationinhissupport,butafterfouryearshegaveupandretiredtohisbooks.HisextensiveworksinLatinarenotablefortheirhistorical,
topographical,andsociologicalinterest,aswellasfortheircolourfuldescriptionsofcharacters,shrewdobservations,andscurrilousstories,evenaboutHenryII.
GemmaEcclesiasticaisasatiricalsurveyofthelifeandmannersoftheclergyofhistime,thehomesofmanyofwhom,healleges,areclutteredupwithinfantsand
theirgear.Hewrote[TheHistoryandTopographyofIreland],tr.JohnJ.O'Meara,(rev.edn1982),whichinabout1187hedeclaimedforthreedaystothe
assembledacademicsandscholarsofOxford,andanitineraryofWales,inwhichheexpoundstheverytacticswhichEdwardIusedtosubdueitspeoplealmosta
centurylater.DeRebusaSeGestis[AboutHisOwnDoings]andthesubstantialautobiographicalpartsofDeJureetStatuMeneuensisEcclesiae[AbouttheRights
andPositionoftheChurchofStDavid]havebeentranslatedbyH.E.ButlerasTheAutobiographyofGiraldusCambrensis(1937).SeeRobertBartlett,Gerald
ofWales11461223,1982.
Giraudoux,Jean(18821944)
Frenchdramatistandnovelist,wasborninBellac,Limousin,andeducatedatthelyceinChateauroux,theLyceLakanal,Paris,andthecoleNormaleSuprieure,
wherehestudiedGermanliterature.Hefailedhisagrgation,spentayearasanexchangestudentatHarvard,andthenbecameajournalistandawriterofshort
stories,acollectionofwhichwaspublishedin1909.HavingpassedintotheForeignServicein1910,heservedasasergeantinWorldWarI,beingwoundedbothat
thebattleoftheMarneandduringtheDardanellescampaign.Hemarriedin1921andresumedhiscareer,beingappointedInspectorGeneralofDiplomaticand
ConsularPostsAbroadin1934,whilealsodevelopinghisliterarytalents.Withthehelpoftheactor/directorLouisJouvet(18871951)heturnedhisnovelSiegfried
etleLimousin(1922)intoaplayaboutFrenchGermanrelationships,Siegfried(1928tr.PhilipCarr,1930),whichwasnotableforitsverbalinventiveness.During
the1930s,anduntilGENET,IONESCO,andBECKETTintroducednewformsoftheatricalexpression,hisdramasofdialoguedominatedtheFrenchstage.Britishand
AmericanaudiencesrespondedparticularlytoAmphitryon38(1929tr.S.N.Behrman,1938),awittyversionofthelegendoftheseductionofAlcmenebyJupiter
LaGuerredeTroien'AurapasLieu(1935tr.ChristopherFryasTigerattheGates,1955),anexaminationofaspectsoftheTrojanWarandtheposthumously
performedLaFolledeChaillot(1945tr.MauriceValencyasTheMadwomanofChaillot,1949),awhimsicalbutphilosophicalapproachtotheconflictbetween
theforcesofgoodandevil.
Gissing,George(18571903)
Britishnovelist,wasborninWakefieldandeducatedataQuakerboardingschoolandOwensCollege,Manchester.Abrilliantacademiccareerwascutshortwhen
hewasexpelled,havingbeensentencedtoprisonforstealinginorderto'rescue'agirlofthestreets,whomhelaterunwiselymarried.Aftersufferinggreathardshipin
EnglandandAmericainsearchofajob,hemanagedtostudyphilosophybrieflyattheuniversityinJenaand,withthehelpofalegacy,wroteandpaidforthe
publicationofWorkersintheDawn(1880),thefirstofanumberofnovelsintendedtorevealthe'hideousinjusticeofourwholesystemofsociety'.Itfailedtoimpress
thepublic,butthroughithefoundemploymentasatutor.Hewrote22novelsinall,whichinmanycasescharttheunhappyprogressofhislife,whilegraphically
mirroringtheconditionsandfeelingsofthelowermiddleclass.NewGrubStreet(1891),themostprofoundandperceptiveofthem,explorestheseamieraspectsof
theliteraryworldofhistime.LongsavedupfortripstoGreeceandItalyresultedinatravelbook,BytheIonianSea(1901),andascholarly,blockbustingnovelof
laterRome,Veranilda(1904).ThePrivatePapersofHenryRyecroft(1903),afictitiousauthor'sjournal,representshisaspirationsratherthanhisexperience.
Gissingbroughtanacademicratherthansimplyanimaginativeapproachtothenovelofcontemporaryreality.SeeJohnHalperin,Gissing:aLifeinBooks,newedn
1987(biography)JohnSloane,GeorgeGissing:theCulturalChallenge,1989(criticalstudy)RobertL.Selig,GeorgeGissing,rev.edn1995(criticalstudy).
Glasgow,Ellen(18741945)
Americannovelist,wasborninRichmond,Virginia,whereshelivedallherlife.TheninthoftenchildrenofamanufacturerofScottishIrishCalvinistdescentandofa
Virginiaaristocrat,sheattendedlocalprivateschoolsandreadinherfather'slibrary.At16shebegantolose

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herhearing,anafflictionwhichincreasedherinstinctivedesireforprivacy.ThoughshetravelledextensivelyinEurope,andseveraltimesvisitedEngland,whereshemet
onfriendlytermsHARDY(whowasanearlyinfluenceonherwriting),BENNETT,andGALSWORTHY,hernovelsarerootedintheSouth,whosehistoryandmannersshe
exploredfromseveralangles.TheDescendant(1897),partlysetinNewYork,whichshedidnotknow,waspublishedanonymously.Herthird,TheVoiceofthe
People(1900),beganarangeofnovelswhosebackgroundeffectivelyrepresentsasocialhistoryofVirginiafrombeforetheCivilWartothe191418war.In
Virginia(1913)andLifeandGabriella(1916),whosetargetisSouthernaristocraticwomanhood,theanalysisbecomesmoreironic.Thelowermiddleclass
protagonistofBarrenGround(1925)triumphsoverruralhardshipsandprivatedespairthroughfortitude.Therefollowedthethree'Queenborough'comediesof
manners,TheRomanticComedians(1926),TheyStoopedtoFolly(1929),andTheShelteredLife(1932).Herlasttwonovels,VeinofIron(1935)andInThis
OurLife(1941),whichwonthePulitzerPrize,aredarkerportraitsofmodernlife.IftherewasaSouthernliteraryrenaissance,itbeganwithher.ACertainMeasure:
anInterpretationofProseFiction(1943)comprisestheprefacesshewroteforacollectededitionofhernovels.Inherposthumouslypublishedautobiography,The
WomanWithin(1954),shereferstoherloveforGeraldB,whodiedin1905butwhohasnotbeenidentified,andtohertormentedengagementin191719to
HaroldS(HenryW.Anderson,aprominentlawyer,whoranunsuccessfullyforthegovernorshipofVirginia).SeeJuliusRowanRaper,FromtheSunkenGarden:
theFictionofEllenGlasgow,1980.
Glaspell,Susan(18761948)
Americandramatist,novelist,andshortstorywriter,wasborninDavenport,Iowa,whereherfather'sfamilyhadsettledfromEnglandin1835hermother'sparents
wereIrish.ShewaseducatedatlocalpublicschoolsandatDrakeUniversity,whichsheenteredin1897whenshewas,accordingtotherecords,21.Afterworking
asareporterontheDesMoinesDailyNewsfortwoyears,duringwhichshegraduatedtowritingherownpseudonymouscolumn,shereturnedtoDavenporttowrite
fulltimetoearnaliving.Shebeganwithlocalcolour,smalltownshortstorieslargelyaimedatreadersofwomen'smagazinesLiftedMasks(1912)containedseven
originalstoriesandsixpublishedbetween1903and1909.TheGloryoftheConquered(1909)andTheVisionary(1911)arenovelsofromanticidealism,buther
third,Fidelity(1915),aboutawomanwhorunsawaywithamarriedman,reflectedherownsituation.In1913shemarriedGeorgeCramCook(18731924),
novelist,dramatist,andactor,afterhehadhadtowaitforadivorcefromhissecondwife.Withhimshewrotein1914herfirstoneactplay,SuppressedDesires,
whichwasperformedin1915bytheProvincetownPlayers,agrouptheyfoundedparticularlytoenableAmericandramatiststoparticipateintheproductionoftheir
worksseealsoO'NEILL.In191617thegrouptransferredtoGreenwichVillage,NewYork,andperformedinthePlaywrights'Theatre,whereGlaspell'sfirstfull
lengthplay,Bernice(1917),ablendofAmericanrealismandEuropeanexpressionism,wasproducedin1919.SotoowereInheritors(1921),primarilyan
explorationoftheAmericansituationafterWorldWarI,andTheVerge(1921),aninnovativestudyofamonstrouswomaninsearchofselffulfilment.
Whenin1922thesuccessoftheamateurcompanywas,underCook'sdirection,suchthatitseemedtohimtobedefeatingitsownends,heretiredwithhiswifeto
Greece,whereuntilhisdeathinDelphiheworkedtoreestablishtheancientclassicalcultureGlaspell'sTheRoadtotheTemple(1927)isabiographyofhim.
TravellinginEurope,shemetNormanMatson,whomshemarriedin1925(divorced1931)togethertheywroteTheComicArtist,firstproducedinLondonin1928.
Alison'sHouse(1930),herlastplay,wonthePulitzerPrizeforitsportrayaloftheconflictbetweentheartistandtherealworld,recaptured18yearsafterthedeathof
athinlydisguisedEMILYDICKINSON.LatterlyshelivedinCapeCodandreturnedtofiction,ofwhichtheMidwestregionalnovelsTheMorningIsNearUs(1939)and
JuddRankin'sDaughter(1945)areregardedasthemostnotable.SeePlays,ed.C.W.E.Bigsby,1987ArthurE.Waterman,SusanGlaspell,1966
(biographical/criticalstudy)LindaBenZvi(ed.),SusanGlaspell:EssaysonHerTheaterandFiction,1995.
Glassco,John(190981)
Canadianpoetandnovelist,wasborninMontrealandeducatedatBishop'sCollegeSchool,Lennoxville,LowerCanadaCollege,Montreal,andMcGillUniversity,
whichheleftin1928withoutadegreetomakeanalternativelifeinParis.Hislivelyaccountofhisthreeyearsthere,whichwereterminatedbyhishavingtoreturn
homewithtuberculosis,waspublishedmuchlaterasMemoirsofMontparnasse(1970ed.MichaelGnarowski,2ndedn1996)itincludesclassiccharactersketches
ofCALLAGHAN,HEMINGWAY,JOYCE,GEORGEMOORE,andSTEIN,amongothers.Duringthistimehissurrealistpoem,'Conan'sFig',wasprintedintransition.In1935,aftera
majorlungoperation,hesettledinFoster,Quebec,ofwhichhewasMayorfrom1952to1954,andwherein1951hefoundedtheFosterHorseShow.Hispoetry,
thefirstcollectionofwhichwasTheDeficitMadeFlesh(1958),em

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bracesruralelegiac,literary,andphilosophicalmodes.SelectedPoems(1971)wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward.Hisfiction,ofwhichhewasinordinatelyproud
andwhichhewroteundervariousnames,isbyhisownadmission'purepornography'.ItincludesTheEnglishGoverness(1960underhisownnameasHarriet
Marwood,Governess,1976),FetishGirl(1972),andhiscompletionoftheunfinishednovelbyAubreyBeardsley(187298),UndertheHill(1959).
Glover,Denis(191280)
NewZealandpoet,typographer,andpublisher,wasborninDunedinandeducatedatAucklandGrammarSchool,Christ'sCollege,andCanterburyUniversity
College,ofwhoseEnglishdepartmenthewasamemberfrom1936to1938andfrom1946to1948.In1936hefoundedtheCaxtonPress,Christchurch,toprintand
publishfinebooks,amongwhichweresomeofhisearliervolumesofverse,includingSixEasyWaysofDodgingDebtCollectors(1936).DuringWorldWarIIhe
servedasanofficerintheRoyalNavy,winningtheDistinguishedServiceCross.In1947,inresponsetotheinitiativeofBRASCH,heundertookthepublicationofthe
literaryjournal,Landfall,whichisstillpublishedbyCaxton.Subsequentlyhetaughttypography.Hewasfromthestartasatiricalaswellasafinelyricalpoet,withan
appreciationofthelandscape('HolidayPiece')andevenofsomemodemdevelopments('TheRoadBuilders'),andawrytone('TheMagpies').Afterthewarhe
developedthedeviceofapersona,mostsuccessfullyinSingsHarryandOtherPoems(1951),lesssoinArawataBill:aSequenceofPoems(1953),through
whomheevokestraditionalthemes.DiarytoaWoman(1971),incorporatingToaParticularWoman(1970),expressingromanticlovebetweenolderpeople,gave
hisoeuvreanunexpectedextradimension.SeeSelectedPoems,1980HotWaterSailor19121962andLandlubberHo!19631980,1981(autobiography).
Godden,Rumer(b.1907)
Britishnovelistandchildren'swriter,wasborninEastbourne,Sussex,thedaughterofanagentforIndia'sInlandNavigation,andspentherchildhoodinIndiasee
(withJanGodden)TwoUndertheIndianSun(1966).ShewaseducatedathomebyamaidenauntandtheninEnglandatMoiraHouse,Eastbourne,afterwhich
sheusedasmalllegacytotrainasadancingteacher.ShereturnedtoIndia,wheresheopenedadancingschoolinCalcuttain1929,andmarriedin1934.After
publishingafancifulnovelandapoignantIndianromance,shedrafted,onboardshipbetweenBombayandTilbury,BlackNarcissus(1939),theenormously
successfulstoryofnunsinamissionintheHimalayas.RungliRungliot(ThusFarandNoFurther)(1943)isarecapitulationofthediaryshekeptonateaestate
afterthebreakupofhermarriagein1941.Indiaisthesettingofanumberofthenovelsshehaswrittensubsequently,fromBreakfastwiththeNikolides(1942)to
thechaosthatreignsinCoromandelSeaChange(1991).Anothertheme(followingherconversiontoRomanCatholicism)isthereligiouslife,asinInThisHouseof
Brede(1969)andFiveforSorrow,TenforJoy(1979).Inadditiontotwodistinguishednovelsaboutchildhood,AnEpisodeofSparrows(1955)andThe
GreengageSummer(1958),shehaswrittenmosteffectivelyforchildren,who,throughTileDolls'House(1947)andherotherdollbasedstoriesinparticular,are
ablevicariouslytoexperiencethedrama(andtraumas)ofadultlife.HavingreturnedtoEnglandafterWorldWarII,sheremarriedin1949,andforatimelivedin
HENRYJAMES'ShouseinRye.ShewasmadeOBEin1993.SeeATimetoDance,NoTimetoWeep,newedn1989,andAHousewithFourRooms,newedn1991
(autobiography).
Godwin,William(17561836)
Britishphilosopherandnovelist,wasborninWisbech,Cambridgeshire,thesonofaPresbyterianminister.HewaseducatedfortheministryatHoxtonAcademy,but
findingthathisviewswereatvariancewiththemovementandevenwithabeliefinGod,hebecameawriter.AnEnquiryconcerningPoliticalJustice(1793)was
subversiveinthatitdecriedmarriageasaninstitution,anarchicinitsrejectionoflawsandgovernment,andradicalinitsreconciliationofprivateinterestwithpublic
good.ThingsasTheyAre:or,TheAdventuresofCalebWilliams(1794)isanovelofretribution.In1796,havingflirtedwithINCHBALDandbeenturneddownby
OPIE,hebegananaffairwithWOLLSTONECRAFT.TheyweremarriedbymutualconsentwhenshebecamepregnantwithMARYSHELLEY,afterwhosebirthshedied.He
marriedMaryJaneClairmont(d.1841)in1801,andestablishedherinasmallpublishingbusiness,whichbroughtouttheLAMBS'talesfromShakespeare,but
collapsedintherecessionofthe1820s.HewrotemorenovelshistorieslivesofCHAUCER(1803)andofhisfirstwife,MemoirsoftheAuthorofaVindicationofthe
RightsofWomen(1798)twotragediesandfurtherphilosophicalworks,includingEssayonSepulchres(1809)andThoughtsonMan,HisNature,Productions,
andDiscoveries(1831).HischiefclaimtoposterityisastheguruoftheRomanticpoets,especiallyCOLERIDGE,SHELLEY,andWORDSWORTH.SeePeterH.Marshall,
WilliamGodwin,1984WilliamStClair,TheGodwinsandtheShelleys:theBiographyofaFamily,newedn1991.
Goethe,JohannWolfgang(von)(17491832)
Germanpoet,dramatist,novelist,andcritic,wasborninFrankfurtamMainandeducatedbyhisfather,alawyer,untilhewenttoLeipzigUniversityto

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readlawin1765Hestudiedartontheside,hadhisfirstromance,andwrotesomelyricsandtwolightplays,beforehavingaseverehaemorrhagein1768and
returninghome.TwoyearslaterhewasabletocontinuehisstudiesinStrasbourg,whereundertheinfluenceofthecriticJohannGottfriedHerder(17441803)he
becameinterestedinfolksongandballad.HealsobeganhislifelongadmirationofSHAKESPEARE,thefirstmanifestationofwhichwasahistoricaldrama,Gtzvon
BerlichingenmitdereisernenHand(1773),whichinanenthusiasticifnotentirelyaccuratetranslationasGoetzofBerlichingenwiththeIronHand(1799)was
thefirstbooktocarrythenameofWALTERSCOTT.TheinspirationforDieLeidendesjungenWerthers(1774tr.RichardGravesasTheSorrowsofWerter,1779),
anepistolarynovelofmelodramaticmelancholywhichgavethenameofWertherismtoastateofmorbidsentimentalismandsparkedoffseveralsuicides,washisown
thwartedloveforLotteBuff,thefianceofaclosefriend.Nowthenationalliterarytrendsetter,andalreadyatworkonearlyversionsofhisFaust,hewasin1775
invitedbythe18yearoldCarlAugust,ruleroftheDuchyofSaxeWeimarEisenach,tojoinhiscourt.Hewasappointedamemberoftheadministration,with
responsibilitiesforfinance,agriculture,andmines.HealsoenteredintoanintenserelationshipwithCharlottevonStein(17421827),theintellectualwifeoftheMaster
ofHorseandthe'Lida'ofhispoems.In1782hewasmadeActingPresidentoftheChamber,andgrantedapatentofnobility.In1786hetookleaveofabsencein
Italyfortwoyears.Hereturnedrefreshedbyhisencounterwithclassicalantiquitiesobtainedpermissiontoberelievedofallbutculturalduties(hewasmadedirector
ofthestatetheatre)andthoseappertainingtoscientificstudyanddevelopmentandmetandsetuphousewithChristianaVulpius(d.1816),amakerofartificial
flowerstheymarriedin1806,havinghadseveralchildren,ofwhomonlyone,August(17891830),survivedinfancy.
Anewfoundsensuality,aswellashisculturalselfdiscovery,informthepoemsinRomischeElegien(1788tr.MichaelHamburgerasRomanElegies,1996),and
classicalthemesandstructureswerenowreflectedinhisplays.Inthelate1770shehadbegunanovelaboutayoungmanandthestageamanuscriptwasdiscovered
in1909andpublishedasWilhelmMeistersTheatralischeSendung(ed.HarryMaync,1911tr.GregoryA.PageasWilhelmMeister'sTheatricalMission,1913
tr.JohnR.RussellasWilhelmMeister'sTheatricalCalling,1995)HelateruseditasthebasisofabouthalfofWilhelmMeistersLehrjahre(1795),which,withits
sequel,theprototypeoftheBildungsroman,weretranslatedasWilhelmMeister'sApprenticeship(1824)andWilhelmMeister'sTravels(inGermanRomance,
1827)byCARLYLE,whoreferstoGoethein'TheHeroasManofLetters'(1840)as'forthelasthundredyears,byfarthenotablestofallLiteraryMen',andcommends
himinSartorResartusforhis'inspiredmelody'.(GoethewroteatestimonialinsupportofCarlyle'sapplicationforthechairofMoralPhilosophyatStAndrewsin
1828:itarrivedlate,andhedidnotgetthejob.)
In1794Goethebeganafriendship,whichamountedalsotoaliterarypartnership,withSCHILLER,withwhoseencouragementheresumedworkonandcompletedthe
firstpartofhisgreatpoeticdrama,Faust(1808tr.A.Hayward,1833(prose)tr.JohnAnster,1835(verse)tr.F.D.Luke,1987).BYRON,whohadheardextracts
translatedin1816,dedicatedSardanapalus(1821)to'theillustriousGoethe...thefirstofexistingwriterswhohascreatedtheliteratureofhisowncountry'.P.B.
SHELLEYtranslatedScenesIandIIintoelegantverse,appendingaliteraltranslationofwhathecallsthe'astonishing'openingchorus,ofwhich'itisimpossibleto
representinanotherlanguagethemelodyoftheversification'.Thesecond(moresymbolicandlessdramatic)partwasfinishedin1831andpublishedposthumously(tr.
DavidLuke,1994).SeealsoFaust1and2,ed.andtr.StuartAtkins(1994)tr.ChristaWeismanandHowardBrenton(1995)tr.LouisMacNeice(1951,
abridged).ThefirststudyofGoetheinanylanguagebasedonprimarysourceswasG.H.Lewes,TheLifeandWorksofGoethe(1855),forwhichGEORGEELIOT
translatedprosepassages.SeeTheCollectedWorks,ed.VictorLange,EricA.Blackall,andCyrusHamlin,tr.MichaelHamburgerandothers,12volsnewedns
199495SelectedPoems,ed.ChristopherMiddleton,1983(bilingualedition)NicholasBoyle,Goethe:thePoetandtheAge,Vol.IThePoetryofDesire1749
1790,newedn1992(biography).
Gogarty,OliverStJohn(18781957)
Irishpoet,dramatist,politician,andsurgeon,wasborninDublinandeducatedatStonyhurstCollegeandClongowesWood,Kildare,andattheRoyalUniversityand
TrinityCollege,Dublin,wherehereadmedicineandwontheViceChancellor'sprizeforpoetrythreetimes.In1904hespenttwotermsatOxford,hopingtowinthe
NewdigatePrize(hecamesecond),afterwhichherentedtheMartellotowerwhichappears,withaportraitofhimself,inJOYCE'SUlyssesSportalsoaffectedhis
studies(heplayedprofessionalsoccerandwasachampioncyclist),buthequalifiedin1907,andspecializedinearnoseandthroatsurgery,whichhepractisedin
Dublin.Aplayofslumlife,Blight,theTragedyofDublin(1917),underthepseudonymofAlphaandOmega,wasfollowedbytwomoreattheAbbeyTheatre.The
ShipandOtherPoemsappearedin1918.Thetitleofhisnextcollection,AnOfferingofSwans(1923),

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referstohisvow,whileswimmingtofreedomfromagangofRepublicangunmenduringtheCivilWar(192223),topresenttwobirdstotheRiverLiffey.Hewasa
memberofthefirstIrishSenate,buttheburningdownofhishouseinGalwayandanattemptonhislifeledtoayearinLondon.Asuccessfullibelactionagainsthis
reminiscentAsIWasGoingDownSackvilleStreet(1937)wasonereasonforhisleavingIrelandfortheUSA.Itssuccessors,FollowStPatrick(1938)and
TumblingintheHay(1939),aremorereadableandamusingthanthenovelshesubsequentlypublished.Hiswit,inandoutoftheSenate,islegendary,andhewrote
someexcellentlyricsandanexpressiverangeofpoemsonclassicalandtopographicalthemes.SeeCollectedPoems,1951J.B.Lyons,OliverStJohnGogarty:a
Biography,1980.
Gogol,Nikoli(Vasilievich)(180952)
Russiandramatistandnovelist,wasborninSorochintsy,Ukraine,thesonofalandowner,andleftschoolin1828togotoStPetersburg.Aftertwoyearsasacivil
serviceclerk(14thgrade),hegotajobteachinghistoryataninstituteforyoungladies.Afterpublishingtwovolumesofstories,[EveningsonaFarmnearDikanka]
(183132),inwhichhemadeimaginativeuseofUkrainianfolklore,hewasin1834,attheinstigationofliteraryfriends,appointedalecturerinworldhistoryatSt
PetersburgUniversity.Neitherhisknowledgenorhistechniqueproveduptothetask,butwhenheresignedafter16monthshehadinthemeantimebecome
establishedasawriteroffictionandhadwrittentwoplays.Mirgorod(1835)comprisedfourUkrainiantales,eachparodyingadifferentliterarygenre:[Arabesques]
includedtheearlierofhisnotablestoriessetinanightmarishStPetersburgseeTheDiaryofaMadmattandOtherStories,tr.RonaldWilks(1972).Hisfirstplay,
[Marriage],notproduceduntil1842,isanoutandoutdomesticfarce.[TheGovernmentInspector](1836)containedfarcicalelementswhichwere
overemphasizedintheproduction,thoughitwasprobablythesewhichappealedmosttoTsarNicholasI,whocommandedhisfamilyandministerstoseeit.Mortified
bywhatheregardedasmisinterpretationofhisaims,Gogolleftthecountry.Thoughhepublishedin1842arevisedversionofthissplendidlyconstructedsatireon
provinciallifeandgovernment,itdidnotreplacetheexistingoneuntil1888seeTheGovernmentInspector,tr.EdwardO.MarshandJeremyBrooks(1968).
HereturnedtoRussiaonlytwiceduringthenextsixyears.Thesecondtimewasin1842,whenhepublished[DeadSouls](tr.GeorgeReavey,1971tr.Bernard
GullbertGuerney,rev.edned.SusanneFusso,1996),atalewithhilariouselements(whichhasbecomeaninternationalclassic)involvingthepurchaseofdeceased
serfswhoarestillongovernmentrecordsandthussubjecttotaxitwasintendedasthefirstpartofaprojectedthreevolumepicaresquesatire.Hethenembarkedon
anevenmoreunsettledperiodoftravel,duringwhichhemadeapilgrimagetoJerusalemandconceivedashisdivinedestinythereformationofRussiathrough
literature.InthisevangelisticstatehetriedtotransformhisnovelintoaUtopianvision,whichhenevercompletedandultimatelydestroyed.HereturnedtoRussiain
1848anddiedinMoscowofselfimposedstarvationandinadequatemedicaltreatment,areligiousfanaticwhosemindhadbecomeunhinged.SeePlaysand
PetersburgTales,tr.ChristopherEnglish,introductionbyRichardPeace,1996.
Golding,(Sir)William(191193)
Britishnovelist,wasborninStColumbMinor,Cornwall,andeducatedatMarlboroughGrammarSchool(atwhichhisfathertaughtscience)andBrasenoseCollege,
Oxford.BeforeWorldWarII,inwhichheservedintheRoyalNavyandcommandedarocketship,hewasanactorandstageproducer,andforayearateacher.He
alsopublishedabookofverse,Poems(1934).Hisfirstnovel,LordoftheFlies(1954)thetitleisthemeaningoftheHebrewtermforBeelzebubillustrateshow
internalandexternalpressurescancauseasocietytodisintegrate,exemplifiedinthiscasebyagroupofmaroonedchildren.Thoughsomeofhisnovelsmayatfirst
sightappeartoreflectdifferenttreatmentsofsimilarthemesTheInheritors(1955)investigatesthedestructionofaprimitiveculture,andPincherMartin(1956)is
alsosetonadesertisland,whileFreeFall(1960)andThePyramid(1967)bothrecallayoungman'sexperiencesontheroadtowardsmaturityineffecteachhas
afreshstartingpointanddevelopsalongdistinctivelines.Hisleitmotifsarebroadlycreation,temptation,destruction,andpreservation,allofwhicharepresentinThe
Spire(1964).Hisdistinguishedmaritimetrilogy,RitesofPassage(1980),whichwontheBookerprizeforfiction,CloseQuarters(1987),andFireDownBelow
(1989),usesaseavoyagetoAustraliainNapoleonictimesasthemediumthroughwhichemotionsanddramaarefomented.ItwasreissuedinonevolumeasTothe
EndsoftheEarth:aSeaTrilogy(1992),inanintroductiontowhichheconfessedthatonlyafterfinishingthefirstbookdidhethinkofaddingmore.TheDouble
Tongue(1995)isaposthumouslypublishedseconddraftofthefictionalmemoirsofa1stcenturyBCpriestessofDelphi.Hepublishedtwovolumesofessays,The
HotGates(1965)andAMovingTarget(1982).HewasmadeCBEin1966,awardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1983,andknightedin1988.SeeJames
Gindin,WilliamGolding,1988(criticalstudy)KevinMcCarron,WilliamGolding,1994(criticalintroduction).

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Goldoni,Carlo(170793)
Italiandramatist,wasborninVeniceandeducatedatschoolsinPerugiaandRimini.HewentontotheecclesiasticalcollegeatParia,fromwhichhewasexpelledinhis
firstyearforwritingasatiricaldramaaboutthecollege.Hemanagedtopasshislawexaminationswhenhewas25,butdebtsandlackofbusinessforcedhimintothe
roleofproviderofscenariosforatravellingcommediadell'artecompany.In1736,seeingaprettygirl,NicolettaConio,onabalconyinGenoa,heinvitedherfather
tothetheatreandarrangedtomarryherhedevelopedsmallpoxontheirweddingnightbut'luckily...IdidnotbecomeuglierthanIwasbefore'.Hepractisedlaw
forsevenyearsinVenice,writingscenariosinhissparetime,andthenmovedtoPisa.In1747hewasapproachedbythePantaloonoftheMedebaccompanyto
returntoVeniceasfulltimecomicdramatist,onthestrengthofthesuccessfulperformanceofaplayofhisinwhichthedialoguewaswritten,notimprovised.During
thenext15yearshewroteabouttwohundredplaysandtransformedthecommediadell'arteintoanItaliantheatreinwhichmasksandthestockcharacterswere
thingsofthepasttheplaywhichfinallydidthetrickwasIDueGemelliVeneziani[TheVenetianTwins](1748),inwhichtheformerPantaloonplayedbothtwins.
OtherrealisticcomediesofthisperiodincludeLaVedovaScaltra[TheArtfulWidow](1748),LaLocandiera[tr.asTheMistressoftheInn,alsoas
Mirandolina](1753),andLaCasaNova[TheSuperiorResidence](1760).IlServitorediDuePadrone[TheServantofTwoMasters](1745)hasproved
especiallypopularwithBritishandAmericanaudiences,andhasbeenadaptedandgivenanantipodeanflavourbytheAustraliandramatistsRonBlair(b.1942)and
NickEnright(b.1950).
In1762theattacksofjealousrivalsandcriticsfinallydroveGoldoniintoexileinParis,wherefromwritingplaysfortheKing'scompanyofItalianplayershegraduated
tocomediesinFrench,includingLeBourruBienfaisant[TheBeneficentBear](1771).Virtuallyblindfrom1765,hewasforatimetutoratVersaillestotheFrench
princesses.WhentheBastillefelltothemobin1789hisroyalpensionwassuspended.NineteendaysaftertheexecutionofLouisXVIitwasrestoredbytheNational
Convention,whichdidnotknowthatGoldonihaddiedafewhoursearlier.AnannuitywaspaidtohiswidowandaperformanceofLeBourruBienfaisantlaidonfor
thebenefitofhisfamilyatthenewlynamedThtredelaNation.SeeFourComedies,tr.FrederickDavies,1968.
Goldsmith,Oliver(172874)
Irishdramatist,novelist,poet,andjournalist,wasborninPallasmore,Co.Longford,thefifthchildofacuratewhobecameRectorofKilkennyWest.Hesufferedan
attackofsmallpoxinchildhoodwhichpermanentlydisfiguredhim.Hisfatherhavingoverstretchedhimselfinthematterofadowryforanelderdaughter,Goldsmith
wenttoTrinityCollege,Dublin,asasizar.Afterfailingtosettletoanythingbutriotousliving,hewaspaidforbymembersofhisfamilytoreadmedicineatEdinburgh
University,whichheabandonedaftertwoyearstowanderthroughEuropeonfoot.HearrivedinLondonin1756,pennilessbutclaimingtohaveacquiredamedical
degreeonhistravels.Hebecameajournalistandin1759publishedanonymouslyAnEnquiryintothePresentStateofPoliteLearninginEurope,whilewritingfor
severaljournalsincludinghisown,TheBee,whichfoldedaftereightissues.AseriesofobservationsoftheLondonsceneinthePublicLedger,writtenasthoughbya
ChineseandbearingtheunmistakableIrishstampofpoliteironytowardstheEnglish,werecollectedasTheCitizenoftheWorld(1762).Hehadnowbecomea
memberofthecircleofJOHNSON,whoencouragedhimtofinishhisphilosophicalpoem,TheTraveller:oraProspectofSociety(1765),thefirstworktocarryhis
name,andfoundapublisherforTheVicarofWakefield:aTale(1766).Thisgentle,humanstoryofmultiplemisfortuneswithamercifullyhappyconclusionhasinthe
courseofitthepoems'Whenlovelywomanstoopstofolly'and'AnElegyontheDeathofaMadDog',withitsfamousclosingline,'Thedogitwasthatdied'.His
majorlongpoem,TheDesertedVillage(1770),reflectsinflowingcoupletsnostalgiaforthehomelinessandinnocenceofrurallife.
Inthemeantimehehadturnedtothestage,aboutwhichhehadoftenexpressedhisviewsinprint.TheGoodNatur'dMan:aComedy(1768)isamusingenoughbut
structurallyuneven.TheextendedjokeuponwhichtheactionofSheStoopstoConquer:or,TheMistakesofaNight(1773)isfoundedistimeless,andthe
absurdityofmanyoftheresuitingsituationsgoesunnoticedinacontinuousflowofeconomicallypresentedcomicsetpiecesandexchangesbetweenlikeable
characters.Overgenerousandimprovident,Goldsmithspentorgaveawayhisearningsashereceivedthem,andattheheightofhisfamewasforcedtoindulgein
hackwork,albeitinhisnaturalliterarystyle.HeproducedhistoriesofRome(1769abridgedbyhimself'fortheuseofschools'1772),England(1771),andGreece
(1774),aswellasAnHistoryoftheEarthandAnimatedNatureineightvolumes(1774).Itissaidthathisdeathfromafeverwashastenedbyoverwork,debts,
andhisinsistenceondoctoringhimself,andthatBURKEburstintotearswhenheheardthenews,andSirJoshuaReynolds(172392)laiddownhisbrushandpainted
nomorethatday.SeeCollectedWorks,ed.ArthurFriedman,5vols1966PoemsandPlays,ed.TomDavis,newedn1993AndrewSwarbrick(ed.),TheArtof
OliverGoldsmith,1984.

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Goncharov,Ivan(Aleksandrovich)(181291)
Russiannovelist,wasborninSimbirsk,thesonofagrainmerchantwhodiedwhenhewasseven.Hiseducationwastakenonbyafamilyfriend,whosenthimto
boardingschoolandthen,atten,toMoscowCommercialSchool,afterwhichhestudiedphilologyatMoscowUniversity.Afterafewmonthsassecretarytothe
GovernoroftheprovinceofSimbirsk,hewentin1834toStPetersburg,whereheremainedacivilservantforoverthirtyyears.In1844hebeganhisfirstnovel,[A
CommonStory](1847tr.ConstanceGarnett,1894),astudyoftheconflictbetweendecayedlandedaristocracyandemergingbourgeoisie.In1849hepublishedin
ajournal['Oblomov'sDream'],acrucialsectionofhismajornovel,whichhenowsetaside.In185255hewasonavoyageroundtheworldinthefrigatePallas,as
secretarytotheadmiralcommandingtheexpedition.AfterhisreturntoStPetersburgviaSiberia,hepublishedanaccountwhichincludesobservationsonLondonand
onaspectsofBritishlife.Hewasappointedaliterarycensorin1856.Oblomov(tr.C.J.Hogarth,1915tr.DavidMagarshack,1954)wasfinishedin1857and
finallypublishedinaStPetersburgperiodicalin1859.Thisstudyofanindolentromantichasuniversalpsychologicalintimationsthattranscendasettingwhichwas
soontodisappear.Heresignedfromthecivilservicein1867,publishedathirdnovel,[ThePrecipice](1869),andsubsequentlylivedouthislifeinhisflatinSt
Petersburg,areclusewhosufferedfromdelusions.
Goncourt,Edmondde(182296)andJulesde(183070)
Frenchnovelists,dramatists,andprosewriters,werebornrespectivelyinNancyandParis,whereEdmondwenttoCollgeHenriIVandJulestoCollgeBourbon.
Thedeathoftheirmotherleftthemfinanciallysecure,andaftertravellingwithsketchbooksthroughBurgundy,Dauphin,Provence,andAlgeria,theysettledinParisin
theRueSaintGeorges,whichwastheirhomeforthenexttwentyyears.Hypochondriac,mistrustfulofwomen,hardlyeverawayfromeachotherformorethanafew
hours,theyweredrivenbyvanitytoproduce,inthecourseofanextraordinarilycloseliterarycollaboration,numerousplaysandawholerangeofbooks,including
novelsoftherealisticschool,artcriticism,andsocialhistory.AfterthedeathofJulesfromsyphilis,contractedwhenhewas19,Edmonddecidedtogiveupwritingthe
journalwhichtheyhadkeptsince2December1851.Heresumeditasatributetohisbrother,intendingthatitshouldnotbemadepublicuntil20yearsafterhisown
death.AfterrevealingitsexistencetoDAUDET,hewaspersuadedtopublishitserially,thefirstvolumein1887.Witty,wicked(especiallyaboutthegreatandtheir
lovers),andcolourfullydescriptive,itisarevealingeyewitnessrecordofevents,people,andplaces,andafirsthandaccountofconversationswithliteraryandother
luminariesofthetimes.Inhiswill,EdmondendowedtheAcadmieGoncourtfortheencouragementofyoungwritersandanannualliteraryprize(PrixGoncourt).See
PagesfromtheGoncourtJournal,ed.andtr.RobertBaldick,newedn1988.
Gongora(YArgote),Luisde(15611627)
Spanishpoet,wasborninCordoba,andleftSalamancaUniversityin1580havingtakenminorordersbutwithoutadegree.Hewasordaineddeaconin1585and
appointedprebendaryofCordobaCathedralinsuccessiontohisuncleheheldthepostuntil1611,whenheresignedinfavourofhisnephewandretiredtohiscountry
hometowrite.Hisverse,intheformmainlyofballadsandsonnets,hadalreadycausedcontentionforitspoetics,hischiefandmostvirulentopponentsbeingVEGAand
theprolificpoet,novelist,andsatirist,FranciscodeQuevedo(15801645).Thepublicationin161314ofLaFbuladePolifemoyGalatea[TheFableof
PolyphemusandGalatea],aretellingofastoryfromOVID'SMetamorphoses,andofthefirstand(unfinished)secondpartofLasSoledas(tr.EdwardM.Wilsonas
TheSolitudes,rev.edn1965),ametaphoricalnarrativepoeminabucolicsetting,intensifiedtheargumentbetweenculteranismo,orGongorism(complexpoetic
thoughtandornatelanguage),andconceptismo(affectedpoeticlanguageandintricatestyle).In1617hesettledinMadrid,becameapriest,andwasmadeachaplain
ofhonourtoPhilipIII.InthechaosfollowingtheaccessionofPhilipIVin1621,heattemptedunsuccessfullytoarrangeforthepublicationofaneditionofhispoetryto
payhisbills.In1625hewasevictedfromhishomebythenewowner,whowasQuevedo,andhadtosellhisfurnituretobuyfood.Acompleteeditionofhisworks
waspublishedposthumouslybyhisfriend,JuanLpezdeVicua,asObrasenVersodelHomeroEspaol[ThePoeticalWorksoftheSpanishHomer](1627),and
waspromptlybannedbytheInquisition.SeeSelectedShorterPoems,tr.MichaelSmith,1995(bilingualedn).
Gordimer,Nadine(b.1923)
SouthAfricannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninSprings,Transvaal,thedaughterofaJewishwatchmakerwhohademigratedfromLithuaniaat13,andwho
latersaveduptobringoutninesisters,onebyone.Ahyperactivechildwhowantedtobeadancer,shewasfoundattentohavearapidheartbeat.Hermother
removedherfromthelocalconventschoolandforbadeallexercise.Shewenttoaprivatetutoruntilshewas16,havingspenttheinterveningyearsinthecompanyof
adults,andhavinghadashortstorypub

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lishedinForum,acurrentaffairsmagazine.Unabletodoadegreecourseforlackofeducationalqualifications,at21shetookgeneralstudiesforayearat
WitwatersrandUniversity.'ThiswasthefirsttimeinmylifeI'dmixedwithblacks,andwasmoreorlessthebeginningofmypoliticalawareness.'FacetoFace:Short
StorieswaspublishedinSouthAfricain1949TheSoftVoiceoftheSerpentandOtherStoriesappearedintheUSAin1952(inUK1953),followingthe
publicationofastorybyherintheNewYorker.
InaninterviewwithALANROSS(LondonMagazine,May1965)shestated:'Ihavenoreligion,nopoliticaldogmaonlyplentyofdoubtsabouteverythingexceptmy
convictionthatthecolourbariswrongandutterlyindefensible.'AndinaParisReviewinterviewin1979inWritersatWork:SixthSeries(1985):'Thereal
influence...onmywritingistheinfluenceofpoliticsonpeople....Iamdealingwithpeopleherearepeoplewhoareshapedandchangedbypolitics.'Underlying
herwork,inwhichshehasfaithfullyreflectedshiftsandalterationsinthesystem,isthebeliefinacollectiveconsciencetobringaboutchange.
TheendofthejourneyofHelen,inTheLyingDays(1953),fromyouthtoaconfusedmaturity,hedgedbyfamilyconventionalmoralitiesandthemoraldilemmaofthe
societyaroundher,isescapetoEurope.AWorldofStrangers(1958)beginswiththearrivalofaBritoninJohannesburg,andexploreshisromancewithanupper
classwhitewomanandhisrelationshipwithSteve,acharmingAfrican.Forthedepictionofafriendshipacrossthecolourline,thepaperbackeditionwasbanned.So
wasTheLateBourgeoisWorld(1966),inwhichtheformerwifeofaliberalactivistgetsdrawnintorevolutionaryactivism,andwhich,Gordimerhasexplained,'came
upwithconclusionsthatdidnotfitinwiththeofficialviewofevents'.InAGuestofHonour(1970)anEnglishman'sloveaffairwiththenewAfricanstatehehad
servedincolonialdays,andwiththewhitewomanhemeets,arethemainstrandsofanovelwhichexaminestheEuropeanpoliticalroleinAfrica.Burger'sDaughter
(1979),forreproducingastudentdocumentdistributedduringthe1976riotsinSoweto,wasbannedinSouthAfricashortlyafteritspublicationintheUKandUSAit
wasthenunbannedinthelightofthecriticalattentionitattractedabroadseeGordimerandothers,WhatHappenedtoBurger'sDaughter:or,HowSouthAfrican
CensorshipWorks(1980).Itwasalso,asshepubliclyrevealed15yearslater,anextrapolationoftheexperiencesofafamilysheknew,a'codedhomagepaidtoa
[revolutionaryhero],anantiapartheidactivist,whohaddiedservingalifesentence,hisasheswithheldfromhisdaughtersbytheprisonauthoritiesoftheday',whose
accuracywasconfirmedbyoneofthedaughters.TheConservationist(1974),whichwontheBookerprizeforfiction,offersapsychological,andJuly'sPeople
(1981)aneconomicinterpretationoftheendofwhiteruleinSouthAfricathecentralfemalecharacterofASportofNature(1987)isthemeansthroughwhicha
unitedAfricaisenvisaged.MySon'sStory(1990)returnstocontemporaryJohannesburg,anddealswiththespecificpredicamentofacolouredfamilyinwhichthe
fatherisapoliticalactivist.NonetoAccompanyMe(1994)isastudyoftwoactivistfamilies,onewhite,oneblack,andoftheuneasypostapartheidperiodleading
uptofreeelections.
SelectedStories(1975)drawsfromfivepreviouscollections,inwhichshebringstobearthespecialartoftheshortstorywriteronthemesreflectingherbasic
beliefseealsoJumpandOtherStories(1991).WritingandBeing(CharlesEliotNortonLectures,1995)includesstatementsaboutherownpositionasa
committednovelistinsolidaritywithsufferingblacks,andessaysonACHEBYandMAHFOUZ.Shemarriedin1954,ashersecondhusband,ReinholdCassirer.Shewas
awardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1991.SeeJudieNewman,NadineGordimer,1988(criticalstudy)StephenClingman,TheNovelsofNadineGordimer:
HistoryfromtheInside,1992DominicHead,NadineGordimer,1994(criticalstudy).
Gordon,AdamLindsay(183370)
Australianpoet,wasbornintheAzores,thesonofaformerofficerintheBengalCavalryandofthedaughteroftheGovernorofBerbice,BritishGuiana.Hewas
educatedatCheltenhamCollegeandtheRoyalMilitaryAcademy,Woolwich,whichheleftpossiblybecauseofpooreyesight.Anescapadeconnectedwitha
racehorsecausedhisdeparturein1853forSouthAustralia,wherehewasfortwoyearsintheranksoftheMountedPolice.Hethendrifted,doingsomehorse
breaking,unabletoraisethemoneytoreturnhome.Bythetimehismother'slegacyarrivedin1864,hewasmarriedtoaScottishimmigrantandhadsettledinthe
MountGambierdistrict.WhenalocalprinterwantedtoreproducetheengravingsbytheScottishpainter,(Sir)JosephNolPaton(18211901),fortheBorder
ballad,'TheDowieDensofYarrow',butcouldnotlayhandsonacopyoftheverses,Gordonsuppliedsixballadsofhisown,basedonthestory,whichwere
publishedasTheFeud(1864).HesatforayearintheSouthAustralianParliament.Whenhisinvestmentsfailed,herodeinsteeplechases,winningtheAdelaide
GrandNationalin1865.SeaSprayandSmokeDrift(1867)comprisedhorseypoemsinballadmetre,originallywrittenforjournals,andsomemorethoughtful
pieces,includingthe'YeWearieWayfarer'sequence.In1867hemovedtoBallarat,whereheinvestedinaliverystable.Itcollapsed,andhereturnedtotheracing
saddle,sufferingsev

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eralaccidents.InJune1870helearnedthathisclaimtothepropertyoftheGordonsofEsslemont,Aberdeenshire,wasinvalidinScottishlaw.Afewdayslater,with
copiesofhisnextcollectionreadyforrelease,buthavingnomoneytopaytheprinter'sbill,heshothimself.BushBalladsandGallopingRhymes(1870)isthework
ofanaccomplishedballadistwhosenameflourishedforsomefiftyyearsandwhosebusthasstoodinPoet'sCorner,WestminsterAbbey,since1934.Hissignificance
asagenuineAustralianpoetrestsnowononlyafewpoems,notably'ADedication','TheSickStockrider','TheSongoftheSurf','TheSwimmer',and'TheWreck'.
SeeGeoffreyHutton,AdamLindsayGordon:theManandtheMyth,1978BrianElliot,AdamLindsayGordon,1973(criticalstudywithexamples)Geoffrey
Hutton,AdamLindsayGordon,1996(criticalstudy).
Gordon,Caroline
seeTATE,ALLEN.
Gore,Catherine(17991861)
neMoody,Britishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninEastRetford,Nottinghamshire,theDaughterofawinemerchant,andwasregardedasaliteraryprodigyinher
youth.In1823shewasmarriedinafashionableLondonchurchtoanarmycaptain,whoretiredfromtheservicethatsameyear.Aftertwobooksofverse,she
publishedseveralnovels,butitwaswithWomenasTheyAre:or,TheMannersoftheDay(1830)thatshejoinedthenewlypopularized'silverfork'school,which
aimedtoportrayfashionableliferealistically.PinMoney(1831),theoutcomeofwhichturnsonthearrangementswherebyawifepaysherownbills,was,sheclaims,
anattempt'totransferthefamiliarnarrativeofMissAustentoahighersociety'andwas'addressedbyawomantoreadersofherownsex'.ThefamilylivedinFrance
forsomeyearsfrom1832,butshekeptupherprolificoutput,totheextentthatCecil:or,TheAdventuresofaCoxcomb(1841),regardedasherbestnovel,was
publishedanonymouslyincaseshewasthoughttobeoverwriting,andbecauseGreville:or,ASeasoninParis(1841)appearedthesameweek.TheBanker's
Wife:or,CourtandCity(1843),featuringacorruptfinancier,wassadlyprophetic,asin1855thebankofwhichherguardianwasapartnercrashed,andshelost
20,000.Herfirstplay,TheSchoolforCoquettes,ransuccessfullyin1831.Herlast,QuidproQuo:or,TheDayoftheDupes(1844),wonaprizeof500foran
originalEnglishcomedy.Latterlyshelosthersightandlivedinseclusion,havingwrittensomesixtynovelsand12plays.ShediedinHampshire,survivedbyonlytwo
ofhertenchildren.
Gorky,Maxim,pennameofAlexeiMaximovichPeshkov(18681936)
Russiannovelist,dramatist,andsocialandpoliticalagitator,wasborninNizhnyNovgorod(nowGorky).Afterthedeathofhisfather,acarpenter,fromcholerain
1871,helivedwithhismotherinhisgrandparents'home.Whenshetoodied,hewasattheageof11,afterjustayear'selementaryeducation,sentouttowork.After
briefspellswithabootmakerandadraughtsman,heranawaytotheriverboats.Hereturnedforatime,andthenroamedthecountryonfoot,absorbingtheprevailing
atmosphereofsuffering,barbarity,stoicalpatience,andjocularity,and,afteranattemptatsuicide,finallycametotermswithhimself.Hisexperiencesand
observations,firedbyhisvoraciousreading,resurfacedinliteraryforms:asstories,manyofwhichfirstappearedintheNizhnyNovgorodnewspaperforwhichhe
workedforatimeasplays,ofwhichthesecond,[TheLowerDepths](1902),wassuccessfullyperformedattheMoscowArtTheatreandasnovels,including
FomaGordeyev(1899),inwhichtheprotagonistofthetitlerejectsthebourgeoissocietyofhisbirth.SuchworksappearedinEnglishevenbeforehisrevolutionary
activitiesresultedinhisarrestin1905andhissubsequentreleaseastheresultofapetitionbypoliticiansandwriters.HetravelledtotheUSA,wherehehadamixed
reception,attackedtheprevalenceofcapitalism,andwrote[Mother](1906tr.1907inBritaintr.asComrades,1907),anovelofsocialrealismwhichcameto
typifythedoctrineofSocialistRealism.HewentontoCapri,andafterthegeneralamnestyin1913returnedtoRussia,whereheengagedinpoliticalandliterary
journalismuntilillhealthforcedhimintosemiretirementinItalyin1921.Hereturnedagainin1928,toplayanenigmaticpartinthedevelopmentofliteratureunder
CommunismandofCommunismitself.Heissaidtohavebeenpoisonedbypoliticaladversaries.HismostlastingworkinEnglishishisthreevolumeautobiography
(191322tr.RonaldWilksasMyChildhood,1966,MyApprenticeship,1974,andMyUniversities,1979).SeeHenriTroyat,Gorky,tr.LowellBair,1994
(biography).
Gosse,(Sir)Edmund(18491928)
Britishcritic,wasborninHackney,London,theonlychildofPhilipGosse(181088),thefundamentalistwriteronzoology.Afterhismother'sdeathin1857,hewent
withhisfathertoDevon,wherehewaseducatedatlocalschools.TheconflictbetweenthegenerationsinflictedbyhisrestrictedupbringingisexploredinFatherand
Son:aStudyofTwoTemperaments(1907).HebecamealibraryassistantintheBritishMuseumin1865,andrespondedtohisnewintellectualfreedombystudying
languagesaswellasliterature,andbyengineeringmeetingswithnotablewriters.Hewasalsowritingverse,ofanaccomplishedbutunoriginalkindseeThe
CollectedPoems(1911).In1871hereturnedfromaNorwegiantripwithacopyofanewplay

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byIBSEN,astudyofwhich(withtheaidofadictionary)ledtoanumberofarticleswhichbroughtthedramatisttothenoticeofBritishcriticsandthepublic.In1875he
becameatranslatortotheBoardofTrade.AfterthepublicationofSeventeenthCenturyStudies(1883)heembarkedonanextensiverangeofcriticaland
biographicalstudiesofTHOMASGRAY(1884),CONGREVE(1888),PATMORE(1905),THOMASBROWNE(1905),andSWINBURNE(1917),amongothers,ofwhichTheLifeand
LettersofDrJohnDonne(1899)wasaparticularlysignificantdevelopmentincriticism.AfteranAmericanlecturetourin1855hebecameClarkLecturerinEnglish
LiteratureatTrinityCollege,Cambridge,whereherepeatedhisAmericanlecturesandpublishedthemasFromShakespearetoPope(1885),theaccuracyofwhich
was,quitecorrectly,questionedinthecriticalpress.HewasLibrariantotheHouseofLords190414,andin1918beganaregularcolumnintheSundayTimes.He
wasknightedin1925,andwasawardedpublichonoursalsobyNorway,Sweden,Denmark,andFranceforhisservicestoliterature.SeeAnnThwaite,Edmund
Gosse:aLiteraryLandscape,newedn1985(biography).
GottfriedVonStrassburg(fl.c.1200)
Germanpoet,theauthorofTristan,wasprobablyamemberoftheurbanupperclassandmayhaveservedinthelocaltownorepiscopalsecretariat.Hewascertainly
educatedintheology,rhetoric,andlaw,andwaswellversedinclassicalaswellasFrenchandGermanliterature.Hisunfinishednarrativepoeminrhymingcoupletsis
theultimateaccountofthelovestoryofTristanandIsolde,whichresurfacesinMALORY,andanexplorationofphilosophical,social,andreligiousissuesofthetime,as
wellasanintricatelywroughtworkofpoetry.HisprincipalsourcewastheAngloNormanTristranpoem(c.1170)ofThomasofBritain,ofwhichthediscoveryofa
furtherfragmentwasannouncedin1995.SeeTristan,withtheSurvivingFragmentsofthe'Tristan'ofThomas,tr.A.T.Hatto,1960.
Gower,John(c.13301408)
Englishpoet,wasofalandedfamilyandprobablyspentmuchofhisearlylifeinKent,wherehelaterinvestedinrealestate.Hewascloselyassociatedwiththeroyal
court,butfrom1377untilhisdeathlivedinlodgingsinthePrioryofStMaryOvereyinSouthwark.HewasafriendofCHAUCER(whosaddledhimwiththetitle'moral
Gower'),butlatterlytheyappeartohavefallenout.Mirourdel'omme[MirrorofMan]itsLatintitleisSpeculumMeditantisisalongexhortationaboutsin,
writteninthelate1370sinAngloFrench,theupperclassandcourtlanguageofthetime.HethenbeganVoxClamantis[TheVoiceofOneCrying...],acritiqueof
corruptionatalllevelsofsociety,includingtheclergy,writteninLatinelegiacs,towhichheaddedanintroductorybookcitingthePeasants'Revoltof1381as
justificationofhisarguments.InConfessioAmantis[TheLover'sConfession],writtenbetween1386and1390inEnglishoctosyllabiccouplets,hetakesamore
relaxedtone.Toomuchmoralizing,hesays,oftendullsaman'swits,so'Iwoldegothemiddelweie/Andwryteabokbetweenthetweie,/Somwhatoflust,
somewhatoflove...'.The'love'involvesanalysingeachoftheSevenDeadlySinsinfiveways,whilethe'lust'(orpleasure)isinthewrydialoguebetweenthelover
andhisconfessor,andinthestorieswhichthepoetretellsfrommanysources.SeeJ.H.Fisher,JohnGower:MoralPhilosopherandFriendofChaucer,1964
andinC.S.Lewis,TheAllegoryofLove,newedn1977.
Grafton,Richard
seeHOLINSHED.
Graham,Ennis
seeMOLESWORTH.
Graham,James
seeMONTROSE.
Graham,R(obert)B(ontine)Cunninghame(18521936)
Scottishprosewriterandtraveller,wasborninLondon,oftheancientlinesoftheCunninghams,earlsofGlencairn,andtheGrahams,earlsofMenteith.His
grandfatherwasthesongwriterRobertGraham(c.173597),andhisfatherwasaScottishlandowner,towhoseestateshesucceededin1883.Aftertwoyearsat
HarrowandayearataprivateschoolinBrussels,hemadethefirstofseveraltripstoSouthAmerica,whereherodewithgauchosandwasknownas'DonRoberto',
thenamegiveninhishonourafterhisdeathtoanewcityinArgentina.HewasLiberalMPforNorthWestLanarkshire188692in1888hefoundedwithKeir
Hardie(18561915)theScottishLabourParty,ofwhichhewasthefirstPresident.MogrebelAcksa:aJourneyinMorocco(1898)isanaccountofahazardous
expedition,andhealsowroteLatinAmericanhistoricalandbiographicalstudies.HisfirstcollectionofstoriesandsketcheswasTheIpan(1899).Furthervolumes,
notablySuccess(1902),inwhichthemuchanthologized'BeattockforMoffat'firstappeared,Faith(1909),Hope(1910),andCharity(1912),reflectedthebreadth
ofhistravelsandthedepthofhisinsightintothehumancondition,aswellashisunderstandingoftheScottishcharacter.Hewasafoundermemberandin1928the
firstPresidentoftheScottishNationalParty,whichwithhisliterarytalentandassociationsqualifyhimtobeaninstigatoroftheScottishRenaissance.Hemarriedthe
Chileanpoet,GabrieladelaBalmondire(d.1906)andisburiedbesideherintheruinsofInchmahomePrioryintheLakeofMenteith.SeeCedricWattsand
LawrenceDavies,

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CunninghameGraham:aCriticalBiography,1979.
Graham,W(illiam),S(ydney)(191886)
Scottishpoet,wasborninGreenockandeducatedatGreenockHighSchool,whichheleftearlytotrainasanengineer.Thereafter,apartfromayearatNewbattle
AbbeyCollege,hespentmostofhislifeinCornwall.AScottishpoetwritinginEnglish,whoseearlywork,firstpublishedinCageWithoutGrievance(1942),was
goodenoughtobecomparedinsomerespectsto,andthussufferfromanyaffinitieswith,thatofHOPKINS,JOYCE,andDYLANTHOMAS,hedeveloped,throughhis
preoccupationwiththepoemasaonewaymediumofcommunication,aclarityoflanguageandintensityofvoicewhichareconsistentlymusical.Thesequalitieswere
readilyapparentinTheWhiteThreshold(1949)andTheNightfishing(1955).Hismainthemesaretheseainallitsaspectsandmoods,hischildhood(as'Loch
Thom'and'ToAlexanderGraham'),theprocessofmakingpoetryitself(as'WhatIsLanguageUsingUsFor?'),andlove,bothyouthfulandmature(as'AliceWhere
ArtThou'and'ILeaveThisatYourEar').SeeCollectedPoems19421977,1979UncollectedPoems,1990SelectedPoems,1996TonyLopez,ThePoetry
ofW.S.Graham,1990.
Grahame,Kenneth(18591932)
Britishessayistandchildren'snovelist,wasborninEdinburghofafamilywithanancientScottishheritage,thesonofabarrister.Whenhismotherdiedofscarletfever
in1863,hisfather,unabletocopewithfourchildren,packedthemofftolivewiththeirgrandmotheratCookhamDean,Berkshire,andthenCranbourne.Hewas
educatedatStEdward'sSchool,Oxford,butinsteadofgoingontoOxfordUniversity,relativesinsistedhebecameaclerkintheBankofEngland.(Tocompensate
forhisdisappointment,onhisdeathhelefttheresidueofhisestate,includingallhisroyalties,totheBodleianLibrary,whichstillusestheincometobuyrarebooksand
manuscripts,andtofinanceitsownpublications.)HeremainedattheBankofEnglanduntilhisretirementfromillhealthin1908,havingbecomeSecretaryin1898,
andsurvivedalethalboutofpneumoniain1899andashotfromamadman'sgunin1903.HisliteraryaspirationswereencouragedbyHENLEY,whofirstpublishedhis
essaysandsketches.PaganPapers(1894)reprintedsomeoftheseandwaswellreceived.TheGoldenAge(1895)andDreamDays(1898),inwhichisthe
hilariousfairytale'TheReluctantDragon',arecollectionsofstoriesandimpressionsofchildhood,largelybasedonidyllicrecollectionsofCookhamandCranbourne.
TheyweremuchadmiredbyareadershipaswidelyspreadasSWINBURNEandTheodoreRoosevelt(18581919).
In1899,hithertoaconfirmedbachelor,Grahamemarriedason,Alastair,wasbornthefollowingyear.TheWindintheWillows(1908),inspiredbytheriverand
woodbyCookhamDean,towhichtheyhadmoved,waswrittenforAlastair.Bycontrastwiththeearlierbooks,theprotagonistsareanimals,buttheyareso
precisely,sympathetically,andconsistentlydrawn,withoutanylossoftheiressentialanimalcharacteristics,thatthestorycanbeenjoyedatseverallevels.Certainly
Roosevelt,nowPresidentoftheUSA,thoughtso,andwrotetoGrahamefromtheWhiteHousetotellhimthis.Whether'Toad,themotorcarsnatcher,theprison
breaker,theToadwhoalwaysescapes'wasspecificallycreatedtomakehisoverbumptioussonawareofhisfault,orwhetherheisanimaginativeextensionofthe
outwardlyquiet,respectablepublicservant,theincorrigibleToadendsthebookonlymoderatelydeflated.Alastairdiedonarailwaylinewhileanundergraduateat
Oxford.HisparentsmovedtoPangbourne,wheretheylivedinseclusion,fromwhichtheyemergedtoseeMILNE'Sstageadaptationofthebook,ToadofToadHall,in
1929.SeePeterGreen,KennethGrahame:aStudyofHisLife,WorkandTimes,1959AlisonPrince,KennethGrahame:anInnocentintheWildWood,new
edn1996(biography).
Grant,Ann(ofLaggan)(17551838)
neMacVicar,Scottishprosewriter,wasborninGlasgow,thedaughterofafarmerwhojoinedtheArmyandwaspostedtoNorthAmerica.In1773hewas
appointedbarrackmasteratFortAugustus,Invernessshire,wherein1779Annmarriedthegarrisonchaplain,whowasMinisteroftheparishofLaggannearby.He
diedsuddenlyin1801,leavingherwitheightchildrentosupport.PoemsonVariousSubjects(1803)elicitedthreethousandsubscribers.Lettersfromthe
Mountains(1803),aselectionfromhercorrespondenceofsomethirtyyears,wasinfluentialinthatitprovidedauthenticbackinganddetailtocomplementthe
romanticimageoftheHighlandswhichMACPHERSONhadinstigatedandWALTERSCOTTwouldshortlyoffer.In1810shemovedtoEdinburgh,whereshetookinlodgers,
mixedwiththeliteraryset,andwroteEssaysontheSuperstitionsoftheHighlandsofScotland(1811).In1825Scottwasinstrumentalingettingherapension,half
ofwhichwasthenassignedtosomeoneelse.MrsGrant,'proudasaHighlandwoman,vainasapoetess,andabsurdasabluestocking',objectedtothedivision,but
wasprevaileduponto'takeherpudding',asScottrecalls.Shewasalivelycriticofcontemporaryliteratureaswellasofmanners.Inanunpublishedlettertoafriendin
1812,shecomments:'TheseLakePoetswho''worshipundereverygreentree",andburnincenseonthehighplacesofSkiddawworshipnaturein

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anidolatrousandmostunnaturalmanner....IhavebeentoldthatSoutheywhonowgoestoChurch,usedformerlytogonearthetopofSkiddawinsummertime
andthereskipanddanceaboutundertheideathatthentheDeityishonouredandgivesasareasonthattheinferioranimalsinthismannerexpresstheirjoy.'
GranvilleBarker,Harley
seeIBSENSHAW,GEORGEBERNARD.
Grass,Gnter(b.1927)
Germannovelist,poet,anddramatist,wasborninDanzig(nowGdansk,Poland),thesonofagrocer,andwasstillatthelocalgymnasiumwhenheservedasananti
aircraftgunnerinWorldWarII.Conscriptedintothearmy,hewaswoundedduringtheRussianadvanceandendedthewarinanAmericanprisonerofwarcamp.
Afterabriefapprenticeshiptoastonecarver,hetooksculptureandpaintingatDusseldorfArtAcademy,resuminghisstudiesinBerlinaftertwoyearsoftravelin
FranceandItalyhisworkwasexhibitedinStuttgartandBerlinin195657.Apoemsubmittedbyhiswifetoabroadcastingcompetitionin1955wonthirdprizeand
ledtoamodestcollectionofverseandprose(1956).Frompoetrybasedondialoguetowritingdramawasanaturaltransition.Between1954and1957hecomposed
severalplaysinthetraditionoftheTheatreoftheAbsurdseeFourPlays,tr.RalphManheim,introductionbyMartinEsslin,1967.Asimilarviewofthe
contemporaryworldashavingnomeaning,purpose,orcoordinatingprinciplesinformsthesequenceofpicaresquenovelswhichbeginsinLangfuhr(Danzig)three
yearsbeforehewasbornDieBlechtrommel(1959asTheTinDrum,1962),KatzundMaus(1961asCatandMouse,1963),andHundejahre(1963as
DogYears,1965),alltr.Manheim.Acommittedsocialist,hecampaignedvigorouslyduringthe1960sfortheSocialDemocraticParty,forwhoseleader,Willy
Brandt(191392),hewrotespeeches.InDerButt(1977tr.ManheimasTheFlounder,1978)heextendedthecanvasoftheDanzigtrilogytomakethewholeof
Germanhistorythebackgroundtohisimaginativecomment.DerUnkenrufe(1992tr.ManheimasTheCalloftheToad,1992)beginsafewdaysbeforethe
crumblingoftheBerlinWallin1989,andpresents,againstadocumentarybackgroundoftopicalevents,asymbolicstudyofthefailingsofmodernpolitical
entrepreneurshipwhicharemirroredinthestoryofamiddleageromance.HisverseisinSelectedPoems,tr.MichaelHamburgerandChristopherMiddleton
(1980).
Graves,Robert(vonRanke)(18951985)
Britishpoet,novelist,translator,classicist,critic,andunorthodoxmythologistandbiblicalscholar,wasborninWimbledon,London.Hisfather,AlfredPercevalGraves
(18461931),wasanAngloIrishpoetandsongwriteronhismother'ssidehewasagreatnephewofLeopoldvonRanke(17951886),theGermanhistorian.He
waseducatedatCharterhouse,enlistedintheRoyalWelchFusiliersattheoutbreakofWorldWarI,andwasbadlywoundedontheSomme.Afterthewarhewent
uptoStJohn'sCollege,Oxford,andthoughillnesspreventedhistakinghisdegree,hewasawardedthatofBLittforhisthesis,PoeticUnreasonandOtherStudies
(1925).InGoodbyetoAllThat(1929),oneofthebestofallautobiographicalstudies,herecordshislifeatschool,atthefront,andasastrugglingwriterhis
father'sToReturntoAllThat(1930)isinpartanautobiographicalreply.HisothermostseminalproseworkisTheWhiteGoddess:aHistoricalGrammarof
PoeticMyth(1948rev.edn1966),atreatmentofmythologyinwhichheascribesthepoet'simpulsetoanancientmatriarchalpresence,whorecursfigurativelyasthe
opponentofChristinhisnovelKingJesus(1946).TheimpetusforhismythologicalthinkingcamefromW.H.R.Rivers(18641922),authorofMedicine,Magic,
andReligion(1924),whowasthepsychologistwhotreatedSASSOONforhiswartimebreakdown.Graves'sI,Claudius(1934)andClaudiustheGodandHisWife
Messalina(1934)rankasthebesthistoricalnovelsoftheRomanperiodtheirtimelyappearanceasatelevisiondramaseriesin1975savedtheauthorfromfinancial
embarrassment.
Graveslargelyrejectedthepoetryofhisexperiencesinthewarandimmediatelyafterit,tocometostandpreeminentasapoetofromanticandsexuallove,whose
skilfullyhonedworkhasanunderlyingtension,oftenheightenedbysupernaturalelements.AmonghiscriticismisOnPoetry:CollectedTalksandEssays(1969).He
separatedfromhisfirstwifein1929(theyweredivorcedin1949),andmaintainedamnageinMajorcawiththeAmericanpoet,LauraRiding(190191),aftershe
hadthrownherselfoutofthewindowoftheir4thfloorLondonflatinpiqueatbeingrejectedbyanotherman.Therelationshipprovedcreativelybeneficialtothem
both,andlasteduntilshelefthimin1939foranAmericancritic.Ofher,Gravessaid:'Sheislikeagreatnaturalfactlikefireortreesorsnowandeitherone
appreciatesheroronedoesn't'seeDeborahBaker,InExtremis:theLifeofLauraRiding(1993).HethenwenttolivewithBerylPritchard(theymarriedin
1950).TheyreturnedafterWorldWarIItosettlepermanentlyinMajorca,whereBerylwasexpectedtowelcomethesequenceofregenerativeyoungmuseswho
attendedtohispsychologicalandcreativewellbeing.HewasProfessorofPoetryatOxford196166.SeeCompletePoemsVol.1,ed.BerylGravesandDunstan
Ward,1995TheCentenarySelectedPoems,ed.PatrickQuinn,1995

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CompleteShortStories,ed.LuciaGraves,1996CollectedWritingsonPoetry,ed.PaulO'Prey,1995RichardPercevalGraves,RobertGraves:Vol.IThe
AssaultHeroic18951926,newedn1995,Vol.2TheYearswithLaura19261940,newedn1995,Vol.3AndtheWhiteGoddess19401985,newedn1996
MirandaSeymour,RobertGraves:LifeontheEdge,newedn1997(biography)MartinSeymourSmith,RobertGraves:HisLifeandWork,2ndedn1995.
Gray,Alasdair(b.1934)
Scottishnovelist,wasborninGlasgow,thesonof'aworkingclassbloke,ajourneymanblacksmith.HewasaFabianstylesocialistwhoreadthecompleteworksof
Lenin,andalsothecompleteworksofShaw,whichIcametolike.'HewaseducatedatWhitehillSeniorSecondarySchool,wherehewasencouragedtowrite,and
atGlasgowSchoolofArt,fromwhichhewonatravellingscholarship.Hetaughtartforthreeyears,andthenbecameascenepainter,beforegoingfreelancein1963.
HismuralsdecorateGlasgowrestaurants,andin197677hewastheofficialpainteroflocaldignitariesforthePeople'sPalaceMuseum.Atthesametimehewas
writingplaysforthelocalstage,andforradioandtelevision,whilecontinuingtoworkonanovelwhichhehadbegunwhenhewas18.Lanark:aLifeinFourBooks
wasfinallypublishedin1981.Thisstrangeinterminglingoffantasyandnaturalism,highandlowcomedy,andliteraryjokesisattheveryleastanoutstandingoriginal
work.ItalsoreflectsthetraditionalScottishliterarydichotomyofconcernforandalsointoleranceatsomuchofwhattheScotsstandfor.In1982,Janine(1984)and
SomethingLeather(1990)theinventivenessismorebizarre,thoughthelatterintroducestheadmirabletacticofrepresentingphoneticallynotthedialectofGlasgow,
aswouldbetheusualpractice,butthestandardspeechofitsEnglishcharacters.PoorThings:EpisodesfromtheEarlyLifeofArchibaldMcCandlessMD,
ScottishPublicHealthOfficer(1992),lavishlyillustratedbytheauthor,managestobeliterarypastiche,sexualsatire,Glasgowsocialhistory,andfeministparable.In
AHistoryMaker(1994)thefantasticissetagainstabackgroundof23rdcenturyScotlandinwhichwarhasbecomeastylizedtelevisionsport.SeeRobertCrawford
andThomNairn(eds),TheArtsofAlasdairGray,1991.
Gray,Thomas(171671)
Britishpoet,wasborninLondon,thesonofabadtemperedscrivener,andeducated,thankstohismother,atEtonandPeterhouse,Cambridge,thoughhedidnot
takehisdegreeinlawuntilsomeyearslater,havinginthemeantimetravelledinEuropewithhisschoolfriend,HORACEWALPOLE.Hepreferredtostudyratherthan
practiselawandformostofhislifelivedinCambridge,beingappointedProfessorofModernHistoryin1768,thoughhenevergavealecture.Heremovedhis
lodgingsfromPeterhousetoPembrokeHallin1756afterundergraduateshadplacedatubofwaterunderhiswindowandraisedthefirealarm.Gray,whohada
pathologicalfearoffire,shinneddownhispersonalropeladder,andintothetub!Reservedandshy,heemphaticallyrefusedthePoetLaureateshipin1757,andhis
outputreflectshiscontemplativeandfastidiousnature.OdeonaDistantProspectofEtonCollegewaspublishedanonymouslyin1747.HeworkedonAnElegy
WroteinaCountryChurchyard(1751)fornineyearsandittoowasfirstpublishedanonymously,asapamphlet,afterthepoethadrefusedpermissionforittobe
printedinamagazine.Itsoutstandingplacein18thcenturypoetryhasbeenmagnifiedbyitsdowntoearthappeal,anditslastingpopularityensuredbythefamiliar
quotationsenshrinedinit.PoemsbyMrGray(1768)includedtheseandthemockheroic'Ode,ontheDeathofaFavouriteCat',withsevenpoemswhichillustrate
hisabsorptionwithGreek,Celtic,andNorsestudies.SeeRogerLonsdale(ed.),ThePoemsofThomasGray,WilliamCollins,OliverGoldsmith,newedn1976
andinDavidCecil,TwoQuietLives,newedn1989(withDOROTHYOSBORNE).
Green,Henry,pseudonymofHenryVincentYorke(190573)
Britishnovelist,wasbornatForthamptonCourt,Gloucestershire.WhilehewasatEtonhebegananovel,Blindness(1926),whichapartfromitsmaturityasan
originalpieceofworkwasunusualforafirstnovelinthatitsthemehasnoautobiographicalbasis.HedidnotcompletehistimeatMagdalenCollege,Oxford,being
persuadedbyhisparentstoenterthefamilyengineeringfirminBirmingham,H.PontifexandSonsheusedhisapprenticeshipontheshopfloorinLiving(1929).In
hisnextnovel,PartyGoing(1939),hisstylebecamemoreidiosyncraticandsymbolic.DuringWorldWarHheservedintheLondonFireService,usinghis
experiencesinCaught(1943).By1950,theyearinwhichNothing,hiseighthnovel,waspublished,hehadbecomeacclaimedintheUSAaswellasbycriticsin
Britainasanexperimental,comicnovelist,butindispensinglargelywithnarrativeandcomment,aswellaswithdefiniteandindefinitearticles,hehadalsobecome
increasinglyabstract.Doting(1952)washislastwork.In1959heresignedfrommanagingtheaffairsofthefirm,whichhehaddonefromitsLondonoffice,and
deterioratedintoapathetic,reclusivephysicalstate,inwhichhespenthislasttwentyyears.Amanwhosereticenceandconventionalappearanceandviewsbeliedthe
adventurousnessofhiswriting,healwaysrefusedtobephotographedinpublicexceptfrombehind.SeePackMyBag:aSelfPortrait,newedn1994
(autobiographyto1939)Surviving:theUncollectedWritings,ed.MatthewYorke,newedn

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1994RodMengham,TheIdiomoftheTime:theWritingsofHenryGreen,1983.
Greene,Graham(190491)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninBerkhamsted,Hertfordshire,andeducatedatBerkhamstedSchool(ofwhichhisfatherbecame
Headmasterin1910)andBalliolCollege,Oxford.Whilehewasatschoolhewrotepoetry,stories(oneofwhichwaspublishedintheStar),andaplay,whichwas
acceptedbyadramaticsocietybutneverperformed.VerseswrittenatOxford,byhisownaccountmainlyinspiredbyloveforhissisters'governess,werepublishedin
variousjournals,intheOxfordOutlook,whichheedited,andinbookformasBabblingApril(1925).WhenhebecameengagedtoaCatholic,hedecidedto
discovermoreaboutherbeliefsandasaresultwashimselfconvertedin1926,theyearbeforetheymarried.AfterworkingunpaidfortheNottinghamJournal,he
joinedTheTimesasasubeditorin1926,whichheregardsashavingbeenaformativeexperienceforanovelist.Aftermanyfalsestartsandtherejectionofadetective
story,hegottheideaforanewnovelwhileinhospitalrecoveringfromanappendectomy.Hefinisheditanditwasaccepted.TheManWithin(1929)isahistorical
romancewithGothicfeatures,whosepursuitthemerecursindifferentformsinallhissubsequentnovels,whetherthecharacteristryingtorunawayfromsociety,the
police,hisownconscience,orGod.Emboldenedbyitssuccess,hepersuadedthepublishertoadvancehimmoneyagainsttwofurthernovels,andhethrewuphisjob.
Herelates,'Isometimesfindmyselfwishingthat,beforestartingmysecondnovel...Ihadfoundanexperiencedmentor.'Thetwonovels,inmuchthesameveinas
hisfirst,werefinancialfailuresandhelatersuppressedthem.Indebtandindistress,havingwastedtimebywritingabiographyofROCHESTERwhichhispublisher
rejected(itwasfinallypublishedin1974),hestartedathriller.StamboulTrain(1932)waspublishedonlyafterchangesweremadetotheprintedcopiesunderthe
threatofalibelactionfromPRIESTLEY,whomhehadnevermet.Itwasapopularsuccess,andhisreputation,andwayofliving,wereestablished.
Inhisearlyautobiography,ASortofLife(1971),Greenewrites:'IfIweretochooseanepigraphforallthenovelsIhavewritten,itwouldbefrom[ROBERT
BROWNING'S]"BishopBlougram'sApology":"Ourinterest'sinthedangerousedgeofthings./Thehonestthief,thetendermurderer..../Wewatchwhilethesein
equilibiriumkeep/Thegiddylinemidway".'Hewashimselfnostrangertopersonaldanger,aswitnessJourneyWithoutMaps(1936),anaccountofatripthrough
Liberia.Theinveteratetravellerinhim(areflectionalsoofhissolitarynature)isrevealedintheforeignandoftenexoticsettingsofmanyofhisnovels:MexicoforThe
PowerandtheGlory(1940)SierraLeone(wherehewasasecretagentfortheForeignOfficeinWorldWarII)forTheHeartoftheMatter(1948)Vietnamfor
TheQuietAmerican(1955)CubaforOurManinHavana(1958)alepercolonyintheCongoforABurntOutCase(1961)HaitiforTheComedians(1966)
ArgentinaforTheHonoraryConsul(1973).ThepriestwhoisthesubjectofhisengagingclericalcomedysetalongthebywaysofSpain,MonsignorQuixote
(1982),bearsacloseresemblancetoGreene'sfriendandconfessor,FatherLeopoldoDuran,authorofaflatteringmemoir,GrahamGreene:FriendandBrother
(tr.EuanCameron,1994).Alsosignificantisthejournalisticinstinctwhichenabledhimtoselectsituationsoftopicalinterest,asensefurtheraffirmedbyhis
controversialpamphlet,J'Accuse:theDarkSideofNice(1982).Violence,suspense,ormereuneasearealwaysbelowthesurfaceofhisEnglishnovels,too,suchas
EnglandMadeMe(1935),AGunforSale(1936),andTheEndoftheAffair(1951).TheCatholicelementinhisnovels,whichwasfirstevidentinBrightonRock
(1938)andisacentralconcerninTheHeartoftheMatter,servesasanaturalconcomitanttotheactionratherthanasanexpressionofaparticularmessage.His
spiritualconvictionsandpersonalloyaltiesaremoremanifestintheparadoxesofhisprivatelifeandinhispublicimage(latterlyheadvocatedareconciliationof
CatholicismwithCommunism).
IntheintroductiontoCollectedStories(1972)Greenerelateshissurpriseatrealizing'thatsincethebeginningIhavereallybeenallthetimeawriterofshortstories',
andtheseexamplesofadifferentapproachtothatwhichheemployedasanovelistincludesomeofhisrare,andlate,excursionsintohumourinwhathecalls
'comediesofthesexuallife'.Ofhisplays,TheLivingRoom(1953)treatsofdespairinCatholicterms,ThePottingShed(1957)isadramawithaspiritualsolution,
andTheComplaisantLover(1959),outwardlyacomedy,hasmelancholicundertonesseeTheCollectedPlaysofGrahamGreene(1985).Reflections,ed.
JudithAdamson(1990),acollectionofhisjournalism,includesstudiesofauthors.ArticleshewrotefortheSpectatorandelsewhereareinMorningsintheDark:
theGrahamGreeneFilmReader,ed.DavidParkinson(1993)andpubliccorrespondenceinYoursetc:LetterstothePress19451989,ed.Christopher
Hawtree(1991)seealsoCollectedEssays(1969).AWorldofMyOwn:aDreamDiary,editedbyYvonneCloeta,thelastandmostfaithfulofhisseveral
mistresses,isanintriguingcollectionofaccountsofhisdreams.HewasmadeCHin1966andawardedtheOMin1986.SeeFragmentsofAutobiography:ASort
ofLife,WaysofEscape,1991Reflections19231988,1990NormanSherry,TheLifeofGrahamGreene:VolumeOne,190439,newedn1996,Volume
Two,

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19391955,newedn1996MichaelShelden,GrahamGreene:theEnemyWithin,1995(biography)GrahameSmith.TheAchievementofGrahamGreene,
1985PaulO'Prey,AReader'sGuidetoGrahamGreene,newedn1990PeterMudford,GrahamGreene,1996(criticalintroduction).
Greene,Robert(155892)
Englishdramatist,prosefictionwriter,andjournalist,wasborninNorwichandeducatedatStJohn'sCollege,Cambridge,asasizar,takingaseconddegree,in
medicine,atClareHallin1583,andbeingawardedafurtherdegreeatOxfordin1588.NASHEwrote,'Debtanddeadlysinne,whoisnotsubjectto?withany
notoriouscrimeIneverknewhimtainted...hisonlycarewastohaveaspelinhispursetoconjureupagoodcuppeofwinewithatalltimes.'Greenewrotefast,and
oftencarelessly,forthemoney.HisprecisepositionintimemakeshimaninnovatoroncehehadsurvivedhisEuphuisticphase,whichbeganwithMamillia(1580),a
romanceinthestyleofLYLYpopularsuccesseswerePandosto,theTriumphofTime(1588)andCiceronisAmor(1589),alsoknownasTully'sLove.In1591he
publishedthefirstofhistopicalpamphlets,writtenintheforthrightidiomoftheday,aboutthegrowingmenaceofthepettycriminal,ANotableDiscoveryof
Cozenage.ItwasshortlyfollowedbyTheSecondPartofConycatchingandThirdandlastPart...,byADisputationbetweenaHeeConycatcheranda
SheeConycatcher,byQuippeforanUpstartCourtier,andbyTheBlackeBookesMessenger.Fortheseheemployedavarietyofforms:didacticfiction,debate
bypractitioners,fictionalbiography,andallegory,interspersedwithinallaboutthirtyfiveindividualtalesoranecdotes.
Greene'sGroatsworthofWitteBoughtwithaMillionofRepentance(1592),apointedlyautobiographicalprodigalsonstory,muchofitwrittenduringhisfinal
illness,towardstheendbreaksintothewarningtohisliterarycontemporariesinwhichappearsthefirstreferencetoSHAKESPEAREasadramatist.Hisknown
contributiontothestageisahandfulofcomedies,ofwhichthemostnotableareTheHonorableHistorieoffrierBaconandfrierBongay(printed1594)andThe
ScottishHistorieofJamestheFourth(1598).Inbothofthese,history,romance,andthesupernaturalarecleverlycombinedandpresentedwithrealismandhumour
inblankversewhichisattimesmostfelicitous.Hislyricalpoems,mostoftheminsertedintohisproseworks,haveagracefulanddistinctivecharm.Greenediedin
povertyamonthafterdiningrathertooenthusiasticallyonRhenishwineandpickledherring,havingbeggedhisestrangedwifebylettertogive10totheshoemaker
whohadtakenhimin.SeeJohnClarkJordan,RobertGreene,newedn1965(criticalstudy).
Greer,Germaine(b.1939)
Australiancritic,wasborninMelbourneandeducatedattheStaroftheSeaConventandtheuniversitiesofMelbourne,Sydney,andCambridge.Shelecturedin
EnglishatWarwickUniversityfrom1967to1972.ShebecameaninternationalpersonalitywiththeAmericanpublicationin1971ofTheFemaleEunuch(1970),an
outspokenandrationalanalysisoffemalesexualstereotypeswhichbecameformanyatextbookontheliberationofwomen.Shesubsequentlydividedhertime
betweenEnglandandsouthernTuscany,withaninterludeintheUSA(197982)asFounderDirectoroftheTulsaCentrefortheStudyofWomen'sLiterature.
SubsequentpredominantlyfeministstudiesareTileObstacleRace(1979),aboutwomenandpaintingSexandDestiny:thePoliticsofHumanFertility(1984)
TheChange(1991),whicharguesforanacceptanceoftheenrichingandliberatingeffectofthemenopauseandSlipShodSibyls:Recognition,Rejectionandthe
WomanPoet(1995),astudyoftheattitudesofandtowardswomenpoetswhichincorporatessomeoriginalviewsonheterosexualloveinElizabethanpoetry.Other
worksincludeTheMadwoman'sUnderclothes:EssaysandOccasionalWriting19681985(1986)andDaddy,WeHardlyKnewYou(1989),aninvestigation
intotheidentityandfateofherfather.
Gregory,(IsabellaAugusta),Lady(18521932)
nePersse,Irishdramatist,prosewriter,andtranslator,wasborninRoxborough,Co.Galway,andwasprivatelyeducated.In1880shemarriedSirWilliamGregory
(181792),ofneighbouringCoolePark,formerGovernorofCeylon,whoencouragedherliterarycareer,whichopenedwithaseriesofpoliticalpamphlets.Another
influencewasBLUNT,withwhomshewastohaveapassionateromance.ShecollectedGalwayfolklore,whichinduecoursesheusedasthebasisofseveralbooks,
beginningwithABookofSaintsandWonders(1906).ShelearnedIrish,whichenabledhertoproducethreesignificantworksofIrishliterature,Cuchulainof
Muirthemne(1902),GodsandFightingMen(1904),andTheKiltartanPoetryBook:TranslationsfromtheIrish(1919).Kiltartanwasaneighbouringvillage,
andshebasedthedictionofhertranslationsontheEnglishofitsinhabitantssheevendidTheKiltartanMolire(1910).
AmeetingwithYEATSin1894beganalifelongfriendshipandacloseworkingrelationship.ItalsoledtothecreationoftheIrishLiteraryTheatreandthenoftheIrish
NationalDramaticSociety,andtothefoundationin1904oftheAbbeyTheatre,ofwhichshewasaworkingdirectoruntilherdeath.Attheageof50shebecamean
adeptwriterofoneactcomedies,tragicomediesbasedonfolklore,andtragedies,ofwhichthemostmemorableisDervorgilla(1907).Shemade

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CooleParkameetingplaceforIrishpeopleofletters,discoveredandencouragedthegeniusofO'CASEY,defendedtheworkofSYNGEandotherforwardlooking
writers,andfoughtforpoliticalandculturalcausesinwhichshebelieved.OneofhermosttenaciouscampaignswastotrytosecureforIrelandthecollectionofFrench
Impressionistpaintingswhichhernephew,thecollectorSirHughLane(18751915),hadlefttothenationbymeansofacodiciltohiswilltransferringthemfromthe
NationalGalleryinLondon.Thecodicilwasunwitnessed,hewasdrownedwhentheLusitaniawastorpedoed,andthepicturesremainedwheretheywere.See
SelectedWritings,ed.LucyMacDiarmidandMaureenWaters,1995LadyGregory'sDiaries18921902,ed.JamesPethica,1996TheCooleEditionofLady
Gregory'sWritings,ed.ColinSmytheandT.R.Henn,197082,whichincludes(Vol.XIII)theposthumousSeventyYears,1974(autobiography)MaryLou
Kohfeldt,LadyGregory:theWomanBehindtheIrishRenaissance,1985.
Greville,(Sir)Fulke(15541625)
Englishpoetandprosewriter,wasbornatthefamilyseatofBeauchampCourt,Warwickshire,andwaseducatedatShrewsburySchool,whichhejoinedonthesame
dayasSIDNEY,andatJesusCollege,Cambridge.In1577heandSidney,nowfirmfriendswithsharedliterarytastes,appearedatcourt,whereGreville,asdid
everyoneelse,fellinandoutoffavour,butwasoccasionallyallowedtogoabroad.HesatasMemberofParliamentforWarwickshireandtowardstheendof
ElizabethI'sreignbecameTreasureroftheNavy,apostheretainedontheaccessionofJamesI(VIofScotland)in1603,whenhewasknighted.In1614,now
elderlyintermsofthetimes,hewasappointedChancelloroftheTreasury,beingmade1stLordBrookeonhisretirementin1621.Theonlyworkpublishedduringhis
lifetime,andthatwithoutpermission,wasMustapha(1609),adarkclosetdramawithsomepowerfullines.'Caelica',asequenceoflyrics,appearedin1633inan
editionofhisearlyworks,inwhich,andinRemains(1670),themostinterestingpoemsareaseriesoftreatisesonphilosophicalsubjectssuchas'Monarchy'and
'Religion'.HismostfamousworkishisstudyofSidney,writtenafter1610andpublishedin1652.Itisnotsomuchabiographyasanappreciation,incorporatinghis
consideredviewsonthepoliticalandintellectualclimateoftheElizabethanageandonElizabethherself.Aservant,whohadbeenpassedoverinhiswill,stabbedhim
todeath,accordingtoAUBREYwhiledoinghimupafterhehadbeentothelavatory,andthenkilledhimself.Hecomposedhisownepitaphforhistomb:'FulkeGreville,
servanttoQueenElizabeth,councillortoKingJames,andfriendtoSirPhilipSidney.'SeeTheProseWorksofFulkeGreville,LordBrooke,ed.JohnGouws,
1986.
Grieve,ChristopherMurray(18721939)
Americannovelist,wasbornPearlZaneGrayinZanesville,Ohio,andchangedthespellingwhenhebegantousehismiddlenameinplaceofhisfirst,becausereaders
thoughthewasawoman.Destinedfordentistrybyhisfather,adoctor,heenteredtheUniversityofPennsylvaniaonabaseballscholarshipand,aftergraduatingin
1896,setupindentalpracticeinNewYorkCity.HavinghadBettyZane(1904),ahistoricalromanceoftheAmericanWarofIndependence,rejectedbynumerous
publishers,heborrowedmoneyfromapatientandpublishedithimself.Aftertwosequelshadappearedcommercially,heundertookafactfindingexplorationofthe
WestundertheguidanceofthelegendaryC.J.'Buffalo'Jones(18441918).TheHeritageoftheDesert(1910)wasamajorsuccess,andestablishedhisrecurrent
motifoftheWestasacharacterbuilder.RidersofthePurpleSage(1912),inwhichhecriticizesMormonismandextolstheperfectionoflovebetweenmanand
woman,wasthefirsttohaveamountainbackground.ThesixtywesternsthathepublishedduringhislifetimehavesettingsaswideapartasTexas,Arizona,Wyoming,
andWashington.TheincomefromthemenabledhimtoextendhisboyhoodpassionforanglingtobiggamefishingintheSouthPacifichewrotenumerousfishing
articlesandstories,collectedintosuchworksasTalesofFishingVirginSeas(1919)andTalesofFreshWaterFishing(1928).SeeCarltonJackson,ZaneGray,
1989(biographical/criticalstudy).
Grieve,ChristopherMurray
seeMACDIARMID.
Griffin,Gerald(180340)
Irishnovelist,dramatist,andpoet,wasborninLimerick,theseventhsonofabrewer,andwaseducatedlocally,havingweatheredachildishescapadeinwhichhis
youngersisterwasshotthroughboththighs.In1820hisparentsemigratedtoPennsylvaniaandhewenttoliveinAdarewithanelderbrother,adoctor.Having
alreadywrittentragediesandverse,hewenttoLondonin1823totryandearnaliving,inwhichhewasencouragedandhelpedbyJOHNBANIM.Aftersupportinghimself
precariouslybyhackwork,hepublishedHollandTide:or,MunsterPopularTales(1827)andTalesoftheMunsterFestivals(1827),whichattemptedtobe
'illustrativeofmannersandscenerypreciselyastheystandintheSouthofIreland'.Afurtherseriestooktheformofacompletenovel,TheCollegians:or,The
ColleenBawn:aTaleofGarryowen(1829),basedonanactualmurder.Writtentosatisfyhispublisher'sdemandforspeed(amessengercollectedeachday'sstint
afterbreakfasttotakeittotheprinter),itisnever

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thelessarichandsuccessfulembodimentofawholespectrumofIrishprovinciallifeinthe1770s,andthebasisofBOUCICAULT'STheColleenBawn.InTheRivalsand
Tracy'sAmbition,twodramaticrepresentationsofconflictsandissuesofthetimes,publishedtogetherin1830,amoralizingtoneemerges.Inthesameyearhe
contributedaseriesoftales'illustrativeofthefivesenses'totheChristianPhysiologist.TheonlyotherworkspublishedduringhislifetimewereTalesofMy
Neighbourhood(1835)andtworatherindigestiblehistoricalromances.Hehadalreadyspentatermstudyinglawasanalternativewayoflife.In1838hedestroyed
hismanuscriptsandjoinedtheteachingorderoftheChristianBrothersinDublin.HediedoftyphusatthemonasteryinCork.Someofhisunpublishedworksurvived,
ofwhichGisippus,atragedywritteninhisteens,wasproducedin1842.SeeJohnCronin,GeraldGriffin:aCriticalBiography,1978.
Grigson,Geoffrey(190585)
Britishpoet,critic,prosewriter,andeditor,wasborninCornwall,theyoungestoftheVicarofPelynt'ssevensons,ofwhomthreediedinWorldWarIandthreein
WorldWarII.Hisunhappinessasachild(hewassenttoboardingschoolwhenhewasfive)extendedtohistimeatStEdmundHall,Oxford,ashedescribesinThe
CrestontheSilver:anAutobiography(1950).Thereafter,thingslookedup.AfterworkingontheYorkshirePost,hebecameLiteraryEditoroftheMorningPost,
andfoundedtheinfluentialpoetrymagazine,NewVerse,whichheeditedfrom1933to1939.Hewasalsowritingmainlyshort,oftenterse,poemsofamarkedvisual
andsometimestopicalnature,someofwhichappearedinSeveralObservations:ThirtyFivePoems(1939).HeworkedfortheBBCintheWestCountryduring
WorldWarII,afterwhichhesettledinaWiltshirefarmhouse,wherehewroteawiderangeofcriticalstudiesonartaswellasliterature,andtopographicalworks,and
editednumerousanthologiesandcollectionsofindividualpoets.Hewasasometimesabrasivebutalwaysreadablecritic,someofwhoseessaysandreviewswere
collectedinTheContraryView:GlimpsesofFudgeandGold(1974)andBlessings,KicksandCurses:aCriticalCollection(1982).Histhirdwife,Jane
Grigson(192890),wasanotablewriteroncookery,asalsoistheirdaughter,SophieGrigson(b.1959).SeeTheCollectedPoemsofGeoffreyGrigson1924
1962,1963CollectedPoems196380,1982.
Grile,Dod
seeBIERCE.
Grimm,Jacob(17851863)andWilhelm(17861859)
Germanphilologistsandfolklorists,wereborninHanau,attendedthepublicschoolinKassel,andstudiedatMarburgUniversity.Jacob'sinvestigationsintoTeutonic
languages,furtheredwhilelibrariantotheKingofWestphaliafrom1807to1813andthenatKassel,resultedinDeutscheGrammatik(181937),inthecourseof
whichhepropoundedGrimm'sLawofphoneticchange.ThebrothersforgatheredatGottingenUniversityin1830,butweredismissedandbanishedin1837fortheir
partintheprotestagainstthenewKingofHanover'sabrogationoftheconstitution.TheyresurfacedinBerlinin1841,wheretheywereappointedprofessorsand
electedtotheAcademyofSciences.TheirindividualresearchesandacademicliteraryendeavoursweremostformativelycombinedinKinderundHausmrchen
(181222),theircollectionofGermanicfolktales.ItwasfirsttranslatedintoEnglishbyEdgarTaylor(17931839)asGermanPopularStories(182326),with
engravingsbyGeorgeCruikshank(17921878),illustratorofWALTERSCOTTandDICKENS.SeeJackZipes,TheBrothersGrimm:FromEnchantedForeststothe
ModernWorld,newedn1989(criticalstudy).
Grossman,Edith(18631931)
neSearle,NewZealandnovelist,wasborninAustraliainBeechworth,Victoria,andcamewithherparentstoNewZealandin1878.Shewaseducatedat
InvercargillGrammarSchool,ChristchurchGirls'HighSchool,andCanterburyCollege,graduatingasMA(oneofthefirstwomentodoso)in1885.Shegaveup
beingHeadmistressofWellingtonGirls'HighSchoolin1890,whenshemarriedProfessorJosephPenfoundGrossman,ateacherwhosesubsequentpeculationsmake
himacharacterasmarkedasanyinhiswife'sfiction.Angela:aMessenger(1890),setinWairarapa,isessentiallyatemperancetract.TheterrorsofdrinkrecurinIn
Revolt(1893)anditssequel,AKnightoftheHolyGhost(1907),inwhichfeministidealsarebrutallyandultimatelytragicallyputtothetestinanAustraliansetting.
TheHeartoftheBush(1910)isasignificantcolonialnovelinthatitisagenuineattempt,whichlargelysucceeds,tofacetheissuesofanidentitydividedbetween
NewZealandand'Home',andtheadjustmentswhichmaybeneeded,onbothsides,ifamarriageistosucceed.
Grossmith,George(18471912)
Britishentertainer,wasborninLondon,thesonofapolicecourtreporterforTheTimes,andwaseducatedatNorthLondonCollegiateSchoolforBoys.From1866
to1869heassistedhisfatheratBowStreetCourt,afterwhichhistalentforcomposingandsinginghisowncomicsongsasserteditself.From1877to1889hewasa
leadsingerwiththeD'OylyCartecompanyintheGILBERTandSullivanoperas,creatingthecharactersofMajorGeneralStanley(ThePiratesofPenzance),
Bunthorne(Patience),andtheLordChancellor(Iolanthe).Then,until1906,hewas

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occupiedwithhisown'recitals',whichhetookroundBritainandIreland,andtoCanadaandtheUSA.TheDiaryofaNobody(1892),writtenwithhisbrother
Weedon(18541919),theactor,artist,anddramatist,wasfirstserializedinPunch.Aclassicofunderstatedsocialhumour,itillustratespainlesslyandwiththedeftest
ofcharacterizationtheclassstructureandinhibitionsonwhichtheVictorianssubsisted.Hewrotetwovolumesofmemoirs,ASocietyClown:Reminiscences(1884)
andPianoandI:FurtherRemembrances(1910).
Grove,FrederickPhilip(18791948)
Canadiannovelist,wasbornFelixPaulGreve,thesonofatramdriver,inRadomno,EastPrussia,andattendedtheGymnasiumdesJohanneumsinHamburg.Heleft
FriedrichWilhelmsUniversity,Bonn,aftertwoyears,resuminghisstudiesayearlateratMaxmiliensUniversity,Munich,whichheleftin1902withouttakinga
degree.HepublishedinGermanabookofpoemsandaversedrama(1902),andtwostudiesofWILDE(1903),andembarkedonaconcentratedstintoftranslation
intoGermanofauthorswhoincludedtheBROWNINGS,MEREDITH,PATER,SWINBURNE,andWELLS.In1902hebegananaffairwithElsaEndell(18741927),nePloetz,
recentlymarriedtoanarchitect.Theymarriedin1904,theyearinwhichshewasdivorcedandhewasreleasedfromprisonafterservingasentenceforfraud.Inthe
courseofaperiodoffrenziedliteraryactivity,hewrotetwonovels,ofwhichFannyEssler(1905tr.ChristineHelmers,A.W.Riley,andDouglasO.Spettigue,
1984)isastudyoftherestraintsofsocietyontheactivitiesofawomancloselyresemblingElsa.In1909,infinancialstraits,hefakedsuicideanddisappearedtoNorth
America,whereheresurfacedinManitobain1913asateachercalledFredGrove,andthefollowingyearmarriedCatherineWiens(18921972),alsoateacher.
(ElsabecameBaronessFreytagLoringhovenbyhermarriagein1913inNewYork,whereshelaterachievednotorietyasaDadapoetandeccentricposeur,who
decoratedhercheekswithpostagestampsandherbreastswithmetalteaballs.)
GrovebecameaCanadiancitizenin1920.OverPrairieTrails(1922)andTheTurnoftheYear(1923),hisfirstbooksinEnglish,aresketchesevocativeofhisown
experiencesandobservations.SettlersoftheMarsh(1925),beguninGermanandrewritteninEnglish,wasthefirstofseveralnovelsinwhichthesettlementof
westernCanadaisthebackgroundtoastudyofpersonalconflictsanddisillusionment.Nationallecturetoursin192829broughthimsomepublicrecognition.In1929
hebecamePresidentofAristonPress,Ottawa,fromwhichheresigned(indisillusionment)in1931andbecameadairyfarmernearSimcoe,Ontarioheusedthelatter
experienceasbackgroundinTwoGenerations:aStoryofPresentDayOntario(1939).TheMasteroftheMill(1944)isasagaofanOntarioindustrialfamilyin
ConsiderHerWays(1947)heabandonedrealismforallegoricalsatire,inwhichacolonyofantsstudyhumanbehaviour.InSearchofMyself(1946),anelaborate
constructionofdisguisespresentedasautobiography,wasironicallygiventheGovernorGeneral'sAwardfornonfiction.SeeDouglasO.Spettigue,FrederickPhilip
Grove,1969,andFPG:theEuropeanYears,1973(biography)W.J.Keith,FrederickPhilipGroveandHisWorks,1994.
Gunn,NeilM(iller)(18911973)
Scottishnovelist,wasborninDunbeath,Caithness,thesonofafishingskipper,andwaseducatedatthevillageschooluntilhewas12.Then,becausetimeswerebad,
hewassenttolivewithamarriedsisterinGalloway.Hepreparedforentryintothecivilserviceandin1911wasappointedanofficerintheCustomsandExcise,
beingstationedinArgyllduringWorldWarI.AftermarryingandspendingayearinWigan,hebecameExciseOfficerattheGlenMhordistilleryinInverness.Withthe
encouragementofMACDIARMID,heplacedshortstoriesseeHiddenDoors(1929)andwroteTheGreyCoast(1926)andMorningTide(1931),inwhichhe
realisticallydepictsthebreakupofHighlandlife.ForhisnextbookhepersuadedhispublishertobringoutTheLostGlen(1932),hisangriestandbleakest
assessmentoftheclashofculturesdestroyinghisnativeland,whichhadbeenserializedintheScotsMagazinein1929.ImmediatelyafterthepublicationofHighland
River(1937),oneofseveralnovelsinwhichheexploresthematuringofaboy'smind,heresignedfromtheCustomstowritefulltime.TheSilverDarlings(1941),
alsoconcernedwithgrowingup,isinadditionanadventurestorywhichspanstwogenerationsofchangestothefishingindustryaftertheHighlandClearances.Latterly
theexpositionofhisbeliefinthepreservationofacontinuityoflifebecamemoresymbolic,asinTheSilverBough(1948),hisimagesmoreviolent,asinBloodhunt
(1952),andhisvisionmoremetaphysical,asinTheOtherLandscape(1954).HeisasignificantScottishnovelistinthathewasthefirsttowriteabouttheHighlands
fromtheinside,andhehadconsiderableintellectualaswellasdescriptiveandimaginativepowers.SeeTheAtomofDelight,newedn1996(autobiography)
MargeryMcCulloch,TheNovelsofNellM.Gunn:aCriticalStudy,1987.
Gunn,Thom(son)(b.1929)
Britishpoet,wasborninGravesend,Kent,andeducatedatUniversityCollegeSchool,TrinityCollege,Cambridge,andStanfordUniversity,California.Avolumeof
hispoemswaspublishedin1953,andasecond,Fighting

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Terms,in1954(rev.edn1958).HewasamemberoftheEnglishDepartment,UniversityofCaliforniafrom1958to1966,andwasappointedVisitingLecturerin
1975,havinginthemeantimebecomeafulltimewriterandsettledinSanFrancisco.Hisearlypoetryisinconventionalformsandoftencontainsimagesfromclassical
literaturewhencecomesthetitleofhiscollection,Moly(1971),theherbwhichHermessuppliedtoOdysseustoprotecthimfrombeingtransformedbyCirceintoa
pig.Gunn'stranslocationtoAmericainfluencednotonlythesettings('MetalLandscapes(andtheStatueofLiberty)','StreetSong','TheSandMan',andothers)but
alsohispoeticformsandthemes,whichbecamemorefree.TheseparticulardevelopmentsareillustratedbypoemsinThePassagesofJoy(1982),inwhich
homosexualityisfranklytreatedthereisalsoanostalgiclookatLondon('TalbotRoad'),andaneat,heterosexualstorypoem,'Adultery'.Inanautobiographical
fragment(1978),hestressesthecontinuitiesinhislife'betweenAmericaandEngland,betweenfreeverseandmetre,betweenvisionandeverydayconsciousness'.
AIDSisthethemeofthefinalsectionofTheManwithNightSweats(1992),acollectionwhichcoversthetenyearssincehispreviousone,intermsespeciallyofthe
scourgewhichinthemeantimeaffectedsocietyandinfectedparticularfriends.SeeCollectedPoems,newedn1995TheOccasionsofPoetry:EssaysinCriticism
andAutobiography,ed.CliveWilmer,1982ShelfLife:Essays,MemoirsandanInterview,1994.
Gurney,Ivor(18901937)
Britishpoetandcomposer,wasborninGloucesterandeducatedatKing'sSchool,Gloucester,afterwhichhewasarticledtothecathedralorganistasapupil.In1911
hewonascholarshiptotheRoyalCollegeofMusic,wherehebegantosetElizabethanlyricstomusicwithmasterlyskill.Hevolunteeredforwarservicein1914,but
wasrejectedbecauseofhissightin1915hewaspostedtothe2nd/5thGloucesterRegiment,withwhomhetrainedandplayedintheband.HewasinFlandersfrom
May1916toSeptember1917,whenhewasgassedandreturnedtoBritain.ThroughoutthistimehesentpoetryandmusictoafriendinEngland,and46ofhispoems
werepublishedasSevernandSomme(1917).HewasbackinhospitalinFebruary1918withastomachcomplaint,afterwhichhebegantoshowsuicidal
tendencies.Hewasdischargedfromthearmyandspentthenextfouryearsinastateofrestlessness,unabletosettleinanyplaceorjob(hetriedcinemapianist,tax
clerk,farmworker,andcoldstorageoperator),oftensleepingroughorwalkingthroughthenight.In1922hewascommittedtoalocalasylumandthenmovedtothe
CityofLondonMentalHospital,Dartford,wherehespenttherestofhislife,thoughbetween1922and1926heproducedoverathousandmanuscriptsofpoetryand
music.Athirdvolumeofversehadbeenturneddownin1919,butsongcyclesofHOUSMANpoemswerepublishedin1923and1926,andLightsOut,settingsof
poemsofEDWARDTHOMAS,alsoin1926.Hiswarpoemsaredistinctivefortheirdetailedimages,andtheseandhislaterworksaboundwithreflectionsonhisnative
Gloucestershire.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.P.J.Kavanagh,1990CollectedLetters,ed.R.K.R.Thornton,1990MichaelHurd,TheOrdealofIvorGurney,
1978(biography).
Gustafson,Ralph,Palph(b.1909)
Canadianpoet,wasborninLimeRidge,Quebec.HetookdegreesatBishop'sUniversity,Lennoxville,andatOxford.From1934to1938helivedinEngland,where
hisfirstbookofpoetry,TheGoldenChalice(1935),andaverseplay,AlfredtheGreat(1937),werepublished.HethensettledinNewYork,whereheworked
fortheBritishInformationServicesfrom1942to1946,andpublishedFlightintoDarkness:Poems(1944),inwhichhepresentedreflectionsontheenormitiesof
warinastylewhichhadnowbecomemoreinkeepingwithmodernistpoetictechniques.PostwarjourneyinginCanadagavehimtheinspirationforRockyMountain
Poems(1960)andRiversAmongRocks(1960),andsubsequenttravelsinEuropethatforSiftinanHourglass(1966)andIxion'sWheel(1969).Hisinterestin
music,ofwhichhebecameacriticfortheCanadianBroadcastingCorporationin1960,isalsoreflectedinhispoetry.TheVividAir:CollectedStorieswaspublished
in1980.SeeTheMomentisAll:SelectedPoems19441983,1983DermotMcCarthy,APoeticsofPlace:thePoetryofRalphGustafson,1991.

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H
Hafiz,penname['onewhocanrecitetheKoranbyheart']ofShamsudDinMuhammad(c.132589)
Persianpoet,wasborn,lived,anddiedinShiraz,wherehelecturedinKoranicexegesis.Though,ashisfameasanoralpoetgrew,hewasinvitedtovisitthecourtsof
foreignrulersasfarawayassouthernIndia,herefusedtoleavehisnativecity.AShiiteMuslimwhosepoetryisinfusedwithSufism,heintroducedaremarkably
colloquialtoneintohiswork.Somesixhundredpoemsareattributedtohim,mostintheformoftheghazal:ashortlyricalpieceofbetweensixand15couplets,the
firstonerhyming,withtherhymerepeatedinthesecondlineofeachsubsequentcoupletthelastcoupletusuallyincorporatesareferencetothepoet'sname.A
collectionofhispoemsmadeduringhislifetimewassaidtohavebeenlost:anotherwasassembledafterhisdeathbyafriend,MuhammadGulandam.GertrudeBell
(18681926),MiddleEasterntraveller,scholar,andstateswoman,firsttranslatedaselectionintoEnglishasPoemsfromtheDivanofHafiz(1897),whichincludesa
studyofhistimes.SubsequenttranslationsincludeThirtyPoems,tr.PeterAveryandJohnHeathStubbs(1952)andPoemsofHafez,tr.RezaSaberi(1995).
Haggard,(Sir)H(enry)Rider(18561925)
novelist,wasbornatWestBradenhamHall,Norfolk,thesixthchildofasquirewhohadmadehismoneyintradeandhankeredafterbeingregardedasagentleman
seeVictoriaManthorpe,ChildrenoftheEmpire:theVictorianHaggards(1996).ecausecashwasnowrunningout,hewassenttoIpswichGrammarSchool.In
1875hebecamesecretarytotheGovernorofNatal,transferringtothestaffoftheSpecialCommissioneroftheTransvaalin1877.HemarriedaNorfolkheiressin
Englandin1879,and,afterabriefreturntoSouthAfrica,managedherestates.AsanadditionalpursuithestudiedlawandwascalledtotheBarin1884,butgave
thatuptowrite.HehadpublishedtworomanceswhenalaudatoryreviewofSTEVENSON'STreasureIslandledhimtobuyandstudyit,andthentowrite,inaboutsix
weeks,KingSolomon'sMines(1885),dedicated'bythenarratorAllanQuatermainetoallthebigandlittleboyswhoreadit'.Thatbook,She(1887),whichopens
upthetribalmysteriesofAfrica,andAllanQuatermaine(1887),inwhichthemagnificentZulu,Umslopogaas(takenfromlife),firstappears,arethethreeofmany
novelshewroteaboutAfricawhichhavestoodthetestoftime.HealsoinvestigatedconditionsofagricultureandtheruralpopulationofEngland,onwhichhereported
inRuralEngland(2vols1902).In1905hevisitedtheUSAasaspecialcommissionertostudySalvationArmysettlementswithaviewtosimilarschemesbeing
establishedinSouthAfrica,whichinThePoorandtheLand(1905)headvocatedshouldbeadoptedinBritaintoo.HewasamemberoftheDominionsRoyal
Commission191217,andwasassociatedwithnationalcommitteesonunemploymentandresettlement,soilerosion,andafforestation.Hewasknightedin1912,and
createdKBEin1919.SeeTheDaysofMyLife:anAutobiography,ed.C.J.Longman,2vols1926TomPocock,RiderHaggardandtheLostEmpire:a
Biography,1993MortonN.Cohen,RiderHaggard:HisLifeandWork,2ndedn1968.
Hakluyt,Richard(c15521616)
Englishgeographer,wasborninHerefordshireandeducatedatWestminsterSchoolandChristChurch,Oxford,afterwhichhetookholyorders.Hispassionfor
exploration,onwhichhegavelectures,ledtoDiversVoyagesTouchingtheDiscoverieofAmerica(1582),probablyasaresultofwhichhewasappointedchaplain
totheBritishAmbassadorinParis.HereheresearchedintothepoliticalimplicationsofAmericantrade,andwasspurredbytheavailabilityofmaterialonother
nations'voyagestoproducesomethingonEngland'scontribution.ThePrincipallNavigations,VoiagesandDiscoveriesoftheEnglishNation(1589)was
publishedafterhisreturntoEngland.In1590hewasappointedRectorofWetheringsett,Suffolk,fromwherehepreparedtheenlargedversionof1600,withthe
additionoftheword'Traffiques'(trade)tothetitle.Itcomprisesoverahundredmainlyfirsthandaccounts:some,likethoseofRALEGH,werereprintedfrom
contemporaryorearlierbookssomeweretranslatedbyhimselfotherswerewrittenforthepurposeand,evenat

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theirmostpedestrian,arechargedwiththeromanceofthesubjectmatterandwiththeenthusiasmoftheeditor.ThehistorianJ.A.Froude(181894)describeditas
'theproseepicofthemodernEnglishnation'.Itisalsoamilestoneinthedevelopmentofscientificexploration.HakluytwasmadeaprebendaryofWestminsterin
1602,andanarchdeaconin1604.HiseditorialmantlewasassumedbySamuelPurchas(15771626),whosePurchasHisPilgrimage(1613)inspiredCOLERIDGE'S
'KublaKhan',andwhosubsequently,usingmanuscriptshehadinheritedfromHakluytandothersources,producedHakluytusPosthumus:or,PurchasHis
Pilgrimes(1625),thelongestEnglishworkprintedinEnglanduptothattime.SeeVoyagesandDiscoveries,ed.JackBeeching,1972.
Haliburton,ThomasChandler(17961865)
Canadianhumorist,prosewriter,andpolitician,wasborninWindsor,NovaScotia,theonlychildofajudge,andwaseducatedthereatKing'sCollegeSchooland
King'sCollege,beingcalledtotheNovaScotiaBarin1820.HepublishedanonymouslyAGeneralDescriptionofNovaScotia(1823),which,reissuedunderhis
ownnameinarecastandextendedformasAnHistoricalandStatisticalAccountofNovaScotia(1829)topublicizehimselfandtheachievementsofhisnative
settlement,isasignificantpieceofCanadianhistoricalwriting.HewasMemberforAnnapolisRoyalintheNovaScotiaHouseofAssemblyfrom1826to1829,when
hewasappointedajudgeoftheCourtofCommonPleas.HebecameajusticeoftheSupremeCourtin1841.Hechannelledhiscriticismoflocalsocietyandpublic
eventsintoaseriesofsatiricallypointedsketchesintheNovascotianin183536,whichbecameTheClockmaker:or,TheSayingsandDoingsofSamuelSlickof
Slickville(3vols183740).Slick,abrashbutphilosophicalAmericanconman('Ifachapseemsbentoncheatin'himself,Iliketobeneighbourlyandhelphimdoit'),
isacharacterinthemainstreamofAmericanhumour.HereappearsasadiplomatinTheAttach:or,SamSlickinEngland(4vols184346),andasapresidential
envoyinNovaScotiatostudythefishingindustryinSamSlick'sWiseSawsandModernInstances:or,WhatHeSaid,Did,orInvented(1853).Inbetweentimes
Haliburtonwrote,fortheEnglishToryjournalFraser'sMagazine,thesketchesandstorieswhichbecameTheOldJudge:or,LifeinaColony(1849),aloosely
constructedmiscellanyinwhichCanadianfolkloreandtradition,andCanadianspeech,firstfindliteraryexpression.In1856heresignedhispostandemigratedto
England,wherehewasprevailedupontostandasConservativecandidateforLaunceston,Cornwall,whichherepresentedinParliamentfrom1859to1865.Hedied
athishomeinIsleworth,Middlesex.SeeStanMcMullin,ThomasChandlerHaliburtonandHisWorks,1994.
Hall,Rdward
seeHOLINSHED.
Hall,Radclyffe,pseudonymofMargueriteRadclyffeHall(18801943)
Britishnovelist,whopreferredtobeknownas'John',wasborninChristchurch,Hampshire,toacouplewhosemarriagefinallybrokeupafewweekslater.Shehad
noregularschooling,andinheritedhergrandfather'sfortunewhenshecameofagein1901.Shethentravelled,published(between1906and1915)fivebooksof
verse,andin1907metinHomburgthefirstofherseriousloves,Mabel('Ladye')Batten(18571916),patronofthearts.In1915LadyesentabatchofHall'sshort
storiestothepublisherWilliamHeinemann(18631920),whotookthecoupleouttolunchandurgedHalltowriteanovel.ThatsameyearHallmetUna(Lady)
Troubridge(18871963).Theybecamelovers,andlivedtogetherfrom1920.TheForge(1924)andASaturdayLife(1925),twolightnovelsaboutartistic
aspirations,readilyfoundapublisher.TheUnlitLamp(1924),arathergrimmertaleofoverpossessivemotherhood,wastakenonbytheeleventhpublishertowhom
ithadbeenofferedbyHall'sagent.Adam'sBreed(1926),originallycalledFood,thegastronomicbutultimatelyspiritualquestofasensitiveItalianwaiter,wonseveral
prizes.TheWellofLoneliness(1928),astudyofalesbiannovelist,wasputoutinasmalleditionatahighprice,withaplaincover.ItwassuppressedinBritainunder
theObsceneLibelAct.AsimilardecisionintheUSAwasoverturnedonappeal,andaVictoryEditionissuedthere.ItwasnotreissuedinBritainuntil1949shortly
beforethatithadbeenselling100,000copiesayearelsewhereintheworld.Hallpublishedtwomore,lesscontroversial,novels,andabookofshortstories,Miss
OgilvyFindsHerself(1934).In1934shefellinlovewithEvgueniaSouline(1903c.1960),anunprepossessingRussiannursewhohadbeenengagedinParistotend
toUna'senteritis.ThethreesetupanunusualmnagetroisinFlorence,beforereturningtoBritainattheoutbreakofWorldWarII.UnawroteTheLifeand
DeathofRadclyffeHallin1945,butwithheldpublicationuntil1961.SeeMichaelBaker,OurThreeSelves:theLifeofRadclyffeHall,1985ClaudiaStillman
Franks,BeyondtheWellofLoneliness:theFictionofRadclyffeHall,1983.
Hall,Rodney(b.1935)
Australianpoetandnovelist,wasborninSolihull,Warwickshire,ofanEnglishfather,whodiedsixmonthslater,andamotherwhosefamilyhadreturnedtoEngland
afterbeingminedbythefiresinNewSouthWalesin1923.AfterWorldWarIIhewasbroughttoAustralia,andwaseducateduntilhewas16atBrisbane

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Boys'College.Hehaslived'asawriter,actorandmusician,justoccasionallylapsingintorespectableemployment'.HehasbeenLecturerinRecorder,Canberra
SchoolofMusic,andwasPoetryEditoroftheAustralian196778.Hisfirstbookofverse,publishedinLondon,wasPennilesstillDoomsday(1962),andthrough
subsequentcollections,notablyTheAutobiographyofaGorgon(1968),TheLawofKarma(1968),andTheMostBeautifulWorld:FictionandSermons
(1981),hehasdevelopedafreestyle,awittyoutlook,andatechniquewherebyhispoemsformaprogressionofthemeandthoughtseealsoSelectedPoems
(1975).Hisnovels,eachrepresentingadifferentfictionalform,illustrateaspectsofAustralianlifeandincludeJustRelations(1982),winneroftheMILESFRANKLIN
Award.CaptivityCaptive(1988),TheSecondBridegroom(1991),andTheGrislyWife(1993)compriseatrilogyofhistoricalnovelssetlargelyin1898,1838,
and1868respectively,inwhichtheunsolvedGattonmurdersin1898arethefocalpointofastudyofculturalrestrictions,colonialattitudes,andreligiousfanaticism.
HecompiledTheCollinsBookofAustralianPoetry(1981).HechairedtheAustraliaCouncil199194,havingbeenmadeAOin1990.
Hamburger,Michael(b.1924)
Britishpoet,critic,andtranslator,wasborninBerlin,thesonofapaediatrician,andemigratedwithhisfamilytoBritainin1933.HewaseducatedatWestminster
SchoolandChristChurch,Oxford,andservedintheRoyalArmyEducationCorpsfrom1943to1947.AfterteachingatUniversityCollege,London,hewas
LecturerinGerman,thenReader,atReadingUniversity195564,afterwhichheheldvisitingprofessorshipsatseveralAmericanuniversities.Hisfirstbookofverse
wasLaterHogarth(1945)significantsubsequentcollectionsareTravelling:Poems19631968(1969)andRealEstate(1977).Natureisarecurringfeature,
eitherdescriptivelytreated,asin'AprilDay:Binsey',orasafilterthroughwhichother,oftenmelancholy,imagesappear,asin'Memory',orin'TheSearch',inwhich
heexpressesthesubconscioussensibilityofJewswhosurvivedorescapedtheHolocaust.Intheearly1960sheabandonedtherestrictionsofmoretraditionalforms
ofverseinordertogivefullerreintohisdeeperfeelings.TheTruthofPoetry:TensionsinModernPoetryfromBaudelairetothe1960s(1969)isaseriousbut
accessiblestudy.HehassuccessfullytranslatedintoEnglishthepoetryofHLDERLIN,GOETHE,andRILKE,amongotherEuropeanworksofliterature,andwasawardedthe
1990EuropeanCommunityprizeforhistranslationofPaulCelan(192070).HewasmadeOBEin1992.SeeCollectedPoems19411994,1995Testimonies:
SelectedShorterProse19501987,1989StringofBeginnings:IntermittentMemoirs19241954,newedn1996.
Hamilton,Charles
seeRICHARDS.
Hammett,(Samuel)Dashiell(18941961)
Americannovelist,wasbornonarundownfarminMaryland,andwaseducatedatPublicSchoolNo72,Baltimore,andBaltimorePolytechnicInstitute,whichheleft
at15tosupporthisfamilywhenhisfatherfellill.HehadnumerousjobsbeforejoiningPinkerton'sNationalDetectiveAgencyin1915.HeenlistedintheArmyin
1918,servedinMaryland,andwasdischargedthefollowingyearwithtuberculosisandadisabilitypension.In1922,married,withachild,andill,hehadaone
hundredwordstorypublishedinMENCKEN'SSmartSet.In1928hesubmittedtothehouseofKnopf'anactiondetectivestory',describinghimselfasaformer
Pinkertonoperativewhohad'morerecentlypublishedfiction,bookreviews,verse,sketchesandsoon,intwentytotwentyfivemagazines'.ItwaspublishedasRed
Harvest(1929),followedimmediatelybyTheDainCurse(1929),whichhasanextrabackgroundofreligiouscultsinCalifornia.Inthefallof1929helefthisfamily
inSanFranciscoandwentwithagirlfriendtoNewYork.AfterthepublicationofTheMalteseFalcon(1930),athrillerofdeceptionandselfdeceptionfeaturingthe
privateeyeSamSpadewhichby1941hadbeenfilmedthreetimes,hefinishedTheGlassKey(1931)andwenttoHollywood.Hereturnedaccompaniedby
HELLMAN,withwhomhelivedonandofffortherestofhislife.
Thoughhepublishedcollectionsofstories,Hammettonlywroteonemorenovel,TheThinMan(1934),inwhichsophisticationandwitenhancetheportrayalofthe
marriedlifeoftheharddrinkingsleuth.In1942,havingbeenseveraltimesfiredasascreenwriterandbeenhospitalizedforalcoholism,heenlistedintheArmyasa
private,servedonhomestations,andwasdischargedin1945withtherankofmastersergeant.In1951hewassentencedtosixmonths'jailforcontemptofcourt,for
refusingtoanswerquestionsastrusteeofthebailfundoftheCivilRightsCongress.HisproblemswerecompoundedbyhisCommunistaffiliationsandthe
depredationsoftheInternalRevenue,towhomhehadpaidnotaxesfortwentyyears,andwhosequestratedhisincome.TheBigKnockover:SelectedStoriesand
ShortNovels,ed.LillianHellman(1966reissuedasTheBigKnockoverandOtherStories,1993)includes'Tulip',anunfinishednovelwhichisintonedifferent
fromhisusualpublishedwriting.SeeWilliamMarling,DashiellHammett,1983(criticalstudy)JulianSymons,DashiellHammett,1985(criticalstudy)RobertE.
Skinner,TheHardBoiledExplicator:aGuidetotheStudyofDas

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hiellHammett,RaymondChandlerandRossMacdonald,1985.
Hamsun,Knut(18591952)
Norwegiannovelist,wasbornofpeasantaristocraticstockinLom,thesonofPederPedersen,andtookhisnamefromthatoftheancestralfarm.Hewasbroughtup
byanuncleintheLofotenIslands,andwasthenapprenticedtoashoemaker,whomhelefttotryandearnenoughtoseehimthroughuniversity.Heneverapparently
achievedthis.Insteadhehadanumberofjobs,wenttotheUSA,wherehelecturedinFrenchliteratureinMinneapolisandwasastreetcarconductorinChicago,
returnedtoNorway,andthenwentbacktoNorthAmericafortwomoreyears,duringwhichhewasafishermanofftheNewfoundlandcoast.In1890hepublicly
attackedwritersofrealism,includingIBSEN,andpublished[Hunger],apsychologicalnovelexpressingtheagoniesandinnerconflictsofastarvingartistitwasfollowed
byfurtherexperimentsinmodernismwhichincludedPan(1894)andVictoria(1898).Though[Hunger]waspublishedinBritain(1899)inatranslationby'George
Egerton',MaryBright(18591945),neDunne,theAustralianbornIrishnovelist,whohadmet(andreputedlyfalleninlovewith)HamsuninNorwayin1887,
subsequentnovelswerenottranslatedintoEnglishuntilthe1920s,bywhichtimehehadenteredhisperiodofwritingaboutsocialissues.[TheGrowthoftheSoil]
(1917tr.W.Worster,1921),apaeantothenobilityofpeasantways,wasinstrumentalinhisbeingawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1920.Heopenly
supportedtheNaziinvasionofNorwayinWorldWarII,afterwhichhewasarrestedforcollaborationandforatimeconfinedinamentalasylum.
Hardenberg,Friedrich
seeTHOMSON,JAMES(183482).
Hardwick,Elizabeth
seeLOWELL,ROBERT.
Hardy,Thomas(18401928)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,andpoet,wasborninHigherBockhampton,nearStinsford,Dorset,theeldestchildofamasterstonemason.Hewaseducatedata
localprivateschooluntilhewas16,whenhewasapprenticedtoachurcharchitectinDorchester.In1862hewenttoLondontofurtherhisstudiesandhiscareer,
whichhedidwhilecontinuingtoeducatehimselfinclassicsandpoetry.Aboutofillnessledhimtoreturnhomein1867andtoworkforhisformeremployer.Writing
interestedhimpassionately.HavinghadmanypoemsrejectedbyLondonliteraryjournals,hedecidedtotryhishandatfiction.Hisfirstattempt,acombinationof
socialistsatireandrusticity,wasaccepted,butthepublisher'sreader,whowasMEREDITH,advisedhimtowithdrawitandwritesomethingwithabitmoreplot.The
resultwasDesperateRemedies(1871),astoryofmurderandintrigue,whoseanonymousappearancewithadifferentpublisherHardyhimselfsubsidized,thoughhe
gotmostofhismoneybackfromsales.HeusedsomeofthecountryscenesfromhisfirstnovelasabasisforUndertheGreenwoodTree(1872),arusticcomedy.
YokelsreappearasminorcharactersinAPairofBlueEyes(1873),inwhichheexercisedhispenchantforheavyromanceandhighdrama,usingasastartingpoint
hisownexperienceofconductingasurveyofaremoteCornishchurch,atwhichhemethisfuturewife.
InthemeantimehehadbeeninvitedtowriteaserialforCornhillMagazine.Theimpactofhisanonymouscontribution,FarfromtheMaddingCrowd(1874),was
suchthatsomecriticsattributedittoGEORGEELIOT,whichHardyresented,thoughitssuccessmeantthathewasnowabletogiveuphisjobandtomarry.Farfromthe
MaddingCrowdisfirmlyandrecognizablysetinwhathecallsbyitsancientnameofWessex,andhegetsexactlyrightthebalancebetweenthesteady,ritualprogress
ofthecountryyear,theeruptionsofpassionandviolence,andthecourtingofthemagneticanderraticBathshebaEverdenebyherpatientshepherd,GabrielOak,who
winsherontheverylastpage.Thereisevenmorepassion,andmoretragedy,inTheReturnoftheNative(1878),forwhich,attherequestofthejournalwhichfirst
acceptedit,thesubplotwaschangedsoastohaveahappyendingitsmaintheme,thoughsimpleandcontrolled,dependsovermuchonchance.ThesubtitleofThe
MayorofCasterbridge:theLifeandDeathofaManofCharacter(1886)onlypartlysumsupthispowerfulstudyofatragicherointheShakespearianmould.
Thesearethemostreadableofhis17novelsandvolumesofshortstories,butthegreatestfame,andcontroversy,werereservedforTessofthed'Urbervilles:a
PureWoman(1891),eveninitsbowdlerizedform.WhenJudetheObscure(dated1896),writtenwithratherlessattentiontoart,gotastillmorecriticalpress,he
gaveupfictionforgood.
Hardyhadcontinuedallthistimetowritepoetry.Now,withWessexPoems,andOtherVerses(1898),athirdofwhichhehadcomposedinthe1860s,hebeganto
publishit.Heisnotagreatpoet,buthewrotesomeverygoodshortpoemsandballadsamongtheninehundredinCollectedPoems(1930).Hisstyleisrugged,his
toneoftenmelancholic,andhishumourgrim,buthischoiceofwordsismagicalandhismeaningisalwaysclear.Particularlypoignantisthegroup,'Poemsof191213',
whichhewroteafterhiswife'sdeath,havingdiscoveredamongherpapersnotesabouttheirmarriage.Hismostambitiousworkofall,TheDynasts:aDramaofthe
NapoleonicWars,'intendedsimplyformentalperformanceandnotforthestage',wasfirst

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conceivedin1875andpublishedinthreeparts(190408),buthecontinuedtotinkerwithitformuchoftherestofhislife.Thescopeisvastandthestagedirections
areoftenonacosmicscale,butthemixtureofblankverseandprose,factandhistoricalimagination,andhumbleaswellasnoblecharacters,givesatotaleffectof
grandeur.Hissecondmarriagein1914provedsoagreeablethathefeltabletodictatetohiswifelargechunksofthetwobiographiesofhimthatwerepublishedunder
hernamein1928and1930.Hisfinalritesweretypicalofhiscreativeduality.WhilehisasheswerebeingcarriedforintermentinWestminsterAbbeybyasquadof
literarypallbearers,hisheart,havingbeencutfromthecorpse,wasbeingburiedinStinsfordchurchyard,wherehehadwishedtolie.HewasawardedtheOMin
1910.SeeTheCompleteStories,ed.NormanPage,1996CompletePoems,ed.JamesGibson,newedn1988SelectedPoems,ed.HarryThomas,newedn
1993SelectedPoems,ed.AndrewMotion,newedn1994SelectedPoetry,ed.SamuelHynes,1996MartinSeymourSmith,Hardy,newedn1995(critical
biography)MichaelMillgate,ThomasHardy:HisCareerasaNovelist,2ndedn1994J.I.M.Stewart,ThomasHardy,1971(criticalbiography)Trevor
Johnson,ACriticalIntroductiontothePoemsofThomasHardy,1991MerrynWilliams,APrefacetoHardy,2ndedn1993.
Harpur,Charles(181368)
Australianpoet,wasborninWindsor,intheHawkesburyRiverdistrictofNewSouthWales,andsometimessignedhisverses'AHawkesburyLad'.Hisparents,who
marriedin1814,wereconvicts,hisfatherbeinganIrishhighwaymanwhowastransportedforlifein1800butwaslaterpardonedandbecamethelocalschoolmaster.
Harpurworkedasabushlabourer,andalettersorterinSydney,andthenretiredtotheHunterRiverdistrict,whereheread,wrotearticlesandpoemsfor
newspapers,andsporadicallylookedafterhisbrother'spostoffice.HisThoughts:aSeriesofSonnets(1845)wasthefirstsonnetsequencetobepublishedin
Australia.In1850hemarriedMaryDoyle,whomforsevenyearshehadbombardedwithlovesonnets,addressedto'Rosa'.'TheBushrangers',publishedinThe
Bushrangers:aPlayinFiveActs,andOtherPoems(1853),wasthefirstplaywithanAustraliansettingtoappearinbookforminAustralia,thoughhehadbeen
workingonthisversedramaofthebushrangerJackDonohoe(diedinashootout1830)for18years.Harpurwasnowreluctantlyfarmingsheep,butmatters
improvedonhisappointmentin1859asanassistantgoldcommissioner.Hisdeath,ofhardeningofthelungs,followedaseriesofmisfortunes.Hewasmade
redundant,hisfarmwasdestroyedbyfloods,andhisfavouritesonaccidentallyshothimself.Apricklycharacter,whowasconvincedofhisdestinyasAustralia'sfirst
genuinenationalpoet,HarpurbroughtWordsworthianromanticismandreligiousmysticismtoAustralianlandscapesandthemes.SeeThePoeticalWorksofCharles
Harpur,ed.ElizabethPerkins,1984JudithWright,CharlesHarpur,rev.edn1977(criticalstudy).
Harris,'Frank'[JamesThomas](18561931)
writeroffiction,claimedtohavebeenborninGalway.HewasthethirdsonofaWelshseamanandthedaughterofaBaptistminister.At14hetookhimselftothe
USA,andafterdoingaseriesofmenialjobsreachedKansas,whereheattendedtheStateUniversityinabout1872.HavingstudiedfurtherinEurope,hematerialized
inLondonin1883.LargelybyforceofpersonalityheachievedtheeditorshipoftheEveningNews,andthentheFortnightlyReview,whichherevitalizedtohisown
ends.AmarriagetoawealthyParkLanewidowwasasshortlivedaswerehispoliticalambitions.In1894heeloped(withawomanwhomhelatermarried),
publishedElderConklinandOtherStories,largelyderivedfromhisAmericanexperiences,andboughttheSaturdayReview.Hesolditin1898,havingthroughhis
editorialflairmadeitthemostinfluentialpoliticalandliteraryreviewinthecountry.Henowpublishedafurthervolumeofstories,MontestheMatador(1900),and
wrotetwoplays,MrandMrsDaventry(1910),theideaforwhichheclaimedtohaveboughtfromWILDE,andShakespeareandHisLove(1910),aproductofa
phaseinwhichhealsoproducedtwofancifulstudiesofSHAKESPEARE(1909and1910).Hiscontinuinginterestintheaffairsofvariousjournalsfinallylandedhimin
prisonforcontemptofcourt.HereturnedtotheUSA,wherehepublishedathisownexpensehisbiographyofWilde(1916),anduntilitwassuspendedran
Pearson'sMagazineasavehicleforscurrilousantiBritishsentiments.InMyLifeandLoves(192227),hisnotoriousautobiography,the'loves'areevenmore
preposterous,andmuchmoretedious,thanthe'life'.HediedinNice.SeeHughKingsmill,FrankHarris,newedn1987(biography).
Harris,GeorgeWashington(181469)
Americanhumorist,wasborninAlleghenyCity,Pennsylvania.AttheageoffivehewasbroughttoKnoxville,Tennessee,byhis21yearoldhalfbrother,Samuel
Bell,whoinduecoursetookhimonasanapprenticemetalworker.In1835,nowcaptainoftheriversteamboatKnoxville,HarrismarriedMaryEmelineNance.In
1839hebought375acresoflandinBlountCounty,wheretheylivedamongfinefurniture,includingabookcasewith75books,andhewroteanonymouspolitical
articlesfortheDemocraticKnoxvilleArgus.Failingasagentlemanlandowner,he

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openedametalworkshopinKnoxvillein1843,andbegancontributing'sportingepistles'totheNewYorkSpiritoftheTimes,whichin1845publishedhisdialect
tale,'TheKnobDanceaTennesseeFrolic'.In1849hewassuperintendentoftheHolstonGlassWorks,whilealsopractisingasasilversmith.Localpeoplehemet
onabusinesstriptothecopperminesofDucktownin1854providedtheinspirationfor'SutLovengood'sDaddy''ActingHorse"'(Spirit,1854),thefirstvivid,ribald
sketchofhisuniquelyawfulcreation,SutLovingood(asthespellingbecame).Aconfirmedsecessionist,andin1859electedtotheDemocraticStateCentral
Committee,hewrotepoliticalanalysisaswellasLovingoodsketchesfortheNashvilleUnionandAmerica,towhichin1861healsocontributedthreeLovingood
lampoonsofthenewlyelectedPresident,AbrahamLincoln.TheHarrisfamilyprobablyleftNashvillebeforeitfelltotheUnionistsin1862duringtheCivilWarthey
livedinChattanooga,Decatur,andTrenton.AfterthewarHarrisboughttherightofwayfortheWillsValleyRailroadandresumedhispoliticalsketchwriting.
SutLovingood.YarnsSpunbya'Nat'ralBornDurn'dFool['].WarpedandWoveforPublicWear(1867),hisonlybook,containedeightofhisthirtyorso
publishedstories,with16newones.Thatsameyearhiswifediedandhishousekeeper,fearingscandal,left.InOctober1869hemarriedinDecaturastrikingblonde
widow,JaneE.Pride.InDecemberhetookwithhimonabusinesstriptoLynchburg,Virginia,themanuscriptofasecondbook,HighTimesandHardTimes,to
seeifhecouldarrangeforittobeprinted.Onthereturnjourneyhewastakenillonthetrain,anddiedinKnoxville,havinginanswertoadoctor'squestionsaid,
'Poisoned!'thecausewasprobablyapoplexy.Themanuscriptwasnevertraced.TheLovingoodstories,writtenmainlyinphoneticdialect,areregardedastriumphs
ofcomposition,characterization,andbroadhumour.SeeMiltonRickels,GeorgeWashingtonHarris,1965(biographical/criticalstudy).
Harris,JoelChandler(18481908)
Americanhumorist,novelist,andjournalist,wasbornnearEatonton,Georgia,thesonofanIrishlabourerwhodesertedhiswife,aseamstress,shortlyafterwards.The
townspeopleralliedroundandpaidtheboy'sschoolfees.At14hebecameaprinter'sapprenticeonanewweekly,theCountryman,publishedattheowner'sestate
ofTurnwold,wherehewenttolive.Hewassoonwritinghumorouspieces,andin1870,afterworkingonotherpapers,hebecameanassociateeditorofthe
SavannahMorningNews,forwhichhewroteadailycolumnonlocalaffairsaswellaswittysketches.Hemarriedin1873,andthreeyearslater,toavoidanepidemic
ofyellowfever,tookhisfamilytoAtlanta,wherefor24yearshewasaneditorandstaffwriterontheAtlantaConstitution,inwhichappearedthefirstUncleRemus
storyinOctober1876.UncleRemus:HisSongsandHisSayings:theFolkloreoftheOldPlantation(1880)wasthefirstofseveralcollectionsofNegrofolklore,
whichhehadfirstcomeacrossatTurnwold,inventivelyreworkedintoseriesofpointed,wittytales.Amongmanyotherworks,whichincludeadultnovelsandstories
specificallywrittenforchildren,aretwoparticularlynotablebooksofshortpieces,MingoandOtherSketchesinBlackandWhite(1884),studiesofthebreaking
downofraceandclasscontrasts,andFreeJoeandOtherGeorgianSketches(1887),whichillustratesthetragicpredicamentofthedisplacedfreedman.In1907he
foundedwithhissonJulianUncleRemus'Magazine,withMARQUISasassociateeditor.SeeTheCompleteTalesofUncleRemus,ed.RichardChase,1955Bruce
R.Bickley,JoelChandlerHarris,1987(biographical/criticalstudy).
Harris,JohnBeynon
seeWYNDHAM.
Harris,Max
seeMCAULEY.
Harris,Wilson(b.1921)
Guyanesenovelist,poet,andcritic,wasborninNewAmsterdamofEuropean,African,andAmerindianancestry,andwaseducatedatQueen'sCollege,
Georgetown.Hewasagovernmentlandsurveyorduringthe1940sand1950s,andhadpoems,stories,andessayspublishedintheliterarymagazine,Kykoveral.
Healsohadthreevolumesofpoetryprinted,ofwhichEternitytoSeason,aheroicallegoryofthelabouringpopulation,wasreissuedintheUKinarevisededitionin
1979.HeemigratedtoEnglandin1959.Inhislecture,'TraditionandtheWestIndianNovel'(1964),inTradition,theWriter,andSociety:CriticalEssays(1967),
hesaid:'Politicalradicalismismerelyafashionableattitudeunlessitisaccompaniedbyprofoundinsightsintotheexperimentalnatureoftheartsandthesciences.'His
novelsareexperimentalparticularlyintheirformofnarrativeandthedepthsinherentinthedialogue.PalaceofthePeacock(1960)isthefirstinTheGuyana
Quartet(1985),inwhichfragmentsofthecountry'spastbecomeacompositepictureofitslandandpeoples.Hecontinuedwithasecondsequence,TheEyeofthe
Scarecrow(1965)toAscenttoOmai(1970),ineachofwhichafamily'slossorvoidinthepastisreflectedinitspresentcircumstances.Hehassubsequently
extendedhisgeographicalcanvasandincludedinhisvisiontheartofthepainter,suchasistheprotagonistofDaSilvadaSilva'sCultivatedWilderness(published
withGenesisoftheClowns,1977)andTheTreeoftheSun(1978).Carnival(1985),TheInfiniteRehearsal(1987),andTheFourBanksofthe

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RiverofSpace(1990)reissuedtogetherasTheCarnivalTrilogy(1993),withanintroductionbytheauthorrepresentareturntoGuyanesematerialanda
debate,conductedwithreferencetomythandliterature,abouttheresponsibilityoftheindividualin'thewasteland'.TheylookforwardtoResurrectionatSorrow
Hill(1993),inwhich,throughmetaphor,parable,andnarrative,hopeisseentotriumphoverdeath.InJonestown(1996),themasssuicidein1978inJonestownof
severalhundredAmericanfollowersofa'messianic'pastorisattheheartofawidervisionoftheproblemswhichbesetpostcolonialterritories.SeeHenaMaes
Jelinek,WilsonHarris,1982(criticalstudy)HenaMaesJelinek(ed.),WilsonHarris:theUncompromisingImagination,1991andinBruceKing(ed.)West
IndianLiterature,2ndedn1995.
Harrison,William
seeHOLINSHED.
Harte,(Francis)Bret(t)(18361902)
Americanshortstorywriter,novelist,andpoet,wasborninAlbany,NewYork,ofEnglish,Dutch,andJewishdescent.Afterthedeathin1845ofhisfather,an
unworldlyteacherandscholar,thefamilystoppedtravelling,andsettledinBrooklyn.Heleftschoolat13,didofficework,andthenin1854followedhismotherto
Oakland,California,whereshehadmarriedalocaldignitary.AfterafewyearshejoinedhismarriedsisterinAracta,abasefortheminingcountry,wherehewrotefor
theNorthernCalifornian.In1860hewasinSanFrancisco,wherehesettypeforandcontributedpoemsandsketchestotheGoldenEra.Hemovedontoa
clerkshipintheSurveyorGeneral'sofficeand,afterhismarriagein1862,tothepostofSecretaryoftheBranchMint.TheLostGalleonandOtherTales(1867)was
acollectionofverseCondensedNovelsandOtherPapers(1867)includedsomecleverparodies.In1868hebecamethefirstEditorofOverlandMonthly,in
whichappearedthetwosentimentalbutwittilywrittenstoriesforwhichheisbestremembered,'TheLuckofRoaringCamp'(August1868)and'TheOutcastsof
PokerFlat'(January1869),andhishumorousnarrativepoem,'PlainLanguagefromTruthfulJames'(September1870),alsoknownas'TheHeathenChinee'.In1871
hevisitedtheAmericanEast,wherehisreputationwassuchthatAtlanticMonthlyofferedhimtheunprecedentedsumof$10,000for12poemsorsketchesoverthe
nextyear.HemovedtoBoston,buteitherbecauseofthepoorqualityofhisworkoritslatedelivery,hiscontractwasnotrenewed.Thesuccessofanovelofthegold
rush,GabrielConroy(1876),filledthecoffersforawhile,butthoughhecontinuedtowriteprolificallyanddesperately,andenlargededitionsofThePoeticalWorks
(1872)appearedin1896and1902,thebasisofhisreputationcontinuedtobethevisionoftheWildWestwhichheofferedinhisSanFranciscoyears.In1878he
gladlyacceptedthepostofConsulinKrefeld,Prussia,andfirmlylefthiswifeathome.In1880hetransferredtoGlasgow,whereheremaineduntilthechangeof
administrationin1885.LatterlyheappearstohavelivedinEnglandinamnagetroiswithaBelgiancouple.SeeSelectedStoriesandSketches,ed.DavidWyatt,
1995.
Hartley,L(eslie)P(oles)(18951972)
Britishnovelistandshortstorywriter,theonlysonofaretiredsolicitorwhomanagedaprosperousbrickfactory,wasbroughtupinthefamilyhomeofFlettonTower,
nearPeterborough.HewaseducatedatHarrowandBalliolCollege,Oxford,withatwoyeargapforwarserviceonthehomefront.From1922to1939hespent
halfofeachyearinVenice,whichfeaturesinmanyofhisstoriesand17novels,andwrotebookreviewsforseveraljournals.Apartfromashortnovelinthemannerof
HENRYJAMES,SimonettaPerkins(1925),hisearlypublishedworksarestoriesofthemacabreNightFearsandOtherStories(1924)andTheKillingBottle
(1932).Hisfirstmajornovel,TheShrimpandtheAnenome,wasbeguninthe1920s,buthedidnotpublishituntil1944,feelingthatitmightbeunfairlyregardedas
overtlyautobiographical.Itreveals,withgreatpsychologicalinsight,theintellectualrelationshipbetweenaboyandhiseldersister,whichiscontinuedinTheSixth
Heaven(1946)andEustaceandHilda(1947),thetitlebywhichthetrilogyisknown.InTheGoBetween(1953),thepositionandtribulationsofachildinanadult
worldarefurtherexploredinanEdwardiancountryhousesetting.Inthisbook,too,andinTheHireling(1957),theapparentdangersofsexualrelationshipsbetween
differentclassesloomlarge.AfterWorldWarIIhedividedhistimebetweenLondonandhishouseontheAvonnearBath,wherehewastendedlatterlybya
successionofsinistermaleservants.HewasmadeCBEin1956.HistwosisterslivedonatFlettontheyoungerdiedin1994havinggiveninstructionsthatallfamily
papersweretobedestroyed.SeeTheCompleteShortStoriesofL.P.Hartley,1973AdrianWright,ForeignCountry:theLifeofL.P.Hartley,1996Anne
Mulkeen,WildThyme,WinterLightning:theSymbolicNovelsofL.P.Hartley,1974.
Harvey,Gabriel
seeNASHESPENSER.
Harwood,Gwen(b.1920)
neFoster,Australianpoet,wasborninTaringa,Queensland,andeducatedatBrisbaneGirls'GrammarSchool.Shestudiedandtaughtmusic,andwasorganistatAll
Saints'Church,Brisbane.In1945shemarriedWilliamHarwood,alecturerinlinguistics,andmovedtoTasmania,wheretheyhadfourchildrenandultimatelyretired
toOyster

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Cove.Shebeganwritingpoetryinherlatethirties,inhospital.Amongthesatiricalexcursionsandconventionallycrafted,vividlypresentedexpressionsofmentaland
physicalpainandfemininefrustrationinPoems(1963)andPoems:VolumeTwo(1968)areironicprojectionsofpersonawhichemergethroughthecharactersof
tworestlessprofessors,theunfulfilledEisenbartandthealcoholicKrte.TheLion'sBride(1981)openswithanallegory(orisitanallegory?)oflifeanddeath,and
containspoemsinspiredbytheTasmanianlandscape.FrancisGeyer,T.EKline,WalterLehmann,andMiriamStonearepennameswhichHarwoodhasemployed
fromtimetotime.SeeCollectedPoems,1991StephanieTrigg,GwenHarwood,1994(criticalstudy).
Hasek,Jaroslav(18831923)
Czechnovelistandjournalist,wasborninPrague,thesonofaschoolmasterwhodiedofdrinkin1886.Hewasexpelledfromschoolin1897forparticipatingtoo
boisterouslyintheantiGermanriots.Hisbohemianproclivities,whichhesublimatedduringthreeyearsattheCommercialCollege,subsequentlyreturned.Afterbeing
dismissedfromtheSlaviaBankhetookupfreelancejournalismandjoinedtheanarchistmovement,beingjailedin1907forassaultingapoliceman.Toimpressthe
parentsofJarmilaMayerov,withwhomhewasinlove,hepublishedsomestoriesandgotajobaseditorofanaturalhistorymagazine,onlytobedismissedfor
writingaboutfictitiousanimals.Themarriagetookplacein1910,butsoonaftertheyhadhadasonin1912,JarmilareturnedtoherparentsandHasektohisformer
lifestyle.Aprototypeof'goodsoldierSvejk'emergedinhisstoriesin1911,tobecompletelyrealizedandrationalizedonceHasekhadbeen,asSvejkwastobe,
draftedintothe91stInfantryRegimentin1915.SooncapturedbytheRussians,hespentfiveyearsinRussia,duringwhichhegraduatedfromprisonerto
apparatchik.InvitedbytheSocialDemocraticPartytoreturntoCzechoslovakiain1920,hebroughtwithhimaRussianwomanwhomhehadbigamouslymarried.
HavingpublishedabookofSvejkstoriesinKievin1917,henowembarkedonafourvolumeaccountofhiscreation'sexploits.Whennopublisherdaredtakeiton,
hepublishedthefirstvolumeprivatelyin1921.Theresponsefromthepublicwassufficientforhimtofindacommercialpublisherforthewholework,andtobuya
cottageinLipnice.Hediedwithoutfinishingthefourthvolume,anditwasnotuntilthenecessarytimehadelapsedbetweentheendofWorldWar!anditsacceptance
asaserioussubjectforliterature(seealsoALDINGTON,BLUNDEN,FREDERICMANNING,REMARQUE,andSHERRIFF)thathisbroadhumourandinventivecharacterizationwere
universallyaccepted.SeeTheGoodSoldierSvejk:andHisFortunesintheWorldWar,tr.CecilParrott,newedn1993.
Hauptmann,Gerhart(18621946)
Germandramatistandnovelist,wasborninOberSalzbrunnandeducatedattheRealschuleamZwinger,Breslau.Hethentrainedonanuncle'sfarm,tooksculptureat
theKniglicheKunstundGewerbeschule,Breslau,anddrawingattheKniglicheAkademie,Dresden,andstudiedatBerlinUniversity,whilealsohavingacting
lessons.HemarriedMarieThienemann(18601914)in1885(theyhadthreesons),andbeganthelifeofawriter.ThenaturalismofthenovellaBahnwrterThiel
[FlagmanThiel](1888)wasmorethanmatchedinhisfirstplay,VorSonnenaufgang(1889tr.LeonardBloomfieldasBeforeDawn,1909),which,thoughitwas
admiredbyFONTANE,earnedforitsauthorfromanothercriticthetitleofthe'mostimmoralplaywrightofthecentury'.DieWeber(1893asTheWeaverstr.Mary
Morison,1899tr.HorstFrenzandMilesWaggoner,withHanneleandTheBeaverCoat,1951)issignificantinitsapplicationofNaturalistictechniquesand'open'
dramaticformtodocumentedhistory.MichaelKramer(1900)soimpressedJOYCEthatheemployedhisrudimentaryGermantotranslateitintoEnglish.Mythological
materialandsymbolismarefeaturesoflaterplayssuchasUndPippatanzt(1906tr.MaryHarnedasAndPippaDances,1907),andofnovelssuchasDerNarr
inChristo,EmanuelQuint(1910tr.ThomasSeltzerasTheFoolinChrist:EmanuelQuint,1911)andDieInseldergrossenMutter(1924tr.WillaandEdwin
MuirasTheIslandoftheGreatMother,1925).Afterbeingdivorcedin1904HauptmannmarriedMargareteMarschalk(18751957),whomhehadfirstmetwhen
shewas14andbywhomhehadhadasonin1900.In1906hewasbrieflybuttotallyinfatuatedwithIdaOrloff(18891945),ateenagetemptresswhoactedas
herselfinPippa.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1912.SeePlays:BeforeDaybreak,TheWeavers,TheBeaverCoat,ed.ReinholdGrimmand
CarolineMonlinayVedia,1994.
HaveL,Vclav(b.1936)
Czechdramatist,essayist,andstatesman,wasborninPragueofawealthyfamilyoflanddevelopers,andwasbarredbyhisbourgeoisupbringingfromhavinga
universityeducation.Aftertwoyearsattechnicalcollege,followedbyanothertwoofmilitaryservice,heattachedhimselftothetheatreinavarietyofworking
capacities,andbecameaplaywright.TwoofhisfirstcycleoffulllengthplayswerepublishedintheUK(tr.VeraBlackwell)asTheMemorandum(1967)andThe
GardenParty(1969),eachpartlyavehicleforhispoliticalideasandpartlyananalysisofthephenomenonoflanguageasaninstrumentofpower.AftertheSoviet
invasionof

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hiscountryin1968hisworkswerebanned,butstillcirculatedsurreptitiously.Hebecametheleadingspokesmanfortherightsorganization,Charter77,andwasthree
timesimprisoned,onthelastoccasion,in1979,for41/2years.Duringthe1989politicalrevolutionhebecameleaderofCivicForum,theantiCommunistalliance,
andwassubsequentlyelectedPresidentofCzechoslovakiaheresignedin1992afterfailingtogetthesupportoftheSlovaknationalists.HewaselectedPresidentof
theCzechRepublicin1993.LetterstoOlga,tr.PaulWilson(1989),writtenfromprisontohiswife,neSplchalov(193396),whomhemarriedin1964,and
SummerMeditations:onPolitics,MoralityandCivilityinaTimeofTransition,tr.Wilson(1992)areenlighteningonhispoliticalviews.DisturbingthePeace:a
ConversationwithKarelHvzdala,tr.Wilson(1990)offersadoubleperspectiveinthathediscusseshisrelationshipwiththetheatreaswellashiscivicviews.See
OpenLetters:SelectedProse19651990,ed.andtr.PaulWilson,newedn1992SelectedPlays19631983,tr.VeraBlackwell,1992SelectedPlays1984
1987,tr.TomStoppardandothers,1994.
Hawkins,AnthonyHope
seeHOPE.
Hawthorne,Nathaniel(180464)
Americannovelist,andshortstoryandchildren'swriter,wasborninSalem,Massachusetts,theonlysonofNathanielHawthorne(orHathorne),aseacaptainwhose
familyhadbeenPuritanimmigrantsfourgenerationsearlier,andwhodiedinSurinam,DutchGuiana,in1808.Hewasbroughtupinthehomeofhismother'sparents,
theManningshisunclestookresponsibilityforhiseducation.Afootinjuryincurredwhileplayingballin1813lefthimoncrutchesforsometime.In1818thefamily
movedfortwoyearstoRaymond,Maine,onthewildshoreofLakeSebago,wherehewent'savagizing'inthewoodsandthoroughlyenjoyedthesolitude.In1819he
spentatermatRev.CalebBradley'sboardingschool,nearPortland,fromwhichhewenttoSamuelL.Archer'sSchool,Salem,beforebeingpreparedforcollegeby
atutorathome.HoratioBridge(180693),FranklinPierce(180469),andLONGFELLOWwerecontemporariesatBowdoinCollege,Maine,fromwhichhegraduatedin
1825convincedthathewouldbeawriterbutwithoutanyclearideaofhowtogoaboutit.ForthenexttwelveyearshelivedmainlyathomeinSalem,reading,
studying(especiallycolonialhistory),andwriting.HepublishedFanshawe(1828),aGothicromanceinarealisticcollegesetting,athisownexpense,andthen
suppressedit,burningeverycopyhecouldlayhandsonhenevertoldhiswifeofitsexistence.Whenthepublishertowhomhehadoffered'SevenTalesoMy
NativeLand'delayedadecision,hewithdrewthemanuscriptanddestroyedit,infrustration.Storieswrittenfortwofurtherbooks,'ProvincialTales'and'TheStory
Teller',weredismantledfromtheirframeworksbytheeditorsoftheannualTokenandoftheNewEnglandMagazine,whoprintedthemanonymously,sothat'no
objectionarisesfromhavingsomanypagesbyoneauthor'.Amongthemwere'TheGentleBoy'(1832),'RogerMalvin'sBurial'(1832),'YoungGoodman
Brown'(1835),'Wakefield'(1835),'TheMaypoleofMerryMount'(1936),and'TheMinister'sBlackVeil'(1836).In1836hewasreducedtoediting,forseveral
monthsinBoston,theAmericanMagazineofUsefulandEntertainingKnowledge,andtocompilingforchildren,withhissisterElizabeth(180283),Peter
Parley'sUniversalHistoryontheBasisofGeography(1837).Thebreakthrough,whenitcame,wasinitiatedbyBridge,who,unknowntoHawthorneuntilmuch
later,subsidizedthepublicationofTwiceToldTales(1837).
ThroughElizabethPeabody(180494),theeducationistandpromoterofcauses,ofwhichsheregardedHawthorneasone,hemethersisterSophia(180971),a
semiinvalidwhosesymptomshavebeenlikenedtothoseofE.B.ROWNING.In1838theybecameengaged.Toearnsomemoneyonwhichtomarry,hetookapostas
aninspectorattheBostonCustomHouse,whichseemstohaveinvolvedcountingtubsofcoalandsalt.Duringthistimehewrotelittleexcepteloquentlovelettersto
SophiaandGrandfather'sChair(1841),NewEnglandhistoricalstoriesforchildren,publishedbyElizabethPeabodyfromherbookshopinBoston.HeandSophia
weremarriedin1842,andforseveralyearslivedattheOldManse,Concord,wherehewrotethenewtalesthatappearedinMossesFromanOldManse(1846).
Nowalsowithtwochildrentosupport,in1846heacceptedthepoliticallycontrolledpostofSurveyorattheSalemCustomHouse,fromwhichhewasremovedin
1849whentheWhigscametopower.Thecontroversynettledhimintoafeverishboutofcreativity,inwhichhewroteTheScarletLetter:aRomance(1850),
originallyintendedasoneofacollectionoftales,butpublishedonitsown,withanautobiographicalintroduction,'TheCustomHouse',inwhichhegavehisversionof
theaffair.Setin17thcenturyNewEngland,andevoking'apeopleamongstwhomreligionandlawwerealmostidentical',thestorywasquicklyrecognizedonboth
sidesoftheAtlanticasanoutstandingstudyofattitudestosinandguilt,andofhumanpsychology.
Merefame,however,didnotpaythebills.Thoughhepublishedtwocontemporarynovels,TheHouseoftheSevenGables(1851),withechoesofthepast,andThe
BlithedaleRomance(1852),aboutaUtopiancommunity,TheSnowImageandOtherTwiceToldTales(1851),

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andsomechildren'sbooks,includingTanglewoodTalesforGirlsandBoys(1853),hewasgladtoacceptin1853theinvitationofPierce,nowPresidentofthe
UnitedStates,tobeConsulinLiverpool.Heserveduntil1857,afterwhichheandhisfamilyspenttwoyearsinRomeandFlorence,wherehebeganTheMarble
Faun(1860inBritainasTransformation,1860),anItalianromanceofinnocence,experience,andguilt,withhistoricalandmythologicalsymbolism.Whenhedied,
probablyofabraintumour,heleftfourunfinishednovels.EMERSONwroteinhisjournal:'YesterdayweburiedHawthorneinSleepyHollow,inapompofsunshineand
verdure,andgentlewinds....Ithoughthimagreatermanthananyofhisworksbetray,thattherewasstillagreatdealofworkinhim,andthathemightoneday
showapurerpower.'Therewerethreechildreninall.Theeldest,Una,caughtafeverwhilesketchingintheColosseuminRomein1858,resultinginspellsofinsanity,
anddiedunmarriedat32.JulianHawthorne(18461934),authorofpopularnovelsandfamilybiographies,servedaprisonsentenceforfraud.Rose,theyoungest,
becameaDominicansistercaringforterminalcancerpatients.SeeEdwinHavilandMiller,SalemIsMyDwellingPlace:aLifeofNathanielHawthorne,newedn
1993T.WalterHerbert,DearestBeloved:theHawthornesandtheMakingoftheMiddleClassFamily,newedn1995(historyoftheirmarriage)Edward
Wagenknecht,NathanielHawthorne:theMan,HisTales,andRomances,1989TerenceMartin,NathanielHawthorne,rev.edn1984(criticalstudy).
Hay,GeorgeCampbell
seeHAY,JOHNMACDOUGALL.
Hay,Ian,PseudonymofJohnHayBeith(18761952)
Scottishnovelistanddramatist,thegrandsonofafounderoftheFreeChurchofScotland,wasborninManchesterandeducatedatFettesCollegeandStJohn's
College,Cambridge.AfterwritingPip:aRomanceofYouth(1907),stilloneofthebestnovelsfeaturingcricket,andothernovelsinasimilarbuoyantvein,hegave
upteachingforauthorship.In1914hewascommissionedintheArgyllandSutherlandHighlanders,servingwiththemandtheMachineGunCorpsinFranceuntil
1916,andwinningtheMilitaryCross.DuringthistimehewroteTheFirstHundredThousand(1915)andCarryingOn(1917).Theircrisp,nonchalantstylereflects
theoptimisticmoodinwhichthewarwasthenbeingconductedandthepublicschoolethoswhichdominateditscommand,buttheycontainenoughpathosandstark
observationnottobedismissedasinsensitivereportage.HewasthenpostedtotheBritishWarMissionintheUSA,andwasmadeCBEin1918.Afterthewarhe
deftlyadaptedforthestagesomeofhisnovels,includingHappygoLucky(1913),ASafetyMatch(1921),andHousemaster(1936),andcollaboratedwithothers,
includingWODEHOUSE,indramatizingtheirworks.HewasDirectorofPublicRelationsattheWarOffice193841,withtherankofmajorgeneral.Hewasanunusual
memberofthemonarch'sbodyguardinScotland,theRoyalCompanyofArchers,inthathewasanexcellentshotwiththebow.
Hay,JohnMacdougall(18811919)
Scottishnovelist,wasborninTarbert,Argyllshire,andeducatedatthelocalschoolandatGlasgowUniversity.HetaughtintheWestHighlands,butduringorasa
resultofasevereattackofrheumaticfever,hedecidedtobecomeaChurchofScotlandminister.HereturnedtoGlasgowUniversityin1905,keepinghimselfby
freelancejournalism,atwhichhehadhadsomesuccessinhisundergraduatedays.In1909hewasappointedMinisterofElderslie,anurbanparish,wherehe
continuedtoworkatanovel,Gillespie(1914),whosemaincharacter'sdrivingambitionanddemonicsinglemindednessbringssufferingtohisfamilyanddestruction
tothecommunityand,ultimately,tohimself.ButforbeingpublishedatthebeginningofWorldWarI,itmighthavehadasimilarimpacttothatofGEORGEDOUGLAS'SThe
HousewiththeGreenShutters,withwhichithasaffinitiesandsharesanintensityofvisionandlanguage.Asecondnovel,Barnacles(1916),andavolumeoffree
verse,TheirDeadSons(1918),werehisonlyotherpublishedbooks.Hediedoftuberculosis.Hisson,GeorgeCampbellHay(191584),taughthimselfGaelic,in
whichhebecameanotablepoet,aswellaswritingverseinEnglishandScots.
Hayden,Robert(191380)
Americanpoet,wasbornAsaBundySheffyintheblackghettoof'ParadiseValley',Detroit,andwasshortlyafterwardsleftwithneighbours,whobroughthimupand
gavehimnewnames.Hiseducationwashandicappedbymyopia,butwhilegoingthroughthelocalschoolsystemhealsotookviolinlessonsattheInstituteofMusical
Art,andhehadapoem,'Africa',publishedinAbbot'sWeeklyin1931.HewentontoDetroitCityCollege,wherehemajoredinSpanish.Hewasthenassignedby
theFederalWriters'Projecttoresearchlocalhistory,negrofolklore,andtheantislaverymovementduringtheyearsbeforetheCivilWar,whichhelatercombined
withtheexperienceofhisownupbringingastheessenceofhismostnotableverse.Asaparttimestudent,hewonanawardattheUniversityofMichiganfora
manuscriptofpoems,whichwaspublishedinanenlargedformasHeartShapeintheDust(1940).Asafulltimestudentfrom1941to1944hewastaughtbyAUDEN.
HewasaprofessorofEnglishatFiskUniversityfrom1946to1969,andattheUniversityofMichiganfrom1969untilhisdeath.Hisbest

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knownpoemis'MiddlePassage',acollageofvividimpressionsoftheAtlanticslaveships,whichhefirstwrotein1945andrevisedforinclusioninABalladof
Remembrance(1962).In1976hebecamethefirstblackpoettobeConsultanttotheLibraryofCongress.SeeCollectedPoems,ed.FrederickGlaysher,2ndedn
1996TheCollectedProse,1984FredM.Fetrow,RobertHayden,1984(criticalstudy).
Hayley,William
seeBLAKESMITH,CHARLOTTE.
Haywood,Eliza(c.16931756)
neFowler,Englishnovelistanddramatist,WasBorninLondon,theDaughterofaShopkeeper.ShemarriedaNorfolkclergyman,ValentineHaywood,hadason
whowasbaptizedinLondonin1711,andmadeheractingdebutinDublinin1715.Herfirstnovel,LoveinExcess:or,TheFatalEnquiry,waspublishedinthree
volumesin171920.In1721herhusbandannouncedinapressadvertisementthatshehadlefthim.Shenowbegantoturnoutfurthersteamynovelsandsomewhat
scandalous'secrethistories'atsuchapacethatacollectedWorkswascalledforin1724.Shewasalsowritingplays(includingacomedy,AWifetobeLett,inwhich
sheherselfappearedin1724),andpublishingtranslationsfromtheFrench.Sheseemsduringthistimetohavehadtwoillegitimatechildrenandseverallovers,andshe
appearsinBookIIofPOPE'STheDunciad(1728)astheindelicatelyattiredprizeforaratherdisgustingcontestbetweentwobooksellers.Duringthe1730sshewrote
littlebutdidmoreacting,untiltheLicensingActof1737.ShesetupbrieflyasapublisherinCoventGardeninabout1740,andeditedthemonthlyFemaleSpectator
(thefirstmagazineforwomeneditedbyawoman)from1744to1746,andtheweeklyParrotin1746.Bynowthedemandforpopularfictionwhichsheherselfhad
helpedtocreatewasbeingveryproperlyanddifferentlymetbySAMUELRICHARDSON,HENRYFIELDING,andSMOLLETTinparticular,butwithtrueprofessionalaplombshe
producedTheHistonyofMissBetsyThoughtless(1751).Theheroine,afterlosingherloverthroughherownvanity,seekstobecomeanindependentwoman,
marriesanunsuitablehusband,leaveshim,andisfinallyreunitedwithherlostlover,butinmarriage,andonlyafterthedeathsofherhusbandandhiswife.SeeThree
Novellas:TheDistress'dOrphan,TheDoubleMarriage,TheCityJilt,ed.EarlaA.Wilputte,1995.
Hazlitt,William(17781830)
Britishessayistandcritic,wasborninMaidstone,Kent,thesonofaUnitarianministerwhothenmovedtoIrelandandAmerica,beforesettlinginWem,Shropshire.
At14,HazlittwasenteredfortheministryatNewCollege,Hackney,butabandonedhisfaiththreeyearslater.In1798hemetCOLERIDGE,underwhoseinfluencehe
determinedtobeawriter,thoughinthemeantimehestudiedpainting,forwhichhehadsometalent.In1804hejoinedColeridgeandWORDSWORTHintheLakeDistrict,
buthadtoleaveafterattemptingsexualassaultsonlocalgirls,oneofwhomhespankedwhensheresistedhisadvances.Aftersometimeinthewildernessheventured
toLondon,wastakenupbyLAMB,andbecameareporterfortheMorningChronicle.Hewassoonpromotedtowritingdramaticandliteraryreviews,andmovedon
tootherjournals,includingTheTimes.WithinafewyearshehadenoughmaterialtopublishCharactersofShakespeare'sPlays(1817),AViewoftheEnglish
Stage:oraSeriesofDramaticCriticisms(1818),andLecturesontheEnglishPoets(1818).HisattacksontheRomanticpoetscausedsomeoffence,thoughhe
laterreconsideredhisjudgmentsinTheSpiritoftheAge:orContemporaryPortraits(1825),wherehedevelopedhisbeliefthattoacriticthepersonalityofthe
writerisasrelevantaswhathewrites.Astimulatingessayistwithawiderangeofliterarystyles,HazlittwroteperceptivelyandequallywellaboutEnglishpoetry,
prose,anddramafromtheirbeginningsandextendedthefieldofliteraryhistoriographyintohisowntimes.Hehadtwobrokenmarriagesandanunfortunatelove
affair,detailsofwhichheparadedinLiberAmoris:or,TheNewPygmalion(1823).SeeSelectedWritings,ed.onCook,1991StanleyJones,Hazlitt:aLife,
fromWinterslowtoFrithStreet,newedn1991J.B.PriestleyandR.L.Brett,WilliamHazlitt,1994(criticalintroduction).
Head,Bessie(193786)
novelist,wasborninPietermaritzburg,SouthAfrica,inthementalasyluminwhichhermother,thedaughterofawealthyracehorseowner,hadbeenconfined(and
whereshedied)forbeingpregnantbyablackstablehand.Shewasbroughtupbyblackfosterparents,andwaseducatedatamissionschoolfororphans.Afterfour
years'teachinginprimaryschools,shebecameajournalistwithDrumPublications,Johannesburg.ShemarriedHaroldHeadin1961,butin1964,havingbeen
involvedinthetrialofafriendforAfricannationalistactivities,shelefthimandwentintoexileinBotswana,ofwhichshewasgrantedcitizenshipin1979.Herfirst
novel,WhenRainCloudsGather(1969),reflectsherownexperienceasarefugeefromapartheidlivingattheBamagwatoDevelopmentFarm.Maru(1971)isa
penetratingreminderthattherecanbequestionsofcolour,andevenracism,wheretherearenowhites.InAQuestionofPower(1973)sherecreatesthe
hallucinationsofadisturbedmind,suchassheherselfhadsuffered,inthecontextofexileandrejectiononthegroundsofcolour.ABewitchedCrossroad:anAfrican
Saga(1984)drawsonandusesoralsourcestopresentasliceofBamagwatohis

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tory.Shediedofhepatitis.TalesofTendernessandPower(1990)takesstoriesfromallherwritinglife.SeeAWomanAlone:AutobiographicalWritings,ed.
CraigMacKenzie,1992GillianSteadEilersen,BessieHead,'ThunderBehindHerEars':aBiography,1996.
Heaney,Seamus(b.1939)
Irishpoetandcritic,wasborninMossbawm,Co.Derry,theeldestofninechildrenofaCatholiccattledealerandfarmer,andwaseducatedatStColumb'sCollege,
Derry,andQueen'sUniversity,Belfast.HehaslecturedonpoetryatQueen'sUniversityandatHarvard.Thetwinpreoccupationsofhisyouth,thelandwhichgavehis
familytheirlivingandthesectarianhatredagainstCatholicsinNorthernIreland(hehaslivedintheIrishRepublicsince1972),haveinfluencedhischoiceofthemes,
whichhehaspresentedwitheffectiverhythmandwithoutobscurity,areflectionalsoofhisloyaltytohisunbookishancestry.Hefeelsdeeply,too,aboutthepeatbog
cachesofIreland'sancientheritage(mudisarecurrentimageinhisverse),andhascomparedthesacrificialandpenitentialvictimswhosebodieshavebeenunearthed
(describedin'TheGrauballeMan','Punishment',and'BogQueen')withthosewhohavelosttheirlivesintheconflictsinmodernIreland.Memoriesofchildhood
abound,asinthetitlepoemofDeathofaNaturalist(1966),whileTheHawLantern(1987)containsasonnetsequencetothememoryofhismother,whodiedin
1984.SeeingThings(1991)marksachange,inthatheisreadytorelateclassicalliteraturetotoday,ratherthanavoidliteraryallusionswhichtheordinaryreader
mightmiss.Italsointroducesanewform,whichhecalls'Squarings',asequenceof12linepoemsinunrhymedtercets.Acriticalwork,TheGovernmentofthe
Tongue(1988),explorestheplaceofpoetryinthecontemporaryenvironment,whileexpressinghisownambivalentattitudetopoetryashischosencareer.
HeaneywasappointedBoylstonProfessorofRhetoricandOratoryatHarvardin1985,andwasProfessorofPoetryatOxford198994.Hewasawardedthe
NobelPrizeforLiteraturein1995seeCreditingPoetry:theNobelLecture(1996).ThecitationreferredtohisanalysisoftheviolenceinNorthernIrelandbut
'withtheexpressreservationthathewantstoavoidtheconventionalterms'.InhisOxfordlecture,'FrontiersofWriting'inTheRedressofPoetry(1995)he
answerscriticswhosuggestheshouldinhisworkhavetakensidesintheconflict.HiscollectionTheSpiritLevel(1996)reflectswhathecallsthe'fluidandrestorative
relationshipbetweenthemind'scentreanditscircumference',whileatthesametimebringinghometherawpaininherentinrecentIrishhistory.SeeNewSelected
Poems19661987,newedn1991Preoccupations:SelectedProse19681978,newedn1981RonaldTamplin,SeamusHeaney,1989(criticalstudy)Michael
Parker,SeamusHeaney:theMakingofaPoet,newedn1994(criticalstudy)BernardO'Donoghue,SeamusHeaneyandtheLanguageofPoetry,1994
AnthonyCurtis,TheArtofSeamusHeaney,1995AndrewMurphy,SeamusHeaney,1996(criticalintroduction).
Hearn,(Patrick)Lafcadio(18501904)
novelist,journalist,andtranslator,wasbornintheislandofLafcadio,Greece,ofaBritisharmysurgeonandamemberofanancientIonianfamily.Hismotherwent
mad,andhewasbroughtupinDublinbyawidowedRomanCatholicgreataunt,bywhomhewaslefttofendforhimselfaftereducationinEnglandatStCuthbert's
College,Ushaw,wherehelostaneye,andforayearinFranceataseminarynearRouen.In1869hearrivedinCincinnati,Ohio,andthere,andinNewOrleansfrom
1881to1887,hescrapedwhatlivinghecouldfromjournalism,hisprogressbeinghamperedbyhisassociation(andpossiblymarriage)withablackwoman.He
wroteeffective'CreoleSketches',andpublishedtwovolumesofcurioustales,StrayLeavesfromStrangeLiterature(1884)andSomeChineseGhosts(1887).
Chita:aMemoryoftheLastIsland(1889),isaSymbolistnovel.InMartinique,aboutwhichhewroteTwoYearsintheFrenchWestIndies(1890),he
discoveredthereadymadeplotofYouma:theStoryofaWestIndianSlave(1890).In1890hewenttoJapantowritesomearticlesforHarper'sNewMonthly
Magazine,andstayedfortherestofhislife.Hemarriedthedaughterofanoldsamuraifamily,whichadoptedhim,withthenameofYakumoKoizumi,whenin1895
hebecameacitizenofJapan.HewasProfessorofEnglishLiteratureattheImperialUniversity,Tokyo,from1896untilforcedtoresignin1903.Hewrotesome
interestingworksonJapaneseculture,includingGlimpsesofUnfamiliarJapan(1894)andJapan:anAttemptatInterpretation(1904).Histranslationsinclude
GomboZhbes:LittleDictionaryofCreoleProverbs(1885),andworksofDAUDET,FRANCE,GAUTIER,MAUPASSANT,andZOLA.SeeLafcadioHearn:Japan'sGreat
Interpreter,aNewAnthologyofHisWritings18941904,ed.LouisAllenandJeanWilson,1992.
HeathStubbs,John(b.1918)
Britishpoet,critic,dramatist,andtranslator,wasborninLondon,butlivedinHampshirefromtheagesofsixto24.HewaseducatedintheIsleofWight,at
WorcesterCollegefortheBlind,andatTheQueen'sCollege,Oxford,wherehewasinfluencedbytheteachingofc.s.LEWISandCHARLESWILLIAMS,andwasa
considerableinfluenceonKEYES.Hisfirstbookofverse,WoundedThammuz,waspublishedin1942.HewasGregoryFellowinPoetry,LeedsUniversity195255,
VisitingProfessorofEnglish,AlexandriaUniversity195558,andLecturerinEnglish,Collegeof

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StMarkandStJohn,Chelsea196373.HAMBURGERhascitedthe'courageanddignity'withwhichHeathStubbs'hasbornetheaffliction...ofnot[being]preferred
becausetheEstablishmenttowhichhehasalwaysbeencommittedwasshiftingallthetime,andhewasnot'thepoetandcriticC.H.Sisson(b.1914)hasdescribed
himas'aJohnsonianpresencewithaMiltonicdisability',areferencetohisblindness.Neverthlessheisanessentiallyhumanaswellasahumorouspoet,muchof
whoseworkbringsthepasttobearonthepresent,andthepresentonthefuture,asforexamplein'SaintFrancisPreachestotheComputers','ApologiaofaPlastic
Gnome','FurtherAdventuresofDrFaustus',and'ToaPoetaThousandYearsHence',whichalsodemonstratehisironicwit.Hisversedramashavebeenpublished
inHeleninEgyptandOtherPlays(1958),andhehastranslatedintoEnglishthepoetryofLEOPARDI(1946),and,withPeterAvery,HAFIZ(1952)andOMARKHAYYM
(1979).HewasawardedtheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1973,andmadeOBEin1989.SeeCollectedPoems19431987,1988SelectedPoems,1990
SweetappleEarth,1993(subsequentcollection)Hindsights:anAutobiography,newedn1994.
Hbert,Anne(b.1916)
FrenchCanadiannovelistandpoet,wasborninSainteCatherinedeFossambault,Quebec,thedaughterofaliterarycritic,andwaseducatedinQuebecatCollege
SaintCoeurdeMarieandCollegeNotreDame.Shewasinfluencedbyhercousin,thepoetofculturalliberationforQuebec,HectordeSaintDenysGarneau(1912
43),whoseearlydeathdeeplyaffectedherandthecourseofherwriting.Shepublishedabookofversein1942,andthenin1950,atherownexpense,LeTorrent
(tr.GwendolynMooreasTheTorrent:NovellasandShortStories,1973),whosetitlestoryinparticularreflectsherattitudeofrevoltagainsttheprevailingorderof
things.ThepoemsinTombeaudesRois(1953tr.PeterMillerasTheTomboftheKings,1967tr.JoanneCollier,ed.TimothyMathewsandMichaelWorton,as
TomboftheKings,bilingualedn1996)presentanexplorationofselfinthefaceofdeath.Itwasreissuedwithasecondcycle,'MystredelaParole',asPomes
(1960,winneroftheGovernorGeneral'sAwardtr.AlanBrownasPoemsbyAnneHbert,1975)seealsoSelectedPoems,tr.A.Poulin(1987).Duringthe
1950ssheworkedforRadioCanadaandtheNationalFilmBoard,andwithagovernmentgrantspentthreeyearsinParis,whereshewroteherfirstnovel,Les
ChambresdeBois(1958tr.KathyMezeiasTheSilentRooms,1974),whosethemeofliberationissimilartothatembodiedinherverse.Kamouraska(1970tr.
NormanShapiro,1973),whichexploresina19thcenturysettingawoman'sanguishatherpast,isthefirstoffournovelsofstrangehappenings,breathlesssuspense,
witchcraft,andthemurderofinnocentvictims,whichinHlose(1980tr.SheilaFischman,1982)istheworkofafemalevampirewhohauntstheParisMetro.
Hecht,Anthony(b.1923)
Americanpoetandcritic,wasborninNewYorkCity,andwaseducatedatBardCollege,AnnandaleonHudson.AfterservingintheUSNavyinWorldWarII,he
becameauniversityprofessor,inwhichcapacityhehastaughtprincipallyatNewYorkUniversity,SmithCollege,BardCollege,andRochesterUniversity,becoming
UniversityProfessor,GraduateSchool,GeorgetownUniversity,in1985.Hisfirstbookofverse,ASummoningofStones,waspublishedin1954:TheHardHours
(1967PulitzerPrize)contained15poemsfromthatbook,togetherwithTheSevenDeadlySins(1958)andotherpoems.TheVenetianVespers(expandededn
1979)includessomelongerpoemsreflectingespeciallyonecological,architectural,andsocialcontrasts.RecentvolumesareTheTransparentMan(1990)and
FlightamongtheTombs(1996),awitty,elegantcollectioncomprisingthesequences'PresumptionsofDeath',and'ProustonSkates'.CollectedEarlierPoems
waspublishedin1990.HeisapoetcriticinthetraditionofAUDENandRANSOM,whosecarefullycraftedversedisplayserudition,humour,andaconcernforhuman
relationshipsaswellasforsuchinternationalcatastrophesastheBlackDeathandtheHolocaust.HiscriticalworksincludeObbligati:EssaysinCriticism(1986),a
studyofAuden(1993),andOntheLawsofthePoeticArt(A.W.MellonLectures,1995).
Heine,Heinrich(17971856)
Germanpoetandcritic,wasbornHarryHeinrich,ofJewishparentageandupbringing,inDusseldorf,andwastrainedthereandinFrankfurtandHamburgfora
businesscareer.In1819hisrichuncleSolomon,aHamburgbanker,withwhosedaughterHeinehadfalleninlove,senthimtostudylawatBonnUniversity.He
transferredtoGottingen,whichheleftforBerlinafterbeinginvolvedinaduel.HelaterreturnedtoBerlintobecomeLLDin1825,havingalreadypublishedabookof
verse(1822)andtwotragedies(1823).Henow(forthesakeofconvenience)hadhimselfbaptized,andembarkedonaperiodoftravel(includingEnglandandItaly),
onwhichhebasedthequirkishprosereminiscences,Reisebilder(4vols182631tr.CharlesGodfreyLelandasPicturesofTravel,1855).BuchderLieder(1826
tr.J.E.WallisasBookofSongs,1856)establishedhisclaimtobethepoeticsuccessorofGOETHE.ThepoliticalsituationinGermanyandhisinterestinthesocial
philosophyofComtedeSaintSimon(17601825)movedhimin1831toseekvoluntaryexileinParis(heaccepteda

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subsidy,whichhedidnotreallyneed,fromthereactionaryFrenchgovernmentin1840),wherehesetaboutexplainingtheGermancharactertotheFrenchinessays
amongthemiscellaneousproseandverseinDerSalon(4vols183440).Similarsentiments,andthepolaritiesofhisvision,arereflectedintwomockheroicpoems:
Deutschland:EinWintermrchen[Germany:aWinter'sTale](1844),apoliticalsatire,andAttaTroll:EinSommernachtstraum[AttaTroll:aSummerNight's
Dream](1847),whichhedescribedas'thelastfreeforestsongofRomanticism'.
In1834hebeganlivingwitha19yearoldsemiliterategrisette,CrescentiaMirat(d.1883),whomhecalled'Mathilde'.Theymarriedin1841.Fromabout1848he
wasconfinedtohis'mattressgrave'(apileofmattressesonthefloor)withanexcruciatingformoftertiarysyphiliswhichaffectedhisspine.Hestillmanagedcalmlyto
composeinhishead,andtodictate,thetwocyclesofLazarusPoems(tr.AlistairEliot,1992).Hissecretaryduringhisfinalyears,towhomasMouchehewrote
severalpoems,wasEliseKrinitz,whoafterhisdeathbecamethemistressoftheFrenchphilosopherandhistorianHippolyteTaine(182893),andwassubsequentlya
schoolteacherinRouen.RegardedbyJewsasarenegade,byChristiansasaJew,bytheFrenchasaGerman,andbymanyGermansasaturncoat,hewasthefirst
considerablewriterofJewishbirthinmoderntimestohavefeltfreetoindulgeinhumour.GEORGEELIOT'sarticle,'GermanWit:HeinrichHeine',appearedinthe
WestminsterReviewamonthbeforehisdeath.PoemsofHeineComplete:translated[byEdgarAlfredBowring]intheOriginalMetreswaspublishedin1858.
ARNOLD'SsignificantcriticalessaywasprintedinCornhillMagazinein1863.SeeTheCompletePoems,tr.HalDraper,newedn1984SongsofLoveandGrief,
tr.WalterW.Arndt,forewordbyJeffreyL.Sammons,1996(bilingualedn)SelectedProse,ed.andtr.RitchieRobertson,1993ErnstPawel,ThePoetDying:
HeinrichHeine'sLastYearsinParis,1995RitchieRobertson,Heine,1988(studyofhisthought).
Heinlein,RobertA(nson)(190788)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,andchildren'snovelist,wasborninButler,Missouri,thethirdofsevenchildrenofpoorparents.AfterKansasCityCentralHigh
School,heworkedhiswaythroughayearatKansasCityJuniorCollege,andthenobtainedaplaceattheUSNavyAcademy,Annapolis,fromwhichhepassed20th
outof243in1929.Heservedasagunneryofficer,butwasdischargedin1934withtuberculosis.AfterpostgraduatestudyinphysicsattheUniversityofCalifornia,
hetriedrealestate,silvermining,andpolitics,withoutsuccess.In1939herespondedtothechallengeofa$50prizecontestbywritingastory,'LifeLine',whichhe
sentinsteadtoAstoundingScienceFiction,reckoningthathewouldearnmore.By1941hewassupplying,underhisownnameandthatofAnsonMacDonald,a
fifthofthemagazine'scopy.Hespenttheyears194245asacivilresearchengineerattheNavalAirExperimentalStationinPhiladelphia.Aninnovatorinthathe
employedhisknowledgeoftechnologyasastartingpointfromwhichseriouslytoexplorenewsituations,hebecamewithStrangerinaStrangeLand(1961),his
eighthadultnovel,thefirstsciencefictionwritertofeatureintheNewYorkTimesbestsellerlist.Italsoconfoundedbothhimandcriticsbybecomingahippietext.In
muchthesameway,TheMoonisaHarshMistress(1966)wasacultbookforlibertarians.Hisrangeofformswithinthegenreiswide,embracingalsothefantasy
worldofTheNumberoftheBeast(1980)andtheironyofTheCatWhoWalksThroughWalls:aComedyofManners(1985).Otherpennamesofhismagazine
daysareSimonYorke,LyleMonroe,JohnRiverside,andCalebSaunders.SeeLeonStover,RobertHeinlein,1987(criticalstudy).
Heller,Joseph(b.1923)
Americannovelist,wasbornintheConeyIslandsectionofBrooklyn,NewYork,ofJewishimmigrantdescent,andafterAbrahamLincolnHighSchoolworkedfora
yearasafilingclerkbeforeenlistingintheUSArmyAirForcein1942.In194445heflewsixtycombatmissionsfromCorsicaasawingbombardier.After
graduatingfromColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,hedidfurtherstudyatOxfordasaFulbrightscholar,andthentaughtcompositionfortwoyearsatPennsylvania
StateUniversity.Hethenwentintoadvertising,risingfromcopywriteronTimemagazinetopromotionmanagerforMcCall's,whileworkingatnightonthedesignof
hisfirstnovel,Catch22(1961).Setinthewartimemilieuinwhichheserved,thisblack,philosophicalcomedyofmodernexistencebecamewhathasbeencalledthe
mostpopularseriousnovelofthedecade,anddonateditstitleasacoinagetothelanguage.Hellerspentsomesevenofthenext12yearswritingSomething
Happened(1974),apenetratingstudyofatormentedbusinessexecutiveandhisrelationsintheofficeandathome,especiallywithhischildren.GoodasGold(1979)
andGodKnows(1984)areJewishnovelsnotjustbecausetheprotagonistofthefirstisaJewishacademic,comicallycaughtbetweentwopolaritiesofassimilation,
andofthesecondisKingDavidhimself,withasplendidlineinanachronisticwisecracks,butbecausetheyreflectJewishtradition.SeveralofthecharactersinCatch
22reappear,fiftyyearson,inClosingTime(1994),anevenmoresurrealrompthroughthemadnesswhichHellerseesafflictingmodernAmerica.Hemadeastage
dramatizationofCatch22

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(1973)andalsowroteanAbsurdistdrama,WeBombedinNewHaven(1968).NoLaughingMatter(1986),writtenwithSpeedVogel,islargelyanaccountof
howhecopedwiththeonsetofandrecoveryfromthedangerouslycripplingneurologicalcondition,GuillainBarrsyndrome.SeeAdamJ.Sorkin(ed.),
ConversationswithJosephHeller,1993JudithRuderman,JosephHeller,1992(criticalstudy).
Hellman,Lillian(190584)
Americandramatist,wasbornofJewishdescentinNewOrleans,towhichherfather'sparentshademigratedfromGermanyinthe1840s.Sheresentedhermother's
richmiddleclassfamily,whowerefromDemopolis,Alabama,butaftershehadwrittenthemoutofhersysteminTheLittleFoxes(1939),'thisconflictwastogrow
lessimportant'.Whenherfather,having'lostmymother'slargedowry',becameatravellingsalesman,shespenthalfhertimeinNewOrleansandhalfinNewYork,
making'myNewOrleansteachersuncomfortablebecauseIwastoofaraheadofmyschoolmates,andmyNewYorkteachersirritablebecauseIwastoofarbehind'.
AftertwoyearsatNewYorkUniversity,shegotajobwithapublishingfirm,whichsheleftafterayeartomarryArthurKoberin1930theywenttoHollywood,
whereshereadmanuscriptsandhewrotescenarios.OneeveningshemetHAMMETT,whowas'gettingoverafivedaydrunk....WetalkedofT.S.Eliot...andthen
wentandsatinhiscarandtalkedateachotheruntilitwasdaylight.'WhenhereturnedtoNewYork,shewentwithhim(shewasdivorcedin1932).
Hammett,withwhomshelivedonandofffortherestofhislife,wasasterncriticofherplays.ThefirstwasTheChildren'sHour(1934),astudyofgoodandevilin
agirls'school,wheretwoteachersaremaliciouslyaccusedofhavingalesbianrelationshipwithhindsightitpresagestheantiCommunistwitchhuntsofthe1950s
duringwhichHellmanwastobeblacklisted.DaystoCome(1936)failed:notsoTheLittleFoxes.HavingseenatfirsthandFascistinhumanityinSpainin1937,she
demonstratedherconvictionsinanantiNazidrama,WatchontheRhine(1941).Shereturnedtoher'LittleFoxes'family,twentyyearsearlier,inAnotherPartof
theForest(1947),andcreatedaNewOrleansfamily,basedontheothersideofhers,forTheAutumnGarden(1951)andToysintheAttic(1960).Sharp
dialoguebacksadestructive,oftenselfdestructive,poweratworkinhercharactersandsituations.ShevisitedtheUSSRin1944inconnectionwithproductionsthere
ofherplays.In1952shewascalledbeforetheHouseofRepresentativesCommitteeonUnAmericanActivities.Inrefusingtotestify,shesaid:'Tohurtinnocent
peoplewhomIknewmanyyearsagoinordertosavemyselfis,tome,inhumanandindecentanddishonorable.Icannotandwillnotcutmyconsciencetofitthis
year'sfashions....AnUnfinishedWoman(1969)isanimpressionisticautobiographicalstudyitwasreissued,with'Pentimento':aBookofPortraits(1973),
whichincludesherrelationshipwithHAMMETT,andScoundrelTime(1976),anaccountoftheinvestigationsintoCommunistactivities,asThree(1979).Maybe(1980)
isafinalvolumeofreminiscences.SeeTheCollectedPlaysofLillianHellman,1972CarlRollyson,LillianHellman:HerLegendandHerLegacy,newedn
1989.
Hemans,Felicia(17931835)
neBrowne,Britishpoetandtranslator,wasborninLiverpoolofatalentedfamily,andbroughtupinWales,where,herfatherhavingabandonedhisfamilyandgone
tocanada,shewastaughtFrench,Italian,Spanish,andPortuguesebyhermother,andLatinbythelocalv.Poems(1808),thecontentsofwhichwaswrittenbetween
theagesofeightand13,createdastirbothbeforeandafterpublication.P.B.SHELLEYwassufficientlyimpressedbyit,andbyanaccountofitsauthor'slooks,totry
andenterintoacorrespondencewithher,butwasputinhisplacebyhermother.Shehadpublishedtwomorevolumesofverseby1818,whenshemarriedCaptain
AlfredHemans,aformerarmyofficer,woundedinthePeninsularwarandretiredwithoutpay,in1812.HewalkedoutonherandwenttoItalysixyearslater,leaving
herwithfivesonsevidencesuggeststhathewashumiliatednotonlybyherversifyingbutbyherabilitytoearnfromit.TranslationsfromCamoensandOther
Poetsappearedin1818,followedregularlybyfurthercompetenteffortsinavarietyofforms.ShelivedvariouslyinDublin,Wales,andLancashire,andin1829visited
Scotland,whereWALTERSCOTTtookherforawalk:'Sheisyoungandpretty....Thereistasteandspiritinherconversation.Mydaughtersarecritical,andcall
herblue,butIthinktheyarehypercritical.'Herpopularitywasconsiderable,andacollectededitionofherpoemswaspublishedintheUSAin1825.Herbest
rememberedlines,'Theboystoodontheburningdeck...'(from'Casabianca')and'ThestatelyhomesofEngland,/Howbeautifultheystand'('TheHomesof
England'),beliehertrueability,thoughhercontributionisperhapsbestsummedupbyProfessorIanJackinEnglishLiterature18151832(1963):'Forher,wefeel,
poetrywasafeminineaccomplishmentmoredifficultthanpianoplayingandembroiderybutnolessrespectable.'SeeJEWSBURY.
Hemingway,Ernest(Miller)(18991961)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninOakPark,Illinois,thesecondofsixchildrenofageneralpractitioner,whoin1928shothimself.Hewas
educatedatOakParkHighSchool,wherehewrotestoriesforthetwostudentjournalsand

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playedalotofsport.Notregardinghimselfasuniversitymaterial,heobtainedthroughanuncleajobascubreporterontheKansasCityStar,whichhegaveupin
1918afterafewmonthstovolunteerforambulancedutiesinWorldWarI.HewaspostedtoItaly,infiltratedhimselfintothefrontlineatFossaltadiPiave,andwas
blownupbyamortarshell.Hereturnedhomewithamedalforbraveryand227scarsonhislegs.In1921hemarriedHadleyRichardson,eightyearshissenior.On
themoneyfromhertrustfundandwithacommissionasforeigncorrespondentoftheTorontoStar,theywenttoParis,whereANDERSONhadprovidedintroductionsto
STEINandotherexpatriatemembersoftheliteraryset.AMoveableFeast,writtenwithhindsightinthelate1950sandpublishedposthumously(1964),comprises
sketchesofpeopleheknewduringthoseyearsseealsoPeterGriffin,LessthanaTreason:HemingwayinParis(1992).HetravelledinEuropeandspentmuch
timeinSpain.HepublishedinParisThreeStoriesandTenPoems(1923)andInOurTime(1924),reissuedintheUSA(1925)withthesketchesofviolence
interspersedwithstoriesofanadolescentgrowingup.Furtherbooksnowfollowed:TheTorrentsofSpring(1926),aparodyofAndersonMenWithoutWomen
(1927),asignificantshortstorycollectionandTheSunAlsoRises(1926inUKasFiesta,1927),hisfirstmajornovel,whichreflectsinthemeandstructurethe
rootlessexistenceofpostwarexpatriatesinEurope.Hadleydivorcedhimandin1927hemarriedherfriendseeGioiaDiliberto,Hadley:aLifeofHadley
RichardsonHemingway(1992).In1928hesetupapermanentbaseintheUSA,inKeyWest,Florida,whichheusedasawinterhome.
InAFarewelltoArms(1929)anAmericanofficerintheItalianambulanceserviceinWorldWarIfallsinlovewithanurse,asHemingwayhimselfhaddone,andis
thenwounded.Therestisimaginativereconstruction,ableakvisionofuselesswasteoflife,vividlypresentedintheeconomicstyleandwiththetelling,sparedialogue
thatarehishallmarks.Alwaysaccidentprone,hebadlybrokehisrightarmin1930whenhiscarturnedover,whichheldupprogressonhisscholarly,often
philosophicalstudyofbullfightingasanart,DeathintheAfternoon(1932).GreenHillsofAfrica(1935)ishisaccountofbiggamehuntinginKenyaand
Tanganyika.Asacorrespondentagain,hemadefourvisitstoSpainduringtheCivilWarof193639,duringwhichhebecamefirmlyassociatedwiththeLoyalist
cause,butrefusedafightingrolebecauseof'thecarnivaloftreacheryandrottennessonbothsides'.AnotherwarcorrespondentwasMarthaGellhorn(b.1908),later
anovelistinherownright,whomhehadmetinKeyWestin1935theymarriedin1940afterhisseconddivorce.BetrayalonbothsidesintheSpanishwarisa
featureofForWhomtheBellTolls(1940)thetitleisfromDONNE'SDevotionsinwhichtheblowingupofabridgebehindtheenemylinesisthemainspringofthe
plotandasymbolofthefutilityofpoliticization.
In1942heestablishedaprivatewatchforNazisubmarinesoffCuba,wherehewasthenliving,byequippinghisyachtasanarmedQboattheposthumously
publishedIslandsintheStream(1970)isafictionalizedaccountoftheoperation.In1944heflewtoLondontowritearticlesabouttheRoyalAirForceatwar,and
managedtogethimselfintoNormandyshortlyaftertheAlliedlandings,andthentoattachhimselftothe4thInfantryDivision.Hesawplentyofactionduringthe
advance,atonepointmobilizinghisownbandofpartisans,andwasamemberofaprivatearmyofirregularswhichplayedapartintheliberationofParis.
Marthadivorcedhimin1945,andthefollowingMarchheformalizedhismarriagetoMaryWelsh,whomhehadmetinLondonin1944,andwithwhomhesetup
homeinKetchum,Idaho.TheOldManandtheSea(1952),abasicallysimplestoryoffortitudeinthefaceofdisaster,whichlendsitselftoallegoricalinterpretation,
wasinstrumentalinhiswinningtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1954'forhispowerfulandstyleformingmasteryoftheartofmodernnarration...'.Insomerespects
theawardwasposthumous,asafterthefirstoftwoplanecrashesinUgandainJanuaryheandMarywerereporteddead,andobituarieshadappearedintheworld
press.Inthesecondhesufferedinjuriesfromwhichhedidnotrecovermentally.InJune1961hewasdischargedfromapsychiatricclinic,althoughhehadtwice
threatenedsuicide.Twodaysaftergettinghomeheemptiedadoublebarrelledshotgunintohishead.SeeCompleteShortStoriesofErnestHemingway,ed.John
PatrickandGregoryHemingway,newedn1991MichaelS.Reynolds,TheYoungHemingway,newedn1987,Hemingway'sFirstWar:theMakingof'A
FarewelltoArms',newedn1987,andHemingway:theAmericanHomecoming,1992KennethSchuylerLynn,Hemingway:HisLifeandWork,newedn
1995CarlosBaker,Hemingway,theWriterasArtist,4thedn1992(criticalstudy)MiriamB.Mandel,ReadingHemingway:theFactsintheFictions,1995
(criticalstudy)MarieRoseBurwell,Hemingway:thePostwarYearsandthePosthumousNovels,1996(criticalstudy).
Hendry,J.F.
seeTREECE.
Henley,W(illiam)E(rnest)(18491903)
poetandcritic,wasborninGloucester,theeldestsonofalocalbookseller,andwaseducatedattheCryptGrammarSchool,Gloucester.At12,hewascrippledwith
tuberculararthritis,whichearlyonnecessitatedtheamputationofafoot.Tosave

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theotherone,hewenttoEdinburghin1873,wherefor20monthshewasthepatientofProfessorJoseph(laterLord)Lister(18271912),thefounderofantiseptic
surgery.DuringthistimehewasintroducedtoSTEVENSON,withwhomhelatercollaboratedinwritingfourplays,noneofwhichhadmuchpopularsuccess.Healso
wroteasequenceof'HospitalVerses',partofwhich,includingthemuchquoted'Invictus'('Outofthenightthatcoversme,/Blackasthepitfrompoletopole...'),
wasfirstpublishedin1875inCornhillMagazine,andthewholeinABookofVerses(1888).HewasEditoroftheScotsObserver(laterNationalObserver)from
1889to1894thecontributorsincludedBARRIE,HARDY,KIPLING,andYEATS.TheSongoftheSwordandOtherVerses(1892),whichcontainedacollectionof'London
Voluntaries',wasreprintedwithadditionsin1893asLondonVoluntaries,andreissuedasPoemsin1898.ForEngland'sSake:VersesandSongsinTimeofWar
(1900)mirrorsthepatrioticspiritatthebeginningoftheBoerWar,andoffersanextraordinarycontrasttohismorepersonalandreflectivepoems,oftenwrittenin
experimentalrhythms.
Henri,Adrian
seeMCGOUGH.
Henry,O.,PseudonymofWilliamSidney(orSydney)Porter(18621910)
Americanshortstorywriterandjournalist,wasborninGreensboro,NorthCarolina,wherehewaseducatedataprivateschool.Heleftat15tobeapprenticedtoa
pharmacist,andin1881obtainedastatelicencetopractise.HethenwenttoTexas,whereheworkedonaranch,asabookkeeper,andasadraughtsmaninthe
statelandoffice.HewasatellerintheNationalBank,Austin,from1891to1894,whenheboughtthemagazine,theIconoclast,whichherenamedtheRollingStone
andsoldbacktotheoriginalownerafterayear.In1896hewaschargedwithembezzlementfromtheNationalBank,andfledtoHonduras.Hereturnedhome
becauseofhiswife'sillness,andgavehimselfupwhenshedied.HewassentencedtofiveyearsintheFederalPenitentiary,Columbus,Ohio.Heworkedintheprison
pharmacy,andtosuppporthisdaughterwrotestoriesasO.Henry(alsoOliverHenryandS.H.Peters),thefirstofwhichappearedinMcClure'sMagazinein1899.
Onhisreleaseafterjustoverthreeyears,hewenttoNewYork,wherehebecameduringhislifetimeAmerica'smosthighlyregardedandalsomostprolificwriterof
shortstories,manyofwhichwerepublishedinSundayWorld.Thoseinhisfirstcollection,CabbagesandKings(1904),aresetinCentralAmericaandreflect
charactershemetduringhisexile.WithTheFourMillion(1906),areferencetothepopulationofNewYorkCity,andothervolumes,hebecamethechampionof
theordinarypeopleofthecity,evokingtheirtragediesandaspirationswithhumourandartistry,usuallywithanarrestingopeningtothestoryandasurprisingtwistat
theend.Therewereenoughstoriesforseveralcollectionstobepublishedposthumously.SeeCollectedStories,1994SelectedStories,ed.GuyDavenport,1993.
Henryson,Robert(c.1425c.1500)
Scottishpoet,isnamedinDUNBAR'S'LamentfortheMakaris'(printedin1508):'InDunfermelynehe[Death]hesdoneroune[talked]/WithMaisterRobertHenrisoun'.
'Maister'usuallymeansMasterofArts,andthoughthereisnofirmevidenceofhishavingattendedStAndrewsorGlasgowUniversity,hemayhavestudiedabroad,
andhedisplaysenoughknowledgeoflawtohavedoneso.Orthetitlemayrefersimplytothecallingofschoolmaster,inwhichcaseheprobablytaughtatthe
grammarschoolofDunfermlineAbbey.He,Dunbar,andGAVINDOUGLASinparticulararesometimescalled'ScottishChaucerians',andthoughHenryson,morethanthe
others,owesandackowledgesadebttoCHAUCER,thetermismisleadingifitismeanttoimplythattheyweremerelyimitators.
InTestamentofCresseid,HenrysonemploysasastartingpointChaucer'sTroilusandCriseydeanditsmetre(butwiththetelling,andveryScottish,additionof
alliteration),anddevelopsfromthesituationanoriginal,tragic,andmovingendtothestory.Cresseid,usedandthenabandonedbyDiomeid,descendstoprostitution
intheGreekcamp,reproachesthegodsforherstate,andisstruckwithleprosyaspunishment.Asshesitsbytheroadsidewithherleper'scupandclapper,her
formerloverTroiluspassesby.Somethingremindshimoftheyoungwomanheonceknew,andhethrowsheralms,buttheydonotrecognizeeachother.Henryson's
witflowsinhis'Fables',14moralitytales,againinrhymeroyal,lightlybasedonthelegendaryAesopbutsetinthecontemporarysocialclimateofScotland,inwhich
theattributesofhisanimalsaredescribedwitharefreshingpreRomanticrealismandthesameattentiontodetailthatPOTTERgavetohercharactersfivehundredyears
later.Thedialoguewithwhichheinveststhemisappropriate,colloquial,andpithy.HisthirdsustainedworkisOrpheusandEurydice,areworkingoftheclassical
legendasaChristianallegory.Twoofhisshorterpoemsareespeciallynoteworthy,andenjoyable.'TheBludySerk'('TheBloodstainedShirt')suggeststheexistence
alreadyofaballadtraditionandofthetraditionalballadmetre.'RobeneandMakyne',probablytheearliestpastoraldialogueinpostclassicalEuropeanpoetry,hasa
secular,andpointed,moral.RobeneismoreconcernedwithcountinghissheepthanmakinglovetoMakyne.Whenhe

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getsroundtoresponding,shehashadsecondthoughts.
Henryson'sachievementwasremarkable.Hebroughttohispoetictalentaprofoundlyreligiousbutcompassionatenature,areadywit,andtheabilitytoilluminate
preciselyandgraphicallythecosmicknowledgeandsocialbackgroundofhistimes.TheMorallFabilhsofEsope,CompylitinEloquentandOrnateScottisMeter
wasfirstpublishedinEdinburghin1570.TestamentofCresseldwasfirstprintedbyWilliamThynneinhiseditionofTheWorkesofChaucer(1532).SeeThe
Poems,ed.DentonFox,1987MatthewP.MacDiarmid,RobertHenryson,1981(criticalstudy).
Henty,G(eorge)A(lfred)(18321902)
Britishnovelist,wasborninTrumpington,Cambridge,theeldestsonofastockbroker,andwaseducatedatWestminsterSchoolandGonvilleandCaiusCollege,
Cambridge,whichhesoonleftwithouttakingadegree.HeservedintheHospitalCommissariatintheCrimeanWar(185456)hislettersdescribingthesiegeof
SebastopolwerepublishedintheMorningAdvertiser.Afterbeinginvalidedhomewithfever,heheldseniorpostsintheCommissariatDepartment,butthen
preferredtoseekacareerasarovingjournalistandwarcorrespondentbetween1866and1876hewitnessedactionsonlandandseainEurope,Abyssinia,and
WestAfrica.Hethensettleddowntowritefiction,mainlystoriesforboyswhenheranoutofsettingsandheroicsituationsofwhichhehadpersonalexperience,he
transposedhisformulatohistoricaltimesandevents.Thusin1883,forinstance,heproducedWithCliveinIndiaBySheerPluck:aTaleoftheAshantiWars
JackArcher:aTaleoftheCrimeaandFriends,ThoughDivided:aTaleoftheCivilWar.Hewasastorytellerwhotooktroublewithhisbackgrounddetail,not
aninterpretivehistorian.Hismainintent,describedinaposthumousarticleintheBoys'OwnPaper,was'toendeavourtoinculcatepatriotism',andheclaimed'that
verymanyboyshavejoinedthecadetsandafterwardsgoneintotheArmythroughreadingmystories'.Mentionshouldalsobemadeofhislastpublishedbook,A
Soldier'sDaughter(1906),inwhichNitaAcworth,acrackshotandafairboxerandcricketer,savesthedayandthereputationofherfather'sregimentinIndia.
Hentywasakeensailor,whotookpartinracesacrosstheNorthSeainhisownyacht,inwhichhediedinWeymouthHarbour.
HerbertofCherbury,(Edward),1stLord(15821648)
Englishprosewriterandpoet,theeldestbrotherofGEORGEHERBERT,wasbornatEytononSevern,Shropshire,ofaprominentlandedfamily,andwaseducatedat
UniversityCollege,Oxford.DuringhistimeatOxfordhewasmarried,at16,toacousinfiveyearsolderthanhewas,andhismothercametolivewiththem.Hewas
ambassadortoFrancefrom1619to1624,whenhewasrecalledandrewardedwithatokenIrishpeerage.ThoughhewascreatedBaronHerbertofCherburyin
1629,wasassiduousinservingandpetitioningtheroyalhouse,andbeganadefinitivebiographyofHenryVIII(publishedposthumouslyin1649),thelukewarm
responseofCharlesIandhisownillhealthpreventedhimfromgivingwholeheartedsupporttotheroyalistcauseduringtheCivilWar.In1644hesurrenderedhis
castleatMontgomerytotheParliamentaryforcesratherthanlosehislibrary,andretiredtohisLondonhouse,wherehedevotedhimselftoliterature.Hewasanadept
philosopherinverseratherthanatruepoet,anditwaslargelyasaphilosopherthathemadehismarkinprose.DeVeritate,atreatiseinLatin,hadbeenpublishedin
Parisin1624heenlargedonitsdeisticprinciplesinDeReligioneLaici(1645)andDeReligioneGentilium(1663).HismostlastingcontributiontoEnglishliterature
ishisautobiographyto1624,firstpublishedbyHORACEWALPOLEin1764.Vivid,racy,andoftenamusing,itpresentsthephilosopherpoetasamanofaction,courtand
diplomaticintriguer,andamorist,butalwaysasagentleman.SeeThePoemsEnglishandLatin,ed.G.C.MooreSmith,newedn1968TheLifeofEdward,First
LordHerbertofCherbury:WrittenbyHimself,ed.J.M.Shuttleworth,1976.
Herbert,George(15931633)
Englishpoet,wasborninMontgomery,Wales,ayoungerbrotherofLORDHERBERT,andwaseducatedatWestminsterSchoolandTrinity'College,Cambridge,where
hebecameaFellow,andwaslaterappointedPublicOratoroftheUniversity.Thoughtakingorderswithinsevenyearswasaconditionofhiscollegepost,andhewas
adevoutAnglican,hefirstsettledforpoliticsandwaselectedMemberofParliamentforMontgomeryin1624andagainin1625.Onlyin1630didhedecideon
ordination,inwhichhemayhavebeeninfluencedbyhismother'sfriendDONNE.FortherestofhislifehewasRectorofBemerton,Wiltshire.APriesttotheTemple
ortheCountryParsonHisCharacter,andRuleofHolyLife,firstpublishedinfullin1671,isaprosetreatiseonthedutiesandresponsibilitiesofsuchaposition.
FromCambridgehehadaddressedtwosonnetstohismotherinwhichhededicatedhispoeticinspirationtotallytoreligiousthemes.Muchofhispoetrywaswrittenin
histhirtiesandreflectsprimarilythespiritualstruggleswhichhauntedhisearlieryears.Particularlyeffectiveare'TheCollar'and'ThePulley'.Hisoftenoriginaland
ingeniousmetricalformsincludetwoearlyexamplesofconcreteverse,'TheAltar'and'EasterWings',andhispoetryisparticularlydistinguishedbyhisfrequentuseof
homely

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images.Hispoemswerepublishedin1633,afterhisdeathfromconsumption,asTheTemple:SacredPoemsandPrivateEjaculations.SeeCompleteEnglish
Poems,ed.JohnTobin,1992TheEnglishWorks,withWaltoh's'Life',ed.AnnPasternakSlater,1995[SelectedVerse]ed.LouisL.Martz,1994JamesBoyd
White,'ThisBookofStarres':LearningtoReadGeorgeHerbert,newedn1995T.S.Eliot,GeorgeHerbert,revedned.PeterPorter1994(critical
introduction).
Herbert,(AlfredFrancis)Xavier(190184)
Australiannovelist,wasborninPortHedland,WesternAustralia,andgrewupamongAboriginalchildren.HewaseducatedattheChristianBrothersCollege,
Fremantle,andtheTechnicalCollege,Perth.Afterqualifyingasapharmacist,hestudiedmedicineforayearatMelbourneUniversity,whichhelefttobeawriterhis
firststory,asHerbertAstor,waspublishedintheAustralianJournalin1926.AfterworkinginnorthernAustraliaasarailwaylabourer,pearldiver,andprison
warder,hesailedfromDarwinforLondonin1930.OnboardhemetSadieNordern,aJewishwomanwhosemarriagehadfailedandwholaterbecamehiswife.
WhenhereturnedtoAustraliain1932hehadwithherencouragementwrittenthevastmanuscriptofCapricornia,whichwasacceptedforpublicationsubjectto
revisions,butabandonedafterbeingsetintypewhenthefirmwentintoliquidation.Onecopywasfinally'issued'in1937tomeettheconditionsoftheSesquicentennial
CommonwealthPrize,whichitwon:formalpublicationwasin1938.Whilesocialprotest,especiallyaboutthetreatmentofAborigines,predominates,itisalsoanovel
aboutthelandandtheeffectoftheseasons,withahumancastofhundreds.Havingfalsifiedhisage,HerbertservedintheranksinthePacificduringWorldWarII,
afterwhichhesettledinnorthernQueensland.Criticismofthestyleandeccentricpunctuationofhisnextwork,thenovellaSevenEmus(1959),causedhimtorewrite
Soldiers'Women(1961),awartimenoveloffemalesexuality,onwhichsubjecthisviewswerefairlyhidebound.PoorFellowMyCountry(1975),onwhichhe
worked,oftenincompleteisolation,fornineyears,issaidtobethelongestnoveleverpublishedinAustralia.Regardedbymostcriticsmoreasanimmensepoemthan
astory,itembodieshisultimatestatementsaboutcolonialism,whileevokingthecultureandpeoplewhichitdestroyed.LargerthanLife(1963)isacollectionofshort
stories.DisturbingElement(1963)isasomewhatimaginativeautobiographyto1925.SeeLaurieClancy,XavierHerbert,1981(biographical/criticalstudy).
Herodots(484420BC)
classicalGreekhistorian,wasbornofanoblefamilyinHalicarnassus,onthecoastofAsiaMinor,whichheleftwhenyoungtoescapeanoppressiverule.Duringhis
lifehetravelledthroughAsiaMinor,theNearEast,Egypt,Thrace,Scythia,andGreeceinsearchofmaterial,finallysettlinginthenewAtheniancolonyofThurii,in
southernItaly.Thereisatraditionthatin446hegaveapublicreadingfromhishistoryinAthens,andwasrewardedwithtentalentsofsilver,theequivalentofabout
250kginweight.Theninebooksofhisgreatworkwerewritten,hetellsus,topreservefromdecaythewonderfuldeedsoftheGreeksandtheBarbarians(Persians),
andtoputonrecordthegroundsoftheirconflict,culminatinginthefinaldefeatofXerxesin479.TheoriginalmeaningoftheGreekword'history'isresearch,andin
theinvestigationandverificationofsources,aswellasthearrangementandpresentationofaunifiedtheme,therealistictreatmentofbattlescenesandofhuman
behaviour,andtheunderstandingofthepointsofviewofbothsides,heisjustlyknownasthe'FatherofHistory'.SeeTheHistories,tr.AubreydeSlincourt,new
edn1996.
Herrick,Robert(15911674)
Englishpoet,wasborninCheapside,London,theseventhchildofagoldsmithwho,ayearlater,fell,orjumped,tohisdeathfromtheupperfloorofthehouse.He
mayhavebeeneducatedatWestminsterSchool.At16hewasapprenticedtohisuncle,anothergoldsmith,fromwhomhegothisreleasein1613togotoStJohn's
College,Cambridge,thoughhetookhisBAandMAdegreesfromTrinityHall.Hewasordainedin1623,butpreferredtheliterarylifeofLondonandthefrequent
companyofJONSON,beforebeinggiventhelivingofDeanPriorindistantDevonshirebyCharlesIin1629.Hereheremainedfortherestofhislonglifeexceptforthe
years164762,duringmostofwhichhewassuspendedbyParliamentforhisroyalistaffiliations.Hesperides:orWorksbothHumaneandDivine(1648)witha
separatesectionandtitlepagefor'NobleNumbers:orhisPiousPieces'includedmostofhislyrics.Delicatelyconstructedandinfusedwithwit,theyreflectsome
discontentwithcountryroutine,butstillrepresentajoyousreturntoclassicalformsandthemes,andacelebrationofromanticloveandrusticlife(especiallyfruit,
cream,flowers,andrevels).'TotheVirgins,toMakeMuchofTime'('Gatheryerosebudswhileyemay...'),saidtobeperhapsthemostpopularlyricofthe17th
century,typifieshisconstantrefrainandaccuratelyevokesthehedonismandtransienceofHORACE's'carpediem...[reaptoday'sharvest...].Muchofhisreligious
poetryischaracterizedbyachildishnesswhichsomecriticshaveregardedasnaivetyorcomplacencyandothersasaconsciousattempttocounterthePuritan
preoccupationwithoriginalsin.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.DavidJessonDibley,1980.

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Hesiod(fl.c.700BC)
earlyGreekdidacticpoet,wasbyhisownaccountanativeofAscra,Boeotia,towhichhisfatherhademigratedfromCyme,onthecoastofAsiaMinor,becauseof
poverty.
InspiredbythemusesofMountHelicon,hewonaprizeatapoetryrecitalatafuneralinChalcis.Theogonydescribesthebeginningoftheworldandthenofthegods.
Manexistedbeforewoman,whosecreationisseenasZeus'srevengeforbeinghoodwinkedbyPrometheus.WorksandDaysbeginsasaprotestagainstthepoet's
brotherforunfraternalconductovertheirinheritance,anddevelopsintoamythologicalhistoryofman'stoughlot,towhichisappendedafarmer'scalendar,with
digressions.Hesiodissaidtohavebeenmurderedbythebrothersofawomanhehadseduced.SeePoems,tr.R.M.Frazer,1983.
Hesse,Hermann(18771962)
Germannovelist,poet,andcritic,wasborninCalw,Wurttemberg,intoafamilyofProtestantmissionaries.HeranawayfromMaulbronnPreparatorySeminaryin
1892aftersixmonths,attendedthegymnasiuminBadCanstattforayear,andwasthenallowedbyhisparentstoworkinthelocaltowerclockfactory.In1895he
becameinsteadabookseller'sapprenticeinTubingen,andwenttoBaselwhenhequalifiedin1899.ThesuccessofPeterCamenzind(1904tr.W.J.Strachan,
1961),anovelwhichhasrobusthumouraswellasRomanticsentimentality,enabledhimtogiveupbooksellingandtomarry.In1912hemovedtoSwitzerland,where
helivedfirstinBerne,andtheninMontagnola,becomingaSwisscitizenin1923.Demian(1919tr.MichaelRoloffandMichaelLebeck,1965),his15thandfirst
majornovel,aBildungsromanwrittenwhileundergoingpsychoanalysis,waspublishedasbyEmilSinclair.AnembarrassedHessehadtorevealhisidentitywhenit
wontheFONTANEprizefornewwriters,whichhehadtorefuse.Siddhartha(1922tr.HildaRosner,1951),subtitled'AnIndianPoeticWork',combinesbothEastern
andWesternsymbolism.DerSteppenwolf(1927tr.BasilCreightonasSteppenwolf,1929,rev.edn1963)shockedforitspseudorealisticdepictionofanti
heroism.Duringthe1930sinGermanyhisbookswere'undesirable'ratherthan'forbidden',whichdidlittletoenhancehisreputationorsaleselsewhere.TheNazi
responsetohisarticlesinaSwedishjournalabouttheGermanliteraryscenecausedhimtoceasecriticalwritingfrom1937untilafterWorldWarII.Hisfinalnovel,
DasGlasperlenspiel(1943tr.RichardandClaraWinstonasTheGlassBeadGame,1970),whichhebeganin1931andinwhichanamalgamofliteraryforms
supportanenigmaticUtopianphilosophy,wasmainlyinstrumentalinhisbeingawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1946.
Hewett,Dorothy(b.1923)
Australiandramatistandpoet,wasborninPerth,andclaims,'FromanearlyageIwantedtobeabohemian.'Shewaseducatedbycorrespondenceonherfather's
wheatfarmatWickepinuntilshewas12,whenshewenttoPerthCollege.At19shehadpoetrypublishedinMeanjin,joinedtheCommunistParty,andfailedafter
herfirstyearattheUniversityofWesternAustralia(shereturnedlatertograduateasMAin1963).At20sheattemptedsuicideat21shemarriedalawstudentand
at22shewonanationalpoetrycompetition.Duringthe1950sshelivedinSydneywithaboilermaker,bywhomshehadthreesons.BobbinUp(1959),aninventive
novel,reflectsherexperiencesinaninnercityenvironment.In1960shemarriedMervLilley(b.1919),aformerseaman,withwhomshepublishedabookofverse,
WhatAboutthePeople(1962).ShewasSeniorTutorinEnglish,UniversityofWesternAustralia196473.Herownfirstvolume,WindmillCountry,waspublished
in1968,theyearhernaturalisticworkingclassdrama,ThisOldManComesRollingHome,wasperformed.Subsequentplaysareexpressionistic,matchingthe
directionofherverseinbothmediasheisregardedasaromanticwhoisconcernedparticularlywithexploringquestionsofsexualityandofself,andwhohappily
courtscontroversy.Apoem,subsequentlyreplaced,inherfourthcollection,RapunzelinSuburbia(1975),wasthesubjectoflegalactionbyherfirsthusbandpublic
disturbancegreetedherdepictiononstageofmenstruationinBonBonsandRosesforDolly(1972).ShewasmadeAOin1986.SeeAliceinWormland:Selected
Poems,ed.EdnaLongley,1990CollectedPlays,1992SelectedCriticalEssays,ed.BruceBennett,1995WildCard:anAutobiography19231958,1990
andinMaryChamberlain(ed.),WritingLives:ConversationsBetweenWomen,1988.
Hewitt,John(190787)
Irishpoet,wasborninBelfastofNonconformistparents,andwaseducatedattheMethodistCollege,Belfast,andQueen'sUniversityseehiscollectionofsonnets,
KitesinSpring:aBelfastBoyhood(1980).FromArtAssistantherosetoDeputyDirectoroftheBelfastMuseumandArtGallery,andwasthenDirectorofthe
HerbertArtGalleryandMuseum,Coventry,from1957tohisretirementin1972.HethenreturnedtoBelfast,tocontinuetofosterthedevelopmentoftheartsthere,
ashehaddoneparticularlyinthe1940s.HewasPoetryEditoroftheLyricTheatrejournal,Threshold,from1957to1963,andwasmadeafreemanofthecityin
1983.HeexpressedhiscommitmenttoanUlstertraditionofruralversewithRhymingWeaversandOtherCountryPoetsofAntrimandDown(1974)andinhis
ownpoetryofthecountryside.Hewasequallyaffectedbythepoliticalissueswhichhavetorn

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theregionapart,andwroteofthemwithasoberrealism.SeeTheCollectedPoemsofJohnHewitt,ed.FrankOrmsby,newedn1993.
Heyer,Georgette(190274)
Britishnovelist,wasborninWimbledon,London,theeldestchildofateacher,andwaseducatedat'numeroushighclassseminaries'.Herfirsthistoricalnovel,which
beganasastorytoldtoasickbrother,waswrittenwhenshewas17andpublishedasTheBlackMothin1921.Severalnovelslater,withTheseOldShades(1926),
sheeffectivelyestablishedthegenreoftheRegencyromance,inwhichthehistoricalbackgroundismeticulouslyresearchedandtheromancedecorouslyhandled.Itis
primarilywiththesethatsheearnedavastandfaithfulfollowingofbothsexes,butshealsodelvedintoothererasforherbackgrounds,andintothemilitaryhistoryof
herfavouriteperiodforAnInfamousArmy(1937)andTheSpanishBride(1940).In1925shemarriedG.RonaldRougier(d.1976),aminingenginer,whomshe
accompaniedtoEastAfricaandYugoslavia.OntheirreturntoEnglandsheencouragedhimtoreadfortheBar,towhichhewascalledin1939,becomingQCin
1959.Itwashewhosuggestedplotsandlegalnicetiesfromwhichshecreatedanumberofdetectivestories.Shealsowroteseveralcontemporarynovels,beginning
withHelen(1928),allofwhichshelatersuppressed.SeeJaneAikenHodge,ThePrivateWorldofGeorgetteHeyer,1984.
Heywood,Thomas(c.15701641)
Englishdramatist,poet,translator,andmiscellaneouswriter,wasbornandbroughtupprobablyinLincolnshireandstudiedatCambridge.By1598hewasa
playwrightfortheLordAdmiral'sMen.IntheprefacetoTheEnglishTraveller(1633)hereferstohavinghad'anentirehand,oratleastamainfinger'in220plays,
andthebooksellerFrancisKirkman(fl.1674)describeshimasactingregularlybutstillwriting'asheeteveryday',evenifmanyofthemwerethebacksoftavern
bills.Hisverseisrugged(LAMBcalledhima'proseShakespeare'),buthisdistinctionisinexploitingthepossibilitiesofthedramaofdomesticlife.Thustheinterestinthe
twopartsofEdwardtheFourth(1600)istherelationshipbetweenJaneShore,theKing'smistress,andherhusband.ThethemeofAWomanKilledwithKindness
(1607)istheseductionofahappilymarriedwomanbyherhusband'sbestfrienditsdevelopment,thoughmelodramatic,issympatheticandcatchesthesituation's
underlyinghorrorandconfusion.TheEnglishTravellerisalsoconvincingoncethemorecomplexcircumstancesareaccepted.Otherplayshaveclassicalormore
romanticplots.AnApologyforActors(1612)isathesisonthecontemporarystage.Gynaikeion:NineBooksofVariousHistoryConcerningWomen(1624)is
anearlyfeministhistoricalstudy.SeeFrederickS.Boas,ThomasHeywood,1950(criticalstudy)ArthurM.Clark,ThomasHeywood:Playwrightand
Miscellanist,1931,acritiqueofwhichisinT.S.Eliot,ElizabethanDramatists,newedn1982.
Higgins,F(rederick)R(obert)(18961941)
Irishpoet,wasborninFoxford,Co.Mayo,intheIrishspeakingCatholicwest,butwasbroughtupandwentlocallytoschoolinCo.Meath,intheProtestanteast,
goingtoworkinaDublinofficewhenhewas14.Anearlysupporterofthelabourmovement,heinstigatedaclericalworkers'union,andeditedanumberoftradeand
specialistjournals,aswellasthefirstIrishwomen'smagazine,whichfoldedaftertwoissues(entitledWelfareandFarewell).ThepoemsinSaltAir(1923),andinthe
rathermoresubstantialIslandBlood(1925)andTheDarkBreed(1927),areexuberantandmelodious,mostofthembeingrootedinIrishfolktradition,whichhe
regardedastheessentialstartingpointforanIrishpoet.WithArableHoldings(1933),themeandmeaninghadbecomesecondarytothemelodiceffect,andinThe
GapofBrightness(1940)tosymbolism,too.HewasaclosefriendofYEATS,andadirectoroftheAbbeyTheatre,wherehisverseplay,TheDeuceofJacks,about
theblindballadsinger'Zozimus',wasproducedin1935.
Higgins,GeorgeV(incent)(b.1939)
Americannovelist,wasborninBrockton,Massachusetts,andeducatedatRocklandHighSchool,BostonCollege(wherehestudiedEnglish),StanfordUniversity,
andBostonLawSchool,beingadmittedtotheMassachusettsBarin1967.Betweentimeshehadbeenanewspaperreporter,attorney'sresearcher,andlegal
assistant.HewasDeputyAssistantandthenAssistantAttorneyGeneralforMassachusetts196770,andAssistantUSAttorney197073.Subsequentlyheranhis
ownlawfirm.TheFriendsofEddieCoyle(1972)wasthefirsttobepublishedofhisfictionalstudiesofcriminal,ormerelyantisocial,behaviourandpolitical
skulduggery.Hebuildsuphisplot,inthesamewayasatriallawyerhiscase,almostentirelythroughdialoguethatisoftenlaconic,relyingonauthenticityoflanguage
forthedelineationofcharacter.ACityontheHill(1975)andAChoiceofEnemies(1984)areprimarilypoliticalnovelsKennedyfortheDefense(1980),
PenanceforJerryKennedy(1985),andSandraNicholsFoundDead(1996)featureacriminallawyer,andImpostors(1986),aboutbusinessinterests,an
emancipatedfemaleinvestigator.InSwanBoatsatFour(1995),heleaveshisnormalNewEnglandsettingsforawebofmaritimeconfidencetricksandbetrayals.
Higginson,ThomasWentworth
seeDICKINSON,EMILYJACKSON.

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Highsmith,Patricia(192195)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasbornPatriciaPlangmaninFortWorth,Texas,buttookherstepfather'sname.ShewasbroughtupinNewYork,where
shereckonedthatthebooksonpsychiatryonthefamilyshelvescausedhertostart'writingtheseweirdostorieswhenIwas15or16'theyincludedoneabouta
pyrotechnicnanny,whichwasrejectedbyherschoolmagazineastoounpleasant.ShegraduatedfromBarnardCollegein1942,undecidedwhethertobeawriterora
painter,andbeganbywritingscriptsforcomicbooks.Herfirstnovel,StrangersonaTrain(1950),aningeniouscrimestoryinwhichtwopotentialmurderers
exchangevictims,becameoneofthemostfamousfilmsofAlfredHitchcock(18991980).Irritatedbybeingimmediatelyclassifiedasa'suspense'writer,which
alwaysriledher,shenextwrote,asClaireMorgan,astoryoflesbianlovewhichhasbeenreferredtoasthefirsthomosexualnovelnottoendintragedy,ThePriceof
Salt(1952reissuedunderherownnameasCarol,1990).Insubsequentworkssheusedashermainthemetheexplorationandconsequencesofcriminalor
psychopathicbehaviour.HermostnotablecreationisTomRipley,whomurdersbecauseitisthemostconvenientwayofmaintaininghiseasyexistenceinhischateau
nearFontainebleausheregaledreaderswithhisexploitsinfivenovelsfromTheTalentedMrRipley(1955)toRipleyUnderWater(1991).ThisSweetSickness
(1960)isamemorablestudyofobsessivelove.Smallg:aSummerIdyll(1995),amerrygoroundofbisexual,gay,andlesbianloveandviolence,whosefocusisa
barinZurich,wasprintedafewdaysbeforeherdeath,andpublishedposthumously.ArecentvolumeofshortstoriesisTalesofNaturalandUnnatural
Catastrophes(1988).PlottingandWritingSuspenseFiction(rev.edn1981)isillustratedwithexamplesofherownmethodsandsources.ShecametoEnglandin
1962,butafterfiveyearsinSuffolkshemovedtoFrance,andthentoasmallvillageoutsideLuganoinSwitzerland,whereherpreferredcompanionswerehercats
andjournalistsweretreatedwiththemessage:'Myideaofagoodtimeistobuyenoughfoodandmilkandcatfoodandbeertolastfortendayswithoutneedingtogo
outagain.'
Hill,Geoffrey(b.1932)
Britishpoet,wasborninBromsgrove,Worcestershire,andeducatedattheCountyHighSchool,Bromsgrove,andKebleCollege,Oxford.HetaughtEnglishatLeeds
Universityfrom1954,beingappointedProfessorofEnglishLiteraturein1976.In1981hebecameaFellowofEmmanuelCollege,Cambridge,andalecturerin
Englishoftheuniversity.ThechronologicallyarrangedFortheUnfallen:Poems19521958(1959),hailedasoneofthemostsignificantfirstbooksofverse
publishedinthe1950s,containedsuchfeatsofevocativecompressionas'Genesis',andthesequence'OfCommerceandSociety',onthegeneralthemeofdeath.
VictimsofwararerememberedinKingLog(1968),notablyinthesonnetsequence,'FuneralMusic',recallingthe15thcenturyWarsoftheRoses.Thelegends
whichhavegrownuparoundOffa,the8thcenturyKingofMercia,arespringboardsfortheprosepoemsinMercianHymns(1971).Hill'sscholarshipandinstinctto
penetratetheintricaciesofhumanmotivationarefurtherdemonstratedinTheMysteryoftheCharityofCharlesPguy(1983),aversereflectiononthelife,work,
anddeathofthereformingFrenchpoetandpolemicist(18731914),whowaskilledinthebattleoftheMarne.AspectsofEuropeanhistoryarewovenintoCanaan
(1996),hisfirstnewcollectionforovertenyears.WorksofcriticismareTheLordsofLimit:EssaysonLiteratureandIdeas(1984)andTheEnemy'sCountry:
Words,Contexture,andOtherCircumstancesofLanguage(1991).SeeNewandCollectedPoems19521992,1994.
Hill,James
seeJAMESON,STORM.
Hillyer,Robert
seeROETHKE.
Hippocrates
seeRABELAIS.
Hobbes,Thomas(15881679)
Englishphilosopher,wasbornprematurely(owingtohismother'salarmatthemobilizationoftheSpanishArmada)atWestpool,Wiltshire.Hisfather,thevicar,
disappearedafterassaultinganeighbouringparson,andThomasandhistwosiblingswerebroughtupbyanuncle,aMalmesburyglover.Hewaseducatedatlocal
schools,wherehewaslearningLatinandGreekatsix,andatMagdalenHall,Oxford.Hethenbecame(andremainedformuchoftherestofhislife)tutoror
companiontotheCavendishfamily,earlsofDevonshire,inwhichcapacityhemadeseveralContinentaltoursandmetleadingEuropeanthinkers.Intheearly1620she
alsoworkedforBACON.In1640hewasanearlyescapertoFrancefromtheauthoritarianattitudeoftheLongParliament,wherehepublishedDeCive(1642),a
treatiseongovernment,andin1646becamemathematicaltutortothefutureCharlesII.Theworkinwhichhediscussedhisabsolutionisttheoryofsovereignty,The
ElementsofLaw,NaturalandPolitic,whichhadbeencirculatinginmanuscriptsince1640,waspublishedintwoparts,HumaneNatureandDeCorpore
Politico,in1650.WhenLeviathan(1651),theultimatestatementofhispoliticalphilosophy,offendedtheclericalhierarchyinFrance,hereturnedtoEngland.After
theRestorationoftheMonarchyin1660heenjoyedfavouratcourt,whichheneededonmorethanoneoccasioninthelightoftheoppositiontohissupposedly
anticlerical

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views.Hewasalsoinvolvedinscientificcontroversies,notablywiththemathematicianJohnWallis(16161703),whorefutedsomeofhisgeometryinDeCorpore
[AboutBody](1655).InhiseightieshetranslatedthewholeofHOMERintoEnglishverseandwroteanautobiographyinLatinverse.Hewasbothempiricist(and
empiricalpsychologist)andrationalist,ofwhom,inhisfullestbiographicalsketch,AUBREYwrites:'Hehadreadmuch,ifoneconsidershislonglife,buthiscontemplation
wasmuchmorethanhisreading.Hewaswonttosaythatifhehadreadasmuchasothermen,heshouldhaveknownnomorethanothermen.'SeeRichardTuck,
Hobbes,1989(introductiontohisphilosophies)TomSorell(ed.),TheCambridgeCompaniontoHobbes,1996(criticalessays).
Hobsbaum,Philip
seeLUCIESMITH.
Hoccleve,Thomas(c.1369c.1450)
Englishpoet,begantoworkasaclerk/copyistinthePrivySealinabout1378,andhadhissalaryraisedto10ayearin1399,andto136s.8din1408.This,with
hisprivatemeansof4ayear,shouldhavebeenadequate,buthispaywasoftenlateandhelivedagaybachelorlifedressingfashionably,travellingtotheofficeby
boat,eatinganddiningintaverns,andentertainingprettygirls.Allthisweknowfrom'LaMAleRgle',apoemwhichincludesapleatotheTreasurer,askingforhis
backpay.Afewyearslater,hislongawaitedbeneficehavingfailedtomaterialize,hemarried,forlove.Moneyproblemsincreased,andhehadamentalbreakdown,
fromwhichherecoveredsufficientlytogobacktohistediousjobbutnotenoughtopersuadehisfriendsthathewasnotbecominginsane.Hewasfinallyretiredtoa
Hampshireprioryinabout1425.Hislongestwork,'TheRegimentofPrinces'(1412),writtentoeducatethefutureHenryV,wasmainlycomposedfromtheLatinDe
RegiminePrincipiumoftheItalianphilosopherAegidiusRomanus(d.1316).Therewereothertranslations,someoccasionalverses,religiouslyrics,and
miscellaneouspieces.HewasaferventadmirerofCHAUCER,who,hesays,'faynwoldehanmetaght,/ButIwasdul,andlernedliteornaught',whichlargelysumsup
hispoeticability.Thepersonalobservationsandautobiographicalreferencesinhisworks,however,andthemerefactthatwehaveanameandidentityforhim,make
himofinteresttothesocialaswellastheliteraryhistorian.SeeSelections,ed.M.C.Seymour,1981.
Hochwlder,Fritz(191186)
Austriandramatist,wasbornandeducatedinVienna,whereheattendedgymnasiumandtookeveningclassesattheVolkshochschule.Afterbeingapprenticedtoan
upholsterer,hefledtoSwitzerlandin1938whentheNazistookover.Hisfirstsignificantplay,DasheiligeExperiment(produced1943tr.EvaLeGallienneasThe
StrongAreLonely,published1954),astudyofinnerconflictwitha'momentoftruth'motifwhichisthebasisofhisdrama,waswrittenwhilehewasonleavefrom
thelabourcamptowhichheandotherpoliticalrefugeeswereassignedduringWorldWarII.Insubsequentplays,notablyDerffentlicheAnklger(1948tr.Kitty
BlackasThePublicProsecutor,1958),setduringtheFrenchRevolution,andDerHimbeerpflcker(1965tr.asTheRaspberryPicker,inThePublic
ProsecutorandOtherPlays,1979),adisturbingrepresentationofpostWorldWarIImorality,hewas,likeotherwriterswhosurvivedtheNaziregime,deeply
concernedwithquestionsofresponsibilityandguilt.
Hodgson,Ralph(18711962)
Britishpoet,wasborninDarlington,Co.Durham,thesixthofsevensons(therewerealsothreedaughters)ofacoalmerchant,onwhosedeathwhentheboywas
youngthefamilywassplitup.HewasbroughtupatGattoninSurrey,whereheacquiredatasteforthecountryside.HespentsometimeintheUSA,andworkedasa
scenepainterinaNewYorktheatre.Inthe1890shecontributedlinedrawingstoLondonnewspapersandmagazines,someofwhichhesigned'Yorick'.In1912he
editedFry'sMagazineofOutdoorLifeforthesportingidolandjournalistC.B.Fry(18721956).Thefollowingyearhefounded,withtheartistanddesigner,Claud
LovatFraser(18901921),andtheliteraryhistorianandcritic,HolbrookJackson(18741948),'TheSignoftheFlyingFame',apresswhichissuedchapbooksand
broadsides(includingsomeofhisownpoems).Hisfirstbookofverse,TheLastBlackbird,andOtherLines,waspublishedin1907.HewrotenothingduringWorld
WarI,inwhichheserved,andlittleofsignificanceafterwards,butPoems(1917),whichmadesomeimpact,containedthejoyous'ASongofHonour'hisbestnature
poem,'TheBull',whichisallanimalandnothinganthropomorphicandtheneat'Time,YouOldGipsyMan'.HewasLecturerinEnglish,SendaiUniversity,Japan
192438,afterwhichhelivedintheUSA.Hisinterestsincludedbookcollectingandthebreedingofbullterriers,ofwhichhewasajudgeatCruftsDogShow.He
wasawardedtheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1954.SeeCollectedPoems,1961.
Hoff,H.S.
seeCOOPER,WILLIAM.
Hoffmann,ErnstTheodoreWilhelm(17761822)
Germannovelistandmusician,wasborninKonigsbergandstudiedlawthereattheuniversity.HeheldofficialpostsinthelegalserviceinGlogau,Berlin,Posen(which
heleftafteroverdoingthesatireinhiswriting),Plozk,andWarsaw,

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wherehewaswhenitwasoccupiedbytheFrenchin1808.Withoutafulltimejob,hepursuedhismusicalinterestssufficientlystrongforhimtosubstituteAmadeus
forWilhelmindeferencetoWolfgangAmadeusMozart(175691)byteaching,composing,andconducting,whilealsobeingassociatedwiththenewtheatreat
Bambergfrom1808.HeresumedhislegalcareerinBerlinin1814,whenhealsopublishedthefirstvolumeofhisextravagantlyconceived,oftengrotesque,stories,
whichgaveanewtwisttotheRomantictradition,whileanticipatingthelaterpreoccupationwiththescientificpsychologyoftheindividual.TalesofHoffmann(1881),
theoperabyJacquesOffenbach(181980),isbasedonhisstories,withexcursionsintothecomplexitiesofhisemotionallife.SeeTalesofHoffmann,tr.R.J.
Hollingdale,1982.
Hogg,James(17701835)
Scottishpoet,novelist,andjournalist,the'EttrickShepherd',wasborninSelkirkshireandhadlittleeducationbeyondaninheritanceofBorderballadsandfolklore.
Firstacowherdandthenashepherd,hehadsomepoemsprintedinEdinburghasScottishPastorals(1801).AmeetingwithWALTERSCOTTledtotheircollaborating
incollectingVolumeIIofBorderMinstrelsy(1803),andasecondbookofHogg'sverse,TheMountainBard(1807),writteninimitationofthetraditionalballads,
didbetterthanthefirst.Healsoearned300foratreatiseonthediseasesofsheep,andwithhisliteraryprofitssetupasafarmer,onlytogobankrupt.In1810he
sampledtheliterarylifeofEdinburgh,andforayearpublishedacriticaljournal,theSpy.TheQueen'sWake(1813),apoeticsequenceinhonourofMary,Queenof
Scots,whichincludesthecharmingfair),kidnappoem'Kilmeny',madehisreputationandearnedhimarentfreefarminYarrowfromtheDukeofBuccleuch.His
dedicationtohiscountrylifeledhimin1821torefuseaninvitationtoaccompanyScotttothecoronationofGeorgeIV(withthebestseats,freeaccommodation,and
thepossibilityofroyalpatronageinreturnforacoronationode),onthegroundsthatthedateclashedwiththeannualBordersfair.From1817to1830hewaschief
contributorwithJOHNWILSONandJohnGibsonLockhart(17941854)toBlackwood'sEdinburghMagazineseeTheShepherd'sCalendar,ed.DouglasS.Mack
(1995).Hisfirstnovel,TheBrownieofBodsbeck(1818),incurredthedispleasureofScottforitssympathetictreatmentoftheCovenanters,andwas,likeGALT'S
RinganGilhaize(1823),seenasareplytoScott'sOldMortality(1816),thoughinfactithadbeenwrittensomeyearsearlier.Threeothernovels,TheThreePerils
ofMan(1822),afolkfantasy,TheThreePerilsofWoman(1823),anattemptatthefictionofmanners,andThePrivateMemoirsandConfessionsofaJustified
Sinner(1824),wereallcondemnedorignoredinhislifetimebutthelast,apowerfulpsychologicalaccountofpossession,isoneofthefinestnovelsintheScottish
tradition.SeeSelectedPoemsandSongs,ed.DavidGroves,1986SelectedStoriesandSketches,ed.DouglasS.Mack,1983DavidGroves,JamesHogg:the
GrowthofaWriter,1988.
Hlderlin,Friedrich(17701843)
Germanpoet,wasborninLauffenandeducatedatthemonasticschoolatMaulbronnandatTubingenUniversity,wherehereadtheology,wrotepoetry,conceived
hisnovel,Hyperion,andbrokeoffhisengagementtothecousinofafriendonthegroundsofhisinstability.ThroughSCHILLERheobtainedapostasresidenttutorin
Walterhausenin1793.In1795hetookupasimilarpositioninthehomeofaFrankfurtbanker,withwhosewife,SusetteGontard(d.1802),hefellviolentlyinlove.
HeaddressedherinhisverseasDiotima,underwhichnameshereappearsastheheroineofHyperion(2vols179799tr.KarlW.Maurer,1965),inwhichthe
Greekstruggleforindependencein1770isthestartingpointforphilosophicalcontemplationofnatureandsociety.In1798hewalkedoutonhisemployerafteran
argumentandwenttoHomberg,wherehetranslatedPINDARandcorrespondedwithSusette,whomhevisitedonthefirstThursdayofeachmonth.Symptomsof
schizophreniaappearedin1802,afterhehadhadfurthertutorialjobsinSwitzerlandandinBordeaux.Itistotheensuingthreeyearsthatmuchofhismostmature
poetrybelongs,innovativeandmarkedbypurityoflanguageandclarityofvision.In1805hebecamepermanentlyinsane.Afterayearinaclinic,hewastakeninbya
carpenterinTubingen,inaroominanoldtowerofwhosehousehelivedfor36years.Aselectionofhisworkwaspublishedin1826,withasecondeditionin1843,
bywhichtimehecouldrecognizethepoems,butnothisname.SeePoemsandFragments,tr.MichaelHamburger,newedn1994ofrev.edn1980(bilingualedn)
SelectedPoems,tr.DavidConstantine,1996DavidConstantine,Hlderlin,newedn1990(criticalbiography).
Holinshed,Raphael(d.1580)
Englishhistorian,wasborninCheshireandprobablyeducatedatCambridge,afterwhichheissaidtohavetakenholyorders.EarlyinthereignofElizabethIhewas
workinginLondonasatranslatorintheprintingofficeofReginaldWolfe(d.1573),underwhosedirectionhehelpedtocompiletheBritishsectionsofahistoryand
geographyoftheworld,fromvarioussources:FROISSART,BOECE,JohnMajor(14691550),EdwardHall(c.150047),andRichardGrafton(d.c.1572)amanuscript
onIrelandbythesaintEdmundCampion(154081)andvoluminousnotesleftbyJohnLeland(c.150552).Amoremodestwork,comprisingjustthehistoryandto

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pographyofEngland,Scotland,andIreland,wasfinallypublishedin1577,andknownas'RaphaelHollingeshed'sCronycle',thoughtherewasconsiderableinputfrom
STANYHURSTonIreland150947,WilliamHarrison(153493)onthedescriptionofEngland,JohnHookeraliasVowell(c.15251601),andFrancisThynne(c.1545
1608).Itwas,however,muchcensoredinobediencetotheGovernment,aswasafurthereditionof158687.Theexpurgatedpassageswerenotprinteduntil1722
thefulltext,insixvolumes,firstappearedin180708.ThechiefinterestintheworktodayistheuseSHAKESPEAREmadeofitasasourceforhishistoricalplays,andalso
forMacbeth,KingLear,andpartofCymbeline.SeeAllardyceandJ.Nicoll,Holinshed'sChronicleasUsedinShakespeare'sPlays,1927AnnabelPatterson,
ReadingHolinshed's'Chronicles',1994(criticalstudy).
Holmes,OliverWendell(180994)
Americannovelist,poet,prosewriter,andphysician,wasborninCambridge,Massachusetts,theeldestsonofRev.AbielHolmes(17631837),thehistoricalwriter,
byhissecondwifeand,throughher,greatgrandsonofagreatgranddaughterofBRADSTREET.HewaseducatedataprivateschoolinCambridgeport,forayearat
PhillipsAcademy,atHarvard,wherehewasClassPoetof1829,andatDaneLawSchool,Cambridge,afterwhichhestudiedatTrenantMedicalSchool.Hispoem,
'OldIronsides'(BostonDailyAdvertiser,1830)wasinstrumentalinthepreservationofthefrigate,Constitution,whichhadafamousvictoryintheWarof1812
'TheLastLeaf'waspublishedintheAmateurin1831andNewEnglandMagazineprintedtwolivelyanddiscursiveessaysunderthegeneraltitleof'TheAutocrat
oftheBreakfastTable'in183132.AfterfurthermedicalstudyinParis,andtravelinEurope,hequalifiedasMDatHarvardMedicalSchoolin1836,whenhealso
publishedPoems(rev.edns1846,1848,1849).HewasProfessorofAnatomyatDartmouthMedicalCollege183840,andatHarvardMedicalSchool184782.
HispapertotheBostonSocietyforMedicalImprovement,'TheContagiousnessofPuerpuralFever'(1842),wasamilestoneinthediscoveryofthecausesof
infection.In1846hecoinedtheterm'anaesthesia'(adjective'anaesthetic'),tosignifytherenderingofapatientinsensible.Heresuscitatedhis'Autocrat'formulain
AtlanticMonthlyin1857withapiecebeginning,'Iwasjustgoingtosay,whenIwasinterrupted...'.TheAutocratoftheBreakfastTable:EveryManHisOwn
Boswell(1858)wasfollowedbyTheProfessorattheBreakfastTable(1860)andThePoetattheBreakfastTable(1872).Healsowrotethreebooksforwhich
heacceptedthedescription'medicatednovels',appliedtothemby'adearoldlady':ElsieVenner:aRomanceofDestiny(1861),TheGuardianAngel(1867),and
AMortalAntipathy:FirstOpeningoftheNewPortfolio(1885),inwhichheexploredtheeffectofgeneticandpsychologicalfactorsonhumanbehaviour.In1886
hevisitedBritain,wherehereceivedhonorarydoctoratesatOxford,Cambridge,andEdinburgh.Hisson,OliverWendellHolmes,Jr(18411935),wasaneminent
juristandtheauthorofTheCommonLaw(1881)seeDavidH.Burton,OliverWendellHolmes,Jr,1980.SeeMirianRossiterSmall,OliverWendellHolmes,
1962(biographical/criticalstudy).
Holtby,Winifred(18981935)
Englishnovelist,wasbornatRudstonHouse,anestateinYorkshireof940acres.HermotherbecamethefirstwomanaldermanontheEastRidingCountyCouncil.
SheboardedatQueenMargaret'sSchool,Scarborough,andonanoutingin1911wasbemusedtofindinashopabookofherownpoetry,whichhermotherhad
hadprivatelyprinted.ShewentontoSomervilleCollege,Oxford,withayearouttoserveinFrancewiththeWomen'sArmyAuxiliaryCorps.Asecondclassdegree
seemedtojustifyherearlierdecisiontoturndownthecollege'sofferofahistorytutorship.WithherclosefriendVeraBrittain(18931970),authorofTestamentof
Youth(1933),shebeganthehazardousbut,forboth,successfulpursuitofajournalisticcareerinLondon,duringwhichshewrotearticles,reviews,andpoems,and
whenBrittainmarried(Sir)GeorgeCatlin(d.1979),politicaleconomist,setupaperiodicmnagetroiswiththemseePaulBerryandMarkBostridge,Vera
Brittain:aLife(1995).In1926shewasappointedadirectorofTimeandTide.Herfirstnovel,AnderbyWold,waspublishedin1923.Duringthenext12years
shewrotefivemorenovels,twovolumesofshortstories,acriticalstudyofVIRGINIAWOOLF(1932),andotherworks,whiletravellingwidely,notablytoSouthAfrica,to
speakoninternationalissues,inadditiontoherdaytodaywork.Shediedofkidneycancer,diagnosedin1932,havingfinishedSouthRiding:anEnglish
Landscape(1936),aregionalnovelinwhichthecomplexitiesoflocalgovernmentarelaidbareandthecharactersofsomeofthoseinvolvedinandwithitare
revealinglyexplored.Tall,blonde,andstatuesque,shewasaconfirmedfeminist,withalifelongmaleadmirerwhosimplycouldnotmakeuphismind,untilitwastoo
late.SeeVeraBrittain,TestamentofFriendship,newedn1980(biography)andinCarolynG.Heilbrun,Hamlet'sMotherandOtherWomen:FeministEssays
inLiterature,1990.
Holub,Miroslav(b.1923)
Czechpoetandmedicalscientist,wasborninPlzen,andwithhisgenerationofwriters'begantowritepoetryinwartime,hidingsomewhereandsomehowfromthe
GermanArbeitsumt

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(labouradministration)andTotaleinsatz(forcedlabour)andfromtheAlliedbombs'.AfterthewarhestudiedatCharlesUniversitySchoolofMedicine,Prague,
qualifyingasMDin1953,andtheAcademyofSciences,wherehebecamePhDinimmunologyin1958,theyearinwhichhepublishedhisfirstbookofverse.
Subequentlyhistwocareershavegonehandinhand:HolubtheimmunologistbecomingaseniorscientistattheInstituteofClinicalandExperimentalMedicine,Prague,
in1972Holubtheauthorwritingandlecturinginternationally,thoughhisworkswerebannedfromappearinginhisowncountryduringthe1970sandhewas
forbiddentopublishacollectededitionintheUKin1984andHolubthescientist/poetinjectingintohisverseaclarityofvisionwhichisakintothatofthemicroscope.
Thissymbiosisofscience(includingnaturalhistory)andpoetryisthemainthemeofTheDimensionofthePresentMomentandOtherEssays,tr.DavidYoungand
DanaHbor(1990).InPoemsBeforeandAfter:CollectedEnglishTranslations,tr.IanandJarmilaMilner,EwaldOsersandGeorgeTheiner(1990),thepoems
aredividedintothosewritten'before'and'after'theSovietinvasionof1968.ThepoemsinVanishingLungSyndrome,tr.YoungandHabor(1990),organizedinto
sectionseachde'notingamedicalstate,andcontainingsomeofhisbitterestcriticismofhissociety,werewrittenbetwen1985and1989,beforetheastonishing
eventswhichbroughtHAVELtothepresidency.AsubsequentvolumeisSupposedtoEly:aSequencefromPilsen,Czechoslovakia,tr.Osers(1996).
Home,John(17221808)
Scottishdramatist,wasborninLeith,thesonoftheTownClerk,andwaseducatedatthelocalgrammarschoolandfortheChurchatEdinburghUniversity.Inthe'45
RebellionhefoughtasavolunteeronthegovernmentsideatPrestonpansandFalkirk,afterwhichhewasimprisonedinDouneCastle,fromwhichheledanescape.
HewasappointedMinisterofAthelstanefordin1747,andlaterthatyeartookdowntoLondonhisversedrama,Agis,onlytohaveitrejectedbytheactormanager
DavidGarrick(171779).ThesamehappenedtoDouglas,aromantictragedybasedonanoldballad,butitwasputonattheCanongateTheatre,Edinburgh,in
1756.ThefirstnightaudiencerespondedenthusiasticallytoagenuineScottishplay,thecryof'Whaur'syourWullieShakespearenoo?'wentup,andDouglasplayed
topackedhousesinEdinburgh,andwasperformedatCoventGarden,London,threemonthslater.TheChurchofScotlandwaslessthanenthusiasticthataminister
shouldhavewrittenaplayforpublicperformance,andHomehadtoresignhisparish,whilelocalpresbyterieseventookpunitiveactionagainstministerswhohad
beentoseeit.Hebecameprivatesecretarytothestatesman,the3rdEarlofBute(171392),aposthecombinedwiththatoftutortothePrinceofWales,onwhose
accessionasGeorgeIIin1760hereceivedapensionof300ayearhelateracquiredthesinecureofConservatorofScotsPrivilegesinCampvere,Holland.Henow
hadlittledifficultyingettingGarricktostagehisplays,evenAgis,butnone,afterDouglas,achievedanysuccess.In1776hetravelledtoBathandbacktoEdinburgh
withthedyingDAVIDHUME,wholefthiminhiswilltendozenbottlesofclaretandoneofport,withafurthersixdozenofportifhefinishedtheoriginaloneintwosittings.
HesettledinEdinburghin1779,andinhisoldagepublishedTheHistoryoftheRebellionintheYear1745(1802),whichisinterestingasapersonalrecordbutis
defectiveinthattheseveritiesmetedouttotheHighlandersbytheDukeofCumberland(172165)werebowdlerizedindeferencetotheKing,Cumberland'snephew.
Homer
Greekepicpoet,mayhavelivedinthe8thcenturyBC,mayhavecomefromtheislandofChios,offthecoastofAsiaMinor,andmayhavebeenblind.Hewas
certainlyabard,anditislikelythathecomposedboththeIliadandtheOdyssey,whichhemayhavewrittendowninsomeformforhisownconveniencethe
divisionofeachinto24bookswastheworkoflaterAlexandrianscholars.TheIliadisthestoryofthesiegeofTroylargelyintermsofthewrathofAchilles,first
againstKingAgamemnon,whohasdeprivedhimofhisslavegirl,Briseis,andthenagainsttheTrojanprince,Hector,who,whileAchilleswassulkinginhistent,slew
hisbosomfriend,Patroclus.TheOdysseytakesup,tenyearsafterthefallofTroy,themythologicalwanderingsoftheGreekhero,Odysseus,untilhisreunionwithhis
patientwife,Penelope,inhishomeintheislandofIthaca,andhisterriblerevengeonherpersistentsuitors.Theyaretheearliest,themostinfluential,andthemostread
epicpoemsinanylanguage.TheyweretranslatedintoLatinverseinthe1stcenturyAD,andintoEnglishversebyCHAPMAN,POPE,andCOWPER.SeeIliad,tr.Martin
Hammond,1987(prose),tr.RobertFagles,newedn1992(verse)Odyssey,tr.E.V.Rieu,rev.byD.C.H.Rieu,1991(prose),tr.T.E.Lawrence,newedn1991
(prose),tr.AllenMandelbaum,newedn1994(verse),tr.RobertFagles,introductionandnotesbyBernardKnox,1996(verse)HomerinEnglish,ed.George
Steiner,assistedbyAminadavaDykman,1996M.I.Finley,TheWorldofOdysseus,newedn1991(historicalstudy)W.A.Camps,AnIntroductiontoHomer,
1980JasperGriffin,Homer,1980(introductiontothepoet'sthoughtandimagination).
Hood,Hugh(b.1928)
Canadiannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninTorontoofanEnglishCanadianfatherandaFrench

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Canadianmother,andwaseducatedatDeLaSalleCollegeandStMichael'sCollege,TorontoUniversity.HetaughtEnglishatTorontoUniversity,StJosephCollege,
WestHartford,USA,andfrom1961attheUniversitdeMontral.Hisfirstbook,thecollectionofshortstories,FlyingaRedKite(1962),isoftransitional
significanceinitsreflectionoftheurgeforfreedomandchangewhichwasabroadinCanadaatthattime.SelectedStories(1978),hisfifthcollection,hasbeen
succeededbyothers,includingAugustNights(1985).Aswhathehascalleda'moralrealist',heisconcernedalsowithmergingrealcharactersinrealsituationswith
theworldoftheirimagination,andthusexploringthefabricofsociety.Hisfirsttwonovels,WhiteFigure,WhiteGround(1964)andTheCameraAlwaysLies
(1967),arestudiesrespectivelyofanartistandanactress.WithTheSwingintheGarden(1975)heembarkedona12novelcyclecalled'TheNewAge',inwhich
aman'sreminiscencesofhisfamilyinsouthOntariolinkaseriesofinterpretationsofnationalandinternationaleventsfrom1880intothe21stcentury.
Hood,Thomas(17991845)
Britishpoet,wasborninLondon,thesonofabooksellerfromScotland,andwasaclerkwhenhewas13.Hishealthbrokedown,hewenttorelationsinDundee,
andonhisreturnwasapprenticedtohisuncle,anengraver.In1721hebecamemorecongenially(tohim)employedasasubeditorontheLondonMagazine.In1825
hemarriedasisterofthepoetJ.H.Reynolds(17961852),withwhomhepublishedanonymouslythemildlysatiricalOdesandAddressestoGreatPeople(1825),
afterwhichhebecameafulltimewriter.ThePleaoftheMidsummerFairies,HeroandLeander,LycustheCentaur,andOtherPoemsappearedin1827,and
thegrimbutimpressiveTheDreamofEugeneAram,theMurdererin1831,havingfirstbeenpublishedin1829intheGem,whichhewaseditingatthetime.
Amongotherbooks,healsowroteanovel,TylneyHall(1834).In1834,havinglostalotofmoney,possiblythroughapublisher'sfailure,hegaveuphispropertyto
hiscreditorsandwentabroad.Onhisreturnin1840heeditedtheNewMonthlyMagazineforatime,and,justbeforehisdeath,wasawardedaCivilListpension.
Hismetricalabilitycanbeseenin'TheBridgeofSighs',like'TheSongoftheShirt'oneofthepoemsinwhichhebroughttopublicnoticesocialproblemsand
injustices.Heisalsotheauthorof'Ruth'('Shestoodbreasthighamidthecorn...')and'PastandPresent'('Iremember,Iremember/ThehousewhereIwasborn'),
andtheperpetratorofmanypuns,including'Theywentandtoldthesexton,and/Thesextontoll'dthebell'('FaithlessSallyBrowne').TomHood(183574),poetand
artist,washisson,andwithhissister,FrancesFreelingBroderip(183078),alsoanauthor,producedMemorialsofThomasHood(1860).SeeSelectedPoems,
ed.JoyFlint,1992.
Hooker,John
seeHOLINSHED
Hooker,Richard(15541600)
Englishtheologian,wasborninHeavitree,Exeter,ofpoorparents,andwaseducatedatExeterGrammarSchooland,initiallywiththesponsorshipofJohnJewel
(152271),BishopofSalisbury,atCorpusChristiCollege,Oxford,ofwhichhethenbecameaFellow.Hetookholyordersin1581,andwasthenapparentlytricked
intomarriagewiththedaughterofawomanwhohadnursedhimthrougha'distemperandcold'.In1585hewasappointedMasteroftheTempleinLondon,wherehe
preachedeverySundaymorningtothelegalestablishment.Alongrunningtheologicalaltercationwiththeafternoonpreacher,thePuritanWalterTravers(c.1548
1635),endedwithArchbishopWhitgiftofCanterbury(c.15301604)suspendingTravers,whileHookerathisownrequestretiredtothelivingofBoscombein
Dorset.HewastranslatedtoBishopsbourne,Kent,byElizabethIafterthepublicationin1593ofthefirstfourbooksofOftheLawsofEcclesiasticalPolity.The
seminalfifthbook,containingthejustificationoftheChurchofEngland,waspublishedin1597thefinal.threewerefinishedjustbeforehedied.Hisdistinctionisthat
heelucidatestheconfusedChurchhistoryofhistime,explainsthephilosophyofthesettlementforgedbytheQueenandWhitgifttoestablishanationalreligion,and
propoundsthebackgroundtothereligiousthoughtofwriterssuchasDONNE,MILTON,SHAKESPEARE,andSPENSER.HisuseofEnglishratherthanLatininwhichtowritea
workofscholarshipwasitselfalandmark,wereitnotalsothatawriterofEnglishprosecouldnowfairlybecomparedwithCICEROforstyleandeffectiveargument.
SeePeterMunz,ThePlaceofHookerintheHistoryofThought,1952.
Hope,A(lec)D(erwent)(b.1907)
Australianpoetandcritic,wasborninCooma,NewSouthWales,andspenthischildhoodinTasmania,wherehewenttoschoolforonemonthintheyearwiththe
shearers'children.TherestofthetimehewastaughtLatinbyhisfather,aPresbyterianminister,andothersubjectsbyhismother,aformerteacher.Hegraduated
fromSydneyUniversityin1928andfromOxfordin1931.Aftervariouspostsineducationandinindustrialpsychology,andteachingatSydneyTeachers'College,he
joinedtheEnglishdepartmentofMelbourneUniversityin1945asSeniorLecturer.In1951hewasappointedtothechairofEnglishatCanberraUniversityCollege,
laterpartoftheAustralianNationalUniversity,ofwhichhewasappointedPro

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fessorEmeritusonhisretirementin1968.Anearlypoem,'Australia'(1939),looksto'thelastoflands,theemptiest...theArabiandesertofthehumanmind'to
provideinspirationtocombat'thechatterofculturedapes/Whichiscalledcivilizationoverthere'.Hisfirstbookofpoetry,TheWanderingIslands(1955),startled
becauseofitslargelyunAustralianthemesanditscombinationoferuditionanderoticism.Therefollowedaphaseinwhichhisattentiontomythology,andsometimes
toscientificthought,combinedwithscholarlyreflection,hasbeencomparedtothepoeticphilosophyofKEATS,andwhichproducedsuchfinelongpoemsas'The
DoubleLookingGlass'and'Vivaldi,BirdandAngel'.HisworkalsolooksbackviaAUDENtotheAugustanpoets,especiallySWIFTandPOPE,andtoDONNE,withinsight
andwithawitwhichcanbetenderor,asinDunciadMinor:anHeroickPoem(1970),asatireonmodernliterarycriticism,downrightwicked.Heis,withJUDITH
WRIGHT,theforemostAustralianpoetofthatgeneration.Asareviewerfrom1941,whenhelabelledtheJindyworobaks(seeINGAMELLS)'theBoyScoutSchoolof
Poetry',hecouldbedevastatingwhendealingwithwhatheregardedassecondrate,whilealwaysupholdingandsometimesformulatingcriticalstandards.Hiscritical
worksincludeTheCaveandtheSpring:EssaysonPoetry(1965)andTheNewCratylus:NotesontheCraftofPoetry(1979).HewasmadeOBEin1972and
ACin1981.SeeCollectedPoems19301970,1972ALatePicking:Poems19651974,1975Antechinus:Poems19751980,1981SelectedPoems,ed.
DavidBrooks,1992KevinHart,A.D.Hope,1993(criticalstudy).
Hope,Anthony,pseudonymofAnthonyHopeHawkins(18631933)
Britishnovelist,wasborninClapton,London,andeducatedatMarlboroughCollegeandBalliolCollege,Oxford,wherehegotafirstinGreatsandwasPresidentof
theOxfordUnion.UntilhemarriedanAmericanmuchyoungerthanhimselfin1903helivedwithhiswidowerfather,theVicarofStBride'sintheCityofLondon.He
wascalledtotheBarin1887,andby1893hadstoodunsuccessfullyforParliament,heldlegalbriefsforvariousorganizationsincludingtheGreatWesternRailway,
andpublishedfivenovels.Theoutlineofthenovelwhichthenchangedhiscareer,andhislife,unfoldeditselfashewalkedhomeafterwinningacase.ThePrisonerof
Zendawaswritteninamonthandpublishedin1894.Hehaddevisedafreshapproachtothemodernadventurestory,withadashingheroandtenderloveinterest,
setwithroyaltrappingsinacountryinsoutheasternEuropenamedRuritania,whichhaspassedintotheEnglishlanguageasatermforafictitiouslandofromance.
HavinginthesameyearpublishedTheDollyDialogues,asophisticatedandwittynovelofcontemporarysocialmanners,hesentapologeticletterstohislegalclients
andretiredfrompractice.Hewrotefurtherromances,andalsonovelsofcharacterandsituation,butapartfromRupertofHentzau(1898),asequeltoThePrisoner
ofZenda,nonehassurvivedhisowntimes.DuringWorldWarIheworkedfortheMinistryofInformation,andwasknightedin1918forhisservices.Heneverfelt
hehadliveduptohisownexpectations.Hewrote(1925):'Ihavehadadaybeyondtheaveragedog'snotwhatIdreamed,notthechampionshipbench,butbeyond
theAverageDog!'SeeinMargeryFisher,TheBrightFaceofDanger,1986.
Hopkins,GerardManley(184489)
Britishpoet,wasborninStratford,Essex,theeldestofninechildrenofamarineinsuranceexpertwithliteraryability,andwaseducatedatHighgateSchoolandBalliol
College,Oxford,wherehegotafirstinGreats.Hesuppressedhisambitiontobeapainterpoet,suchaswasD.G.ROSSETTI,becausepaintingwould'putastrainonthe
passionswhichIshouldthinkitunsafetoencounter',andin1866hewasreceivedbyNEWMANintotheCatholicChurch,tohisfamily'sdisapproval.In1868,whenhe
begantrainingforpriesthoodintheSocietyofJesus,heburnedthefinishedcopiesofallhispoems,resolvingtowritenomore'unlessitwerethewishofmysuperiors'.
In1874hebeganatheologycourseatStBeuno'sCollegeinWales,wherehelearnedWelshinordertostudyclassicalWelshpoetry.In1875,withthe
encouragementoftheRector,hegaveventtohisexcitingpoetictalentbywriting'TheWreckoftheDeutschland',inmemoryoffiveFranciscannuns,exiledfortheir
faith,whowentdownwiththeshipseeSeanStreet,TheWreckoftheDeutschland(1992).ItwasrejectedbytheJesuitjournal,TheMonth,foritsmetrical
'oddities',butatleasthenowfeltfreetowritepoetryagain.In1877hecomposedtennaturesonnetsofextraordinaryoriginality,including'TheWindhover',and'Pied
Beauty'('GlorybetoGodfordappledthings...'),whichhedescribesas'curtal'.Afterbeingordainedin1877heservedthesocietyinvariouscapacitiesbutwithonly
moderatedistinctioninseveralcities,theconditionsinsomeofwhichdeeplyaffectedhim.In1884hewasappointedProfessorofGreekLiteratureatUniversity
College,Dublin.Thespiritualandphysicaldistancefromhome,expressedinthesonnet,'Toseemthestrangerliesmylot...',anddoubtsabouthisworkmovedhim
tofrustrationanddespair,inwhichstatehewroteseveralfurthersonnetsoftragicintensity.HediedoftyphoidandwasburiedinDublin.
NoneofHopkins'spoetrywaspublishedinhislifetime,buthisfriendBRIDGESintroducedsomeofitlaterintoanthologiesand

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thenhimselfeditedandpublishedthefirstcollectededitionin1918.Hopkinsemployedverbalandmetricalinnovationstoilluminatewhathecalled'inscape',whichis
broadlyhisperceptionofthetotalspiritualandphysicaldesignofindividualandcollectivemanifestationsofnature.Hewroteinwhathetermed'sprungrhythm',
derivedfromAngloSaxonpoetry,inwhichthestressescorrespondtothebeatsinamusicalmeasureratherthantosyllabicweight,buildingupatotalandsometimes
startlingharmonybyalliterationandotherdevices,linguisticcoinages,andcompositewords.HestandsquiteoutsidethenormalconventionsofVictorianpoetry,and
thoughallcriticsdonotagreeonhisultimatepoeticstatus,heprovidedmuchinspirationtoAUDENandotherpoetsofthe1930s,andin'SpringandFall'('Margart,re
yougreving/OverGoldengroveunleaving?...')wroteoneofthefinestlyricsintheEnglishlanguage.SeeThePoemsofGerardManleyHopkins,ed.W.H.
GardnerandN.H.Mackenzie,newedn1970of4thedn1967SelectedPoetry,ed.CatherinePhillips,1996RobertBernardMartin,GerardManleyHopkins:a
VeryPrivateLife,newedn1992NormanWhite,Hopkins:aLiteraryBiography,newedn1995GrahamStorey,APrefacetoHopkins,2ndedn1992andinE
R.Leavis,NewBearingsinEnglishPoetry,newedn1972.
Horace(QuintusHoratiusFlaccus)(658BC)
Romanlyricpoet,wasborninVenusia,Apulia,thesonofafreedman,whotookhimtoRometobeeducated.At18hewenttoAthenstocontinuehisstudies,was
caughtupinthecivilwarwhichfollowedthedeathofCAESAR,andfoughtasalegionarycommanderatPhilip,unfortunatelyforthewrongside.Hewaspardoned,but
onhisreturntoRomefoundthathisfather'sestatehadbeenconfiscated.Hebecameacivilserviceclerkandinhissparetimewroteverses,whichcaughttheeyeof
VIRGIL,andledtohisbeingsetupbyVirgil'spatron,Maecenas,inafarmnearTibur.Betweenthis,acountrycottage,andahouseinRome,helivedacomfortable
bachelorexistence,exercisingEpicureantendencieswhenitsuitedhim.Hismainworkscomprise17'Epodes'onavarietyofpoliticalandsatiricalthemes,withsome
lovepoems103'Odes'reflectingeventsofthetimeandofhispersonallife,writteninavarietyofGreekmetreswhoseruleshefollowedstrictlythreebooksof
'Epistles',ofwhichthethirdistheliteraryessay,ArsPoeticaandtwobooksofsatires.HisinfluenceonEnglishlyricalandsatiricalpoetry,andonliterarycriticism,
hasbeenprofound,andonnonemorethanPOPE,whowrotetheHoratian'OdetoSolitude'attheageof12,andpublishedhiscollectedImitationsofHoracein
1738.SeeHoraceinEnglish,ed.D.S.CarneRossandKennethHaynes,1996PeterLevi,Horace:aLife,1997.
Horne,RichardHenry(orHengist)(180284)
Britishpoet,dramatist,critic,andchildren'swriter,wasborninLondonandeducatedattheRoyalMilitaryCollege.Whennoarmyappointmentmaterialized,he
joinedtheMexicannavy,sawactioninthewaragainsttheSpanish,escapedbeingeatenbyashark,travelledintheUSA,wasshipwrecked,andsurvivedamutiny
andafireonboardshiponhiswaybacktoEngland.HebegantowritepoetrypubliclyadvocatedtheestablishmentofaSocietyofEnglishLiteratureandArtandin
1837publishedtwopoeticdramas,CosmodeMediciandTheDeathofMarlowe.In1839hestartedacorrespondencewithE.B.BROWNING.Twoyearslaterhe
proposedthattheyshouldwriteaplaytogether.Itwasneverfinished,andtheydidnotmeetuntil1851,butinthemeantimesheprovidedadviceandmaterialforhisA
NewSpiritoftheAge(1844),asurveyofcontemporaryliterature,thoughshewasunhappywiththeentryrelatingtoherself.(Herpoem'CryoftheChildren'was
inspiredbyhisofficialreportonchildlabour.)Orion(1843),anepicpoemwhichhasmoreallegorythanactionbutcontainssomegoodpassages,waspricedatone
farthing,'tomarkthepubliccontemptintowhichepicpoetryhasfallen'hefurtherstipulatedthatnocopyshouldbesoldtoanyonewhopronounceditstitle'Orion'.
MemoirsofaLondonDoll,WrittenbyHerself'EditedbyMrsFairstar'(1846)confirmedhisversatilityandgiveshimanhonourableplaceinthehistoryof
children'sliterature.In1852hewenttoAustralia,whereheservedinvariousparamilitaryandjudicialcapacities.HereturnedtoEnglandin1869,havingassumedthe
'Hengist'inplaceof'Henry'hewasstillwritingverseandproseformagazinesin1883.SeeAnnBlainey,TheFarthingPoet:aBiographyofRichardHengist
Horne18021884,aLesserLiteraryLion,1968.
Housman,A(lfred)E(dward)(18591936)
Britishclassicistandpoet,wasborninBromsgrove,Worcestershire,oneofsevenchildrenhismotherdiedonhis12thbirthday.HewaseducatedatBromsgrove
SchoolandStJohn'sCollege,Oxford,whereafteronelecturebythelegendaryclassicalscholar,ProfessorBenjaminJowett(181793),hewasdisgustedbythe
emphasisonabroadeducationratherthanonthenicetiesofscholarship.EarlyonhefollowedhisowninterestsintothetextualstudyofPROPERTIUS.Hetookfirstclass
honoursinhispreliminaryclassicalexaminations,butfailedhisfinalscompletely.Hewaspassionatelyattachedtoanotherundergraduate,MosesJackson,withwhom
hesharedlodgingsinLondonfrom1882to1887,whenJacksonmarriedandwenttoIndia.WhileaclerkinthePatentOffice,Housmanexercisedhisbrilliantmindby
publishinglearnedarticlesonclassicalau

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thorsandtexts.HebecameProfessorofLatinatLondonUniversityin1892,andbeganhismonumentaleditionofthefivebooksonastrologyoftheLatinpoet
Manilius(published191230).HewaselectedProfessorofLatinatCambridgein1910.Theleadingclassicistofhistime,hisintricateattentiontotextualcriticismwas
leavenedbyasarcasticwit,especiallywhendiscussingpreviouseditors.In1896hehadstartledtheacademicworldbypublishingavolumeoflyrics,AShropshire
Lad.ClearlywrittenduringorimmediatelyafterhisemotionalentanglementwithJackson,heartfeltintheirpreoccupationwithdeathandunrequitedlove,anddeeply
expressiveintheirtopographical,patriotic,nostalgic,andclassicalallusions,theyhavearesoundingappealtotheyoungandtheromantic.LastPoemscameoutin
1922,andMorePoems,editedbyhisbrotherLAURENCEHOUSMAN,in1936.Oneofthefirsttotravelregularlybyair,HousmanpaidanannualvisittoParis,whereafish
dishwascreatedinhisnameattheTourd'Argent.SeeCollectedPoemsandSelectedProse,ed.ChristopherRicks,newedn1989NormanPage,A.E.
Housman:aCriticalBiography,1996KeithJebb,A.E.Housman,ed.JohnPowellWard,1992(biographical/criticalstudy)JohnBayley,Housman'sPoems,
1992(criticalstudy).
Housman,Laurence(18651959)
Britishdramatist,novelist,andpoet,ayoungerbrotherofA.E.HOUSMAN,wasborninBromsgroveandeducatedatBromsgroveSchool,subsequentlystudyingartin
London.HebecameArtCriticoftheManchesterGuardianin1895.Healsopublishedtwobooksofverseandthen(anonymously)AnEnglishwoman'sLove
Letters(1900),whichcausedamildsensation.Hisearlyworkforthestageranintoproblemsofcensorship,butLittlePlaysofStFrancis(1922),intheformofa
seriesofminiplays,becameastandbyforamateurcompanies.AngelsandMinisters,afirstofferingoffairlycynicalbutwittyscenesaboutQueenVictoriaandher
court,waspublishedin1921,butwasnotpubliclyperformeduntil1937,inanextendedversionentitledVictoriaRegina.Hewrotetwosatiricalnovelsoftopical
interest,Trimblerigg(1924)andTheLifeofH.R.H.theDukeofFlamborough(1928).Hewasastaunchsupporterofwomen'ssuffrageandapacifist.SeeThe
UnexpectedYears,1937(autobiography).
Howells,WilliamDean(18371920)
Americannovelist,dramatist,poet,critic,journalist,andeditor,wasborninMartin'sFerry,Ohio,thesecondsonofanunsuccessfulprinterandpublisher,forwhose
papertheboywassettingtypewhenhewasnine.ThefamilymovedseveraltimesbeforesettlinginJeffersonin1852,asHowellsrecountsinMyYearinaLogCabin
(1893)laterincludedinYearsofMyYouth(1916).Hewassooncontributingtonewspapersandmagazines,andin1858becameareporteron,andin1860News
Editorof,theOhioStateJournal.AfterhispoetryhadappearedinAtlanticMonthly,hemadeatripin1860toBoston,wherehewasftedbyHOLMESandJ.R.
LOWELL.LivesandSpeechesofAbrahamLincolnandHannibalHamlin(1860),writtenasacampaigndocument,earnedhimtheappointmentasConsulinVenice
(186165)his'LettersfromVenice'intheBostonAdvertiserwerecollectedasVenetianLife(1866).In1866hebecameAssistantEditorofAtlanticMonthly,and
asEditorinChief(187181)heencouragedyoungerwriterssuchasHENRYJAMESandTWAIN,whilepublishingtheolderguardofEMERSON,LONGFELLOW,andWHITTIER.
From1886to1892heconductedthe'Editor'sStudy'columnofHarper'sMonthly.Anoccasionalteacher,herefusedmoreprofessorshipsthanheeverheld.Hisfirst
volumeofverse,PoemsofTwoFriends(1860),waswrittenwithJohnJ.Piatt(18351917),acolleagueontheOhioStateJournal.Hisnarrativepoemsinthat
bookandinPoems(1873)andStopsofVariousQuills(1895)werethemosthighlyregardedofhisverses.
Asadramatistwhosefirstplay,TheParlorCar,waspublishedin1876,andhislast,PartingFriends,in1911,bothsubtitled'afarce',hewasmoreconcernedwith
givinginnocentamusementthanwithmakingprofoundstatements.Hewroteoverfortynovels,mostofwhichreflecthisdefinitionoffiction,thatitshouldbe'truetothe
motives,theimpulses,theprinciplesthatshapethelifeofactualmenandwomen'.Fromthe'poorreallife'ofTheirWeddingJourney(1872),heturnedtosocial
issuessuchasinformAModernInstance(1882)andTheRiseofSilasLapham(1885),andtothemoreradicalexpressionsofuneaseinAHazardofNew
Fortunes(1889)andTheWorldofChance(1893).HeabandonedrealismforUtopianisminATravelerfromAltruria(1894).SeeKennethS.Lynn,William
DeanHowells:anAmericanLife,1971KennethE.Eble,WilliamDeanHowells,2ndedn1982(biographical/criticalstudy).
Hudson,W(illiam)H(enry)(18411922)
naturalistandnovelist,wasbornofAmericanparentsnearBuenosAires,inahouse'quaintlynamedLosVeintecincoOmbues,whichmeans''TheTwentyfive
OmbTrees"'.HevividlyrecordshisSouthAmericanboyhoodinFarAwayandLongAgo:aHistoryofMyEarlyLife(1918),uptothetimewhenanattackof
typhusat15,followedbyrheumaticfevercaughtwhiledrovingcattleinastorm,lefthimwithapermanentlyweakheartandincontinuousdangerofasuddendeath.
Hetooktoreading,andtowanderingfromplacetoplace,finallycomingtoEnglandin1869(hebecameaBritishsubjectin1900).In1877hemarriedasingersome
years

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olderthanhewas.AftertryingtorunaLondonboardinghouse,theysettledforbleaklodgingsandnearpoverty.HenowwroteanovelofrevolutioninUruguay,The
PurpleLandThatEnglandLost(1885).Hewasaplain,directwriter,asbefittedhischosencallingofnaturalist,butthisand,ofhisothernovels,ElOmb(1902),
moreintheformofaseriesofsketches,andGreenMansions:aRomanceoftheTropicalForest(1904)havesomequality.TheNaturalistinLaPlata(1892)
andabookofessaysonEnglishnaturalhistory,BirdsinaVillage(1893),broughthimamorediscerningclientele,andaCivilListpensionin1901enabledhimtoget
outofLondontoexplore.Theresultwasanumberofstudiesnotonlyofbirdlifebutalsoofthecountrysideitselfanditslore,notablyHampshireDays(1903)andA
Shepherd'sLife:ImpressionsoftheSouthWiltshireDowns(1910),whichstillappealfortheirfreshnessandevocativeflavour.SeeRuthTomalin,W.H.Hudson:
aBiography,newedn1984DavidMiller,W.H.HudsonandtheElusiveParadise,1990(studyofthenovels).
Hueffer,Francis
seeFORD,FORDMADOX.
Hughes,Langston(190267)
Americanpoet,dramatist,shortstorywriter,andjournalist,wasborninJoplin,Missouri,ofadividedfamilyhelivedmainlywithhismaternalgrandmotheruntilhe
was12,andthenwithhismother,aformergrammarschoolteacher.HewenttoCentralHighSchool,Cleveland,wherehehadpoemspublishedintheschool
magazine.AfterayearwithhisfatherinMexico,hedidayearatColumbiaUniversity,fromwhichhedroppedoutandworkedasaseamanonAtlantictrips,asa
cookinaMontmartrenightclub,andasanassistantwaiterataWashingtonhotelhegotVACHELLINDSAYtoreadthreeofhispoemsatarecitalbyleavingthembeside
hisplate.Apoetryawardfromtheblackjournal,Opportunity,drewhimtotheattentionofCarlvanVechten(18801964),thenovelistandmusiccritic.He
introducedHughes'spoemstothepublisherAlfredA.Knopf(18921984),whobroughtoutTheWearyBlues(1926)andFineClothestotheJew(1927).Further
supportersfinancedhisattendanceatLincolnUniversity,wherehegraduatedasBAin1929,and,untilhecouldsubsistonhiswriting(hepublishedanovel,Not
WithoutLaughter,in1930),coveredhislivingexpensesinNewYorkCity,wherehebecameacceptedastheleadingpoetoftheHarlemRenaissance.Intheperiod
ofactivismduringthe1930shevisitedHaiti,Cuba,Mexico,andtheUSSR,wroteradicalverse,foundedblacktheatresinHarlem,Chicago,andLosAngeles,and
wroteplays,ofwhichMulatto(1935)playedalsoonBroadway.DuringWorldWarIIhewasamemberoftheMusicWarBoardandtheWritersWarBoard.In
1943hebegancontributingtoaChicagonewspapersketchesaboutJesseB.Semple(=Simple),afolkcreationwhoseinnocenceenableshimtoexposeshamfive
collectionsoftheseappearedinvolumeform.Besidesfurtherbooksofverse,threecollectionsofshortstories(1934,1952,1963),anothernovel(1958),moreplays,
andlibretti,hepublishedtwovolumesofautobiography,TheBigSea(1940)andIWonderasIWander(1956).Hisverseispredominantlyoftwokinds:poetryof
protest,andlyricsofblacklife,forwhichheoftenemployedmusicalrhythmsdrawnfrombluesandjazz.SeeTheCollectedPoems,ed.ArnoldRampersadand
DavidRoessel,newedn1995ArnoldRampersad,TheLifeofLangstonHughes,Volume1:19021941,IToo,SingAmerica,newedn1988,Volume2:1941
1967,IDreamaWorld,newedn1989FaithBerry,LangstonHughes:BeforeandBeyondHarlem,newedn1995(biography)JamesA.Emmanuel,Langston
Hughes,1967(criticalstudy).
Hughes,Richard(190076)
BritishnovelistofWelshdescent,wasborninWeybridge,Surreyhiselderbrotherdiedeightdayslater,hissisterin1902,andhisfather,acivilservant,in1905.His
motherwrotearticlesandshortstories.HewonascholarshiptoCharterhouseandthen,afterayearinthearmy,wentonaclassicalscholarshiptoOrielCollege,
Oxford.Hisresultsinbothuniversityexaminationswereappalling,buthewasjointEditor,withGRAVES,ofOxfordPoetry1921andhadavolumeofhisown,Gipsy
Night,andOtherPoems,publishedin1922,followedbyConfessioJuvenis:CollectedPoems(1926).TheSister'sTragedy,andThreeOtherPlays(1924)
includedDanger,thefirstplaywrittenforradio.HealsoeditedaselectionofSKELTON(1924).Thisliteraryactivity,however,gavenointimationoftheimmortality
whichwastoattendhisfirstnovel,AHighWindinJamaica(1929inUSAasTheInnocentVoyage,1929),inspiredbyareallifesituationin1822,inamanuscript
passedontohismotherbyafamilyfriend.Thisdeceptivelysimpleandunlikelytaleoftheunintentionalhijackingofsevenamoralchildrenbyabandofincompetent
piratesinthe1860shasachieveditsstatusthroughitsirony,wit,andsuspense.TheseaalsofeaturesinInHazard(1938),inwhichtheresponsesofasteamer'screw
toahurricaneandinternaldisruptionsarevividlyexploredtheresearchwasbasedontheactualexperienceofacommerciallinerin1932.Hughesworkedinthe
AdmiraltyduringWorldWarII,attheendofwhichhewasmadeOBEandturneddowntheofferofthegovernorshipofSouthGeorgiaandtheFalklandIslandsin
ordertowrite.Itwasnotuntil1961thathisnextnovel,TheFoxintheAttic,appeared.Itisthefirstofthreevolumesofaprojected'historicalnovelofmyown
time'(tobecalledTheHumanPredicament),beginninginGermanyin1923and

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invokingrealaswellasfictionalcharacters.Itwasnevercompleted,butTheWoodenShepherdess,takingtheactionuptotheNightoftheLongKnivesin1934,was
publishedin1973.SeeRichardPercevalGraves,RichardHughes:aBiography,1994RichardPoole,RichardHughes:Novelist,1986PaulMorgan,TheArtof
RichardHughes:aStudyoftheNovels,1993.
Hughes,Ted(b.1930)
Britishpoet,children'swriter,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninMytholmroyd,Yorkshire,andeducatedatMexboroughGrammarSchoolandPembrokeCollege,
Cambridge.Hehadavarietyofjobs,includingrosegardenerandzooattendant,beforemarryingPLATHin1956theythenlivedintheUSAfortwoyears.Hisfirst
books,TheHawkintheRain(1957)andLupercal(1960),establishedhimcorrectlyasapoetofstaturebutincorrectlyasprimarilyapoetofnature.Thepredatory
personaeofmanyoftheseearlypoemsandtheprotagonistofCrow:FromtheLifeandSongsoftheCrow(1970)representthesharpextremesthatpunctuatethe
strugglesaccompanyingbirth,life,anddeath.Gaudete(1977)isastoryofthesupernatural,inwhichawoodenchangelingissubstitutedforanAnglicanclergyman,
andreflectstheman'sconsciousnessduringhisabsencefromtheearth.TheinfluenceofHughes'sobservationofnatureandthecountrysiderecursinRemainsof
Elmet(1979)andRiver(1983),bothwithcomplementaryphotographsseealsoThreeBooks:RemainsofElmet,CaveBirdsandRiver(rev.edns,inonevolume,
1993)andMoortown(1979),inwhichtherearetwomythologicalsequences,'PrometheusonHisCrag'and'AdamandtheSacredNine'.Heisathoroughly
modernpoetinthatheisconcernedwithrealities,andifthestarknessofsomeofhisimagesoffendsthesensitivity,thensoalsodotheviolenceandbrutalitywhich
appeartohavebecomepartofournormalexistence.Hepublishedanewvolumeofpoetry,Wolfwatching,in1989.MeetMyFolks(1961)wasarefreshingchange
fromthesomewhatsaccharinenatureofchildren'spoetryofearliergenerations.
DifficultiesofaBridegroom:CollectedShortStories(1995)comprisessixtalesoftheeffectsofthepersecutionorslaughterofanimalswhichaccompaniedverses
inWodwo(1967),withthreeuncollectedpieces(1954,1978,1993).InShakespeareandtheGoddessofCompleteBeing(1992),theideasforwhichcametohim
inadream,hefindsamythologicalformulawhichlinkstheplotsofmostoftheplays.HewasawardedtheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1974,madeOBEin
1977,andappointedPoetLaureatein1984.Inarareinterviewin1996herevealedthathisnotoriousreticenceinpublicisprimarilyduetotheinstinctivefearthatifhe
speaksabouthiswork,itwillvanish:'Allthesteamgoesoutofit.IfItalkaboutanythingI'mwriting,that'stheend.Ican'twriteanymore.Ifyougiveitawaybytalk,
youdon'tgiveitawaythroughwriting.'SeeNewSelectedPoems19571994,1995CollectedAnimalPoems:Vol.ITheIronWolf,Vol.2WhatistheTruth?,
Vol.3AMarchCalf,Vol.4TheThoughtFox,1995(thefirsttwoarealsoforyoungerreaders)WinterPollen:OccasionalProse,ed.WilliamScammell,new
edn1995CraigRobinson,TedHughesasShepherdofBeing,1989(criticalstudy).
Hughes,Thomas(182296)
Britishnovelist,wasborninUffington,Berkshire,thesonofacleric,andwaseducatedatRugbySchoolunderDrThomasArnold(17951842),andatOrielCollege,
Oxford.HewascalledtotheBarin1848,becomingQCin1869.AnactiveChristiansocialist,hecontributedtothemovement'sjournalsandpromoteditscauses,
makingtheproposalin1854whichinstigatedtheWorkingMen'sCollege,GreatOrmondStreet,ofwhichhewasPrincipal187283.Theliteraryqualityofthe
manuscriptofastoryaboutRugbysurprisedeventheclosefriendtowhomitwasshown.ItwaspublishedanonymouslyasTomBrown'sSchoolDays'ByanOld
Boy'(1857).ItssuccessanditsstandingastheprototypeoftheschoolstoryforboyshavegivenHughesthestatusofa'onebook'author,whichhewas.The
ScouringoftheWhiteHorse:or,TheLongVacationRambleofaLondonClerk(1859)islittlemorethanacountrysidesocialsketch.Evenacontemporarycritic
foundTomBrownatOxford(1861)'purposelessanddepressing',thoughthereissomeinterestforsocialhistoriansinitsreflectionoftheshameofbeingpoorandin
the'perplexitiesanddoubts,anddreams,andstruggles'whichafflictedthemindsofbelievers(suchalsoasCLOUGH)atOxfordinthe1840s.Healsowroteseveral
biographicalstudies.HewasaLiberalMemberofParliament186574,andin1879setupamodelcommunity(needlesstosaynamedRugby)inTennessee,USA,
fromtheoperationofwhichhewithdrew,havinggainednoprofitandlittlesatisfaction,thoughhiselderlymotherlivedthereuntilherdeath.Hewasappointedacounty
courtjudgein1882.SeeE.C.MackandW.H.G.Armyrage,ThomasHughes:theLifeoftheAuthorofTomBrown'sSchoolDays,1953.
Hugo,Victor(180285)
Frenchnovelist,poet,anddramatist,wasborninBesanon,thesonofaNapoleonicgeneralwhosemarriagewasshaky.HewasbroughtupinItaly,Spain,and
France,whereheattendedtheEcolePolytechniqueandin1817hadapoemrecognizedbytheAcadmieFranaise.In1819hefoundedthejournalConservateur
Littrairewithhistwoolderbrothers,thesecondofwhomwentmadattheweddingofHugotoAdleFoucherin1822.Alsoin1822,

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hepublishedhisfirstbookofromanticpoetryandwasgrantedbyLouisXVIIIthefirstoftwopensions.Cromwell(1828),averseplaywhichwasneverperformed,
ismoresignificantforitspreface,inwhichhedelineatedthreestagesofliteraturelyricpoetry,epicpoetry,anddramawithpronouncementsalsoon'thegrotesque'.
Hernani(1830tr.LordELevesonGower,1830),aplaywhosepoetrytranscendsaconvolutedplot,enjoyedasensationalopeningnight,thankslargelytoGAUTIER
andhisclaque.Hisfourthromanticnovel,NotreDamedeParis(1831tr.FredericShobelasTheHunchbackofNotreDame,1834tr.A.J.Krailsheimer,1993),
animprobabletaleinwhichwildpassionsareplayedoutinarichlyevokedmedievalsetting,isadmiredalsoforitsfinishedliterarystyle.Heturnedtoproseforthe
playLucrceBorgia(1833tr.andadaptedbyW.YoungasLucretiaBorgia,1847),producedintheyearinwhichhebeganhislongtermaffairwithJuliette
Drouet(d.1883),forwhoseclosetedexistenceuntilthedeathofhiswifein1868hetriedtomakeupwithpoetictributes.
Apoliticianwhoseaffiliationschangedwiththetimes,hespokeoutintheLegislativeAssemblyin184950onprivacy,papacy,andChurchdominationofeducation,
andforuniversalsuffrageandpressfreedomhewasexpelledin1852forhisoppositiontothecoupofNapoleonIII.HereturnedtoFrancein1870,havingspent
manyoftheensuingyears,duringwhichhetwicerefusedanamnesty,intheChannelIslands.Healsopublished,inadditiontopoliticalandpolemicalworks,two
massivevolumesofpoetrythenovelLesMisrables(1862tr.CharlesE.Wilbour,1862),hisfictionalstatementoncontemporarymoralsandsocialredemptionand
WilliamShakespeare(1864),acuriousjustificationofhisownpositionintheliterarygenealogyoftheworld.HewaselectedtotheSenatein1876,andceased
writingin1878afterastroke,thoughworkswrittenlongbeforecontinuedtobepublisheduptoandafterhisdeath.AsapoetheisregardedasbeingofEuropean,
ratherthanjustnational,standingseeTireDistance,theShadows:SelectedPoems,tr.HarryGuest(1981).HewasmadeVicomtein1845.
Hulme,Keri(b.1947)
NewZealandnovelist,shortstorywriter,andpoet,wasborninChristchurchofMaori,Scottish(Orkney),andEnglish(Lancashire)descent,andwaseducatedat
AranuiHighSchoolandforfourtermsatCanterburyUniversity.Sheworkedasatobaccopicker,fishandchipscook,woollenmillworker,seniorpostwoman,and
televisiondirector,andstudiedlaw,beforebecomingafulltimewriterin1972.TheSilencesBetween:MoerakiConversations(1982)isasequenceinverse.She
workedonTheBonePeople,whichwasoriginallyashortstory,'SimonPeter'sShell',for12years.Itwasfinallypublishedin1984bySpiral,acollectivein
WellingtonthreehundredmilesfromtheremoteWestlandcoastsettlementtowhichshehadretired.Impressionistic,partlysymbolic,anddeeplyredolentofthe
ancienttraditionsofNewZealandandtheEnglishspokenthere,itwontheBookoftheYearAwardforfictionandtheMobilPegasusAwardforMaoriLiteraturein
itscountryoforigin,andthentheBookerprizeforfictionwhenpublishedintheUKin1985.SubsequentpublicationsincludeLostPossessions(1985),anovella,Te
Kaihu:TheWindeater(1986),shortstories,andStrands(1992),acollectionofverse.
Hume,David(171176)
Scottishphilosopher,wasborninEdinburgh,thesonofaminorBerwickshirelandownerwhodiedsoonafterwards,leavinghiswidowtorearandeducatethree
children.HestudiedlawforatimeatEdinburghUniversity,butgavethatuptopursuephilosophy.Hehadanervousbreakdownin1729,afterwhichhebrieflytried
commerceinBristol,forwhichherealizedhehadnoaptitude.HewentintofrugalseclusioninFrance,wherebetween1734and1737hewrotetheastonishingA
TreatiseofHumanNature(1739),whichdevelopsandconsolidatestheempiricaltheoriesofLOCKEandBERKELEY.EssaysMoralandPolitical(174142)was
writtenonthefamilyestate.HisdismissalofreligioninhisworkscosthimthechancesofprofessorialpostsatbothEdinburghandGlasgowUniversity.Hewasfora
yeartutortothemadMarquisofAnnandale,andthenservedinastaffcapacityonvariousmilitarymissions.HewasKeeperoftheAdvocates'Library,Edinburgh
175257,SecretarytotheBritishAmbassadorinParis176365,andanundersecretaryofstateintheHomeDepartment176768,afterwhichheretiredto
Edinburgh.PhilosophicalEssaysConcerningHumanUnderstandingwasfirstpublishedin1748,andPoliticalDiscourses,whichanticipatedADAMSMITH,in1752.
TheHistoryofEnglandfromJuliusCaesarto1688,whichtreatsthesubjectretrogressively,wasfinallycompletedin1762,andbroughthimfameinFranceaswell
asinBritain.DialoguesConcerningNaturalReligion(1779)waswritteninabout1750,butathisownrequestwasnotpublishedinhislifetime.Hediedofbowel
cancer,havingcheerfullyanticipateda'speedydissolution'.SeeA.J.Ayer,Hume,1980(introductiontohisphilosophy).
Hunt,(JamesHenry)Leigh(17841859)
Britishessayist,poet,journalist,andeditor,wasborninSouthgate,London,andeducatedatChrist'sHospital.Aselectionofhisverses,withthetitleofJuvenilia,
wasprintedin1801ontheinitiativeofhisfather,animprovidentandusuallyimpoverishedpreacher.WithhisbrotherJohn(1775

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1848)heestablishedin1808aradicaljournal,theExaminer,butbothwereimprisonedfortwoyearsin1813forlibellingthePrinceRegentasaliarand'afat
Adonis'.Inprison,Huntlivedwithhisfamilyandreceivedhisfriends,whoincludedBYRONandLAMB.In1822hetookhiswifeandsevenchildrentoItaly,wherehe
wastoedittheLiberalwithByronandP.B.SHELLEY.Shelley'sdeath,theclosureofthejournalafterfourissues,andtheunderstandableproblemsofstayingwithByron,
afterwhosedeaththeywereleftwithoutsupport,causedtheirreturnin1825.Aseriesofarticles,whichheturnedintoLordByronandSomeofHis
Contemporaries(1828),didnotembellishthetruth,andcausedoffence.Huntwasonlyamoderatepoet,whosemostambitiouswork,TheStoryofRimini(1816),
revealsanunhappyconflictbetweenloosenessofstyleandloftinessoftheme,andwhoseonlymemorablepoemsare'AboubenAdhem'andtherondeau'Jenny
KissedMe',addressedtothewifeofCARLYLE.MuchofhisprosesuffersincomparisonwiththatofcontemporariessuchasLamb,HAZLITT,andDEQUINCEYbecause,
morethantheirs,itwaswrittenpurelyasjournalism,buthewasasoundcritic,whoseessay'AnAnswertotheQuestionWhatisPoetry'(1844)bearsrereading.His
influenceinencouraging,andpublishing,theyoungKEATSandShelleywasincalculable.SeeAutobiography,ed.J.E.Morpurgo,1949EdmundBlunden,Hunt:a
Biography,1930.
Hunter,Evan(b.1926)
Americannovelist,wasbornSalvatoreA.LombinoinNewYorkCity,andwaseducatedatEvanderChildsHighSchool,CooperUnion,andHunterCollege.After
serviceintheUSNavy,hetaughtintwovocationalhighschools,andworkedforsixmonthsforaliteraryagency,wherehehandledtheworkofWODEHOUSE,who
becamealifelongfriend.Hebegantowriteintheearly1950sunderavarietyofnames,includingRichardMarstenandHuntCollins.TileBlackboardJungle(1954),
asearingnovelofateacher'sproblems,establishedtheEvanHunternameandalsohismotifasawriterwhoconfrontssocialissuesthroughtheneedofaprotagonist
toestablishanidentitywithinaparticularenvironmentorsituation.Sons(1969)reflectedpublicconcernabouttheVietnamWar,Love,Dad(1981)thehippieculture.
AsEdMcBainhebeganwithCopHater(1956)anextensivesequenceofnovels(heregardseachbookasachapterofasinglework),whosethemeis'crimeand
punishment',whosemilieuisthe87thPrecinctofanAmericancity,andwhoseprotagonistsarethedetectivesandcriminalswhocarryontheirgrimbusinessthere.
OthercrimenovelsinvolvetheinvestigatorMatthewHope,whogetsshotintheopeningparagraphofThereWasaLittleGirl(1994).
Hurston,ZoraNeale(?190160)
Americannovelistandfolklorist,wasborninEatonville,Florida,thefirstblackincorporatedcommunityinAmerica.Herearlyschoolingwassporadic,andin1915she
workedasawardrobegirlwithaGILBERTandSullivantouringcompany.SheregisteredatMorganAcademyin1916,andHowardUniversityin1918,whereshehad
astory,'JohnReddingGoestoSea',publishedinthestudentjournalin1921.Afterhavingtwofurtherstoriesandaplay,'ColorStruck',publishedinthenew
Opportunity:aJournalofNegroLife,shearrivedinNewYorkin1925,andwasenabledtogoonascholarshiptoBarnardCollege,fromwhichshegraduatedin
1928.Theanthropologist,FranzBoas(18581942),sawapaperofhers,tookheronasanassistantatColumbiaUniversity,andarrangedafellowshipforherto
collectfolkloreintheSouth.SeveralexpeditionslatersheproducedMulesandMen(1935),thesecondpartofwhichisastudyofvoodoo,andTellMyHorse
(1938),onHaitiandtheWestIndies.CloselyidentifiedwiththeHarlemRenaissance,shewrotefournovels,ofwhichJonah'sGourdVine(1934),whosechief
character,apreacher,isbasedonherfather,TheirEyesWereWatchingGod(1937),whichhasagenuinefeministmessage,andMoses,ManoftheMountain
(1939)drawonelementsoffolklore.SeraphontheSuwanee(1948),whoseprotagonistsarewhite,wascriticizedasbeingassimilationist.In1948shewaswrongly
accusedofthesexualabuseofatenyearoldboy.Thechargesweredropped,butinformationhadbeenleakedtothepress.Shedisappeared,andwasfoundtwo
yearslaterworkingasamaidtoawhitefamilyinFlorida.MuchofherlasttenyearswasspentresearchingandwritingamassivebiographyofHerodtheGreat,which
noonewouldpublish.Twobriefmarriages,toHerbertSheen,ajazzplayer,in1927,andtoAlbertPriceIII,15yearsherjunior,in1939,endedindivorce.Dust
TracksonaRoad(1942)isaselectiveautobiography.SeeAZoraNealeHurstonReader,ed.DorothyAbbot,1992NovelsandStoriesandFolklore,Memoirs,
andOtherWritings,ed.CherylA.Wall,1995RobertHemenway,ZoraNealeHurston:aLiteraryBiography,newedn1986.
Huxley,Aldous(18941963)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,essayist,poet,critic,anddramatist,agrandsonofT.H.HUXLEY,wasborninGodalming,Surrey,ofanillustriousliteraryandscientific
family,andwaseducatedatEtonandBalliolCollege,Oxford.Aneyediseasecontractedatschoolmadethepursuitofscienceimpossible,soheturnedtoliterature.
Hisfirstbook,TheBurningWheel(1916),wasfollowedbythreefurthervolumesofverse,beforehepublishedLimbo(1920),avolumeofshortstories.Hebegan
hiscareerasanovelist,andalsohis

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satiricalphase,withCromeYellow(1921)andanotherbitingstoryofpostwarBritain,AnticHay(1923).ThoseBarrenLeaves(1925)andPointCounterPoint
(1928),inwhichD.H.LAWRENCEappearsinthesympatheticformofMarkRampson,werewritteninItaly,andreflectHuxley'searlypreoccupationwithformratherthan
content.Thischanged,andhisentryintoamoresociologicalphasewasconfirmed,withBraveNewWorld(1932),inwhichtheUtopianimageisturnedupsidedown
andthefutureisseenintermsofadehumanizedsocietyhisessayBraveNewWorldRevisited(1959)chillinglyreconsidershis1932fictionalprognosis.Eyelessin
Gaza(1936),informaswellascontent,heraldsafinal,philosophicalphase,inwhichpacifismandmysticismarepredominantinfluences.GreyEminence:aStudyin
ReligionandPolitics(1941)isadistinguishedbiographyofCardinalRichlieu'sadviser,FatherJoseph.
Huxleytravelledandlivedabroadfrom1923,thoughduringthe1930sheandhiswifemadeperiodictripstoEnglandtodofieldworkforarticlesontheindustrial
situationseeTheHiddenHuxley:ContemptandCompassionfortheMasses,ed.DavidBradshaw(1994).In1938theysettledinCalifornia,wherehe
sublimatedhisaversiontothecinemaandwrotesomeHollywoodfilmscripts,including(withJaneMurfin)thatofAUSTEN'SPrideandPrejudice(1940).Hissearch
foratranscendentalphilosophyledhimtodevelopaformofmysticismbasedonorientalmodels,whichheexpoundedinsuchworksasThePerennialPhilosophy
(1946)andThemesandVariations(1950).Heexploredfurtherwaysofreleasingthemindfromtheconstraintsofthebodybytakingpsychedelicdrugs(mescalin
andLSD)seeTheDoorsofPerception(1954)andHeavenandHell(1956).SeeCollectedShortStories,1957,asTheGiocondaSmile:andOtherStories,
1984CollectedEssays,1960SybilleBedford,AldousHuxley:theApparentStability18941939andTheTurningPoints19391963,newedns,inone
volume,1993(biography)ChristopherS.Ferns,AldousHuxley:Novelist,1980(criticalstudy).
Huxley,T(homas)H(enry)(182595)
Britishbiologistandprosewriter,wasborninEaling,Middlesex,thesonofaschoolmaster,butafterthefamily'smovetoCoventryappearslargelytohaveeducated
himselfbyreading.HeenteredLondonUniversityin1842andwasawardedascholarshiptostudyatCharingCrossHospital,graduatingin1845withgoldmedalsfor
anatomyandphysiology.HejoinedtheRoyalNavy,andwaspostedasassistantsurgeoninHMSRattlesnake,onsurveydutiesbetweenAustraliaandtheBarrier
Reef.InSydneyhefellinlovewithalocalgirl.HisresearchintomarinelifebroughthimaFellowshipoftheRoyalSociety,andin1854alectureshipinnaturalhistory
attheRoyalSchoolofMines.Henowwrotetotheyoungwomanhehadmet,whosailedforEnglandwithherparentsandmarriedhim.Whilehedidnotfully
subscribetothetheoryofevolutionwhichDARWINpubliclypropoundedin1859,hewasaferventsupporteroftheman.AtthemeetingoftheBritishAssociationforthe
AdvancementofScienceinOxfordin1860heroundedonBishopSamuelWilberforce(180573),whohadaskedwhetherHuxleywasdescendedfromanapeon
hisgrandfather'sorgrandmother'sside,andobservedthathewouldratherhaveanapeforanancestorthanabishop.InEvidenceastoMan'sPlaceinNature
(1863)heofferedconclusiveproofofman'sanimalorigins,expressedwithflowingrhetoricandanappreciationofsocialandreligiousimplicationstowhichDarwin
couldnothaveaspired.LaySermons(1870)includedhisfamouslecture'OnthePhysicalBasisofLife',andinEvolutionandEthics(1893)hesetoutplainlythat
man'smoralnaturecouldnotcompetewiththenaturalcosmicprocess.Hecoinedtheterm'agnosticism'todescribehisattitudetoreligion.Asoneoftheoriginal
membersoftheLondonSchoolBoard,hefirmlyinfluencedthecompositionofthecurriculuminschools.SeeCharlesDarwinandT.H.Huxley,Autobiographies,ed.
SirGavindeBeer,newedn1997AdrianDesmond,Huxley:theDevil'sDisciple,newedn1997(biographyto1870)andHuxley:Evolution'sHighPriest,1997.
Huysmans,J(oris)K(arl)(18481907)
Frenchnovelist,wasbornGeorgesMarieCharlesinParis,ofaDutchfatherandaFrenchmother,whoafterherhusband'sdeathin1856marriedabookbinder
calledOg.HewaseducatedattheLyceSaintLouis,passinghisbaccalaureatein1866.Afterayearstudyinglaw,heenteredtheMinistryoftheInterior,wherehe
workedforthirtyyears,latterlyintheSretGnrale,theequivalentoftheBritishCriminalInvestigationDepartment.Aseriesofprosepoems,publishedathisown
expensein1874,launchedhimontheliterarypath,andhenowadoptedwhathebelievedtobetheDutchformofthenameGeorgesCharles.Becauseofitssubject,
hewasadvisedtopublishMarthe(1876tr.SamuelPutnam,1948),ablamelessstudyofaprostitutewhichbelongstotheNaturalisticschoolofnovels,inBelgium.
Comingbackthroughthecustomswithfourhundredcopiesstowedinhisbaggage,hehadmostofthemconfiscated.Rebours(1884tr.RobertBaldickasAgainst
Nature,1959),whichheoncecalled'vaguelyclericalandmildly"queer'",andwithwhichZOLAreckonedhe'deliveredaterribleblowtoNaturalism',isregardedas
significantintherecognitionoftheDecadentmovementinEurope.ItalsoledtoalongprocessofconversiontoCatholicism,culminatingin1892.

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Afterhisretirementfromthecivilservicein1898assouschefdebureau,helivedfortwoyearsasaBenedictineoblateatLigug,nearPoitiers,fromwhichhe
returnedtoParistoleadavagrantexistenceafterthemonksofhiscallingwentintoexilein1901inthewakeofthelawagainstreligiousassociations.EDMONDDE
GONCOURTnominatedhimasoneoftheoriginaltenmembersoftheAcadmieGoncourt.
Hyde,Douglas(18601949)
Irishscholar,poet,dramatist,translator,andstatesman,wasborninFrenchpark,Co.Roscommon,thethirdsonofaProtestantrector.In1873hecamehomewith
measlesafterafewweeksathisDublinboardingschool,anddidnotreturn.Insteadhereceivedanexcellenteducationathome,wherehedevelopedapassionforthe
Irishlanguageanditsoralandliterarytraditions.HehadaglitteringcareeratTrinityCollege,Dublin,from1880to1888,finishingwithadoctorateinlawwhilehaving
twicewontheViceChancellor'sprizesforbothproseandverse.HewasalsowritinginIrish,inwhichhepublishedhisfirstbook,acollectionoffolktalesandrhymes
(1889).BesidetheFire:aCollectionofIrishGaelicFolkStories(1890),someofwhichhepresentedinbothlanguages,wasthefirsttrulyscholarlyworkonthe
subjectinLoveSongsofConnacht(1893)heofferedmostoftheoriginalpoemsinbothanEnglishverseandaliteralproserendering.HewroteTheStoryofEarly
GaelicLiterature(1895)andALiteraryHistoryofIreland(1899),andseveralplays,CasadhantSugin(latertranslatedbyGREGORYasTwistingtheRope)
beingputoninDublinin1901withhimselfinthecastseeSelectedPlays:inEnglishandIrish,ed.G.W.andJ.E.Dunleavy,Irishplaystr.IsabellaA.Gregory
(1991).HewaselectedPresidentoftheNationalLiterarySocietyin1892,andwasPresidentoftheGaelicLeaguefromitsinceptionin1893tohisresignationin
1915,whenitsaimswereextendedtopromote'afree,GaelicspeakingIreland'.HewasProfessorofModernIrishatTrinityCollege,Dublin190332,andwasthe
firstPresidentofIrelandfrom1939to1944.
Hyde,Robin,pennameofIrisGuiverWilkinson(190639)
NewZealandnovelist,poet,andjournalist,wasborninCapeTown,SouthAfrica,andbroughttoWellingtonafewmonthslater.ShewaseducatedatWellington
Girls'College,andthenbecameajournalistontheDominion,returningtoherworkasaparliamentaryreporteroncrutchesafterakneeinfectionleftherpermanently
lamewhenshewas19.Pregnantafterabriefaffair,shehadastillbornchild(RobinHyde)inSydneyin1926.ShereturnedtoNewZealandandjournalism,andalso,
asamemorialtoherdeadchild,topoetry(atwhichshehadshownprecocityatschool),withTheDesolateStarandOtherPoems(1929).Afterthebirthin1930of
ason,wholived,shebecameastaffeditorontheNewZealandObserver,Auckland,towhichshecontributedindefatigablyunderavarietyofbylines.In1933,
havingattemptedsuicide,shewasadmittedvoluntarilytoAucklandMentalHospital.Duringherfouryearsthereshepublishedtwomorevolumesofpoetry,andwrote
severalfurtherbooks:Journalese(1934),reminiscencesofhertradeChecktoYourKing:theLifeHistoryofCharles,BarondeThierry(1936),afictional
biographyPassporttoHell:theStoryofJamesDouglasStark(1936),afactionalreconstructionoftheexploitsofaWorldWarIantihero,anditssequel,Nor
theYearsCondemn(1938)Wednesday'sChildren(1937),afantasynovelandthefirstdraftofTheGodwitsFly(1938),anautobiographicalnovelbasedonher
childhood,youth,andanearlyunfulfilledromance.In1938shesuccumbedtothepulloftheculturallinksshefeltwithEngland,andsetoutviaChina,whereshemade
adangeroussortieintothewarzoneseeherDragonRampant:ReminiscencesoftheSinoJapaneseWar(1939).HerdeathinEnglandofadrugoverdosewas
recordedassuicide.ThetitlesequenceofHousesbytheSeaandOtherPoems(1952),beguninAucklandandfinishedoverseas,andotherversesfromthefinal
periodofherlife,areregardedasnotableevocationsoftheNewZealandexperienceseealsoSelectedPoems,ed.LydiaWevers(1984).

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I
Ibsen,Henrik(18281906)
Norwegiandramatist,wasborninSkien,thesonofageneralmerchant,whowentbankruptin1835andmovedhisfamilyoutoftown.Heleftschoolat15andwas
apprenticedtoanapothecaryinGrimstad,wherehestudiedforuniversityentrance,readwidelyinEuropeanliterature,andin1846hadasonbyamaidofthehouse
whowastenyearshissenior.Healsobegantowriteplays,ofwhichheprivatelypublishedCatalina(1850)afterithadbeenrejectedbytheChristianiaTheatre.Two
weekslaterhemovedtoChristiania(Oslo),andfailedthearithmeticandGreekpapersforhisentranceexamination.Asecondplay,[TheBurialMound],wasputon
attheChristianiaTheatreinSeptember1850,andhethenacceptedthepostof'dramaticauthor'atthenewlyestablishedNorwegianTheatreinBergen.In1857,
havinghadfourversedramasoftheheroicagesproducedthere,onlyoneofwhichhadanysuccess,hemovedtotheNorwegianTheatreinChristiania,whichhad
beenfoundedtocountertheDanishinfluenceoftheChristianiaTheatre.[TheVikingsatHelgeland]wasproducedin1858,theyearinwhichhemarriedSuzanne
Thoresen,apastor'sdaughter:theyhadasonin1859.In1862,afterpublicattacksonhispersonalefficiency,thecompanywentbankrupt.Hewastakenonatalow
salarybytheChristianiaTheatre,whichstaged[ThePretenders](1864),afurtherhistoricalplay.Henowacceptedatravelgranttogoabroad.Itwas27years
beforehereturnedpermanentlytoNorway.
FromRome,wherehewrotethedramaticpoemsBrand(1866)andPeerGynt(1867),thefamilymovedtoDresden.[TheLeagueofYouth],amodernpolitical
comedyinprose,wasperformedinChristianiain1869,whenhealsorepresentedNorwayattheopeningoftheSuezCanal.Hiscollectedversewaspublishedin
1871seePoems,ed.andtr.JohnNortham(1986).In1875hemovedtoMunichforhisson'seducation,andbeganhisfirstgreatsequenceofworks:[ThePillars
ofSociety](1877),[ADoll'sHouse](1879),[Ghosts](1881),and[AnEnemyofthePeople](1882),realisticplaysofcontemporaryissues,someaspectsof
whichcausedconsiderablepubliccontroversy.Inasecondcycle,[TheWildDuck](1884),Rosmersholm(1887),[TheLadyfromtheSea](1888),HeddaGabler
(1890),and[TheMasterBuilder](1892),theconcernismorewiththeindividualinthemodernworld,withtheuseofsymbolismtohighlightthemessage.Ibsen
returnedtoNorwayforaholidayin1891,anddecidedtostay.HesettledinChristiania,whereastrokein1900putpaidtofurtherworkhislastplay,[WhenWe
DeadAwaken],whichhedescribedasa'dramaticepilogue',wasfinishedin1899.
Ibsen'sNorwegianupbringingandcharacterimbuedhimwithaninsightintoconflictsofthemindandhypocrisiesinsocialattitudes,hisselfimposedexilewiththe
freedom'towritefreely,frankly,andwithoutreservation',andhisinstinctivetheatricalsensewiththeabilitytouseavarietyofformsinsuchawayastoprovideafirm
baseforthedevelopmentofdramainthe20thcentury.HisfirstplaytobeproducedinLondonwasThePillarsofSociety(tr.WilliamArcher,1880).Itwas
followedbyADoll'sHouse(1889),nominatedbythetheatrescholarHarleyGranvilleBarker(18771946)as'themostdramaticeventofthedecade',
Rosmersholm(1891),HeddaGabler(1891),andTheLadyfromtheSea(1891).WritingaboutGhosts,withwhichtheIndependentTheatreClubwasinaugurated
in1891,ClementScott(18411904)likeneditsauthorto'oneofhisownNorwegianravensemergingfromtherockswithaninsatiableappetitefordecayedflesh'.
Othercriticsweremoreoutspoken.Bythistime,however,IbsenhadbecomeanauthorofEuropeanstatureonhiswaytoachievinginternationaleminence.Thereare
finemoderntranslationsbyMichaelMeyerandJamesMcFarlane.SeeMichaelMeyer,Ibsen,newedn1992(biography)DavidThomas,HenrikIbsen,1993
(criticalstudy).
Ihimaera,Witi(b.1944)
NewZealandnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninGisborneofMaoridescent.HewaseducatedatTeKarakaDistrictHighSchool,andlaterattheuniversities
ofAucklandandVictoria.Afterbeingajournalist,hebecameacareerdiplomat,servingwiththeNewZealandMinistryofForeignAffairsassecondsecretaryin
Canberra,consulinNewYork,andCounselloronPublicAffairs,Washington.PounamuPounamu(1972),thefirstcollectionofshortstoriesbyaMaori,formeda
triowith

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twonovels,Tangi(1973)andWhanau(1974),inwhichthedualculturalheritageofMaoriandPakehaisexploredintermsofthedisappearanceoftraditionalrural
life.Asecondbookofstories,TheNewNetGoesFishing(1977)embracesurbanthemes.TheMatriarch(1986)isanimaginativereconstructionofthestrugglefor
identitybytheMaoriwhooncepossessedtheGisborneFlats.Threecharactersdominatethestory:TeKooti,theprophet,WiHere,theParliamentarian,andhis
protge,ArtemisRiripetiMahana,thechieftainess,grandmotheroftheyoungacademicwhosemeetingwithhisblinduncleisthestartofaquestforhisspiritualand
culturalroots.SubsequentbooksincludeTheWhaleRider(1987),anovella,andDearMissMansfield:aTributetoKathleenMansfieldBeauchamp(1989),
stories.In1991hetookupateachingpostatAucklandUniversity.
Inchbald,Elizabeth(17531821)
neSimpson,Britishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninStanningfield,nearBuryStEdmunds,theeighthofninechildrenofaCatholicfarmer,whodiedin1761.She
wasbeautiful,butshehadastammer,andwhensheappliedforajobwiththeNorwichtheatricalcompanywhichherelderbrotherhadjoined,shewasturneddown.
In1772sheranawaytoLondontobeanactress,butafterbeingmolestedbyamanagerwhohadofferedtohelpher,sheagreedtomarryJosephInchbald,a36
yearoldactorandpainter.ShemadeherstagedebutinBristolasCordeliatohisLear.TheyjoinedtheScottishtouringcompanyofWestDigges(172086),from
whomtheypartedin1776afteradisputebetweenMrInchbaldandanEdinburghaudience.WhentheyreturnedtoEnglandlaterthatyearaftertwomonthsinParis,
theywereinsuchfinancialstraitsthattheyhadtoeatturnipsfromafield.TheyfoundworkinLiverpool,whereElizabethbeganalifelongfriendshipwiththeactress
SarahSiddons(17551831),withwhosebrother,thetragicactorJohnPhilipKemble(17571823),shefellinloveevenafterthesuddendeathofherhusbandfrom
aheartattackin1779Kembleneverproposedmarriagetoher,nordidtheyeverhaveanaffair.Kemble,whowascomanagerwithSHERIDANofDruryLaneTheatre
17881796,marriedPriscillaBrereton(17561845),thewidowofanactorandherselfanactress,in1787.
Inchbaldcontinuedtoactuntil1789,bywhichtimeshehadhadtenofherownplaysproduced,includingthetopicalTheMogulTale:or,TheDescentofthe
Balloon(1788),andbyshrewdlyinvestingherearningshadanincomeof58ayear.In1790theSecondCatholicReliefActensurednewopeningsforCatholicsin
thecommunity.SheresuscitatedanovelofCatholiclifewhichhadbeenrejectedin1779,andgraftedonasecondhalf.ItwasnowacceptedforpublicationasA
SimpleStory(1791),andisthefirstCatholicnovelinEnglish.Inasecondnovel,NatureandArt(1796),herstanceonmoraleducationandsocialinjusticeowes
somethingtothepersonalinfluenceofGODWIN.Shecontinuedtowriteplayswithamoralcontent,contributedindividualprefacestothe25volumeTheBritishTheatre
(180619),andeditedtwoselectionsofplays.ShediedinagenteelCatholicretirementhomeinKensington,havingburnthermemoirs,forwhichshehadbeen
offered1000.
Ingamells,'Rex'[ReginaldCharles](191355)
Australianpoetandcritic,wasborninOroroo,SouthAustralia,andeducatedatPortLincolnHighSchool,PrinceAlfredCollege,andAdelaideUniversity.Aftera
spellasateacherhebecameafreelancejournalist,andpublishedGumtops(1935),thefirstofseveralbooksofverse.Inaprosestudy,ConditionalCulture(1938),
hepostulatedthat'therealtestofapeople'scultureisthewayinwhichtheycanexpressthemselvesinrelationtotheirenvironment',andarguedfortheuseofterms
derivedfromtheAboriginallanguage.Jindyworobak,whichheusedtodenote'distinctivequalityinAustralianliterature',wasthenamebywhichtheliterarymovement
becameknown.TheJindyworobakAnthology,whichheedited,appearedannuallyfrom1938to1953,exceptforsomeofthewaryears.HisTheGreatSouth
Land(1951)isavasthistoricalsurveyinverseinwhichheattemptedtoviewhissubjectalsofromanAboriginalpointofview.Hediedinacarcrash.
Innes,Michael
seeSTEWART,J.I.M.
Ionesco,Eugne(191294)
Frenchdramatist,wasborninSlatina,Romania,hismotherbeingFrench.Thefamilyspenttheyears191325inFrance,wherehewenttoalocalcolecommunale
inParisandtoavillageschoolinLaChapelleAnthenaise.AfterreturningtoRomaniahestudiedFrenchatBucharestUniversity,publishedliterarycriticism,andtaught
inaBucharestschooluntil1939,whenhewentbacktoParisonagovernmentgranttoresearchforathesison'themesofsinanddeathinFrenchliteraturesince
Baudelaire',ofwhichitappearshewrotenothing.Heworkedinapublishinghouseanddidsomejournalism.WhilelearningEnglishfromacoursebookin1948,he
wasstruckwiththeideaforaplay.LaCantatriceChauve(1950tr.DonaldWatsonasTheBaldSopranoinFourPlays,1958),an'antiplay'attacking'universal
pettybourgeoisie'whichisafrontrunneroftheTheatreoftheAbsurd,openedinParisin1950toanaudienceofthree.LaLeon(1951tr.asTheLessoninFour
Plays),aboutcommunicationandtheemploymentoflanguageasaninstrumentofpower,hasabrutalclimaxwhichisapreludetoarepriseofanidenticalsituation.
WhenitwasrevivedinLondonin1958withLesCha

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ises(1952tr.asTheChairsinFourPlays),KENNETHTYNAN(Observer,27June)concludedthat'Ionesco'stheatreispungentandexciting,butitremainsadiversion.
Itisnotonthemainroad:andwedohimnogood,northedramaatlarge,topretendthatitis.'TowhichIonescoreplied:'Aworkofarthasnothingtodowith
doctrine....Anyworkofartwhich[is]idealogicalandnothingelsewouldbepointless,tautological,inferiortothedoctrineitclaimstoillustrate...'.Amonghismany
subsequentplaysarethreesurrealistfantasiesinwhichthetripleincarnationofapublisher'sproductionassistantengagesinconflictwithillusion,withlevitationanda
visionofhell,andultimatelywithdeath:Rhinocros(1959tr.DerekProuseinPlaysIV,1960)LePitondel'Air(1962tr.WatsonasAStrollintheAirinPlays
VI,1968)andLeRoiSeMeurt(1962tr.WatsonasExittheKinginPlaysV,1963).Hismainthemeswerethepainoflivingandthefearofdeath:hetoldan
interviewerin1988,'TheworldisajokethatGodhasplayedonman.'Aftermorethanthirtyplays,twonovels,andanumberofcriticalworks,hegaveupwritingfor
painting.
Ireland,David(b.1927)
Australiannovelist,wasborninLakemba,NewSouthWales,andhadanumberofdifferentjobs,includingworkinginanoilrefinery,beforebecomingafulltime
writerin1973.ImageintheClay,aviolentplayaboutanAboriginalsettlementonthefringeofatown,wasperformedatthePocketTheatre,Sydney,in1962,and
publishedin1964:itlaterbecamehissinglerealisticnovel,Burn(1974).HisusualmethodistobuildupasurrealistimageofAustraliansocietybymeansof
fragmentedscenes,andtosatirize,andoftensavage,thesystemswhichhefindsinherentinit.TheChanticBird(1968)concernsateenagedelinquentinThe
UnknownIndustrialPrisoner(1971)thevictimsarethestaffofanoilrefinery.ThemilieuofTheFlesheaters(1972)isa'home'fordownandouts,incurables,and
theaged.AWomanoftheFuture(1979)isanallegoryofsuccessfulwomanhood.InCityofWomen(1981),womenhavetakenovercompletely.Archimedesand
theSeagle(1984)isananimalfablewhichconverselyoffersredemptionandjoyeveninthecontextofmodernurbanandsocialdehumanization.Bloodfather(1987)
isaspiritualBildungsroman.HewontheMILESFRANKLINAwardin1972,1977,and1980,andwasmadeAOin1981.SeeHelenDaniel,DoubleAgent:
DavidIrelandandHisWork,1982.
Iron,Ralph
seeSCHREINER.
Irving,Washington(17831859)
Americanessayistandhistoricalwriter,wasborninNewYorkCity,theyoungestof11childrenofaScottishbornfatherandanEnglishbornmother,andwas
educatedatJosiahHenderson'sseminary.Hestudiedunderlawyers,tothedaughterofoneofwhomhebecameengaged,butshediedin1808.Healsocontributeda
columnoftheatricalcriticism,'LettersofJonathanOldstyle',totheMorningChronicle,foundedbyhisbrotherPeter(17711838),andthrough1807wroteand
published,withhisoldestbrotherWilliam(17661821)andJamesPaulding(17781860),asatiricalmagazine,Salmagundi.AsimilarsenseoffuninformedhisA
HistoryofNewYork,fromtheBeginningoftheWorldtotheEndoftheDutchDynasty'ByDiedrichKnickerbocker'(1809).In1815,afterservingasacolonel
intheNewYorkMilitiaintheWarof1812,hesailedforEurope.Hewasawayfor17years,initiallyoutofpride,inthattheLiverpoolendofthefamilyhardware
business(managedbyPeter),forwhichhewasworking,wentbankrupt.Amemorablevisitin1817toAbbotsfordtocallonWALTERSCOTT,whohadbeenmuch
amusedbyAHistoryofNewYorkandinvitedhimtostayseveraldays,inspiredhimtopressonwithTheSketchBookofGeoffreyCrayon,Gent,publishedin
partsinAmericain1819,andinBritainintwovolumesin1820.AmongtheelegantessaysonEnglishthemeswerethestoriesofruralNewYork,'RipVanWinkle',
translatedfromitsoriginalGermansetting,and'TheLegendofSleepyHollow',whichwereimmediatelyrecognizedasstylistictreasures.
In1826,attheinvitationoftheAmericanMinistertoSpain,hewenttoMadrid,whereheworkedonAHistoryoftheLifeandVoyagesofChristopherColumbus
(1828),andgainedmaterialforseveralotherworks,includingTheAlhambra:aSeriesofTalesandSketchesoftheMoorsandSpaniards(1832).In1832,having
spenttwoyearsconscientiouslyperformingthedutiesofsecretaryoftheAmericanlegationinLondon,hereturnedhome,satisfiedatlastthathehadrehabilitated
himselfbyhisliteraryreputationandpublicservice.Conscious,however,thatheneededtobeliehisimageasaEuropeanwriter,heincluded'ATouronthePrairies',
narrativesofanexpeditiononhorsebackintheWest,asoneoffourstudiesinTheCrayonMiscellany(1835)anotherisanenthusiasticaccountofhisstaywith
ScottandpublishedtwohistoricalworksonAmericanthemes.HewasMinistertoSpainfrom1842to1846,afterwhichhereturnedtohishomeandextended
household(attimesincludingfivenieces)atSunnyside,nearTarrytown,ontheHudsonriver.HenowputtogetherabiographyofGOLDSMITH(1849),andworked
heroicallyonhisLifeofWashington(185559),thefinalvolumeofwhichhecompletedshortlybeforehisdeath.SeeMaryWeatherspoonBowden,Washington
Irving,1981(criticalstudy).
Isherwood,Christopher(190486)
Britishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninHighLane,Cheshire,thesonofanarmyofficerwhodiedinactioninWorldWarI.HewaseducatedatStEdmund's
School,Hind

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head,wherehefirstencounteredAUDEN,andReptonSchool,wherehemetEdwardUpward(b.1903),withwhomatCorpusChristiCollege,Cambridge,hewrote
storiesofafantasyworldcalledMortmereinwhichcontemporarysocietywasmirroredandsatirizedseeTheMortmereStories(1995).Hewasexpelledfor
deliberatelyfailinghissecondyearexaminations.AlltheConspirators(1928)andTheMemorial:PortraitofaFamily(1932)areangrynovelsabouttheconflict
betweenthegenerations.HetaughtEnglishinBerlinfrom1930to1933.OutofthisexperiencecameMrNorrisChangesTrains(1935)andGoodbyetoBerlin
(1939),inwhichthenarrator/observerishimself,inthefirstas'WilliamBradshaw',hissecondandthirdnames,andinthesecondasChristopherIsherwood.Elements
fromGoodbyetoBerlin,featuringthepromiscuouscabaretperformer,SallyBowles,weremadeintoaplay,IAmaCamera(1951)byJohnvanDruten(190157),
fromwhichthemusicalCabaret(1966)wasadapted.ThetwonovelswerepublishedtogetherasTheBerlinStories(1946)andrepresentallthatexistsofamuch
longerworkabouttheendoftheWeimarRepublic,tobecalled'TheLost'.
Inthe1930shewrotethreeideologicalplayswithAuden,withwhomhelefttheUKin1939tolivepermanentlyintheUSA,ofwhichhebecameacitizenin1946
seeDiaries19391960,ed.KatherineBucknell(1996).HeworkedforfilmcompaniesinHollywood,wherehedevelopedaninterestinHinduphilosophy,and
wrote,cotranslated,andeditedseveralworksrelatingtoVedanta.Ofhispostwarnovels,PraterViolet(1945)reflectshisexperienceasascreenwriter,andinhis
last,AMeetingbytheRiver(1967),thelivesandcharactersoftwobrothersarecontrasted.SeeWhereJoyResides:anIsherwoodReader,ed.DonBachardyand
JamesWhite,1991LionsandShadows:anEducationintheTwenties,newedn1979,KathleenandFrank,newedn1992,ChristopherandHisKind1929
1939,newedn1987,MyGuruandHisDisciple,newedn1988(autobiographicalstudies)JonathanFryer,EyeoftheCamera:aLifeofChristopherIsherwood,
rev.edn1993StephenWade,ChristopherIsherwood,1991(criticalstudy).

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J
Jackson,HelenHunt(183085)
neFiske,Americanpoetandnovelist,wasborninAmherst,Massachusetts,whereshewasachildhoodfriendofEmilyDickinson.SheattendedAmherstAcademy,
forwhichsheprovedtoolively,andthenboardingschoolsatHadley,Charleston,Pittsfield,andFalmouth,followedbyIpswichFemaleSeminary,fromwhich,after
beingorphanedbyherfather'sdeathin1847,shewenttotheprogressiveAbbottInstitute,NewYorkCity.In1852shemarriedEdwardHunt,anarmyofficer,
whosedeathfromanaccidentintheBrooklynNavalYardin1863wasfollowedtwoyearslaterbythatoftheirsurvivingson,agednine.Duringaperiodofrecovery
shecontributedpoemstotheNewYorkEveningPostunderthenameofMarah.In1866shemovedintoMrsHannahDame'sliteraryboardinghouseinNewport,
RhodeIsland,wherethecritic,andmentorofDickinson,ThomasHigginson(18231911),livedathrivingfriendshipensued.Shecontributedstories,essays,and
reviews,signed'SaxeHolm','RipVanWinkle',orwithinitials,toliteraryjournals.VersesbyH.H.(1870enlargededn1874)washighlypraisedbyEMERSON,who
includedfiveofherpoemsinhisanthology,Parnassus(1874).Sheis,however,bestrememberedfortwoproseworksexposingtheAmericangovernment's
treatmentoftheIndians:ACenturyofDishonor(1881),acopyofwhichshepresentedtoeachcongressman,andRamona(1884),afictionalrestatementofher
convictions.Bothwerewrittenafterhermarriagein1875toWilliamS.JacksonofColoradoSprings,whereshecamefacetofacewiththeconditionswhich
stimulatedhercrusadingnature.Afterherdeath,Dickinsonwrote:'HelenofTroywilldie,butnotHelenofColorado.'
Jacob,Violet(18631946)
neKennedyErskine,Scottishpoetandnovelist,wasborninMontrose,thedaughterofthe18thLairdofDun.Shemarriedanarmyofficer,withwhomshespent
someyearsinIndiaseeDiariesandLettersfromIndia18951900,ed.CarolAnderson(1990),inwhichthegrandeurisshrewdlyandhumorouslyobservedand
whichincludesexamplesofherownpaintings.HerfirsttwobooksafterherreturntonortheastScotlandwerehistoricalnovels,ofwhichTheTimesLiterary
SupplementreviewersaidthatTheInterloper(1904)merited'superlativesofcriticism'.SheisbetterknownforherpoetryinthelocaldialectofScots,ofwhichher
mostnotablecollectionsareSongsofAngus(1915)andTheNorthernLightsandOtherPoems(1921).ShewascontributingtoMACDIARMID'Santhologies,
NorthernNumbers(192024),atatimewhenhehimselfwasstillwritinginEnglish.Herworkisusuallyconcernedwiththeindividualinaruralsetting,andhisorher
fears,frustrations,andpangsoflove,andsheiscapableofrepresentingconsiderabledepthoffeeling.ArecentcollectionofhershortstoriesisTheLumHatand
OtherStories:LastTalesofVioletJacob,ed.RonaldGarden(1982).
Jacobs,W(illiam)W(ymark)(18631943)
Britishshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasborninWapping,theeldestsonofaThameswharfmanager,whogavehimaprivateschoolinginspiteofrestricted
finances.HethenstudiedatBirkbeckCollegeandenteredthecivilservicein1879asanapprenticeclerk,becomingfullyfledgedintheSavingsBankDepartmentin
1883.Thecomingsandgoingsofshipsandthosewhomannedandservicedthem,andthetotallycontrastingatmosphereofoccasionalholidaysinthecountry,fired
hisimagination.Inabout1890J.K.JEROMEacceptedsomestoriesandsketchesfortheIdlerandToday,andby1895hisworkwasalsoappearinginStrand
Magazine.Hisfirstcollection,ManyCargoes,waspublishedin1896,andin1899hefeltabletoretirefrombeingaclerktobecomeafulltimewriter.Light
Freights(1901)establishedhishallmarksevenmorefirmly.Hiscomicstoriestendtocentreeitherontheriverandthedomesticlivesofthosewhoearntheirliving
fromit,orontheinhabitantsofthecountryvillageofClaybury.Hisothergenrewasthehorrorstorywhichbordersonthesupernatural,ofwhich'TheMonkey'sPaw'
isthesupremeexample.Hisnovelsarelight,andepisodic.Healsowrote,onhisownaccountorincollaboration,anumberofplays,ofwhichTheBoatswain'sMate
(1907)becameanopera,producedin1916withmusicby(Dame)EthelSmyth(18581944).SeeSelectedStories,ed.HughGreene,1975TheMonkey'sPaw
andOtherStories,1994.

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Jacobson,Dan(b.1929)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,andcritic,wasborninJohannesburg,SouthAfrica,ofJewishparentswhohademigratedfromLithuaniawhenyoung,andwas
broughtupinKimberley.HegraduatedfromWitwatersrandUniversityin1949.HetaughtforayearataJewishschoolinLondon,andonhisreturnwasajournalist
fortheSouthAfricanJewishBoardofDeputiesandthenforanindustrialcompany.HesettledpermanentlyinBritainin1958.Hewasappointedalecturerat
UniversityCollege,London,in1976,ReaderinEnglishin1980,Professorin1988,andProfessorEmeritusin1994.Hisfirstfivenovelsandmanyofhisshort
storiesseeespeciallythecollectionBeggarMyNeighbour(1964)haveSouthAfricanthemes.TheTrap(1955)andADanceintheSun(1956),published
togetherwithanewpreface(1988),eachcentreonasingleepisodeinthebleaknorthernveldt.TheEvidenceofLove(1960),whiletreatingnaturalisticallythetheme
ofinterracialsex,hasamostunusualoutcomeforaSouthAfricannovel.TheBeginners(1966)isafamilysagawhichexplorestheplaceoftheSouthAfricanof
Europeanparentageinthecountryofhisbirth,andoftheJewinthewidercontextofthemodernworld.TheRapeofTamar(1970)hasabiblicaltheme,andmarks
thebeginningofaphaseofmoreinventivenarrativetechniques,whichgiveanightmarequalitytoTheConfessionsofJosefBaisz(1977).HiddenintheHeart
(1991)offersanewangleonlivinginthepast.InHerStory(1987)heexploresinabiblicalsetting'thesecretentanglementsofpleasureandshame,ofdisplayand
denial'inTheGodFearer(1992)heinventsanalternativehistory,inwhichmedievalEuropeisgovernedbyOldTestamentdevotees,andthe'Christer'peopleare
theoppressedminority,athemewhichhasaffinitieswiththoseheinvestigatesinhisstudy,TheStonyoftheStories:theChosenPeopleandItsGod(1982).Adult
Pleasures(1988)isaworkofliterarycriticism.TheElectronicElephant:aSouthAfricanJourney(1994)isavividaccountofajourneybycaralongsouthern
Africa'sGreatNorthRoad.SeeTimeandTimeAgain:Autobiographies,1985.
JamesI(13941437)
KingofScotland,poet,wasborninDunfermline.Whenhewas11,hewassentforsafetytoFrancebyhisfather,RobertIII,butwascapturedenroutebythe
English.Robertdiedonhearingthenews,andthenewKingspentthenext18yearsinEngland,wherehewaswelleducatedandlookedafter.Hewasfinallyfreedin
exchangeforhostagesfromtheScottishnobility,andsentbacktohisownpeoplewithabillfor40,000forhisboardandlodging.Inthemeantimehehadmarried
JoanBeaufort(d.1445),daughteroftheEarlofSomerset.Firmbutruthlessinthepursuitofnecessaryreforms,andmercilessindealingwithhisturbulentnobilityand
recalcitrantHighlandchiefs,hewasassassinatedbymembersofanaristocraticconspiracywhiletakinganextendedChristmasbreakatthemonasteryofBlackfriarsin
Perth.WhilehewasinEngland,asagifttohisnewbrideorincelebrationoftheirfirstmeeting,hewroteTheKingisQuair[TheKing'sBook],197stanzasinwhatis
appropriatelyknownasrhymeroyal(thoughithadbeenusedbyCHAUCERforTroilusandCriseyde).ReminiscentofLYDCATE,however,ratherthanChaucer,itisthe
earliestknownScottishpoeminthecourtlylovevein,whileendorsingthemarriedstateandreflectinganacuteobservationofnatureandaChristianoutlook.The
languageissignificantinthatitincorporatesusages,words,andrhymesfromthenorthernEnglishdialectfromwhichMiddleScotsdeveloped.SeeTheKingisQuair,
ed.J.NortonSmith,1971.
JamesVI(IofEngland)(15661625)
KingofScotland(from1603alsoofEngland),poetandprosewriter,theonlychildofLordDarnley(154567)andMary,QueenofScots,wasborninEdinburgh
CastleandbecameKingwhenhismotherwasforcedtoabdicateandfleetoEnglandin1567.HewaseducatedatStirlingCastleunderthesupervisionofBUCHANAN,
spokeLatinbeforehehadlearnedScots,andat12(whenhewasdubbed'ThewisestfoolinChristendom'byaFrenchstatesmanwhohadbeentoldhewasafool)
hewaswidelyreadinmanyfieldsofstudy.In1582hewaskidnappedbyaconspiracyofnoblesandheldforayear,afterwhichhereorganizedhiscourtandformed
theCastalianBand,agroupofpoetsamongwhomwereMONTGOMERIEandFOWLER.Hewashimselfwritingquitetolerableverseatthistime,someofwhichwas
publishedin1585withaprefaceinwhichhediscussespoeticforms.Morepoems,HisMajestiesPoeticallExercisesatVariantHoures,appearedin1585.
Daemonologie(1597),aproseworkonwitchcraft,reflectsthehysteriaofthetimeandhisownmisguidedpreoccupationwiththesubject.BasiliconDoron(1599),
hisrulesofkingship,whichincludednotbeingdictatedtobytheProtestantChurch,wasoriginallywrittenfortheyoungPrinceHenry(15931612).WhenJames
succeededtotheEnglishthroneofElizabeth(hisfirstcousintwiceremoved),hehad,inspiteofhisungainlyappearanceanddisgustingtablemanners,improvedhis
country'stradeandindustry,finallyendedfeudalism,strengthenedthepowerofParliament,and(largelybycunning)establishedhimselfasHeadoftheChurchaswell
asofState.HewasalsotobecomethefirstScottishmonarchforovertwohundredyearstodieinhisorherbed,apartfromhisgrandfather,JamesV,who
succumbedtodepressionattheageof30.JamesgreetedhisnewsubjectswithACounterblastetoTobacco(1604):'Haveyounotreasonthentobeeashamed,and
to

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forbearethisfilthienoveltie,sobaselygrounded,sofoolishlyreceivedandsogrosslymistakenintherightusethereof?...Acustomelothsometotheeye,hatefullto
theNose,harmefulltothebraine,dangeroustothelungs,andintheblackstinkingfumethereof,neerestresemblingthehorribleStigiansmokeofthepitthatis
bottomlesse.'ThistreatisewasdiplomaticallywritteninEnglish,ratherthanhisnativeScots,andforthepublicationofhisWorkes(1616),hesubstitutedwherever
possibleEnglishequivalentsofScotswords.ItwasathisinstigationthattheHamptonCourtConferencewasheldin1604,atwhichheproposedarevisionofthe
EnglishBible,resultingintheAuthorizedVersionof1611.
James,C(yril)L(ionel)R(obrt)(190189)
Trinidadiannovelist,historian,andcritic,waseducatedatQueen'sRoyalCollege,PortofSpain,andbecameateacherandjournalist.In192930hejointlyeditedthe
twoissuesofTrinidad,theisland'sfirstliterarymagazine.In1932heemigratedtoEngland,takingwithhimthemanuscriptofanovel,though'therealmagnumopus
wastobemysecondnovel'.Thesecondnovelnevermaterialized,butMintyAlley(1936newedn,withintroductionbyKennethRamchand,1971),setinabarrack
yard,isaforerunneroftheWestIndiannovelofsocialrealism.Hishistoricalstudy,TheBlackJacobins:ToussaintL'OuvertureandtheSanDomingoRevolution
(1938revedn1963inUSA,1980inUK),isregardedashavinginfluencedtheemergenceoftheWestIndianhistoricalnovel.Hewasatthistimealsowritingabout
cricket,inwhichfieldhebecameajournalistintheclassofCARDUS.Hespenttheyears193853intheUSA,wherehelecturedonpoliticsandliterature.Hewas
SecretaryoftheWestIndianFederalLabourParty195860.AMarxistphilosopher,hepublishedhisselectedwritingsinthreevolumes197785.SeeTheC.L.R.
JamesReader,ed.AnnaGrimshaw,1992C.L.R.James:HisIntellectualLegacies,ed.SelwynR.CudjoeandWilliamE.Cain,1995BeyondaBoundary,new
edn1996(autobiography)FarrukhDhondy,C.L.R.James:aLife,1996KentWorcester,C.L.R.James:aPoliticalBiography,1996.
James,Henry(18431916)
novelist,shortstorywriter,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninNewYork,thesecondsonofHenryJames(181182),aphilosophicalandtheologicalwriterofIrish
parentageseeAlfredHabeggerTheFather:aLifeofHenryJames,Sr(1995).Hewasthebrotherofthephilosopherandpsychologist,WilliamJames(1842
1910),whoinhisPrinciplesofPsychology(1890)coinedtheterm'streamofconsciousness',andofAliceJames(184892),diaristandletterwriterseeJean
Strouse,AliceJames(1980).ForaportraitofthewholefamilyseeR.W.B.Lewis,TheJameses:aFamilyNarrative(1991).HenrywastakentoEuropeatsix
monthsandtheneducatedatvariousprivateschoolsinNewYork,whilebeingallowedagreatdealoffreedomtoroamaroundthecityandtoformulateandexpress
histhoughts.HedescribeshisearlieryearsinASmallBoyandOthers(1913)andNotesofaSonandBrother(1914)seealsoTheMiddleYears(1917).In
1855thefamilywentabroadforseveralyears,duringwhichheacquiredalifelongtasteforEurope.In1862,shortlyaftersufferingamysteriousbackinjury,he
enteredHarvardtoreadlaw,butsoongavethatupinfavourofalessconventionalcareer,whichheheraldedbygettingpublishedin1864whathasbeenidentifiedas
hisfirststory,'ATragedyofErrors'.DuringthenexttenyearsherevisitedEuropetwiceandwrotemanystories,reviews,andarticlesforEnglishandAmerican
journalsseeespeciallyTravellinginItalywithHenryJames:Essays,ed.FredKaplan(1994).Hisfirstnovel,WatchandWard,appearedasaserialin1871(in
volumeformin1878).Hisfirstbookofshortstories,APassionatePilgrimandOtherTales,waspublishedin1875,theyearhereturnedtoEurope,determinedto
settlethereforgood.AftertryingParis,hedecidedonLondon,wherehelivedfirstinlodgingsoffPiccadillyandtheninaflatinKensington.Heactedasa
dispassionateobserver,ratherthanaparticipantin,orevenacriticof,thesocial,political,andeconomicchangesofthetimes,andmadeasubsidiaryartofthe
pleasureofdiningout.Henevermarried.
James'sparticulardistinctionasanovelististhat,bornandbredinwhatwasthentheNewWorldandlivinginandfullyappreciatingthesocialandculturaltraditionsof
theOld,hecreatedanew(ifnotalwaysawelcome)bridgeofunderstanding.Further,byajudiciousmixtureofwhathecalled'drama',thepresentationofascene
withoutanyinterveninginterpretation,and'picture',thereflectionoftheactionthroughtheconsciousnessofacharacter,hedevelopedanewapproachtohiscraft.For
thesakeofcriticalconveniencehiscareerisoftendividedintothreephases.ThethemeoftheinnocentAmericanabroaddominatesthefirstphase,whichbeginswith
RoderickHudson(1876)andculminatestriumphantlywithThePortraitofaLady(1881).ThenextphasecomprisesnovelswithAmericansettings,suchas
WashingtonSquare(1881)andTheBostonians(1886),andstudiesofclashesbetweentheclasses,suchasThePrincessCasamassima(1886)andTheTragic
Muse(1890).Atthispointinhisliterarydevelopmentheappearstohaveabandonedhopeofpopularacclaiminhissubsequentnovelsheismoreconcernedwiththe
perfectionofhisartform,inreworkingearlierthemeswithincreaseddepth,asinTheAmbassadors(1903),andinvaryingthepatternsofsexualrelationships,

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James,M(ontague)R(hodes)
asinTheWingsoftheDove(1902)andTheGoldenBowl(1904).HistwomostfamouspiecesofshorterfictionareTheAspernPapers(1888),basedonhis
knowledgeofBYRON,SHELLEY,andClaireClairmont(17981879),whosethemeisthemoralityofdisturbingthepast,andthetaleofsupernaturalpossession,TheTurn
oftheScrew(1898),eachofwhichrespondstovariousinterpretations.Themoderatereceptiongiventohisnovelsinhismiddlephaseledhimtoexperimentwith
drama.Onlyahandfulofhisplayswereperformed,andhewasjeeredwhenin1895hetookabowonthefirstnightofGuyDomvilletheoccasionalsomarkedthe
firstmeetingofSHAWandWELLS.Hisliterarycriticismisanotherthingaltogether,andisseenatitsbestintheprefacestotherevisededitionsofhisnovels,firstpublished
inNewYork190709seealsoLiteraryCriticism(2vols1985).
In1898heboughtLambHouseinRye,Sussex,thoughhehadaroompermanentlykeptforhimattheReformClubforhisfrequentvisitstoLondonin1913he
acquiredinadditionafiatinCheyneWalk,Chelsea.TheoutbreakofWorldWarIcameasaprofoundshocktohim,andhedemonstratedhispatriotismforhis
adoptivecountrybybecomingaBritishcitizenin1915.HewasawardedtheOMintheNewYearHonoursListin1916,anddiedtwomonthslaterinLondon.See
LeonEdel,HenryJames:aLife,newedn1996(singlevolumeednofTheLifeofHenryJames,5vols195372)FredKaplan,HenryJames:theImaginationof
Genius,newedn1994(biography)SheldonM.Novick,HenryJames:theYoungMaster,1996(biographytothe1880s)S.GorleyPutt,APrefacetoHenry
James,1987JudithWood,HenryJames:theMajorNovels,1991BarbaraHardy,HenryJames:theLaterWriting,1996(criticalintroduction)TonyTanner,
HenryJamesandtheArtofNonFiction,1995.
James,M(ontague)R(hodes)(18621936)
Britishscholarandshortstorywriter,wasborninGoodnestone,Kent,thesonofacleric,andwaseducatedatEtonandKing'sCollege,Cambridge,wherehegota
firstinclassicsandwonprizesfordivinity.Hisprofessionalcareerwasatributetobothhisacademicandhisadministrativeabilities.HebecameaFellowofKing'sin
1887,andwasProvost190518,whilealsobeingDirectoroftheFitzwilliamMuseum18931908.HewasProvostofEton191836.Hisparticularfieldsof
scholarshipweretheapochryphalliteratureoftheBibleTheApochryphalNewTestament(1924),whichheeditedandtranslated,isstillthestandardeditionand
medievalmanuscripts.Between1895and1932hecataloguedthemanuscriptholdingsofeveryCambridgecollege,aswellasthoseoftheFitzwilliamMuseum,
WestminsterAbbey,LambethPalace,AberdeenUniversity,andtheJohnRylandsLibrary,Manchester.Thereislittledoubtthattheseinterests,andthehistoric
surroundingsinwhichhecarriedonhisbachelorexistence,contributedtohismasteryofthestoryofthemacabre,atalentwhichreceivesnomentionintheDictionary
ofNationalBiography.GhostStoriesofanAntiquary(1904),andsubsequentvolumesinasimilarvein,areallthemorebelievable,andthushorrific,forbeing
writtenbyamanwhohadsteepedhimselfinmythandfolkloreandtheconditionsandintellectualprocessesbywhichtheyaregenerated,andwhowasalsoasincere
Christian.HewasawardedtheOMin1930.SeeCastingtheRunesandOtherGhostStories,ed.MichaelCox,1987MichaelCox,M.R.James:anInformal
Portrait,newedn1986.
James,P(hyllis)D(orothy)(b.1920)
Britishnovelist,wasborninOxford,thedaughterofataxofficial,andwaseducatedatCambridgeGirls'HighSchool.Asherparentswereunabletoafforduniversity,
shewenttoworkinthetaxofficeinEly,whereshemetamedicalstudent,ConnorWhite(d.1964).Theymarriedin1941andmovedtoLondon,wheresheworked
asaRedCrossnurseandattheMinistryofFood,andthoughtaboutanovel,'buttherewassomuchbombingIdidn'tthinkitwasworthbeginningsinceIprobably
wouldn'tbearoundtofinishit'.Herhusband'swarexperiencelefthimwithamentalillnessfromwhichhedidnotrecover.Tosupportthemselvesandtheirtwo
daughtersshebecameacivilservant,workinginhospitaladministrationfrom1949to1968,whenshejoinedtheHomeOfficeasPrincipalinthePoliceDepartment,
latertransferringtotheCriminalPolicyDepartment,withwhichshewasfrom1972to1979.CoverHerFace(1962),writtenearlyinthemorningandatweekends,
introducedtothecrimenovelanewbrandofdetective,CommanderAdamDalgliesh,sensitive,lonely,andapublishedpoet,whoinAnUnsuitableJobfora
Woman(1972)isviewedthroughtheeyesofanotherunusualcreation,CordeliaGray,tyroprivatedetective.James'sbooksbeginwithasituationorsetting,and
dependoningeniousmotivesandinterestingrelationshipsfortheirexposition.InnocentBlood(1980),notadetectivestorybutapsychologicalthriller,delvesdeepest
incharacterstudyandsuspense.WithitspublicationintheUSAshebecameabestsellingauthor.TheChildrenofMen(1992)isbycompletecontrastadystopian
novelinwhichsheprojectsanEnglandin2021inwhich,asonthewholeplanet,nochildhasbeenbornfor25years.Shereturnedtohermorenormalvein,andto
Dalgliesh,inOriginalSin(1994),setinatraditionalLondonpublishinghouse.ShewasagovernoroftheBBC198893,andamemberoftheBritishCouncil1988
93andoftheArtsCouncil198892.Shereceiveda

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lifepeeragein1991,becomingBaronessJames.
James,William
seeJAMES,HENRYSINCLAIRSTEIN.
Jameson,AnnaBrownell(17941860)
neMurphy,Britishcriticandnovelist,wasborninDublin,theeldestdaughteroftheminiaturepainter,DenisBrownellMurphy(d.1842).ThefamilycametoEngland
in1798whenshewas16shebecameagoverness.AfterabrokenengagementshetookapostwhichinvolvedaccompanyingherchargeonaContinentaltourher
fictionalaccount(1825),muchinthestyleofSTAL'SCorinne,wasreissuedasDiaryofanEnnuye(1826)andmadeanimpressionforitsemphasisonfemale
independence.Shenowmarriedherformerfianc,RobertJameson(d.1854),whoafterafewyearsdepartedforDominica.Inthemeantimeshebecameanotable
criticwithbookssuchasTheLovesofthePoets(1829)andCharacteristicsofWomen(1832),astudyofSHAKESPEARE'Sheroines.In1836herhusbandpersuaded
hertojoinhiminCanada,wherehehadbecomeAttorneyGeneral,butshereturnedaftertwoyears.Aninveteratetraveller,sheorganizedtheBROWNINGSwhenthey
arrivedinParisin1846aftertheirclandestinemarriage.Herhusband'sdeath,withoutanyprovisionforher,affectedhersecuritybutincreasedherenergy.Shediedof
acoldcaughtwhilereturningtoherlodgingsfromtheBritishMuseum,whereshehadbeenresearchingherunfinished'HistoryofOurLord',thefourthpartofSacred
andLegendaryArt,whichhadbegunwithlegendsoftheangelsandstoriesofthesaints(1848).E.B.BROWNINGdescribedherashaving'thelightestofeyes,the
lightestofcomplexions,noeyebrows,andwhatlookstomelikeverypaleredhair,andthinlipsofnocolouratall'.CARLYLE,whodidnotlikeheratall,calledher'a
littlehard,brown,redhaired,freckled,fierceeyed,squaremouthedwoman'.SeeClaraThomas,LoveandWorkEnough:theLifeofAnnaJameson,1967.
Jameson,(Margaret)Storm(18911986)
Britishnovelistandcritic,wasborninWhitby,Yorkshire,ofafamilyofshipbuilders(herfatherwasaship'scaptain),andhadaNonconformistupbringing.Shewas
educatedatScarboroughMunicipalSchoolandLeedsUniversity,whereshewasnotonlythefirstwomanBAinEnglish,butalsogotafirst.Duringthe1920sshe
workedinLondonasanadvertisingcopywriter,asEditorofNewCommonwealth,andasEnglishrepresentativeoftheAmericanpublishingfirmofAlfredA.Knopf.
Herfirstnovel,ThePotBoils,waspublishedin1919.Shewasaprolificwriter,themorenotableofwhosesubsequentnovelsincludethe'TriumphofTime'trilogy
(192731),aboutaWhitbyshipbuildingdynastyanothertrilogy(orbyherownaccount'anunfinishedseries'),'TheMirrorinDarkness'(193436),inwhichthe'new
woman'isaprojectionofherownpersonalityandCousinHonor(1940),astudyofcharacterandalsooftheFrench/Germanpoliticalandbehaviouraldividein
Alsacebetweenthetwoworldwars.In193738shewrotethreenovelsunderthepseudonymsofJamesHillorWilliamLamb.Shealsotranslatednovelsandstories
ofMAUPASSANT.AsaneloquentantiNaziandatirelessworkerforrefugeewritersandintellectuals,shewasanidealPresidentoftheEnglishCentreofPEN193845,
anditisofnotethattheoriginalUKeditionofFRANK'SDiarycarriedasubstantialforewordbyher.Sherecordedin1981thatParthianWords(1970),anoutspoken
studyofmodernfiction,'containsmydeclarationoffaithasawriter'.SeeJourneyfromtheNorth,2vols,newedn1984(autobiography).
Jansson,Tove(b.1914)
Finnishchildren'swriter(inSwedish),wasbornandbroughtupinHelsinki,thedaughterofasculptorseeherchildhoodimpressions,[Sculptor'sDaughter](1968
tr.KingsleyHart,1969)andstudiedartinStockholm,Helsinki,andParis.Ofschool,shehassaid:'Ididn'tunderstandwhatitwasallabout...Ijustwaitedforitto
stop.AllIenjoyedwasthewriting.'Anartistandillustrator,sheoriginallydevisedtheMoomins,curious,affable,endearinglyrotund,trolllikecreatureswhosolve
theirdomesticandenvironmentalproblemsthroughartanddeepthought,forastripcartoonthefirststorybook,[CometinMoominland](1946tr.Elizabeth
Portch,1951),wasfollowedbysevenfurtherminiaturesagas,allillustratedbyherselfthefirsttobepublishedinEnglishwas[FinnFamilyMoomintroll](1949tr.
Portch,1950).[TheSummerBook](1972tr.ThomasTeal,1974)isaseriesofsituations,ratherthanstories,featuringasmallgirlandhergrandmother,whichare
evocativeequallyofchildhoodandoldage.ShespentseveralweeksinLondonin1954composingaMoomins'stripfortheEveningNewsandtrying'tolearn
EnglishfromthenovelsofEG.Wodehouse'.ShewasawardedtheHansChristianANDERSENMedalin1966.
Jarrell,Randall(191465)
Americanpoet,critic,andtranslator,wasborninNashville,Tennessee,whereattheageofeightheposedforthefigureofGanymedeonthePantheoninthe
CentennialPark.Hisdividedchildhoodisreflectedinmanypoems,notably'90North'and'ThePrince'.HewaseducatedatHumeFoggHighSchool,Nashville,and
VanderbiltUniversity,wherehestudiedcreativewritingunderRANSOM,andwroteapostgraduatedissertationonA.E.HOUSMAN.Hisfirstbookofverse,Bloodfor

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aStranger(1942),waspublishedwhilehewasteachingattheUniversityofTexas.Hissecond,LittleFriend,LittleFriend(1945),cameoutwhilehewasdoing
warserviceasanairforceinstructornearTucson,Arizona,whichsuppliedhimwiththebackgroundforsomeunusual,vicariouswarpoems,suchas'TheDeathofthe
BallTurretGunner'and'Siegfried'.Hethenreturnedtoteaching,attheWomen'sCollege,UniversityofNorthCarolina,Greensboro,ofwhichhebecameafull
professorin1958.Hecontinuedtowritepoetryofeverydayhappeningsandheartbreaks,adoptingafemalepersonaforthetitlepoemofTheWomanatthe
WashingtonZoo(1960),andrelivingchildhoodexperiencesinTheLostWorld(1965).HewasequallyrespectedasacriticTheThirdBookofCriticism(1969)
andKipling,Auden&Co:EssaysandReviews19351964(1980)werepublishedposthumouslyandasatranslator,especiallyofGOETHE,theGRIMMS,andRILKE.
Hisonlynovel,PicturesfromanInstitution(1954),isarollickingskitonthecreativewritingdepartmentofawomen'scollege.Hesufferedanervousbreakdownin
1964,anddiedwhenstruckbyacaronahighway.SeeTheCompletePoems,newedn1996SelectedPoems,ed.WilliamH.Pritchard,newedn1991William
H.Pritchard,RandallJarrell:aLiteraryLife,newedn1991MaryJarrell,RememberingRandall,PoetCritic,1996SuzanneFerguson,ThePoetryofRandall
Jarrell,1971.
Jefferies,(John)Richard(184887)
Britishnaturalist,novelist,andprosewriter,wasbornnearSwindon,thesonofasmallfarmer,andwaseducatedlocallyandinKent.At16heandafriendranaway
toFrance,intendingtowalktoMoscow,butchangedtheirdestinationtoAmerica,turnedback,andreachedLiverpool.Findingthattheyhadnotenoughmoneyfor
thevoyage,theyreturnedtoSwindon.HewasencouragedtowritebytheEditoroftheNorthWiltsHerald,forwhichhebecameareporter.Unemployedafteravisit
toBelgiumin1870,hecametopublicnoticein1872withalettertoTheTimesontheplightoffarmworkers.Withwhatheearnedfromafamilyhistory,AMemoir
oftheGoddardsofNorthWilts(1873),andothersources,hegotmarriedandsubsidizedthepublicationofasocietynovel,TheScarletShawl(1874),which
failed,asdiditssuccessor.HefinallyestablishedhimselfandthesourceofhisparticulargeniuswithTheGamekeeperatHome:SketchesofNaturalHistoryand
RuralLife(1878).Betweenhiscountrynovels,GreeneFerneFarm(1880)andTheDewyMorn(1884),cameBevis:theStonyofaBoy(1882),inwhichhis
lyricalobservationofnatureisheightenedbythefireofyouth.AfterLondon:or,WildEngland(1885)isanexcursionintoimaginativesciencefiction.Thereisstrong
characterizationandfamilyconflictinAmaryllisattheFair(1887),writtenwhilehewaspainfullydyingfromalongillness,tooproudtoseekhelpfromtheRoyal
LiteraryFund.HeexpressedhisspiritualyearningsandpantheisticbeliefsinTheStoryofMyHeart:MyAutobiography(1883).Hismostfamouscollectionof
essaysisTheOpenAir(1885).SeeSamuelJ.Looker,RichardJefferies,ManoftheFields:aBiographyandLetters,1965.
Jeffers,(John)Robinson(18871962)
Americanpoet,wasborninPittsburgh,Pennsylvania,theeldersonofa49yearoldprofessorofOldTestamentliteratureandhis27yearoldwife.Hewaslearning
Greekfromhisfatheratfive,andattendedboardingschoolsinSwitzerlandandGermanywhilehisparentswentontheirtravels.WhentheymovedtoPasadena,
California,in1903,hewenttoOccidentalCollege,andstudiedliteratureandthenmedicineattheUniversityofCalifornia,ofwhichhewasheavyweightwrestling
champion.Hefellinlovewithafellowstudent,UnaKuster(18851950),thewifeofalawyer,andinspiteofeffortstopartthem,theymarriedin1913afterher
divorce.Alegacyfromhisgrandfatherfinancedthepublicationofabookofverse,FlagonsandApples(1912),anearlymanuscriptofwhichhehadmislaidduringa
saloondrinkingsession.ThecouplemovedtoCarmel,onthecoastsouthofSanFrancisco,in1914.Herehebuiltatowerhouseofstone,facing'thefinalPacific',
and,happilymarriedandthefatheroftwinboys,settleddowntoreflectthewildnessofhissurroundingsinverse.Californians(1916)waspublished,andforgotten.
Afterseveralrejections,heprivatelypublishedTamarandOtherPoems(1924),whosereceptionbythecriticsencouragedapublishertobringoutanexpanded
edition,RoanStallion,TamarandOtherPoems(1925).TheSelectedPoetryofRobinsonJeffers(1938)wasdrawnfrom11previousvolumes.Strongly
conservative,andpopularonlyaslongasreaderscouldfindlittleformormeaninginthemodernists,hewrotelyricsinfreeverseandgrimnarrativepoemsinblank
verse.HisadaptationofMedeaofEURIPIDES(1946)ransuccessfullyasaplay.SeeTheCollectedPoetryofRobinsonJeffers,ed.TimHunt,3vols198891
RobertJ.Brophy,RobinsonJeffers:theDimensionsofaPoet,1994.
Jennings,Elizabeth(b1926)
Britishpoet,wasborninBoston,Lincolnshire,ofaCatholicfamily,andwaseducatedatOxfordHighSchoolandStAnne'sCollege,Oxford,afterwhichshewasa
libraryassistantivOxfordCityLibraryuntil1958.Since1961shehasbeenafreelancewriter.Poemswaspublishedin1953,withAWayofLookingin1955she
wastheonlywomancontributortoCONQUEST'Santhology,NewLines(1956).Imagesofchildhood,people,andplaces(especiallyItaly)gavewayinRecoveries
(1964)and

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TheMindHasMountains(1966)tovisionsofhospitalandtoexplorationsofadisturbedmind(causedbyamentalbreakdown),whicharesetatrestinGrowing
Points:NewPoems(1975)andConsequentlyIRejoice(1977).HerinterestincraftsmenisreflectedbyhertranslationsofTheSonnetsofMichelangelo(rev.edn
1969),andinpaintingbypoemsonVanGoghwhileherreligiousconvictionisseenparticularlyinsuchpoemsas'TheAnnunciation','TheVisitation','ARequiem',
andherimaginativeprojectionsintothepersonalitiesofsaints.Shehaswrittenseveralcriticalstudies,andcompiledTheBatsfordBookofReligiousVerse(1981).A
committedRomanCatholic,shelivesonherowninabedsittergiventoherbytheOxfordcitycouncil,spendingmostofthedayinalocalcoffeeshop,whereshe
writesreviewsandlettersatnightshereadsandcomposespoetry.ShewasmadeCBEin1992.SeeCollectedPoems19531986,newedn1987Timesand
Seasons,1992,andFamiliarSpirits,1994(subsequentcollections).
Jerome,St(Hieronymus)(c.340420)
wasbornnearAquileia,Dalmatia,ofawealthyChristianfamily,andwaseducatedinRome,afterwhichhereturnedhomeandenteredintoaregimenofasceticism,as
areactiontowhathehadexperiencedandseen.AfteraperiodspentinthedesertofChalcis,hewasordainedpriestinAntioch.In382hecametoRome,wherehe
becamesecretarytoPopeDamasusandspiritualconsultanttoseveralhighbornladies,ofwhomPaulaandherdaughteraccompaniedhimtoBethlehem,wherehe
settledin386,andwherePaulafoundedamonasteryandthreeconvents.HisnumerousworksinLatinincludebiographicalstudies,polemicaltreatises,and
commentaries.HetranslatedtheOldTestamentintoLatinfromtheHebrew,andmadeafreshtranslationoftheNewTestamentfromtheGreek.Theresulting
'Vulgate'Bible,revisedunderPopeClementVIII(15921605),istheauthorizedtextoftheRomanCatholicChurch.ERASMUSpublishedaneditionofhisworksin
1519.
Jerome,JeromeK(lapka)(18591927)
Britishnovelist,dramatist,andjournalist,wasborninWalsall,thesonofaNonconformistpreacherandcollieryownerwho,whentheminefailed,setupasa
wholesaleironmongerineastLondon.HewaseducatedatMaryleboneGrammarSchool,whichheleftat14.Heworkedasarailwayclerk,teacher,actor,and
journalist,beforehavingaplay,Barbara,producedin1886.Healsopublishedtwobooksofsketches,OntheStageandOff:theBriefCareerofaWouldbe
Actor(1888)andTheIdleThoughtsofanIdleFellow:aBookforanIdleHoliday(1889).ThreeMeninaBoat(ToSayNothingoftheDog)(1889)beganas
astudyoftheThames('TheStoryoftheThames'),withlinkingpassagesrecordingatripbyrowingboat.Theeditorwiselycutoutthehistoryandtopography,leaving
whatitsauthortermed'hopelessandincurableveracity',whichisthechiefjoyofthisclassichumoroustaleanyonewhohasgoneboatingorcamping,orprefersnot
to,willrecognizetheessenceoftruth.AlessfamoussequelisThreeMenontheBummel(1900),inwhichthetrioholidayinGermany.Jeromewasafounderofthe
Idlerliterarymagazine,whichheeditedfrom1892to1897.Thetwopennyweeklypaper,Today,whichheestablishedin1893,foldedin1897afteralawsuit.He
wroteothernovelsandbooksofessaysandsketches,andmanymoreplays,ofwhichThePassingoftheThirdFloorBack(1908),fromhisownstory,a
sentimentaltaleofthemoralregenerationoftheoccupantsofalodginghouse,isremembered.Inhislatefifties,hedroveaFrenchambulanceontheWesternfront.He
diedwhileonamotoringtourofBritain.SeeMyLifeandTimes,newedn1983JosephConnolly,JeromeK.Jerome:aCriticalBiography,1982.
Jewett,SarahOrne(18491909)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninSouthBerwick,Maine,granddaughter,ononeside,ofaseacaptainandshipownerand,ontheother,ofa
literarymindedmedicalmanshewasthedaughterofacountrydoctor,whomsheaccompaniedonhisroundswhensicknesskeptherfromschool,asitoftendid.She
attendedBerwickAcademyinadesultoryfashionfrom1861to1865,bywhichtimeshehadbeeninspiredbySTOWE'SThePearlofOrr'sIslandtorecordand
reflect,fortheedificationoftherestofthenation,theNewEnglandenvironment,towhichshealwaysremainedintenselyloyal.Herearliestefforts,signed'AliceEliot',
'A.C.Eliot',or'SarahO.Sweet',weremainlypublishedinchildren'smagazines.HercareerproperlybeganwiththeacceptancebyHOWELLSofherstory,'Mr
Bruce'(1869),forAtlanticMonthly.Heencouragedhertofitanumberofsketchesintoafictionalframework,whichbecameherfirstbook,Deephaven(1877).In
ACountryDoctor(1884),she'triedtogivesomeideaofmyfather'scharacter'.AWhiteHeronandOtherStories(1886)representshershortwritingatitsmost
mature:TheCountryofthePointedFirs(1896),anepisodicnovel,hasprovedhermostlastingsinglework.ShestruckupanenduringfriendshipwithAnnieAdams
Fields(18341915),miscellaneouswriterandliterarybiographer,thewifeofHowells'spredecessor,JamesT.Fields(181781).OnfourtripstogethertoEurope
(1882,1892,1898,1900)theyhobnobbedwithwriterssuchasHENRYJAMES,KIPLING,READE,TENNYSON,andevenCHRISTINAROSSETTI.Herattitudetohercraftmaybe
summedupbyheradvicetoCATHER:'Onemustknowtheworldsowellbeforeonecan

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knowtheparish.'In1901shewasthefirstwomantobeawardedanhonorarydoctoratebyBowdoinCollege.In1902,onher53rdbirthday,shewasthrownfrom
hercarriageandsufferedinjurieswhichendedherwritingcareer.SeeNovelsandStories,ed.MichaelDavittBell,1994TheBestStoriesofSarahOrneJewett,
ed.CharlesG.Waughandothers,1988TheCountryofthePointedFirsandOtherStories,ed.MarjoriePryse,1994TheCountryofthePointedFirsand
OtherFiction,ed.TerryHeller,1996PaulaBlanchard,SarahOrneJewett:HerWorldandHerWork,1994RichardCary,SarahOrneJewett,1962(critical
study).
Jewsbury,Geraldine(181280)
Britishnovelist,wasborninMeasham,Derbyshire.ThefamilymovedtoManchesterinabout1818.Afterthedeathofhermother,shewasbroughtupbyhersister
Maria(180033),apoetandprosewriter,afterwhosemarriagein1832shekepthouseforherfatheruntilhisdeathin1840,andthenforabrotheruntilhismarriage
in1853.In1841shemetCARLYLEandhiswife,withwhomshestruckupafirmrapport,thoughitwasagainstJaneCarlyle'sbetterjudgmentthat,atherhusband's
suggestion,sheinvitedGeraldinetostay'fortwoorthreeweeks'atCheyneRowin1843.Thevisitlastedsixweeksandwasnotasuccess,thoughthefriendshipwas
maintaineduntilMrsCarlyle'sdeath.MrsAlexanderIrelandinLifeofJaneWelshCarlyle(1891)writes,of1845:'PerhapsaquietcigarettewithMissJewsbury,
whoreallylovedher,washergreatestsolaceatthistime.'Thelovewassincere,butMrsCarlylewasexasperatedbytheattendant'tigerjealousy'.Jewsbury'sfirst
novel,Zo,theHistoryofTwoLives(1845),wasasensationforitsthemeoftheloveofaCatholicpriestforabeautifulwoman.Italmostgotherahusband,fora
journalistfriendoftheCarlylesenteredintoacorrespondencewithheraboutit,andthenfoundhimselfhavingtopropose.Shewasanarchflirt,butshenevermarried,
thoughshewrote:'IwishIhadagoodhusbandandadozenchildren!Onlythedifficultyisthat''womenofgenius"requireveryspecialhusbands.'Shewrotefivemore
novels,includingTheHalfSisters(1848)andMarianWithers(1851),aLancashireregionalstory.AftermovingtoLondonin1854shebecameareviewerforthe
Athenaeum.SeeNormaClarke,AmbitiousHeights:Writing,Friendship,Love(theJewsburySisters,FeliciaHemansandJaneCarlyle),1990.
Jhabvala,RuthPrawer(b.1927)
neRuthPrawer,novelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninCologneofPolishJewishparents,withwhomshefledtoEnglandin1939.ShewaseducatedatHendon
CountySchoolandLondonUniversity,graduatinginEnglishliteraturein1951,inwhichyearshemarriedanIndianarchitectandwentwithhimtoIndia,wherethey
hadthreedaughters.ShehaslivedinNewYorksince1975,andisnowaUScitizen.In1972shecommentedthat'thecentralfact'ofherfictionwasthatshewas'a
EuropeanlivingpermanentlyinIndia,[with]anIndianfamily',and'thismakesmenotquiteaninsiderbutitdoesnotleavemeentirelyanoutsidereither'.Hereight
Indiannovels,whichbeganwithToWhomSheWill(1955),areprimarilyconcernedwiththeconflictsbetweenWestern,orWesternized,culturalandsocial
conventionsandthetraditionsandtribulationsoftheIndianexperience.Inthelastofthese,HeatandDust(1975),whichwontheBookerprizeforfiction,thepresent
andthepastareusedtoilluminateascandalousromanticescapade.HerEuropeanrootsandtheexperienceoftheUSAprovidethestructureandessenceofIn
SearchofLoveandBeauty(1983)inThreeContinents(1987)anadditionaldisturbingelementisintroducedintheformofEasternfraudulence.Shardsof
Memory(1995)isevenmorecosmopolitan,theconnectionbetweenthecharacters,whospanfivegenerationsofafamily,beingtheMaster,aonemanspiritualsect,
basedinacaveintheHimalayas,whosewatchwordis'Onestephigher'.Similarthemesandconflictsinformthesharplydelineatedsituationsinhershortstories,of
whichthecontentsofseveralvolumes,beginningwithLikeBirds,LikeFishesandOtherStories(1963),aredistilledintoOutofIndia:SelectedStories(1986).
Sheisalsotheprincipalauthorofseveralnotablescreenplays,includingShakespeareWallah(1973).
Jimnez,JuanRamn(18811958)
Spanishpoet,wasborninMoguer,theyoungestchildofaprosperouswinegrower.AftercompletinghissecondaryeducationatSanLuisGonzaga,aJesuitschool
nearCadiz,hestudiedpaintinginSeville,beganbutabandonedalawcourseattheuniversity,andreturnedhome,havingchosenpoetryashiscareer.Hepublished
twobooksofversein1900,andwentonwriting,inspiteofthefactthatanervousbreakdown(partlyprecipitatedbythedeathofhisfather)causedhimtospendthe
nextfiveyearsinsanatoriumsinBordeauxandMadrid.Afterseveralyearsathome,duringwhichhepublishedninefurthervolumes,hesettledinMadridin1912.
PlateroyYo(1914asPlateroandI,tr.EloseRoach,1957tr.AntonioFrasconi,bilingualedn1994),apastoral/philosophicalprosepoemofthenarratorandhis
amiabledonkey,isafurtherproductoftheseyears.In1916hetravelledtoNewYork,wherehemarriedZenobiaCamprubAymar,crystallizingthetotalexperience
inDiarodiunPoetaRecinCasado[TheDiaryofaNewlyMarriedPoet](1917),comprisingsixgroupsofpoems.In1936,attheoutbreakoftheSpanishCivil
War,theyreturnedtotheUSA,heasaculturalemissaryoftheSpanishRepublic.They

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livedinPuertoRico,Cuba,Miami(wherehelecturedattheUniversityofMiamiandDukeUniversity),Washington,D.C.,Maryland,andfinallyPuertoRicoagainin
1951.Zenobiadiedin1956twodaysaftertheannouncementofhisawardoftheNobelPrizeforLiterature.SeeThreeHundredPoems19031953,tr.Eloise
Roach,1962.
JohnoftheCross,St(SanJuandelaCruz)(154291)
Spanishpoetandreligiousreformer,wasbornJuandeYepesinFontiveros.Hewastheyoungestofthreesonsofamemberofthelocalnobilitywhohadbeen
disownedbyhisfamilyformarryingapeasantgirl,becameaweaver,anddiedin1548.In1552hismothersettledinMedinadelCampo,whereheattendedthefree
JesuitschoolandworkedintheHospitaldelasBubas.HeenteredtheCarmeliteOrderin1563asFrayJuandeSantoMata,andthenstudiedatSalamanca
University.Afterbeingordainedpriestin1567,hewasprevaileduponbyTERESAOFAVILAtojointheOrderofDiscalced(orReformed)Carmelites,andbecameFray
JuandelaCruz.In1570hewasnameddirectoroftheOrder'scollegeinAlcaladeHenaresin1572hewasappointedconfessorandspiritualdirectortothe130
nunsintheConventoftheIncarnationinAvila,whosescandalousbehaviourhadbroughttheestablishmentintodisrepute.ThetraditionalCarmelitesincarceratedhim
insolitaryconfinementin1577intheirconventinToledo,fromwhichheescapedafterninemonths.HewasgivenasyluminAndulasia,wherehewroteoutthepoems
hehadcomposedinhisheadwhileinprison,tosomeofwhichheaddeddetailedcommentaries.In1579hewasappointedRectoroftheCarmelitecollegeatBaeza
in1581hebecamePrioroftheconventatLosMatires,andin1588ofthatatSegovia.In1591hewasvotedoutofallofficesbythegoverningbodyoftheOrder,
andinthefaceofimpendingfalseaccusationschosetogotothemonasteryinUbeda,wherehewastreatedbythePriorasamerefriar.Hediedshortlyafterwards,
havingcalledonhisdeathbedforarecitationofhispoems.SomeofthemwereprintedinAlacalain1618inacollectionofspiritualworksCnticoEspiritual:
CancionesentreelAlmayelEsposo[SpiritualCanticle:SongsbetweentheSoulandtheBridegroom]appearedinBrusselsin1627.Hewascanonizedin1726.
SeePoems,tr.RoyCampbell,newedn1979(bilingualedn)ThePoemsofStJohnoftheCross,tr.J.ENims,3rdedn1995(bilingualedn).
Johnson,PamelaHansford
seeSNOW.
Johnson,Samuel(170984)
Britishessayist,critic,poet,novelist,andlexicographer,wasborninLichfield,Staffordshire,theeldestsonofabookseller,andwaseducatedatLichfieldGrammar
School,KingEdwardVISchool,Stourbridge,andPembrokeCollege,Oxford,whichheleftafterayearforlackoffunds.Asachildhesufferedfromscrofulaand
smallpox,andallhisadultlifefromdefectiveeyesight,aconvulsivetic,melancholia,andgeneralillhealth.Afterteachingforafewyears,hemarriedin1736awidow
20yearsolderthanhewas(shediedin1752),butwithmoneyshebroughthimheopenedaschoolatEdial,Staffordshire,whichattractedonlythreepupils,oneof
thembeingDavidGarrick(171779),theactormanageranddramatist.In1737hewenttoLondontoearnalivingbywriting.HeworkedfortheGentleman's
Magazine,publishedLondon(1738),apoeminimitationofJUVENAL,andin1744abiographyofthepoetRichardSavage(c.16971743),aliterarygenreatwhichhe
cametoexcelforanaccountoftheirfriendshipseeRichardHolmes,DrJohnsonandMrSavage(1993).
In1747hebeganworkonhismonumentalDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage.Itspublicationin1755wastheoccasionofJohnson'scelebratedletterto
CHESTERFIELD,whohadslightedhimwhenheoriginallycameseekingsupportfortheventure,andnowwantedhisnametobeassociatedwithit:'...Thenoticewhich
youhavebeenpleasedtotakeofmylabours,haditbeenearly,hadbeenkindbutithasbeendelayedtillIamindifferent,andcannotenjoyittillIamsolitary,and
cannotimpartittillIamknown,anddonotwantit.'Anothersatiricalpoem,TheVanityofHumanWishes,hadappearedin1749,theyearinwhichGarrickstaged
histragedy,Irene.Between1750and1752heeditedandlargelywroteatwiceweeklyjournal,theRambler.In1756hepublishedproposalsforaneditionof
SHAKESPEAREwithacriticalprefacebyhimself:itfinallycameoutin1765.Between1758and1760hecontributedtotheUniversalChronicleaseriesofessays
whichwerelatercollectedasTheIdler(1761).Topayoffhismother'sfuneralexpenses,hewroteinaweekThePrinceofAbissinia(1759),aneasternromancein
theformofadidacticfableitsubsequentlybecameknownasTheHistoryofRasselas,afteritshero.
Thegrantin1762ofapermanentpensionfromtheCrowneasedhisfinancialproblemsandenabledhimtoenjoyhispositionaswhatSMOLLETTcalled'thegreatCham
ofliterature',whichwascultivatedbyhisbiographer,BOSWELL,whomhefirstmetin1763.In1764hemadetheacquaintanceofawealthybrewer,HenryThrale
(c.172881),atwhosehouse,StreathamPark,hebecameanalmostpermanenthouseguest,andwithwhose23yearoldwifeheestablishedarelationshipsoclose
thatwhensheremarriedafterherhusband'sdeath(ofapoplexy,afterovereating),heneverforgaveherseeJamesL.Clifford,

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HesterLynchPiozzi(MrsThrale),introductionbyMargaretAnneDoody(2ndednrev.1987).In1773,attheageof64,hecourageouslyacceptedBoswell's
invitationtoundertaketheexhaustingScottishtripwhichhewroteupasAJourneytotheWesternIslesofScotland(1775)seealsoPatRogers,Johnsonand
Boswell:theTransitofCaledonia(1995).HislastworkwasPrefacesBiographicalandCriticaltotheWorksoftheEnglishPoets(177981),reissuedin1781
asLivesoftheEnglishPoets.HediedinLondonandwasburiedinWestminsterAbbey.HewasawardedthedegreeofLLDbyDublinUniversityin1765,andby
Oxfordin1775.Hisfameasaconversationalisthastendedtoobscurehisexcellenceasaprosewriter,andthoughasacritichehadseriousblindspots,theseareso
obvioustothemodernreaderthathisgeneralinsightanddirectnessarestillvalid.SeeSamuelJohnson:SelectedWorks,ed.DonaldGreene,1984Complete
Poems,ed.J.D.Fleman,1982JamesBoswell,LifeofJohnson,ed.R.W.Chapman,introductionbyPatRogers,1980RobertDeMaria,Jr,TheLifeofSamuel
Johnson:aCriticalBiography,newedn1994NicholasHudson,SamuelJohnsonandEighteenthCenturyThought,1988PatRogers,Johnson,1993(critical
introduction)AllenReddick,TheMakingofJohnson'sDictionary17461773,newedn1996.
Johnston,(William)Denis(190185)
Irishdramatist,wasborninDublinandeducatedatStAndrew'sCollege,Dublin,MerchistonCastleSchool,Edinburgh,Christ'sCollege,Cambridge,andHarvard
LawSchool,afterwardspractisingasabarristerinEnglandandIreland.HeproducedplaysfortheAbbeyTheatreandtheDublinGateTheatre,ofwhichhewasa
directorfrom1931to1936hewasthenuntil1939aradioandtelevisionwriterandproducerfortheBBC.Inhisfirstplay,TheOldLadySays'No!'(1929),the
romanticandthemorerealisticviewoftherebelRobertEmmet(17781803)arecontrastedafirstversion,called'Shadowdance',wasreturnedbytheAbbey
Theatre(seeGREGORY)withacrypticnoteattached,'Theoldladysays"no"',whichbecamethetitle.TheintellectualdepthsofTheMoonintheYellowRiver(1931)
mayhavecausedittobepartlymisunderstoodasthekindofseriousplayhewasparodying.StormSong(1934)satirizesthefilmmakingindustryBlindMan'sBuff
(1936)isatreatmentofjusticethroughamurdertrial.JohnstonwasaBBCwarcorrespondentinWorldWarII,beingmentionedindispatchesandappointedOBE
seehisaccount,NineRiversfromJordan:theChronicleofaJourneyandaSearch(1953).HewenttotheUSAin1950,andwasaprofessorofEnglish,Mount
HolyokeCollege,Massachusetts,until1960,andChairmanoftheDepartmentofTheatreandSpeech,SmithCollege196066.Ofhispostwarplays,TheScytheand
theSunset(1958)achievedcriticalacclaimand(inIreland)criticalunderstanding.Hisliterarystudy,InSearchofSwift(1959),hasitsparallelsinhisplay,The
DreamingDust(performedinNewYork1954,London1962).OrdersandDesecrations:theLifeofthePlaywright,ed.RoryJohnston(1992)isacollectionof
broadcastsandjournalismwithlinkingheadnotes.ThenovelistJenniferJohnston(b.1930)ishisdaughter.SeeTheDramaticWorks,ed.JosephRonsley,1992
TheBrazenHorn,rev.edn1976(autobiographicalstudy)GeneA.Barnett,DenisJohnston,1978(criticalstudy).
Johnston,George(191270)
Australiannovelist,wasborninMalvern,Melbourne,thesonofatramwayshedsforeman,andwaseducatedatstateschools.Aftertraininginastudioasa
lithographerandstudyingartattheNationalGallerySchool,hebecameajournalist,andservedinmanysectorsoftheactionasawarcorrespondentduringWorld
WarII.In1947hemarried,ashissecondwife,CharmianClift(192369),withwhomhewroteHighValley(1949),winnerofthe1948SydneyMorningHerald
literarycompetition,andtwoothernovelsStrongManfromPiraeus,ed.GarryKinnane(1983)isacollectionoftheirshortstories.In1954hegaveuphisjobas
EuropeanEditoroftheSydneySuntolivewithhisfamilyontheGreekislandofHydra.Herehewroteprolifically:radioandtelevisionplaysaswellasfiction,which
includedaseriesofthrillersasShaneMartin.HismajorworkisthesemiautobiographicaltrilogyaboutDavidMeredith,whohadappearedinClosertotheSun
(1960)andTheFarRoad(1962).Meredith'slife,tribulations,wanderlust,andpsychologicalquestforselfunderstandingandselffulfilmentoccupyMyBrotherJack
(1964)andCleanStrawforNothing(1969),bothofwhichwontheMILESFRANKLINAward,andtheunfinishedACartloadofClay(1971).In1964,knowingthat
histuberculosiswasincurable,hereturnedtoSydney,whereCharmian,despiteherownliteraryandjournalisticachievements,committedsuicidein1969.Theirson
MartinJohnston(194790)wasanovelistandpoetseeMartinJohnston,SelectedPoemsandProse,ed.JohnTranter(1993).SeeGarryKinnane,George
Johnston:aBiography,newedn1996.
Jones,David(Michael)(18951974)
painter,engraver,poet,andcritic,wasborninBrockley,Kent.Hisfather,aprinterandastaunchProtestant,wasWelsh,buthadbeendiscouragedbyhisparents
fromspeakingthelanguageathome.Theboybegantoshowtalentfordrawingataveryearlyage,andwenttoCamberwellSchoolofArtin1910,bywhichtimehe
hadabsorbed,inEnglishtranslation,muchoftheheritageofWelshliteratureand'felt'Welsh.Heenlisted

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intheRoyalWelchFusiliersasaprivatein1915,waswoundedin1916,andreturnedtoEnglandwithtrenchfeverinFebruary1918seeAFusilierattheFront:
HisRecordoftheGreatWarinWordandImage,ed.AnthonyHyne(1996).HethenstudiedatWestminsterSchoolofArtuntil1921,inwhichyearhebecamea
CatholicandbeganworkunderthesculptorandtypographerEricGill(18821940),towhosedaughterhebecameengaged,thoughafterthreeyearsshebrokeoffthe
relationship.AneditionofCOLERIDGE'STheRimeoftheAncientMariner,withcopperengravingsbyJones,waspublishedin1929,shortlyafterhehadbegunan
intricateliterarywork,InParenthesis(1937),inwhichartisrelatedtowar,withafocusonthesituationinFlandersin1916.OfTheAnathemata(1952),a
sympatheticcriticpropounded:'Whilethisisafluidepic,anepicwithoutnarrativeinanysensepermissibletoliterarycriticsm,itmaybehazardedthatthecentral
narrativeoftheChristianreligioniseverywherepresentbyimplication...'.LatterlyJoneslivedinHarrow,Middlesex.HisoccasionalwritingswerecollectedinEpoch
andArtist(1959)andTheDyingGaulandOtherEssays(1978),botheditedbyHarmanGrisewood.HewasmadeCBEin1955andCHin1974.SeeSelected
WorksofDavidJones:fromInParenthesis,TheAnathemata,TheSleepingLord,ed.JohnMatthias,newedn1993DaiGreatcoat:aSelfPortraitofDavid
JonesinHisLetters,ed.RenHague,1980WilliamBlissett,TheLongConversation:aMemoirofDavidJones,1981.
Jones,EverettLeroy
seeBARAKA
Jones,Gwyn(b.1907)
Welshscholar,novelist,andtranslator,wasborninBlackwood,Monmouthshire,andeducatedatTredegarGrammarSchoolandUniversityCollege,Cardiff.He
wasProfessorofEnglishLanguageandLiterature,UniversityCollegeofWales194065,andofUniversityCollege,Cardiff196575.InhisnovelRichardSavage
(1935),thelifeofthe18thcenturypoetofwhomJOHNSONwroteabiographyissetinthecolourfulbackgroundofhistimesGarlandofBays(1938)uses
ROBERTGREENEasthefocusforscenesfromtheElizabethanage.Thereafter,asinTimesLikeThese(1936),anovelofSouthWalesminersduringthe1926
GeneralStrike,hisfictionhaslargelyWelshsettings,whileconcentratingonwideraswellasWelshissues,exemplifiedbyTheFlowersBeneaththeScythe(1952)
andmanyofhisshortstoriesseeSelectedShortStories(1974).Histranslationsincludethe11talesoftheCelticepic,TheMabinogion(withThomasJones,rev.
edn1975),andEiriktheRedandOtherIcelandicSagas(1961).AmonghishistoricalworksareAHistoryoftheVikings(rev.edn1984)andTheNorse
AtlanticSaga(rev.edn1986).HewasmadeCBEin1965.SeeCecilPrice,GwynJones,1976(criticalstudy).
Jones,James(192177)
Americannovelist,wasborninRobinson,Illinois.AftergraduatingfromRobinsonHighSchoolin1939,heenlistedintheUSAirForce.Hetransferredtotheinfantry
whileservinginHawaii,wherehewaswhentheJapanesebombedPearlHarborin1941,andwherehefoundinthebarracks'libraryTHOMASWOLFE'SLook
Homeward,Angel,whichconvincedhim'thatIhadbeenawriterwithoutknowingitorwithouthavingwritten'.Twicepromoted,andtwicereducedtoprivate,he
foughtatGuadalcanal,wherehekilledaJapanesesoldierwithaknifeinhandtohandcombat,andwaswoundedintheheadbyamortarfragment.Havinghada
novelrejectedbyWolfe'seditor,hetookwritingcoursesatNewYorkUniversity,hadawarstory,'TemperofSteel',publishedinAtlanticMonthly(1948),and
wroteFromHeretoEternity(1951),whichwontheNationalBookAward.SetinandaroundthebarracksinHawaiiinwhichheserved,itcausedasensationforits
exposofarmybrutalityanditsoutspokennessaboutsex.WithhisearningshebuiltahomeinMarshall,Illinois,andhelpedsetupawriters'colony.TheNewYorker
describedSomeCameRunning(1958),anovelofasmallIllinoistown,as'twelvehundredandsixtypagesofflawlesslysustainedtedium'.Heandhiswifewerenow
livinginParis,whereheplannedtowriteabookaboutAmericanexpatriates.Insteadhebecameacentralfigureoftheliteraryandartisticset,andreturnedtothe
milieuofwarwithTheThinRedLine(1962).In1974theysettledinLongIsland,NewYork,whereheembarkedonthethirdvolumeofhiswartrilogy,Whistle
(1978),whichhehadnotquitefinishedwhenhedied.ItwascompletedbyWillieMorrisfromhisnotes.SeeFrankMacShane,IntoEternity:JamesJones,theLife
ofanAmericanWriter,1985JamesR.Giles,JamesJones,1981(criticalstudy).
Jong,Erica(b.1942)
neMann,Americannovelistandpoet,wasbornandbroughtupinManhattan,NewYork,ofanartisticfamily,andwaseducatedattheHighSchoolofMusicand
ArtandatBarnardCollege,wheresheswitchedfrommedicinetoEnglish.ShethentookapostgraduatedegreeatColumbiaUniversitywithathesisonPOPE,andhas
taughtEnglishatuniversitylevelsince1964.Aftermarryingat19,withadivorcethreeyearslater,shemarriedAllanJong,aFreudianpsychiatrist.Aftertheirdivorce
in1975shemarriedJonathanFast,onlysonofFASTthemarriagelastedsixyears.In1989shemarriedKenBurrows,alawyer,whoin1996representedtheactress
JoanCollinsinhersuccessfullawsuitagainstthepublisherRandomHouse.Jongisregardedasa

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poetoftheconfessionalschool,who(byherownaccount)writes'outofanakedfemaleconsciousness'herfirstbookofversewasFruitsandVegetables(1971),
andshehasregularlypublishedcollectionssinceseealsoBecomingLight:PoemsNewandSelected(1992).Infournovels,beginningwithFearofFlying
(1973),heavilyautobiographicalandwrittenoutoftheexperienceoftwodisastrousmarriages,shedealsfranklyandwittilywiththesexualityofherprotagonist,
IsadoraWing,whoseunfinishednovel,withappropriateapparatus,appearsposthumouslyasAnyWoman'sBlues(1990).Jong'sacquaintanceandaffinitywith
literatureoftheclassical,French,andEnglishtraditionsareenthusiasticallydemonstratedinFanny,BeingtheTrueHistoryoftheAdventuresofFanny
HackaboutJones(1980),an18thcenturyrompwitha20thcenturyapplication.TheheroineofSerenissima(1987)isinthislifeafilmstarplayinginanadaptation
ofTheMerchantofVenice,andinanearlierexistencethedaughterofaJewishmoneylenderinVenice,whereshemeets,andisbeddedby,ayoungSHAKESPEARE.Of
BlessedMemory(1997)isaJewishmodernsaga.FearofFifty:aMidlifeMemoir(1994)islessanautobiographythanavehicleforherthoughtsonthefemale
experience.
Jonson,Ben(jamin)(15721637)
Englishpoetanddramatist,wasprobablyborninLondon.HisownaccountofhisearlylifewasrecordedbyDRUMMOND,whomJonsonvisitedin1618onatripto
Scotlandandback,onfoot.HisgrandfathercamefromtheBorders,'servedHenryVIII,andwasagentleman'.Hisfather,havingbeenimprisonedunderMaryTudor
andforfeitedhisestate,subsequentlybecameaminister,anddiedamonthbeforethepoet'sbirth.Hismotherthenmarriedabricklayer,andJonsonwas'broughtup
poorly,putto[Westminster]schoolbyafriend'becameanapprenticebricklayer,'whichhecouldnotendure'andjoinedtheforcesinFlanders,wherehekilledan
opponentinsinglecombat'inthefaceofboththecamps',beforereturning'tohiswontedstudies'inEngland.In1594hemarriedAnneLewis,'ashrewyethonest'.His
poem'OnMyFirstDaughter'commemoratesthedeathoftheireldestchildattheageofsixmonths.Hebecameanactorwithastrollingcompany,graduatingto
actorwriter,andwasin1597imprisonedforhispartinalostplay,TheIsleofDogs.HiscomedyEveryManinHisHumourwasperformedin1598bytheLord
Chamberlain'sMen,withSHAKESPEAREinthecast.Inthesameyearhekilledanotheractorinaduelandservedaprisonsentence,duringwhichhewasconverted
totheCatholicfaith,whichheupheldfor'twelveyears'.
EveryManoutofHisHumour,withlessplotbutmoresatire,wasperformedin1599.InCynthia'sRevels(1600),ostensiblyamasqueinhonouroftheaged
ElizabethI,hesatirizednotonlythecourtbutalsosomeofhisfellowdramatists,thusinitiatingthe'WaroftheTheatres'(160001)hiscontributiontotheproceedings
wasPoetaster(1601),towhichDEKKER(possiblywiththehelpofMARSTON)retortedwithSatiroMastix,ortheUntrussingoftheHumorousPoet(1602).Sejanus
(1603),aRomantragedy,failed,perhapsbecausetheexcellentclassicistinhimdemandedtoomuchrealismbutinthisitlookedforwardtoVolpone,ortheFox
(1607),acomedyinwhichtheexcessesofancientRomearetransplantedtomodernVeniceandrepresentedintermsofthecharacters'animalsymbolismaswellas
oftheir'humours',thatistheirpsychologicaltemperaments.InthemeantimehehadbecomewriterofmasquestothecourtofJamesI(VIofScotland),andgoneto
prisonagain,forantiScottishobservationsinEastwardHoe(1605),writtenjointlywithCHAPMANandMarston.AllthecharactersinTheAlchemist(1610,published
1612),oneofthefinestofsocialcomedies,aremiddleclassknaves,dupes,orpotentiallyeither,andthesatireisharshanduncompromising.InBartholomewFair
(performed1614),Jonsonfoundsimilarvicesandfailingstoridiculeamongtheworkingclasses.
In1616hedidwhathadbeforeonlybeendoneforthedead,andpublishedhisWorkes,comprisingplays,masques,andpoems(thelatterdividedinto'Epigrammes'
and'TheForest').Thisactofselfpublicitybroughthimsomederision,butitwassignificantingivingliteraryrespectabilitytoplays,anditssuccessheraldedthegreat
Shakespearefolioof1623.HewrotenofurtherplaysuntilTheStapleofNews(1626,published1631),aglanceatthenewbusinessofjournalism.Hereceivedthe
honorarydegreeofMAfromOxfordin1619.Hislifewasseverelyrupturedbyafirein1623,whichdestroyedbooks,notes,andmanuscripts,andbyastrokein
1628.Hecontinuedcheerfullytowriteandstudy,andfriendsrespondedtopleas,ofteninverse,forrelieffrompoverty,thoughhefelloutwiththearchitectInigo
Jones(15731652)overtherelativeimportanceinroyalmasquesofspectacleandspeech,andhislaterplaysmetwithpoorresponse.
Thisveritableheavyweight,whoscaled'FulltwentiestoneofwhichIlacktwopound'('EpistletoMrArthurSquib'),andwhoseappearancewasdominatedby'My
mountainbelly,andmyrockieface'('MyPictureLeftinScotland'),wasnotthegreatestpoetofhisage,thoughsomeofhisoccasionalpoemsandlyrics('Comemy
Celia,letusprove...','Drinktome,only,withthineeyes...','Queenandhuntress,chaste,andfair...')wouldbeothers'masterpieces.Buthewasafounderofthe
satiricaldrama,theacknowledgedleaderoftheliterarycoterieofhistime,andthesageofyoungerwriters,whodubbedthemselvesthe'SonsofBen'.

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SeeCompleteCriticalEdition,ed.C.H.Herford,andPercyandEvelynM.Simpson,11vols192552(includesbiography)TheCompletePoems,ed.George
Parfitt,1981SelectedPoetry,ed.GeorgeParfitt,1992TheAlchemistandOtherPlays,ed.GordonCampbell,1995RosalindMiles,BenJonson:HisCraft
andArt,1991RichardAllenCave,BenJonson,1991(criticalstudy).
Jowett,Benjamin
seeHOUSMAN.
Joyce,James(AugustineAloysius)(18821941)
Irishnovelist,poet,anddramatist,wasborninDublin,theeldestoftenchildrenofanartisticmotherandafatherwhoseconvivialityandfecklessnessledtothe
declineofthefamilyfortunes.HewaseducatedattheJesuitBelvedereCollegehavingdecidedagainstthepriesthood,hereadlanguagesatUniversityCollege,
Dublin,wherehecausedanacademicstirin1900byhavingacriticalarticle,'Ibsen'sNewDrama',publishedintheEuropeanliteraryperiodical,FortnightlyReview.
Aftergraduatingin1902hewenttoParis,ostensiblyasamedicalstudentbutinrealityaneardestitutewriter.Thedeathofhismotherin1904causedhisreturnto
Dublin,whereforatimehesharedwithGOGARTYtheMartellotowerwhichfeaturesintheopeningsectionofUlysses.AcasualmeetingwithNoraBarnacle(1884
1951),abarmaid,ledtoaformaldateon16June1904.InOctobertheyelopedtoZurich,andthenlivedinPolaandTrieste,whereheworkedasateacherof
English.Theyweremarriedin1931,aftertheyhadhadtwochildren:Giorgio(190576),andLucia(190782),whodevelopedschizophrenia.Joycereturnedto
Dublinonlyonce,in1912,bywhichtimehehadundergonevirtuallyallthephysicalandemotionalexperienceswhichinspiredhispublishedworks.Thefirstwas
ChamberMusic(1907),acollectionof36shortlyricalpoemsofextraordinarily,consideringtheman,conventionallanguageandmetre.Asecond,evenslimmer
volume,PomesPenyeach(1927),pricedatashilling(twelvepence)andcontaining13pieces,showssomeadvancetowardsthethenprevailingmode,butitwashis
prosewhichhadthegreaterinfluenceonmodernpoetry.
ThecouplespentWorldWarIinstraitenedcircumstancesinZurich.JoycechoseDublintorepresent'thecentreofparalysis'ofhisnativecountryforthe15storiesin
Dubliners(1914),whichreveals,oftensardonically,thesqualorandfrustrationofthelowermiddleclassandculminatesin'TheDead',inwhichaparticularhuman
predicamentreflectsthecomplexityoflifeitself.Likehisplay,TheExiles(1918),writteninabout1914,'TheDead'recordsanincident(symbolicofthegulfbetween
theeastandwestofIreland)inhisrelationshipwithNora.Hehadinhisteensbegunavastautobiographicalnovel,StephenHero,afragmentofwhichwaspublished
posthumouslyin1944.FromitheextractedandrecastAPortraitoftheArtistasaYoungMan(1916),inwhichStephenDedalus,whoreappearsinUlysses,isnot
Joyce,buthisconsciousnessisthemeansthroughwhichtheauthorfilterstherelationshipbetweentheimaginationandreality.UlyssesisintimeacontinuationofA
PortraitoftheArtistasaYoungMan,thewholeactiontakingplace,significantly,on16June1904,andsymbolicallyparallelingincidentsandcharactersinthe
wanderingsofHOMER'SOdysseus.Itwasbegunin1914,originallyasashortstory,andsomechapterswerepublishedin1919inLondonintheEgoist.Inthe
meantimeserializationhadstartedintheUSAintheLittleReview,butsubsequentchapterswereinterceptedbythepostalauthoritiesandburned.In1921three
judgesupheldacomplaint,andbannedfurtherpublication.Joycekeptonwriting,andthebookwaspublishedin1922byasmallpressinParis,wherehehadmoved
withhisfamilyin1920.AnEnglishandAmericaneditionwasprintedinDijonanddistributedfromParis,butmanycopieswereidentifiedenroutetotheirpurchasers
anddestroyed.By1930eightreprintsoftheoriginaleditionhadbeensold,andthebookhadbeentranslatedintoFrench,German,Czech,andJapanese.Itwasfinally
clearedforpublicationintheUSAinDecember1933andpublishedinJanuary1934,andappearedinBritainin1936withoutlegalopposition.
Joycereceivedvirtuallynomoneyinhislifetimefromhiswriting,andsubsistedlargelyonthefinancialassistanceofpatrons.Hiseyesightdeterioratedrapidly,tothe
extentthatforhislastand,tohim,mostsignificantbook,hehadtocommittomemorywholesectionsandtorelyonamanuensestodecipherandtranscribehisnotes.
Heworkedonitfor17years,toosuperstitioustorevealitstitleuntilitwasfinishedsectionsofitwerepublishedinNewYorkbetween1927and1930as'Workin
Progress'.WhereUlysseshadbeenconcernedwithasingleday,FinnegansWake(1939)isarecordofanight,inwhichthemindofthesleepingH.C.Earwickeris
interpretedwithastonishingvirtuosityandinventionoflanguage.SeeAJamesJoyceReader,ed.HarryLevin,rev.edn1993RichardEllmann,JamesJoyce,2nd
edn1984(biography)BrendaMaddox,Nora:aBiographyofNoraJoyce,newedn1989NicholasFargnoliandMichaelPatrickGillespie(eds),JamesJoyceA
toZ:anEncyclopedicGuidetohisLifeandWork,1995DerekAttridge(ed.),TheCambridgeCompaniontoJamesJoyce,1990SydneyBolt,APrefaceto
JamesJoyce,2ndedn1992SamuelL.Goldberg,TheClassicalTemper:aStudyofJoyce'sUlysses,1961HarryBlamires,TheNetsBloomsdayBook:aGuide
through'Ulysses',3rdedn1996.

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JulianofNorwich
seeKEMPE.
Juvenal(DecimusJuniusJuvenalis)(c.55c.140)
Romansatiricalpoet,wasborninAquinum,thesonofawealthySpanishfreedman,andmayhavecommandedanauxiliarycohortinBritainandheldcivilofficesinhis
hometownbeforetryingtoearnalivinginRomebypublicspeaking.DuringthereignofDomitian,heseemstohavebeenexiledforatimetoEgypt,undoubtedlyfor
sayingorwritingsomethingoffensivetotheemperor,butnotoffensiveenoughtomeritexecution.His16surviving'Satires'werepublishedbetween110and130,in
thereignsofTrajanandHadrian.Heemploysamixtureofsarcasm,invective,andbroadhumourtoattackvarioussocialtargets,includinghomosexuals,women,
conditionsinRome,extravagance,humanparasites,andvanity,whilemoralizingonsuchtopicsaslearning,guiltyconsciences,parentalexample,andthetreatmentof
civiliansbythemilitary.SeeTheSixteenSatires,tr.PeterGreen,rev.edn1974.

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K
Kafka,Franz(18831924)
Austriannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninPrague,theeldestchildofGermanspeakingCzechJewishparents.Hischildhoodwaslonely,ashistwobrothers
diedininfancyandthenextchild,asister,wassixyearsyoungerthanhewas.Hisfather,ahaberdasherywholesaler,requiredhiswife'sattentiondayandnight,and
appearstohavedominatedhissonsee'ToMyFather',alongdiatribewrittenin1919,whichheintendedshouldbepersonallydeliveredbyhismother,whosensibly
didnothingofthesort.HewenttotheGermangrammarschoolandtheImperialandRoyalKarlFerdinandGermanUniversity,fromwhichhereceivedadoctoratein
jurisprudencein1906.Aftertwoyearsinacommercialinsuranceoffice,hefoundwhathewaslookingfor:ajobwiththeWorkersAccidentInsuranceInstitute,
which,asasemigovernmentalorganization,closedat2pm,givinghimtherestofthedayinwhichtowrite.Kafkawasfraughtwithneurosesandafflictedwithlong
standingtuberculosis,yetwasabletoexpresshimselfinwritinghisallegoriesofhisownconditionare,byextension,reflectionsoftheexperiencesofotherstoo.
Thoughheworkedintensivelyonthreenovels,theonlypublicationsduringhislifetimeweresixvolumesofshortpieces,beginningwithBetrachtung[Observations]
(1913)andDerHeizer,EinFragment[TheStoker](1913),theinitialchapterofhisnovel,Amerika.
Hispersonalinhibitionsextendedtohislovelife.HewasengagedtoFeliceBauerforfiveyears,andcarriedonanextensivecorrespondencewithherinBerlin.When
therelationshipendedin1919,shemarriedanotherman.At38,whileengagedtosomeoneelse,hecarriedonanunconsummatedaffairwithamarriedCzechwoman,
MilenaJesensk(18961944)seeMaryHockaday,Kafka,LoveandCourage:theLifeofMilenaJesensk(1995).In1923,whileholidayingwithhissisterat
theBalticresortofMuritz,hemetDoraDiamant,a19yearoldPolishOrthodoxJewess,withwhomhelivedinBerlinuntilhehadtobebroughtbacktoPraguein
March1924inthethroesofhisfinalillness.HediedsixmonthslaterinasanatoriuminKierling.Thenovels,DerProzess(1925tr.asTheTrial,1937),DasSchloss
(1926tr.asTheCastle,1930),andAmerika(1927tr.asAmerica,1940),allofthemfragmentaryandwithoutendsifnotunfinished,werepublishedatthe
instigationofhisfriendandbiographer,MaxBrod(18841968),andtranslatedbyWillaandEdwinMUIR.Heavilysymbolicandofanightmarequality(hencetheterm
'Kafkaesque'),theyareexpressionsofanindividual'sstruggleinthefaceofavarietyofinimicalsituations.SeeTheCompleteNovels,tr.WillaandEdwinMuir,new
edn1992TheCompleteStories,ed.ArthurSamuelsonandNahumN.Glatzer,newedn1995CollectedStories,tr.EdwinMuir,introd.GabrielJosipovici,1993
MaxBrod,FranzKafka:aBiography,newedn1995RonaldHayman,K:aBiographyofKafka,newedn1996.
Kant,Immanuel(17241804)
Germanphilosopher,wasborninKonigsberg,thefourthofninechildrenofapiousharnessmaker,andwaseducatedatthelocalPietistschoolandatKonigsberg
University.Despitehishumblebackground,andstuntedanddeformedbody,heworkedtobeacceptedsocially,wastutorinvarioushouseholds,andpublishedsome
startlingessaysondynamicsandonNEWTON'Stheoriesoftheuniverse.Heobtainedanunpaidteachingpostattheuniversityin1755,andaprofessorshipfinallyin
1779.RejectingboththerationalismofG.W.Leibniz(16461716)andtheempiricismofDAVIDHUME,hedevelopedinKritikderreinenVernunft(1781tr.Norman
KempSmithasCritiqueofPureReason,1929)histheoryof'transcendentalidealism'hefilledouthisargumentsinGrundlegungzurMetaphysikderSitten
(1785tr.H.J.PatonasTheMoralLaw:or,Kant'sGroundworkoftheMetaphysicofMorals,1948)andKritikderUrtheilskraft(1790tr.JamesCreed
MeredithasTheCritiqueofJudgement,1952).COLERIDGE,whoprobablybegantoreadKantinGermanyin179899,citestheseworksinBiographiaLiteraria
(ChapterIX)asamongthoseofhiswhich'Istillread...withundiminisheddelightandincreasingadmiration'.CARLYLEfrequentlyusedhisideasasstartingpointsfor
hisowndeductions.SeeRogerScruton,Kant,1982(introductiontohisthought).
Ktner,Erich(18991974)
Germannovelist,journalist,andchildren'swriter,

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wasborninDresden,thesonofamastersaddlerwhohadcomedownintheworld.HewenttothelocalLehrerseminarfortrainingteachers,butafterserviceinthe
infantryinWorldWarIwasable,asawarveteran,togotoKnigGeorgGymnasiumandfromthereonascholarshiptoLeipzigUniversity.Hebecameajournalist
andtheatrecritic,movingtoBerlinin1927afterlosinghismainjobforcastinganeroticslurinapoemcelebratingthecentenaryofthecomposerLudwigvan
Beethoven(17701827).In1928hepublishedthefirstofanumberofcollectionsofverse,andalsoEmilunddieDetektive(tr.EileenHallasEmilandthe
Detectives,1931),theprototypeofthemodernchildrenversuscrooksstory,inwhichtheprotagonistsonbothsidesarerealisticallyportrayedandthevaluesutterly
sound.Fabian:dieGesichteeinesMoralisten(1931tr.CyrusBrooksasFabian:theStoryofaMoralist,1932)wasthefirstofseveraladultnovelsinwhich
geographicalandpsychologicaljourneysillustratecontemporaryparadoxes.WhenHitlercametopowerin1933hereturnedfromZurichtoGermany,where,although
hisbookswerebannedandpubliclyburned,heremainedthroughouttheNaziperiodandWorldWarII,afterwhichhesettledinMunich.Othernotablechildren's
novelswhichcontributedtohisbeingawardedtheHansChristianANDERSENMedalin1960areEmilunddiedreiZwillinge(1934tr.BrooksasEmilandthe
ThreeTwins,1935),originallypublishedinSwitzerland,andDasdoppelteLottchen(1949tr.BrooksasLisaandLottie,1951),thefirststoryforchildrenproperly
toconfronttheproblemsofafamilydividedbydivorce.
Kavanagh,Dan
seeBARNES,JULIAN.
Kavanagh,Patrick(190467)
Irishpoet,novelist,critic,andjournalist,wasborninIniskeen,Co.Monaghan,thesonofaparttimecobblerandsmallfarmer,whosetradeshefollowedafterleaving
schoolat12untilhemovedtoDublinin1939,wherefortherestofhislifehesupportedhimselflargelybyjournalism.Inthemeantimehehadeducatedhimselfand
writtensomefinelyricversewhichdepictedtherealitiesofrurallife(PloughmanandOtherPoemswaspublishedin1936),andanoftenhilariousearly
autobiography,TheGreenFool(1938).Hisconcernaboutthenatureandfunctionofliteratureandtheresponsibilityoftheauthorisdemonstratedinmuchofhis
criticalwriting.ItisfurtherreflectedinTheGreatHunger(1942),astrong,despairingpoemoftheland,andTarryFlynn(1948),asemiautobiographicalifinsome
respectsfancifulnovel.Forthreemonthsin1952hepublishedhisownweeklynewspaper.AlostlibelactionagainsttheLeaderin1952,forallegedlyimpugninghis
professionalreputation,wasimmediatelyfollowedbyhisgoingintohospitalwithlungcancer.Hereferredtohisrecoveryfrombothdisastersashis'rebirth',whichhe
celebratedbychanginghistunefromsavageryandattemptedsatireonmodernissues,government,art,andIrishlife,tomorepersonalthemesinwhichinnocenceand
comedypredominate,asinhisimpressive'CanalPoems'.ThisreturntosimplicityiswellillustratedinComeDancewithKittyStobling,andOtherPoems(1960).
SeeCollectedPoems,rev.edn1973SelectedPoems,ed.AntoinetteQuinn,1996CollectedPruse,1967AntoinetteQuinn,PatrickKavanagh:BornAgain
Romantic,newedn1993(criticalstudy).
Kavanagh,P(atrick)J(osephGregory)(b.1931)
Britishpoet,novelist,andjournalist,wasborninWorthing,Sussex,theyoungerson(by11years)ofTedKavanagh(18921958),whowrotethescriptsforthe
wartimeradiocomedyshow,Itma(It'sThatManAgain),starringTommyHandley(18921949).HewaseducatedatDouaiSchooland(havingvolunteeredfor
activeserviceinKoreawhiledoingNationalService'inanIrishregiment,ofcourse')atMertonCollege,Oxford.In1953hemetSallyPhilipps,daughterofROSAMOND
LEHMANN.Theymarriedin1957,whenhebeganatwoyearstintasaBritishCouncillecturerinIndonesia,whereshediedofpoliothefollowingyear.OneandOne
(1959)wasthefirstofseveralcollectionsofversepublishedinthesucceedingthirtyyearsofaformalpoetwhoaimstobeaccessibleandentertaining,andwhohasa
knackfortheapposite,butunusual,descriptivephrase.ASongandDance(1968),thefirstofsixnovelsbetweenthenand1986,wontheGuardianawardfor
fiction.ThePerfectStranger(1966),anintrospectiveautobiographicalstudy,waswritten'becauseIwantedtotryandmakesenseofthesuddendeathofmywife'.
FindingConnections(1990)isarecordofaninvestigationintohisfamilyanditsroots,inthecourseofwhichhetravelledtoIreland,Tasmania,andNewZealand.
VoicesinIreland:aTraveller'sLiteraryCompanion(1994)isameditationonlandscapeandliterature,dividedintogeographicalsections.SeeCollectedPoems,
newedn1995.
KawabataYasunari(18991972)
Japanesenovelist,wasbornandgrewupinOsaka,wherethelossofmostofhisfamilybythetimehewas14establishedthetragicviewoflifewhichimbueshis
fiction.In1918hewenttoTokyo,wherehereadJapaneseliteratureattheImperialUniversity,afterwhichhebecameajournalistandfreelancewriter.Anovelist
whoseeffectisachievedprincipallythroughthejuxtapositionofimagesandthearrangementofopenendedincidentsandfantasies,heestablishedhisnameintheWest
with[SnowCountry](1937rev.edn1948tr.EdwardG.Seldensticker,1957),thelovestoryofageishafromthe

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mountainsforaTokyoman,andwasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1968.SubsequentpublicationsinEnglishincludeTheHouseoftheSleepingBeauties
andOtherStories,tr.Seidensticker(1969)and[TheLake](1955tr.ReikoTsukimura,1974),anenigmaticstudyofalonelyteacher'sobsessionforbeautiful
womenwhomhecanneverattain.KawabataplayednoroleinthemilitaristicpoliciesofWorldWarII,afterwhichheremainedattachedtothetraditionalcultural
elementsofhiscountry.ItissaidthatthesuicideofMISHIMA,hisprotg,wasinstrumentalinhiskillinghimselftoo,whichhedidjustoverayearlaterinhisapartment
bythesea.
Kazantzakis,Nikos(18851957)
Greeknovelistandpoet,wasborninHeraklion,Crete,andobtainedadegreeinlawatAthensUniversityin1906,afterwhichhestudiedphilosophy,literature,and
artinParis,Germany,andItaly.Hewasaninveteratetravellerandspiritualexplorer,whoseprincipalliteraryworksinthe1920swereheavyplays,lighttravelogues,
anda30,000linephilosophicalepicpoem(1928)takingupwhereHOMER'SOdysseyends(tr.KimonFriarasTheOdyssey:aModernSequel,1958).Whileon
theislandofAeginaduringtheGermanoccupationofGreeceinWorldWarII,hewrote[ZorbatheGreek](1946tr.CarlWildman,1952),anovelofthe'magic
realism'school.Onceinafictionalvein,hefollowedwithseveralmodernparables,ofwhich[ChristRecrucified]inUSATheGreekPassion(1954tr.Jonathan
Griffin,1954),inatimelessruralsetting,and[TheLastTemptationofChirst](1955tr.P.A.Bien,1960)areparticularlynotableexamplesofthegenre.Heserved
asacabinetministerin1945,anddirectedUnesco'sprogrammeoftranslationsoftheclassicsin194748.
Keats,John(17951821)
Britishpoet,wasborninFinsbury,theeldestoffourchildrenofthegroomatthestablesoftheSwanandHoopInnintheCityofLondon,whohadmarriedthe
proprietor'sdaughterandin1802inheritedthebusiness.In1803thepoetenteredJohnClarke'sSchool,Enfield,andin1804hisfatherwaskilledinaridingaccident
whereuponhismotherremarriedandboardedthechildrenoutwithherparents.Shelefthernewhusbandin1806,andreturnedtothechildrenin1809,butdiedthe
followingyear.Guardianswerenowappointed,attheinstigationofoneofwhomKeatswasapprenticedtoasurgeon.Hewrotehisfirstpoemsin1814,andin
February1815celebratedwithasonnetthereleasefromprisonofHUNT,whomhelatermetandwhopublished'OSolitude,ifImustwiththeedwell...'inthe
Examinerin1816.KeatshadcontinuedhismedicalstudiesatGuy'sHospitalandwasnowamemberoftheSocietyofApothecaries.Hehadalsowritten'OnFirst
LookingintoChapman'sHomer'(seeCHAPMAN),beencited(withP.B.SHELLEY)inanExaminerarticleon'YoungPoets',andmetHunt'sliteraryfriends.Shortlyafter
his21stbirthday,nowlegallyfree,hewasadvisedtosetupinpractice.Hereplied:'ImeantorelyonmyAbilitiesasaPoet.Mymindismadeup.IknowthatI
possesstheseAbilitiesgreaterthanmostMenandthereforeamdeterminedtogainmyLivingbyexercisingthem.'Hisguardianwassotakenabackthathecouldonly
mutter,'Sillyboy!'Lessthan4yearslater,Keatswasdead.
InMarch1817hepublishedPoems,acollectionofhispoetryuptothattime.Itbeganandendedwithtwolongerpoemsinrhymingcouplets:'Istoodtiptoeupona
littlehill...',whichlooksforwardtoEndymionand'SleepandPoetry',writtenafteranightonHunt'ssofa,inwhichheexpresseshisambition,'Ofortenyears,thatI
mayoverwhelm/MyselfinpoesysoImaydothedeed/Thatmyownsoulhastoitselfdecreed.'FromApriluntiltheendofNovemberhestayedinvariousplacesin
thesouthofEnglandandwrotethemorethanfourthousandlinesofhisallegoricalromance,Endymion,whichwaspublished,withitsabruptending,inApril1818.He
reactedphilosophicallytoanattackinBlackwood'sEdinburghMagazineonhimandothermembersofthe'CockneySchool'ofHunt'sfollowers.InJuneheand
CharlesBrown(17861842)setoffonawalkingtouroftheLakesandScotlandseeCarolKyrosWalker,WalkingNorthwithKeats(1992).AtObanhe
developedasorethroat,whichgotsobadthatBrownsenthimbacktoLondonbyboatfromInverness.OnhisreturnhefoundhisbrotherTomillwithtuberculosis,
andnursedhimuntilhediedinDecember.Inthemeantimehehadmetandfalleninlovewiththe18yearoldFannyBrawne,whoshortlyafterwardsmovedwithher
motherintoahouseinHampstead,theotherhalfofwhichwasoccupiedbyBrownandwaswhereKeatswaslivingtoo.
FromJanuarytoOctober1819,betweenboutsofdepressionandrecurrencesofthroattrouble,andwhiletinkeringwith'Hyperion',Keatscomposedinvarious
placesasuccessionofmasterpieces:'TheEveofStAgnes','LaBelleDameSansMerci',hissixgreatodes(including'OdeonaGrecianUrn'and'ToAutumn'),and
thetwopartsof'Lamia'.Healsowrotesonnets(including'ToSleep')whichforqualityandfeelingmatchedthoseofWORDSWORTH,aswellas(withBrown)theblank
versedrama,'OthotheGreat'.BackinHampsteadattheendoftheyear,hebecameengagedtoFanny,buthishealthworsenedsodidhisfinanceswiththe
appearancefromAmericaofhisbrotherGeorge(d.1842),withwhomhemadeasettlementwhichlefthimvirtuallydestitute.Lamia,Isabella,TheEveofStAgnes,
andOtherPoemswaspublishedinJuly1820andwasverywellreceived.Bynow

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hehadsufferedtwolunghaemorrhages,andafterbeinglookedafterbytheHuntswhenBrownvacatedhishalfofthehouse,hewastakeninbytheBrawnesand
nursedbyFanny.Onmedicaladvice,hesailedtoItalyforthewinterwiththepainterJosephSevern(17931879).On30NovemberhewrotefromRomehislast
knownletter,toBrown.Hediedon23February1821andwasburiedintheProtestantcemetery.Hewasalittleover25.Fannyputonwidow'sweedswhenshe
heardthenews.(ShemarriedLouisLindon,12yearsyoungerthanherself,in1833,anddiedin1865.)ThefeverishrestlessnessthatdroveKeatstopoetryand,when
hecouldnolongerharnesshisfaculties,todespair,isillustratedinhisletters,asishisgeniusforfriendshipandhiscareforordinarypeopleandordinarythings.See
ThePoemsofJohnKeats,ed.MiriamAllott,newedn1972SelectedPoetry,ed.ElizabethCook,newedn1996Letters,ed.RobertGittings,1970W.J.Bate,
JohnKeats,newedn1992(biography)StephenCoote,JohnKeats:aLife,newedn1996AileenWard,JohnKeats:theMakingofaPoet,rev.edn1986.
Keese,Olive
seeLEAKEY.
Kell,Joseph
seeBURGESS.
Kelly,JamesPlunkett
seePLUNKETT.
Kempe,Margery(c.1373c.1438)
Englishmystic,wasthedaughterofanaldermanofLynne,Norfolk,andmarriedJohnKempe,aburgessofthetown,in1393.Afterthebirthofherfirstchildshe
sufferedfromacutedepression,outofwhichshewasliftedbyavisionofChrist.Sheresumedherextravagantways,setupabrewery,whichlostmoney,andthena
mill,whichfailed.Afurthervision,ofParadise,inducedhertobecomeaflamboyantandsomewhatboisterousmystic,giventovisitationsofululation.Encouragedby
PhilipRepington(d.1424),BishopofLincoln,andThomasArundel(13531414),ArchbishopofCanterbury,bothofwhomshesoundlylecturedontheirways,she
setoutfromYarmouthin1414fortheHolyLand,takinginBologna,Venice,Assisi,Rome,andMiddelburg.In1417shevisitedSpainonherreturnshewas
examinedonachargeofLollardry,butacquitted.Herlongsufferinghusbandandhersondiedinabout1432,andtwoyearslatershevisitedDanzigwithherGerman
daughterinlaw.In1432shehadfinishedarough,andlargelyunintelligible,draftofherspiritualautobiography,whichin1436shebeganrevisinganddictatingtoa
priest.AnearlycopyofTheBookofMargeryKempewasidentifiedassuchin1934.Itissignificantasasocialdocumentandasthefirstbiographytobewrittenin
English.Asmysticism,asonemightexpectfromanenthusiastic,extrovert,marriedwoman,itlacksthereflectivenatureoftherevelationsoftherecluse,DameJulianof
Norwich(?1343c.1429),whomMargeryKempevisitedin1413,andthespiritualqualityofTheCloudofUnknowing,writtenbyanunknownhandinabout1350.
SeeTheBookofMargeryKempe,tr.B.E.WindeattintomodernEnglish,newedn1985TheBookofMargeryKempe,ed.TonyTriggsinmodernEnglish,1995
ClarissaW.Atkinson,MysticandPilgrim:theBookandtheWorldofMargeryKempe,1985.
Kempis,Thomas
seeTHOMASKEMPIS
Kendall,Henry(183982)
Australianpoet,wasbornonarundownfarmnearUlladulla,NewSouthWales,andwasbroughtupontheClarenceRiverand,afterhisfather'sdeath,onhis
grandfather'sfarmnearWollongong,wherehewenttoaschoolrunbyhismother.Aftertwouncomfortableyearsasacabinboyinanuncle'swhaler,hefound
employmentinSydney,andin1859begantohaveversespublishedinlocaljournals.In1862hesentsometoCornhillMagazineinLondon,whoseeditor,
THACKERAY,didnotreply,andtotheAthenaeum,whichprintedthem.PoemsandSongs,by'theboypoetofAustralia',waspublishedin1862.Inspiteofclerical
jobs,journalism,andliteraryencouragement,hesufferedpovertyanddebt,whichafterhismarriagein1868wereintensifiedbytherapacityofhissisters,hismother's
drinking,andtheactivitiesofhistwinbrother,whoforgedachequeinhisnamewhichhehadtohonour.AmovetoMelbournedidnothelp.LeavesfromAustralian
Forests(1869)failedfinanciallyhisfirstchilddiedhelapsedintochronicdepressionandalcoholismandhiswifelefthim.Hewasrehabilitatedbyafamilyoftimber
merchants,whogavehimajobandbuilthimahouseatCamdenHaven,wherehiswiferejoinedhimin1876.HewontheSydneyMorningHeraldprizeforapoem
ontheInternationalExhibitionof1879.SongsfromtheMountains(1880),withdrawnbecauseoflibelfearsoverasatiricalpoemandreissuedthefollowingyear
withoutit,didwell.Hewasappointedaninspectorofforests,butthetravellingprovedtoomuch,andhediedofconsumptionattheageof43.Hewasaversatilebut
notagreatpoet,muchofwhoseworkvividlyreflectsthevaryinglandscapesheknewandthevicissitudesofhislife.SeeThePoeticalWorksofHenryKendall,ed.
T.T.Reed,1966W.H.Wilde,HenryKendall,1976(criticalbiography).
Keneally,Thomas(b.1935)
Australiannovelist,wasbornofIrishCatholicdescentinSydney,andwasbroughtupinthesuburbofHomebush,wherehewasknown

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asMickandwentaroundwiththepoemsofHOPKINSpermanentlyinhispocket.HewaseducatedataChristianBrothers'schoolandatStPatrick'sCollege,
Strathfield.Havinggivenupstudyingforthepriesthoodshortlybeforehewasduetobeordained,hetaughtinhighschoolforfouryears.Hehassaid,'Iwouldliketo
disownmyfirsttwonovels'(publishedin1964and1965).HewasthencommissionedbytheUniversityofNewSouthWalesDramaFoundationtowriteaplay.
Halloran'sLittleBoat,producedin1966,wasbasedonhisasyetunpublishedthirdnovel,BringLarksandHeroes(1967),astudyofIrishconvictsinacolonyat
theendofthe18thcentury,whichwontheMILESFRANKLINAward.Here,asinsubsequentworks,hedoesnotflinchfromdescribingviolence.TheChantofJimmie
Blacksmith(1972),basedonthelifeofthehalfAboriginalJimmyGovernor(18751901),isastoryofhatredandinjustice.Oppression,whichfeaturessostronglyin
thesetwonovels,isthetheme,onanational,racial,orpersonallevel,ofmuchofhisfiction,forwhichheevokesavarietyofmeticulouslydramatizedsettings:the
FranceofJoanofArcinBloodRed,SisterRose(1974)AmericaduringtheCivilWarinConfederates(1979)thesigningoftheArmisticein1918inGossipfrom
theForest(1975)andYugoslaviaduringWorldWarIIinSeasoninPurgatory(1976).TheHolocaustexperiences,describedinSchindler'sArk(1982),which
wontheBookerprizeforfiction,casttheirgrimshadowasfarasSydneyinAFamilyMadness(1985)thedispossessionbothofPalestiniansandofAboriginals
motivatesthetopicallyinspiredFlyingHeroClass(1991).ARiverTown(1995)describestensionsandprejudicesinaremoteAustraliantownin1900.Memoirs
fromaYoungRepublic(1993)ispartautobiography,partrepublicanpolemic.ActofGrace(1988)andChiefofStaff(1992)arenovelschroniclingtheimpacton
AustraliaofWorldWarII,writtenasWilliamCoyle.HewasmadeAOin1983.SeeHomebushBoy,newedn1996(earlyautobiography)PeterQuartermaine,
ThomasKeneally,1991(criticalstudy).
Kennelly,Brendan(b.1936)
Irishpoet,wasborninBallylongford,Co.Kerry,intoalargefamilywhichranapub,andwaseducatedatStIta'sCollege,Tarbert,TrinityCollege,Dublin,andLeeds
UniversityforimagesofhisearlylifeseeespeciallyLoveCry(1972).HebeganasajuniorlectureratTrinityCollegein1963,andbecameProfessorofModern
Literaturein1973.Ofhispoetry,hehassaid:'...Iselectappropriateimagesfromaspectsofmyexperienceandtrytousetheminsuchawaythattheyexpresswhat
goesonwithin.'Hebeganpublishinghisworkin1959,sincewhenhisoutputhasbeenasprolificastherangeofhisrelevantexperienceiswide,andincludesthe
highlypraisedsequence,Cromwell(1983).Hisdictionatitsbestisstark,austere,andpenetrating.Hisconvictionthat'this[Irish]cultureisnowinanadvancedstate
ofselfparody'isworkedoutinTheBookofJudas(1991),intendedforentertainment,a'poem'(comprisingactually587individualpoems)inwhichhisJudasrecurs
asthearchetypalfallguyinhistoricalandcontemporarycontexts.PoetryMyArse(1995)isabawdy,unheroic,epicpoemofmodernDublinlifeandsociety.Hehas
alsowrittentwoyouthfulnovels,TheCrookedCross(1963),aboutlifeatuniversity,andTheFlorentines(1967),aruralstudycomposedstageversionsofMedea
(1991)andTheTrojanWomen(1993)ofEURIPIDESandeditedThePenguinBookofIrishVerse(rev.edn1981).SeeATimeforVoices:SelectedPoems1960
1990,1990BreathingSpaces:EarlyPoems,newedn1993JourneyintoJoy:SelectedProse,ed.AkePersson,newedn1995.
Kerouac,Jack[JeanLouis](192269)
Americannovelist,wasborninLowell,Massachusetts,ofFrenchCanadianparents,andwonfootballscholarshipstoHoraceMannHighSchool,NewYork,and
ColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,wherehebecameassociatedwithBURROUGHSandGINSBERG.HeservedintheUSMerchantMarineinWorldWarII,afterwhichhe
spenttwoyearswritingTheTownandtheCity(1950),asemiautobiographicalnovelofyouthwhichishismostconventionalwork.Severalwildtripsacrossthe
countrywithNealCassady(192668)werethebasisofOntheRoad,inwhichheusedtheterm'beatgeneration...todescribeguyswhorunaroundthecountryin
carslookingforoddjobs,girlfriends,andkicks'.Typedstraightontoateleprinterrollin1951,itwasnotpublisheduntil1957,whenitbecametheprosemanifestoof
thecultureitevokes.Meanwhilehewas'hoppingfreights,hitchhiking,andworkingasarailroadbrakeman,deckhandandsculliononmerchantships,governmentfire
lookout,andhundredsofassortedjobs'.SomeofthetimehelivedinamnagetroiswithCassadyandhiswife,whichbecamequatrewhenGinsbergjoinedin
seeCarolynCassady,OfftheRoad:TwentyYearswithCassady,KerouacandGinsberg(1990).Hewasalsowritingfurtherbookstowardsaconsciously
organizedcanonofproseandverse,inwhichtheexplorationoforientalmysticismofTheDharmaBums(1958)isanextensionoftheromanticanarchyanddrug
experimentationwhichrunthroughOntheRoadandVisionsofCody(1959completeversion1972).Whenhedied,ofanabdominalhaemorrhage,hewaslivingin
StPetersburg,Florida,withhisthirdwifeandhisinvalidmother.SeeSelectedLetters19401956,ed.AnnCharters,newedn1996GeraldNicosia,MemoryBabe:
aCriticalBiographyofJackKerouac,newedn1994AnnCharters,Kerouac:aBiography,newedn1996WarrenFrench,JackKerouac,1987(critical

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study)TimHunt,Kerouac'sCrookedRoad:DevelopmentofaFiction,newedn1997.
Keyes,Sidney(192243)
Britishpoet,wasborninDartford,Kent,thesonofanarmyofficer.Hismotherdiedofperitonitisafewweeksafterhisbirth.HewasbroughtupinDartfordinthe
homeofhispaternalgrandfather,aselfmadetycoonintheflourmillingindustry,whohadadominantnatureandgreatphysicalenergyandstrength,whichhewould
demonstratebyhurlingthefurnitureabout.HewaseducatedatDartfordGrammarSchool,TonbridgeSchool,andTheQueen'sCollege,Oxford,wherehegotafirst
inhispreliminaryhistoryexaminations,editedCherwell,andmetHEATHSTUBBS,whobecamehisliterarymentor.Keyes'svolumeofpoems,TheIronLaurel,was
readyforprintingin1941,buthedelayedituntil1942sothathecouldadd'TheForeignGate',apoetsoldier'svisionofthepresenceofDeath,finishedjustbeforehe
joinedtheArmyinNorthernIrelandinApril.HewascommissionedintheQueen'sOwnRoyalWestKentRegiment,andarrivedinNorthAfricaon10March1943.
Atdawnon29Aprilheledoutapatrol.Neitherhenoranyofitsmembersreturned.Hewasnotyet21,butevenwithoutthepoemswhicharebelievedtohavebeen
lostwithhimintheTunisiandesert,hehadachievedanimpressivecorpusofpastoralandsymbolicverse,inwhichfromastartingpointoftheRomantics,andofpoets
suchasRILKEandYEATS,heexplorestheimagination,andenquiresintoattitudestodeathanddestiny.SeeCollectedPoemsofSidneyKeyes,ed.MichaelMeyer,
2ndrev.edn1988.
Khan,Ismith(b.1925)
novelist,wasborninPortofSpain,Trinidad,andeducatedatQueen'sRoyalCollege,MichiganStateUniversity,andtheNewSchoolforSocialResearch,New
York,atwhichhelatertaughtcreativewriting.HeworkedintheNewYorkPublicLibraryfrom1956to1961,andwasanassistantprofessorofCaribbeanand
ComparativeLiteratureattheUniversityofCaliforniafrom1971to1974.HebecameaUScitizenin1958.Hisnovels,TheJumbieBird(1963)andTheObeah
Man(1964),setintheCaribbeanandintendedoriginallytohelpCaribbeanreadersto'cometogripswiththeiridentity',exploresuperstitionandisolationinthe
contextoftheIndiancommunityofTrinidad.
Kiely,Benedict(b.1919)
Irishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninDromore,Co.Tyrone,andeducatedbytheChristianBrothers,becomingaJesuitnovicein1937.Whileconvalescing
fromaseveretubercularspinalconditionhedecidedtochangehisvocation,andbecameajournalistwhilestudyingattheNationalUniversityofIreland,fromwhichhe
graduatedin1943.Between1945and1964hewasonthestaffsuccessivelyoftheDublinStandard,theIrishIndependent,andtheIrishPress,afterwhichhe
taughtcreativewritingatvariousAmericanuniversities.HereturnedtoDublinin1970andwasavisitinglectureratUniversityCollege.Hisearliernovels,beginning
withLandWithoutStars(1946),whiletakingvariousthemesasastartingpoint,areexplorationsofsin,clericallife,andthetransitionfromyouthtomaturity.Itiswith
hisshortstories,ofwhichthefirstvolumewasAJourneytotheSevenStreams:SeventeenStories(1963),thatheisbestabletobringouttheessentialIrishnessin
hiscreativemakeup:satire,mockheroic,andsheercomedyinvestanecdotesandindividualsinanIrelandofthepresentandimmediatepastseealsoALetterto
PeachtreeandNineOtherStories(1987).InthishehasaforerunnerinCARLETON,anothermanofTyrone,ofwhomhehaswrittenabiographicalandcriticalstudy
(1947).Proxopera(1977)andNothingHappensinCarmincross(1985)are,bycontrast,savagenovels,inwhichheexpresseshisownandreflectsothers'anger
andfrustrationattheviolencewhichhasovertakenhiscountry.DrinktotheBird:anOmaghChildhoodRecalled(1992)isadiscursivememoir.Hehasalsowritten
ModernIrishFiction:aCritique(1950)andeditedThePenguinBookofIrishShortStories(1981).
Kierkegaard,Sren(181355)
Danishphilosopher,wasborninCopenhagen,theseventhchildofaretiredhosierandformerserfwhohadbecomeawealthyman,andofhissecondwife,the
illiteratemaidofhisfirstwife.Hewenttoprivateschoolandthenin1830toCopenhagenUniversity,whereafterdoingbrilliantlyinhisfoundationcourseheread
theologyinaratherhaphazardfashion.Hisfather'sdeathin1838strengthenedhisresolve.HepublishedastudyofANDERSEN'Snovels,finallytookhisdegreein1840,
andgotengagedtothedaughterofaprominentcivilservant.Hebrokeofftheengagementayearlater,andwenttoBerlintohearacourseoflecturesbythe
philosopherFriedrichSchelling(17751854).Havingcommentedinalettertohisbrother,'Schellingdrivelsonquiteintolerably',hereturnedtoCopenhagenand
embarkedonaboutoffuriousliteraryactivitywhichincluded[Either/Or](1843),[TheConceptofAnxiety](1844),[StagesonLife'sWay](1845),and
[ConcludingScientificPostscript](1846),allpublishedanonymously.In[TheSicknessuntoDeath](1849)and[TraininginChristianity](1850),also
anonymous,hepursuedhisinvestigationofspiritualityandoftheroleoftheofficialChurchintheexerciseofChristianbelief.Heintensifiedhiscampaignagainstthe
secularityoftheChurchinnineissuesofabroadsheetprintedathisownexpensein1855.Hediedlaterthatyear

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aftercollapsinginthestreet.Anoriginalthinkerwhowroteidiosyncraticallyonliterary,psychological,andreligiousthemes,heanticipatedtheExistentialistmovement
andprovidedSARTREandothermodernphilosopherswithabasefromwhichtoexploretheconceptofanxiety(Angst).SeePapersandJournals:aSelection,ed.
andtr.AlistairHannay,1996BruceH.Kirmmse(ed.),EncounterswithKierkegaard:aLifeasSeenbyHisContemporaries,tr.KirmmseandVirginiaR.
Laursen,1996(eyewitnessaccounts)PatrickGardiner,Kierkegaard,1988(introductiontohisthoughtandworks).
Kilvert,Francis(18401879)
Britishdiarist,wasborninHardenhuish,Wiltshire,ofwhichhisfatherwasRector,andwaseducatedatClavertonLodge,nearBath,andWadhamCollege,Oxford.
Hewasordainedin1863,and,inbetweenservinginhisfather'sparish,wascurateatClyro,beforebeingappointedVicarofStHarmon's,Rhyader,in1876,andof
Bredwardinein1877,allthreebeingintheWyevalley.HediedofperitonitisamonthaftermarryingElizabethRowland(d.1911).Portionsofhisdiaryfrom1870to
1879,in22notebooks,werediscoveredandeditedbyPLOMER,andpublished193840(rev.edn1960).Onlythreeoftheoriginalnotebooks,coveringpartof1870,
survivetodaytheywerepublishedindividuallyin1982,1989,and1990.Kilvertwasahighlyliteratemanwithadiscerningeyefortherollingcountrysideof
HerefordshireandtheruggednessofWales,asensualpreoccupationwithfemininebeautyingirlsoftenupward,andadescriptiveturnofphrase.Hemanagestobeas
interestingaboutcroquetpartiesonthelawnsofthegentryasheisaboutthetrialsandhomesofthepoorestofhisparishioners,withwhomhemixedwithequalease.
SeeKilvert,theVictorian:aNewSelectionfromtheDiaries,ed.DavidLockwood,1993FrederickGrice,FrancisKilvertandHisWorld,1980.
King,Kennedy
seeDOUGLAS,GEORGE.
King,Stephen(b.1947)
Americannovelist,wasborninPortland,Mainehisfather,amerchantmarinerduringWorldWarII,walkedoutonhiswifeandfamilyin1949,andwasneverheard
ofagain.EvenbeforeheattendedhighschoolinLisbonFalls,Maine,Kingwaswritingsciencefictionstories,whichhesubmittedtospecialistmagazines.Hisfirststory
tobepublishedprofessionallywas'TheGlassFloor'inStartlingMysteryStoriesin1967,whenhewasattheUniversityofMaine.HegraduatedinEnglishin1970
unabletogetahighschoolteachingpost,heworkedinanindustriallaundry.Hemarriedin1972,andfoundajobasateacheratHamptonAcademy,Maine,while
continuingtowritestoriesthatwerepublishedandnovelsthatwerenot.Inspiredbytheexampleofthreesuccessfulhorrornovels,IraLevin,Rosemary'sBaby
(1968),ThomasTryon,TheOther(1971),andWilliamBlatty,TheExorcist(1971),hebeganin1971toturnashortstoryintoanovel.Itwasacceptedafterfurther
rewritingofthelatterpart,andpublishedasCarrie(1974),abouta16yearoldwithinheritedtelekineticpowerswhoinjustifiableangerusestheminanorgyof
destruction.Herehealreadydisplayedfactorswhichhavesubsequentlyestablishedhimasanauthormanyofwhoseworksareatoneendofthescalehugelyenjoyed
byyoungadults(thoughoftenbannedfromschoollibraries)andareattheotherapropersubjectofacademiccriticismsee,forexample,EdwardIngebretsenSJ,
MapsofHeaven,MapsofHell:ReligiousTerrorasMemoryfromthePuritanstoStephenKing(1995)andSharonA.Russell,StephenKing:aCritical
Companion(1996).Hisprotagonistsareoftenyoungpeoplethemselvesthehorrorusuallylurksintheroutinesofeverydaylife,asinTheDeadZone(1979),Cujo
(1981),Christine(1983),andIt(1986)asaskilfulexponentofaparticulargenre(andalsoagoodwriter)heplaysonreaderexpectationsofthatgenre.Atthesame
time,onacriticallevel,hismodernmythologyoftenreflectstraditionalfairytales,Christiansymbolism,or,asinRoseMadder(1995),classicallegend,whilehis
horror,asin'Salem'sLot(1975),DoloresClaiborne(1992),andelsewhere,tendstobepsychologicalratherthansupernatural.
DifferentSeasons(1982)containsfournovellas,including'AptPupil',inwhichaNaziwarcriminalinsinuateshimself,quiteopenly,intoanAmericanfamily.Shorter
fictionisinNightShift(1978)andFourPastMidnight(1990).KingbrokenewgroundwhenTheGreenMile(1996),inmuchthesamewayasGEORGEELIOT'S
Middlemarch125yearsearlier,waspublishedseriallyinmassmarketpaperbackforminsixmonthlyinstalments.Afulltimewriter,healsoownsapublishingfirm
andarock'n'rollradiostationinhishometownofBangor,Maine.Ashefirstrevealedinaninterviewinalocalpaperin1985,hehasalsopublishedseveralnovelsas
RichardBachmanseeMichaelR.Collings,StephenKingasRichardBachman(1986).DanseMacabre(1981)isacollectionofautobiographicalandcritical
essays.SeeJosephReino,StephenKing:theFirstDecade,'Carrie'to'PetSematary',1988(criticalstudy).
Kinglake,A(lexander)W(illiam)(180991)
Britishhistorianandtraveller,wasborninTaunton,Somerset,andgainedthroughhismotheranenthusiasmforridingandforHOMER(inPOPE'Stranslation).Hewas
educatedatEtonandTrinityCollege,Cambridge,whereTENNYSONandTHACKERAYwerehisfriends,andthenreadfortheBar,towhichhewasadmittedin1837.In

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about1835heundertookahazardousexcursionthroughtheMiddleEast,anaccountofwhich,afteragonizingoverseveraldrafts,hefinallypublishedin1844as
Eothen:or,TracesofTravelbroughthomefromtheEast.Eothen(thewordisHomericGreekfor'fromtheEast')isadelightfullywrittenpersonalrecordinthe
traditionandspiritofEnglish(andinthecaseofLITHGOW,Scottish)travellerswhohavefoundthatpartoftheworldasourceofamusementaswellasofwonder.In
1854hewenttotheCrimeaasanobserverofthecampaign,andfelloffhishorsewhilewatchingthebattleofAlma.FieldMarshalLordRaglan(17881855)sawthe
mishapandinvitedhimtodinnerthatnight.AfterRaglan'sdeath,hiswidowgaveKinglakeallRaglan'spapersandencouragedhimtowriteahistoryofthewar.The
InvasionoftheCrimea(8vols186387),deeplyresearchedandwrittenwithstyleandwit,isallthemorevividforitsauthorhavingwitnessedsomeoftheeventshe
describes.KinglakewasLiberalMemberofParliamentforBridgwaterfrom1857to1868,whenhelosthisseat,andthetownthefranchise,becauseofalleged
corruption,ofwhichhehimselfprobablyknewnothing.Onhisdeathheinstructedthatanyunpublishedmanuscriptsshouldbedestroyed.SeeGeralddeGaury,
TravellingGent:theLifeofAlexanderKinglake,1972.
Kingsley,Charles(18191875)
Britishnovelist,academic,andpoet,wasbornatHolneVicarage,nearDartmoor,andeducatedatKing'sCollege,London,andMagdaleneCollege,Cambridge,
wherehegotafirstinclassics.HeenteredtheChurchandin1844becameRectorofEversley,Hampshire,wherehespentmostoftherestofhislife.TheSaint's
Tragedy,adrama,aboutStElizabethofHungary,inamixtureofblankverseandprose,waspublishedin1848.Yeast(1851)andAltonLocke(1850)arenovels
dealingwiththeissuesoftheruralandurbanworkingclassrespectively.WestwardHo!(1855)issocialpropagandaofadifferentkind,intheformofastirringattempt
tostiffenpatrioticsinewsthroughanaccountofElizabethannavalheroism.KingsleywasProfessorofModernHistoryatCambridge186069,andin1864attacked
NEWMANinananonymousreviewinMacmillan'sMagazine,whichprecipitatedthewritingofNewman'sApologiaproVitaSua.TheWaterBabies(1863),with
TheHeroes,orGreekFairyTales(1856)hislastingworkforchildren,isadidacticfantasywithasocialpurpose.HerewardtheWake(1866)recordsinfictional
formtheexploitsofthatlegendaryhero.KingsleywasappointedacanonofWestminsterandachaplaintoQueenVictoriain1873.Hisenthusiasmforhealthand
strengthofbodyandmindledtohisbeingregardedasachiefexponentof'muscularChristianity',thoughhewasalsoaconsiderablescholarandafineprosewriter,if
notmuchofapoet.SeeRobertBernardMartin,TheDustofCombat:aLifeofKingsley,1959.
Kingsley,Henry(183076)
Britishnovelist,ayoungerbrotherofCHARLESKINCSLEY,wasborninBarnack,Northamptonshire,andeducatedatKing'sCollege,London,andWorcesterCollege,
Oxford,whichheleftin1853withoutadegree,andwenttoAustralia.HelookedforgoldinBendigoandBeechworth,workedsheepatLangiWilli,andmadetwo
epictreks,fromwesternVictoriatoSydney,andfromSydney,byanotherrouteviaGippsland,toMelbourne.HereturnedtoEnglandin1858withpartsofthe
manuscriptofTheRecollectionsofGeoffryHamlyn(1859).Thefinalversionofthissagaofthreeemigrantfamilieswassupervisedbyhisbrotherandromanticized
attherequestofhispublisherandhisdyingfather,whobeggedhimtoeliminate'everythinginthebookwhichmightpreventitlyingonadrawingroomtable'.Evenso,
itremainsavivid,andsignificant,recreationofcoloniallifeinthe1830sand1840s.Ravenshoe(1862)isatanglednovelofanEnglishlandedfamilyandits
inheritance.TheHillyarsandtheBurtons(1865)isafurtherAustraliannovel,inwhichtheinterweavedanddivergentfortunesoftwofamiliesfromdifferent
backgroundsareplayedout.Thereafter,thoughhewroteadozenmorenovels,hisreputationreceded,andin1869hetookthepostinEdinburghofEditorofthe
DailyReview,doublingascorrespondentduringtheFrancoPrussianwarin1870.HereturnedtoLondonin1871,anddiedofthroatcancerinSussex,towhichhe
hadmovedin1875,havinglatterlyfallenoutwithhisbrother,fromwhomhefrequentlyrequestedloansofmoney.SeeJ.S.D.Mellick,ThePassingGuest:aLifeof
HenryKingsley,1983.
Kinnell,Galway(b.1927)
Americanpoet,wasbornandbroughtupinProvidence,RhodeIsland.AfterservingintheUSNavy(194546),hewenttoPrinceton,whereheandhisclassmate
MERWINusedtoreadtheirpoetrytoeachother,andthentookafurtherdegreeatRochesterUniversity.AfterlivinginFranceonaFulbrightscholarship,hewas
subsequentlyajournalistinIran,andafieldworkerinLouisianafortheCongressofRacialEquality.Hehastaughtatanumberofcollegesanduniversities,most
recentlyNewYorkUniversity.Hisearlierverse,inWhataKingdomItWas(1960)andinthetwocollectionsFirstPoems19461954(1970)andTheAvenue
BearingtheInitialofChristintotheNewWorld:Poems19461964(1974),tendedtowardsthetraditionalandintricate,butgavewaytofreerformsinBodyRags
(1968).TheBookofNightmares(1971)isalongsequenceofreflectionsonthemortalityofallthings,arecurringthemeinhisworkwhich

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hetreatsinmanydifferentways.In'TheBear'(1968)and'ThePorcupine'(1969)thenarratortakesonthepersonaofthedyinganimalin'TheFundamentalProject
ofTechnology'(1985)hemeditatesonthemomentwhentheatombombexplodedoverNagasakiin1945.SelectedPoems(1982)wonthePulitzerPrize.Significant
latercollectionsincludeThePast(1985)andWhenOneHasLivedaLongTimeAlone(1990),whicharepartlyautobiographical.Hehaspublishedseveraleditions
oftranslationsofVILLONandacriticalwork,ThePoeticsofthePhysicalWorld(1969).SeeWalkingDowntheStairs:SelectionsfromInterviews,ed.Donald
Hall,1978.
Kinsella,Thomas(b.1928)
Irishpoetandtranslator,wasborninDublinandeducatedatO'ConnellsandatUniversityCollege,Dublin,fromwhichhejoinedtheIrishcivilservice.Afterbeing
electedtotheIrishAcademyofLettersin1965,heresignedhispostasAssistantPrincipalOfficer,DepartmentofFinance,tobeawriterinresidenceatSouthern
IllinoisUniversity,subsequentlybecomingaprofessorofEnglishthereandatTempleUniversity,Philadelphia.MONTAGUEhasdescribedKinsella'searlypoemsasthe
workof'anintellectualtroubadour,hisdesiretosingincreasinglycrossedbyaneedtoexplain'.Anothercritichaspointedoutthatwhenhebeganwritinginthe1950s,
thedominanceofIrishproseledtohisseekingmodelsoverseas.Increasinglyheachieved,alongwithseveralliteraryawards,anindividualvoiceinwhichtomeditate
onlove,marriage,death,theordealoflifeitself,andwhathecalls'theartisticact'.NotesfromtheLandoftheDeadandOtherPoems(1972)heraldedanew
phase,inwhichhispoetry,byhisowndefinition,'turneddownwardintothepsychetowardoriginandmyth'.In1972hefoundedaprivatepressinDublin,which
publishedundertheimprintofPeppercanisteranumberofhistopicalbroadsides,includingButcher'sDozen(1972)andTheGoodFight(1973),andhispamphlets
reflectingpersonalattitudesandissuesinfamilyandsocialhistory,fiveofwhichweresubsequentlyreissuedinonevolumeasBloodandFamily(1988).Poemsfrom
CentreCity(1994)centresonhisexilefromDublin.InTheDualTradition:anEssayonPoetryandPoliticsinIreland(1995)hedevelopsthethemehe
expressedinhisintroductiontoTheNewOxfordBookofIrishVerse(1986):'TheIrishtraditionisamatteroftwolinguisticentitiesindynamicinteraction,oftwo
majorbodiesofpoetryaskingtobeunderstoodtogetherasfunctionsofasharedandpainfulhistory.'TheIrishliterarytraditioncomesthroughalsoinhistranslations,
notablyTheTin(2ndedn1970).SeeTheCollectedPoems,1996MauriceHarmon,ThePoetryofThomasKinsella,1974ThomasH.Jackson,TheWhole
Matter:thePoeticEvolutionofThomasKinsella,1995.
Kipling,(Joseph)Rudyard(18651936)
Britishshortstorywriter,poet,novelist,andchildren'swriter,wasborninBombay,theonlysonofJohnLockwoodKipling(18371911),asculptorandwriter,who
wasteachingattheBombaySchoolofArt.HeandhisyoungersisterwerebroughttoEnglandandboardedwithfosterparentsinSouthseafrom1871to1877,when
hewenttotheUnitedServicesCollege,WestwardHo!,Devon.HereturnedtoIndiain1882andbecameareporterontheCivilandMilitaryGazetteinLahore,
wherehisfatherwasnowprincipaloftheartcollege.Hegraduatedtocontributingsketches,stories,andverses,andin1887wastransferredtothestaffofthe
AllahabadPioneer.DepartmentalDittiesandOtherVersesandPlainTalesfromtheHillswerepublishedin1886and1888respectivelyinIndia,andin1889
and1890inBritain,wheretheinitialreceptionwasmuted,thoughhewasbecomingknownthroughpaperbacksissuedbytheIndianrailways,manyofwhichwere
brought'home'.HereturnedtoEnglandviaAmericain1889.Hisfirstnovel,TheLightthatFailed(1890),wasfollowedbyafurthervolumeofstories,Life's
Handicap(1891),byBarrackRoomBalladsandOtherVerses(1892),andbyTheNaulahka(1892),anovelwrittenwithhisAmericanagent,WolcottBalestier
(186191),whosesisterCaroline(d.1939)hemarriedin1892.ThecouplelivedinherhometownofBrattleboro,Vermont,until1896,whentheyreturnedto
EnglandastheresultofabitterfeudwithherbrotherBeattyBalestier(d.1936)overapieceoflandoppositetheirnewhouse.InthemeantimeKiplinghadwrittenhis
classicchildren'sstories,TheJungleBook(1894)andTheSecondJungleBook(1895),andsomeofhisfinesttales,publishedinManyInventions(1893)andThe
Day'sWork(1898),andhadbecomefamous.
Morechildren'sstoriesfollowed,includingStalky&Co.(1899)andKim(1901),whichisalsoafinenovelbyanystandardsseePeterHopkirk,QuestforKim:In
SearchofKipling'sGreatGame(1996)forabackgroundstudy.PuckofPook'sHill(1906)andRewardsandFairies(1910)areinterspersedwithverses
illustratinghisfeelingfortheimmutabilityoftheEnglishlandscape,whichcontrastsharplywithhisthumpinglyrhythmicalmilitaryballadsandpatrioticsongs.By1902,
whenhesettledinSussex,hismajorliteraryworkwasdone,buthisactivitiesasapublicfigurefiercelyconcernedwithcontroversialissuesandthegrowingthreat,and
thentheactuality,ofwarwerejustbeginningthoughfrom1915hewashardhitbyanundiagnosedulcerandbythedeathinactioninthatyearofhisonlyson.Hewas
amasterinthecraftofprosefiction,andordinaryreaderswhorespondenthusiasticallytothepoemswhichaccuratelybutsympatheticallyreflecttheimperialistic
attitudeoftheage,carelittleforthelongrunningcriticalargumentasto

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whetherhewrotegoodverseorbadpoetry.In1907hewasthefirstBritishauthortoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature.Thoughregardedasthenationalpoetof
histime,hemadehimselfunavailableforselectionasPoetLaureateandthreetimesrefusedtheOM,onthegroundsthathecouldservehisKingandcountrybetter
fromthesidelines.SeeShortStories,ed.AndrewRutherford,2vols199394SelectedPoems,ed.CraigRaine,1993SomethingofMyself:andOther
AutobiographicalWritings,ed.ThomasPinney,newedn1991CharlesCarrington,RudyardKipling:HisLifeandWork,newedn1986AngusWilson,The
StrangeRideofRudyardKipling:HisLifeandWorks,newedn1994J.M.S.Tompkins,TheArtofRudyardKipling,rev.edn1965PeterKeating,Kipling
thePoet,1994(criticalstudy).
Kirby,William(18171906)
Canadiannovelist,wasborninEnglandinKingstonuponHull,Yorkshire,thesonofatannerwhoemigratedtoAmericain1832.Kirbywentin1839toUpper
Canada,wherehesettledinNiagaraontheLakeandmarriedintoastaunchUnitedEmpireLoyalistfamily.Hebecamealeadinglightinthatmovement,insupportof
whichhewrote(asBritannicus)CounterManifestototheCanadianAnnexationists(1849)and(underhisownname)anepicpoem,TheU.E.:aTaleofUpper
Canada(1859).HeeditedtheNiagaraMail,andwasacollectorofcustomsfrom1871to1895.HealsowroteTheGoldenDog(LeChiend'Or):aRomanceof
theDaysofLouisQuinzeinQuebec(1896).Thebackgroundofthislong,thoroughlyresearchedhistoricalnovelwithGothicelementsisthepowerstruggleswhich
precededtheunitybetweenthetwoCanadas.FirstpublishedintheUSAin1877,itssubsequentchequeredbibliographicalhistoryhighlightedholesinexisting
copyrightlaws.Thereisamodernedition,ed.DerekCrawley(1969).SeeMargotNorthey,WilliamKirbyandHisWorks,1994.
Kirk,Robert(1644?1692)
Scottishprosewriter,translator,andantiquary,was(significantly)theseventhsonofRev.JamesKirk(160958),MinisterofAberfoyle.Hewaseducatedatthe
universitiesofStAndrewsandEdinburgh,becomingMinisterofBalquhidderin1664,andofAberfoylein1685.HemadethefirsttranslationintoGaelicofmetrical
versionsofthecompletePsalter(1684).In168889hetransliteratedfromIrishscriptintoRomancharacterstheGaelicBiblewhichhadbeeninitiatedbyWilliam
Bedell(15711642),andthenspentalmostayearinLondonseeingitthroughthepress,whilealsoattendingservicesofalldenominationsandobservingcitylife.He
died,ifhediddie,whiletakingtheairinhisnightshirtonafairymoundnearthemanse.ThoughaninscribedtombstonemarkshisgraveinAberfoylekirkyard,itis
believedthathisspiritwasremovedandheldcaptivebythefairies,whowerefearfulthathewouldrevealthesecretsoftheirwayoflife.WALTERSCOTTrecordsa
furthertraditionthatKirkreappearedtoacousinwithexplicitinstructionsastohowhemightberestoredtohisbody,whichthemanwastooastonishedtocarryout
whenthetimecame.Hismanuscriptwasfirstpublishedin1893asTheSecretCommonWealthofElves,Fauns,&Fairies,withacommentarybyLANG.Kirkwas
ascholarwithacharmingliterarystyle,whosetoutinscientifictermsthefindingsofhisresearchintoanaspectofthesupernaturalinwhoseexistencehehadreasons
tobelieve.HealsoarguedthatbeliefinfairieswasnotinconsistentwithChristianbelief.SeeTheSecretCommonWealth&AShortTreatiseofCharmsandSpels,
ed.StewartSanderson,1976.
KirkupJames(b.1923)
Britishpoet,dramatist,andtranslator,wasborninSouthShields,andeducatedatSouthShieldsHighSchoolandDurhamUniversity,beingGregoryFellowinPoetry,
LeedsUniversity195052.Hehasheldmanyacademicposts,mostprominentlyinJapan(aboutwhichhehaswrittenperceptivetravelbooks)asProfessorofEnglish
LiteratureatJapanWomen'sUniversityandatKyotoUniversity.Ofhispoetryhesays:'Ihaveattemptedalwaystoexpressanessencebothofmyselfandof
experience,acrystallizationofmypersonalawarenessofthisworldandworldsbeyond.'Adistinctivevoiceemergedinhissecondcollection,TheSubmergedVillage
andOtherPoems(1951).ThetitlepoemofACorrectCompassionandOtherPoems(1952)evokesthesurgeon'sskillandtheatmosphereofanopenheart
operationwhichhewitnessed.Hereturnstothatthemeintheironical'TheCureoftheMatter'inWhiteShadows,BlackShadows:PoemsofPeaceandWar
(1970),whichfeaturesracialcontrasts.In1977hispoemaboutahomosexualactperformedonthebodyofChrist,'Thelovethatdarestospeakitsname',wasthe
subjectofthefirstprosecutionforblasphemouslibelsince1922:theEditorofGayNews,whichprintedit,wasconvicted.AsdramatisthehasadaptedaFrench
medievalmysterycycle,aswellasplaysbyDRRENMATTandotherEuropeanwriters.HistranslationsfromFrench,German,Japanese,Italian,andNorwegian
includeworksbyBEAUVOIR,SCHILLER,IBSEN,LAYE,andKAWABATAseealsoACertainStateofMind:anAnthologyofmodern,classic,andcontemporaryJapanese
HaikuinTranslationwithEssaysandReviews(1995).SeeCollectedShorterPoems:Vol.1OmensofDisaster,Vol.2OnceandforAll,1996Throwback:
PoemstowardsanAutobiography,1992TheOnlyChild:anAutobiographyofInfancy,newedn1970Sorrows,Passions,andAlarms:anAutobiography
ofChildhood,1959I.ofAllPeople:anAutobiographyofYouth,new

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edn1990MeAllOver:MemoirsofaMisfit,1994.
Klein,A(braham)M(oses)(190972)
Canadianpoet,wasborninRatno,Ukraine,ofaJewishfamilywhoemigratedtoMontrealin1910.Hispoem'Autobiographical'(1951)evokesmemoriesofhis
childhood,duringwhichhereceived,andimbibed,asoundbackgroundinHebrewandTalmudicscholarship.HewasfurthereducatedatBaronByngHighSchool,
Montreal,McGillUniversity,andtheUniversitdeMontral,wherehestudiedlaw.HewascalledtotheQuebecBarin1933,butpractisedonlyintermittently.He
tookupthecauseofZionism,becameaspeechwriterandpublicrelationsadvisertothePresidentoftheCanadianJewishCongressin1939,andeditedthe
CanadianJewishChroniclefrom1938to1955.HebegantopublishhisverseinUSandCanadianjournalsinthe1920s,andduringthelate1930sandearly1940s
waswritingpoemsreflectingtheworldcrisis,inwhichheexpressedgrief('PsalmXXXVI:aPsalmTouchingGenealogy','Heirloom'),despair('SonnetinTimeof
Affliction'),andoutrage('PsalmVI:aPsalmofAbraham...').Inhisfirstpublishedcollection,HathNotaJew...(1940),comprisinghisearlywork,andinPoems
(1944),heexploreshisJewishheritageandtheisolationimposedbyhisJewishness,basinghisimagesandreflectionsonawideandvariedspectrumofexperience.
HissatiricalbentsurfacedinTheHitleriad(1944)'Heilheavenlymuse,sincealsothoumustbe/Likemysong'stheme,asiegheileddeity...',inimitationof
POPE,butthemediumwasbasicallyunsuitedtoathemeofsuchenormity.WithTheRockingChair,andOtherPoems(1948),whichwontheGovernorGeneral's
Award,hesetasideovertlyJewishthemesforthosewhichexpressthelandscapes,situations,andcultureofQuebec,asinthetitlepoem,'GrainElevator','Indian
Reservation:Caughnawaga',andthesharplyironic'PortraitofthePoetasLandscape',inwhichtheauthorfigure,amodernLycidas,isignored.
In1949hestoodforParliamentasaCooperativeCommonwealthFederationcandidate,butwasheavilydefeated.Shortlyafterwardshewentonbehalfofthe
CanadianJewishCongresstoEurope,NorthAfrica,andIsraeltostudyconditionsinrefugeecamps.Outofthisexperiencegrewhissinglesustainedworkofprose
fiction,TheSecondScroll(1951),ashortbutelaborateworkwhosestructureandthemehaveparallelsinthefivebooksoftheHebrewBiblecollectivelyknownas
theTorah.ThesearchbyaCanadianjournalistforhisunclesymbolizesthefatefulprogressoftheJewsofeasternEuropebetween1917and1949,andthewholeis
roundedoffwithaseriesoffive'glosses'inverse,prose,anddramaticform,inwhichtheessentialonenessofJudaism,Christianity,andIslamisfurtheremphasized.
SoonafteritspublicationKleinsufferedapsychologicalbreakdown,whichledtohiswithdrawalfromnormallifeandultimatelytohisdeath.Heisarguablythefinest
JewishpoettowriteinEnglish.HismonumentalcommentaryonJOYCE'SUlysses,whichhefirstreadinabout1929andwhichinfluencedhiswriting,wasneverfinished.
SeeTheCompletePoems,ed.ZailigPollock,2vols1991A.M.Klein:ShortStories,ed.M.W.Steinberg,1983UsherCaplan,LikeOneThatDreamed:a
PortraitofA.M.Klein,1975ZailigPollock,A.M.Klein:theStoryofthePoet,1994NoreenGoffman,A.M.KleinandHisWorks,1994.
Kleist,HeinrichVon(17771811)
Germandramatistandnovelist,wasborninFrankfurtanderOder,thefifthchildandeldestsonofaPrussianarmyofficer.Hefelloutwithhisfamilywhen,in1799,
aftersevenyearsinthearmy,heresignedhiscommissiontogotoFrankfurtUniversity.Hiscreativelifewasdoggedbyinternationalandpoliticalupheavals,by
emotionalcrises(oneofthemsparkedoffbytherevelation,fromastudyofKANT,thatabsoluteknowledgeobtainedbytheapplicationofreasonwasunattainable,thus
ruininghislifeplan),andbylackofmoney,towhichhisjournalisticpublishingventuresinDresdenandBerlincontributed.Hewasalsounlucky.Apotentialpatron
withdrewhissupportwhenhisdaughterfellinlovewithKleistthepremiereofDerzerbrocheneKrug[TheBrokenPitcher],putonbyGOETHEinWeimarin1808,
wasdisastrouslyproducedhopesofcourtpatronageafterceremoniallypresentingabirthdaysonnettotheQueenweredashedwhenshediedsuddenlyfourmonths
later.Hissevenplayshoverbetweentragedyandtragicomedy.Hiseightstories,publishedasErzhlungen(2vols181011),arepowerfulevocationsofsituationand
paradoxseeTheMarquiseofO.andOtherStories,tr.DavidLukeandMichaelReeves(1978).Hecorrespondedregularlywithalongsufferingfiance,anddied
inameticulouslyplannedandspectacularsuicidepactwithaterminallyillmarriedwoman,whofirsthelpedhimtoburnhismanuscripts.SeeSenAllen,ThePlaysof
HeinrichvonKleist,1996(criticalstudy).
Knickerbocker,Diedrich
seeIRVING.
Knox,E.V.
seeFITZGERALD,PENELOPE.
Knox,John(150572)
Scottishreligiousreformerandprosewriter,wasborninGifford,EastLothian,andeducatedattheuniversitiesofGlasgowandStAndrews,takingpriest'sordersin
about1530.In1545,nowalliedtotheProtestantcause,heactedasbodyguardtothereformerGeorgeWishart

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(c.151346)untilhistrialandexecutionforheresy.WhenWishart'ssupporterstookrevengebymurderingCardinalBeaton(14941546)andholedthemselvesupin
StAndrewsCastle,Knoxactedastheirchaplain,andontheirsurrenderwasturnedovertotheFrenchasagalleyslave.Hewasreleasedin1549andspentthenext
tenyearsinEnglandandontheContinent,wherehesteepedhimselfintheteachingsofCALVIN.Healsopreachedthedoctrinesofreformandwrotecopiously,notably
TheFirstBlastoftheTrumpetagainsttheMonstrousRegiment[i.e.rule]ofWomen(1558),averyearlyexampleofaprivatelysponsoredpamphlet,aimed
especiallyatMaryTudor.HewasappointedMinisteroftheHighKirkinEdinburghin1559,hisappearanceinthepulpitinPerthsparkingofftwodaysofriots.The
returnfromFranceoftheyoung,Catholic,Mary,QueenofScots,in1561begansixyearsofmutualantagonism.TheHistorieoftheReformationofReligioun
withintheRealmofScotland,completedinabout1567,isavaluableifbiasedsourceofinformation,inwhichhemakesthemostofjuicycourtscandals.Whilehe
usesScotswords,theforceful,colloquialstyleismoreEnglishthanthatspokenorwrittenin16thcenturyScotland.Inspiteofhisprofessedmisogyny,hewastwice
married,thesecondtimetoa17yearoldwhowas42yearshisjunior,bywhomhehadtwodaughters.SeeJasperRidley,JohnKnox,1968(biography)Stewart
Lamont,JohnKnoxandtheEuropeanReformation,1991.
Koch,Kenneth
seeO'HARA,FRANK.
Koestler,Arthur(190583)
novelistandprosewriter,wasborninBudapestofJewishparentswhomovedtoViennaattheoutbreakofWorldWarI.HewaseducatedthereatthePolytechnic
HighSchoolandViennaUniversity,wherehereadengineering.HewasajournalistintheMiddleEast,Paris,andBerlin,butlosthiseditorialpostin1932whenhe
joinedtheCommunistParty,inwhichhesawtheonlyanswertoNazism.Hewentfreelance,andwhilereportingtheSpanishCivilWarfromtheRepublicansidewas
capturedandimprisonedheexpectedexecution,butwasreleasedin1937throughtheinterventionoftheBritishGovernment.Henowresignedfromtheparty.In
ParishewrotetwonovelsinGerman,publishedasTheGladiators(tr.EdithSimon1939),inwhichthedissidentisSpartacus,andDarknessatNoon(tr.Daphne
Hardy1940),whosesimilarthemeisthedoomofanelderlyBolshevik.Hewasinternedin1939,butengineeredanescapetoBritain,ofwhichhebecameacitizenin
1948.Subsequentnovels,writteninEnglishandincludingArrivalandDeparture(1943)andTheCallGirls:aTragiComedywithPrologueandEpilogue
(1972),arealsopolemical.Twostrandsdominatehisnonfiction:thequestforsocialandpoliticalreform,notablytheabolitionofcapitalpunishment,andhisbeliefina
scientificbasisfortelepathy,suchasheexpressesinTheCaseoftheMidwifeToad(1971)andTheRootsofCoincidence(1972)heendowedinhiswillachair
inparapsychology,whichwasestablishedatEdinburghUniversity.Hecommittedsuicidewithhisthirdwife,aftersevenyearsofcripplingillness.HewasmadeCBEin
1972.SeeSpanishTestament,rev.edn1954,ScumoftheEarth,newedn1992,ArrowintheBlue,newedn1983,TheInvisibleWriting,newedn1969
(autobiography).
Kroetsch,Robert(b.1927)
Canadiannovelist,poet,andcritic,wasborninHeisler,Alberta,andwenttoschoolthereandinRedDeer,andthentotheUniversityofAlberta.Heworkedasa
labourerandariverboatpurserforatransportationcompanyintheNorthwestTerritories,andasaninformationofficeratGooseBayAirForceBase.In195455he
studiedunderMACLENNANatMcGillUniversity,andsubsequentlyatIowaUniversity.HetaughtEnglishattheStateUniversityofNewYorkuntil1978,whenhe
returnedtoCanadatotheUniversityofManitoba,ofwhichhewasappointedDistinguishedProfessorin1985.Hisfirstnovel,ButWeAreExiles(1965),established
hisdistinctivemotifofdevisingparallelsinCanadianrealitywithvariousaspectsofmythology.TheWordsofMyRoaring(1966),TheStudhorseMan(1969),which
wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward,andGoneIndian(1973)arelinked,comic,questnovelsofanAlbertasmalltowncommunity,whosecounterpartsareinthe
rapeofPersephone,thewanderingsofOdysseus,andAmericanIndianlegendrespectively.ThesensuousseductionofVeraLangbyaswarmofbeesbegetsthe
disasterswhichbysurrealmeansafflictthemaleprotagonistsofWhattheCrowSaid(1978).TheStoneHammer:Poems19601975waspublishedin1975,since
whenhehasassembledhispoetryandprosepoemsintoanongoingsequence,ofwhichFieldNotes:CollectedPoems(1981)andAdvicetoMyFriends:a
ContinuingPoem(1985)arethefirsttwovolumesseealsoCompleteFieldNotes:theLongPoemsofRobertKroetsch(1989).TheLovelyTreacheryof
Words:EssaysSelectedandNew(1989)containssignificantstudiesofCanadianliterature.SeeAnnMunton,RobertKroetschandHisWorks:Poetry,1992
PeterThomas,RobertKroetschandHisWorks:Fiction,1992.
Kumar,ShivK(umar)(b.1921)
Indianpoet,wasborninLahore,thesonofaheadmasterinwhosehomebothEnglishandHindiwerespoken.HewaseducatedatDayanandAngloVedicHigh
SchoolandForemanChristianCollege,PunjabUniversity,latertakingthedegreeofPhDatFitzwilliamCollege,Cambridge.HewasProfessorofEn

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glishatOsmaniaUniversity,Hyderabad195976,andofHyderabadUniversity197679.Hebeganwritingpoetryseriouslywhenhewas49,andimmediatelywent
intoprintwithArticulateSilences(1970),whichhefollowedatdiscreetintervalswithCobwebsintheSun(1974),Subterfuges(1976),Woodpeckers(1979),and
TrapfallsintheSky(1986).Whetherheiswritingaboutchildhood('MyMother'sLover'),growingup('BrokenColumns'),adulthood('ToaProstitute','MyCo
respondent'),India('AMangoVendor')ortheUSA('ALetterfromNewYork'),hisworkhasafreshandpersonalring,andrevealsinitsironichumourtheinfluence
ofmuchtravelasavisitingacademic`Hehaswrittentwonovels,TheBone'sPrayer(1979)andNudeBeforeGod(1983),andavolumeofshortstories,andhas
editedanumberofliterarytextsandcompilations.
Kundera,Milan(b.1929)
Czechnovelistandcritic,wasborninBrno,attendedCharlesUniversity,Prague,andtaughtfilmstudiesattheAcademyofMusicandDramaticArtsfrom1959to
1969.Hisearliernovels,andavolumeofshortstories(tr.SuzanneRappaportasLaughableLoves,1974)aresardonicexpressionsofindividualisminthefaceof
Communism.Hewasofficiallycensuredin1967forpubliclyvoicinghisviews,andaftertheSovietinvasionofCzechoslovakiain1968hisworkswerebanned.In
1975hewasallowedtoemigratetoFrance,ofwhichhebecameacitizenin1981.HetaughtcomparativeliteratureatRennesUniversityfrom1975to1980,whenhe
wasappointedtothecoledesHautestudes,Paris.[TheBookofLaughterandForgetting](1981tr.MichaelH.Heim,1980),thefirstworkofhisexile,isan
amalgamofpersonalandpoliticalcomment,storiesandreminiscences,innarrativeform.InImmortality,tr.PeterKussi(1991),whichissimilarlyconstructedand
equallyaphoristic,thesettingisWesternEuropeandtheenslavementismoresubtle.[TheJoke](1967),hisfirstnovel,wasreissuedin1992inarevisedtranslation
(byHelmandothers),authorizedbyKundera,whichisthefifthversioninEnglish.InSlowness(France,1995tr.LindaAsher,1996),hisfirstnovelwritteninFrench,
twonightsofseduction,twohundredyearsapart,arethespringboardforsomeimaginingsonthepartoftheauthor,orhispersona,onbringingthepastintothe
present,andonrealitybeingacombinationofthetwo.TheArtoftheNovel,tr.Asher(1988),isacollectionofcrossculturalessaysanddialogues.Testaments
Betrayed:anEssayinNineParts(France,1993tr.Asher,1995)isaseriesofreflectionsonthehistoryofthenovelfromRABELAISandCERVANTEStoRUSHDIE.
Kyd,Thomas(155894)
Englishdramatist,wasbornintheCityofLondon,thesonofascrivener,andwaseducatedatMerchantTaylors'School.FromaletterofhistotheLordKeeper,it
appearsthatin1593hehadforsixyearsbeeninservicetoa'Lord',andthatin1591heandMARLOWEsharedaroom.On12May1593,whilehewasinprisonon
suspicionofincitingthepopulaceagainstimmigrantcraftsmen,hislodgingsweresearchedandcopiesfoundofanatheisticaltract,whichheclaimedwasMarlowe's.
Kydwaslaterfreed,havingbeentorturedbutnotcharged.TheonlyplayoriginallypublishedashisisCornelia(1594),atranslationfromtheFrenchofaRoman
tragedybyRobertGarnier(c.15451600).HEYWOODinApologyforActorsrefersto'M.Kid,inhisSpanishTragedy',andaplayofthatnamewasinprintin1592
andfrequentlyreissued.FrancisMeres(15651647)inPalladisTamia(1598)callsKyd'ourbestforTragedie'.TheSpanishTragedy,adramaofrevengeand
starkretribution,thoughlackingthepoeticinspirationofMarloweandSHAKESPEARE,isassignificantinthedevelopmentofElizabethantragedyasareTamburlaineand
TitusAndronicus.TheplotissubtlerthanthatofShakespeare'sRichardIII,andthepoliticsofdynasticmarriageandthemotivationoftheunhappyBelimperiaare
presentedwithgreaterassurancethaninRomeoandJuliet.Fromtheappearance,astheplaywithinaplay,ofaversionofTheTragedyeofSolimanandPerseda
(c.1592),ithasbeensurmisedthatKydwasitsauthortooalostprotoHamlethasalsobeenattributedtohim.SeeTheSpanishTragedy,ed.PhilipEdwards,new
edn1977.

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L
Laclos,PierreChoderlosDe(17411803)
Frenchnovelist,wasborninAmiens,educatedatthecoled'ArtilleriedelaFre,enteredthearmyasa2ndlieutenantin1762,andsawnoactionuntil1800,whenhe
wasageneralofartilleryatNaples.Hissingleworkoffiction,LesLiaisonsDangereuses(1782tr.asDangerousConnections,1784tr.RichardAldingtonas
DangerousAcquaintances,1924tr.DouglasParme,1995)isanepistolarynovel,logicallyinvestigatingpersonalandpublicmoralityandsexualrelationships,in
whichtwowomenfallunderthespellofanutterlyheartlesslibertine.Amanoftalentandenergy(heofferedtodevelopanewkindofbullet),Lacloswascontinually
frustratedinhissearchforadvancement.Whileservinginvariousgarrisons,hewrotelightverseandcriticalessays,includingoneonBURNEY'SCecilia.Waitingata
leveeinLondoninthewinterof178990forthePrinceofWalestofinishhistoilet,heconfidedtoacountryman:'Idecidedtowriteaworkthatshoulddepartfrom
thetroddenpath,makeastir,andreverberateonthisearthaftermydemise.'Hesucceededinallofthese,butthescandalthatattendeditspublicationdidnothelphis
armycareer.
LaFayette,Mmede(163493)
Frenchnovelist,wasbornMarieMadeleinePiochedelaVergneinParis,andmarriedComtedeLaFayette(d.1683)in1655.Afterfouryearsathischateauin
Nades,duringwhichshehadtwosons,shesettledwithouthiminParis,whereshemetLAROCHEFOUCAULDataliterarysalon.Shewasofteninpoorhealth,andhewas
plaguedbygout,buttheiracquaintancegrewintoanaffectionatefriendshipinwhichsheofferedsolicitudeandsupport,andhegaveherliteraryadviceandhelpwith
historicalresearch.Noneofthethreeromancespublishedduringherlifetimecarriedhername,andonlythelast,LaPrincessedeClves(1678tr.asThePrincess
ofCleves,1679tr.TerenceCave,withLaPrincessedeMontpensierandLaComtessedeTende,1992)issignificant.SetintheFrenchcourtinthe16thcentury,
itisapsychologicalstudyofthecourseofamarriedwoman'sinfatuation,whichultimately,whensheisfreetogratifyit,sheresists.NATHANIELLEEusedtheplotasthe
basisofaplayofprotest.
LaFontaine,Jeande(162195)
Frenchpoet,wasborninChateauThierry,towhichhereturnedfromParisinabout1642afteranunlikelyspellofeducationforthepriesthoodbytheOratorians.He
wentbacktoParistostudylaw,andin1647marriedthe14yearoldMarieHricart.Hepublishedhisfirstbook,aversionofEunuchus[TheEunuch]ofTERENCEin
1654.In1658heinheritedhisfather'sroyalpostofMaitredesEauxetForts(helatersoldit),anddividedhispropertywithhiswife,withwhomheestablisheda
separateexistenceinthefamilyhomebesidetheruinsoftheoldcastle.Henowofferedanarrativepoeminrhymingcouplets,'Adonis',toNicolasFoucquet(1615
80),thenationalMinisterofFinance,who,ontherecommendationofhissecretary,aParisacquaintanceofLaFontaine,employedhimashispersonallaureate.After
thefallandarrestofFoucquet,LaFontainefoundaroyalpatron,thedowagerDuchessed'Orlans,thefirstofseveralaristocraticladiestowhomheplayedcavalieri
servente.HisContesetNouvellesenVers,versetalestakenmainlyfromBOCCACCIO,MARGUERITEDENAVARRE,andthe15thcenturyCentNouvellesNouvelles,was
publishedinfourvolumes166575,thelastofwhichwasbannedforitsattributionofindecencytopriestsandnuns.In1693,asickLaFontainerepentedofhis'livre
abominable'andrenouncedfutureroyalties,anactwhichmovedthetenyearoldDucdeBourgogne,grandsonofLouisXIV,tosendhimapurseof50goldenlouis
ascompensation.ForthefirstcollectionofhisverseFables(1668),hedrewmainlyonPhaedrus,thelstcenturyRomanwriterwhoversifiedthebeaststoriesofthe
legendaryAesopforthesecond(1678),ontheequallylegendaryIndianphilosopher,Bidpai,andotherorientaltraditions.Hisaptly,sometimescynically,roundedoff
tales,graveonoccasionstothepointofpessimism,aswellasgay,aretheworkofaskilledversifierandstorytellerinthetraditionofOVIDandHORACE,fromwhomhe
probablygot['TheTownRatandtheCountryRat'].SeeSelectedFables,tr.JamesMichie,introductionbyGeoffreyGrigson,

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newedn1982SelectedFables,tr.ChristopherWood,ed.MayaSlater,1995(bilingualedn).
Laforgue,Jules(186087)
Frenchpoet,wasborninMontevideo,Uruguay,ofBretonparentswhoreturnedtoTarbesin1866,andin1876movedtoParis,wherehewenttotheLyce
Fontanes.AfterMmeLaforgue'sdeathinchildbirthin1877,hisfatherwentbacktoTarbes,leavinghiminParis,wherehefailedhisbaccalaureatethreetimes.
Throughthegoodofficesoffriends,hewasin1881appointedFrenchreadertoEmpressAugustaofGermany,whichinvolvedbeingavailabletwiceadaytoreadto
herfrommagazinesaswellasliteratureandworksofgeneralinterest,andtotravelaroundwithherhousehold.Heheldthepostforfiveyears,duringwhichhealso
wrotesevencriticalarticlesforGazettedeBeauxArtsdevelopedfromhisstudyofcontemporaryartthenotionofnewformsofverse,withwhichhefirstpublicly
experimentedinLesComplaintes(1885),aninnovativecollection,publishedathisownexpense,whichtooknonoticeofanythinghehadwrittenbefore1883and
madetranslationsofWHITMAN,firstpublishedinLaVogue.In1886hemarriedanEnglishwoman,withwhomhelivedinParisuntilhisdeatheightmonthslaterof
tuberculosis.The12poemsinDernierVers(1890asTheLastPoems,ed.MadeleineBetts,1973)representthefirstsuccessfulattempttowritefreeversein
French,andwereasignificantinfluenceontheworkofT.S.ELIOTandPOUND.
Lagerkvist,Pr(18911974)
Swedishnovelist,dramatist,andpoet,wasborninVaxjoandstudiedthehumanitiesatUppsalaUniversityin1911and1912,whenhepublishedanovella.InParisin
1913hecameundertheinfluenceofmodernisminpainting.Thisartistictrendisreflectedinthepoemsinngest[Anguish](1916),areactiontothehavocand
destructionofWorldWarIinhisearlyplaysandin[TheEternalSmile](1920tr.DenysW.HardingandErikMesterton,1934),afictionalexplorationofidealistic
spirituality.Theprotagonistof[TheDwarf](1944tr.AlexandraDick,1945),anovelindiaryformsetinRenaissanceItaly,symbolizesthemalevolentanddestructive
forcesnormallysuppressedwithinhumannature.Barabbas(1950tr.AlanBlair,1951),whichevokesthepredicamentofmaninthemodernworldthroughthatofthe
biblicalrobberreleasedfromthecondemnedcell,wasinfluentialinhisbeingawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1951,andwasstagedinhisowndramatization
in1953.AtragicplaywrightmuchinfluencedbySTRINDBERG,hemovedlatterlytowardsaformofrealism.
Lagerlf,Selma(18581940)
Swedishnovelistandchildren'swriter,wasbornatthefamilyhomeofMarbacka,Varmland,fourthoffivechildren.Lamefromtheageofthree,probablyfrom
infantileparalysis,shewaseducatedathome,andenteredtheTeachers'Seminary,Stockholm,whenshewas23.In1885,theyearsheacceptedapositioninagirls'
schoolinLandskrona,herfatherdiedandMarbackawassold.Thiswastheimpetustocontinueandfinish[GstaBerling'sSaga](1891tr.L.Tudeer,1898),a
remarkableblendofphilosophy,romance,andVarmlandfolklore,writteninastyleinspiredbyCARLYLE'SOnHeroes...,withfivechaptersofwhichshehadwona
magazinestorycontest.Afterthepublicationof[InvisibleLinks](1894tr.PaulineBancroftFlach,1899),shegaveupherteachingpost,andmovedtoDalecarlia.
Theinspirationfor[Jerusalem](1901tr.JessieBrchner,1903)and[TheHolyCity](1902tr.VelmaSwanstonHoward,1918)wasthemigrationtoJerusalema
fewyearsearlierofagroupoflocalfamilies,undertheinfluenceofarevivalistfromChicago.TheawardoftheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1909,whenshewasthe
firstwomantoreceiveit,enabledhertobuybackMarbackaanddeveloptheestate,onwhichshelivedpermanentlyfrom1919.[TheWonderfulAdventuresof
Nils]and[TheFurtherAdventuresofNils](190607tr.Howard,190811),originallywrittentomeetthedemandsoftheNationalTeachers'Associationfora
geographyreaderforschools,havebecomeclassicsofchildren'stalesoffantasyandadventure.
LaGuma,Alex(192585)
SouthAfricannovelist,wasbornandbroughtupintheCapeColouredDistrictSixofCapeTown,thesetting,withitssituations,ofhisfirstnovel,AWalkinthe
Night(1962),publishedinNigeriaandreissuedintheUKinAWalkintheNight,andOtherStories(1967).HewaseducatedatTrafalgarHighSchoolandCape
TechnicalCollege.Thesonofaleaderofthenationalnonwhiteliberationmovement,hejoinedtheCommunistParty,andwasamemberofitsdistrictcommitteeuntil
thepartywasbannedin1950.Hewasoneofthe156Africanschargedin1956withcontributingtowardstheFreedomCharter.Hebecameajournalistontheradical
newspaper,NewAge,in1960,when,asamemberoftheColouredPeople'sCongress,hewasdetainedaftertheSharpevilleviolence,andagainin1961for
organizingastrike.In1962,hewaswithouttrialputunderhousearrestforfiveyears,duringwhichbothheandhiswifesufferedperiodsofsolitaryconfinement.The
familythenwentintoexile,firstinBritain,andthenfrom1978inCuba,whereherepresentedtheAfricanNationalCongress.AndaThreefoldCord(1964),about
lifeinaCapeTownghetto,andTheStoneCountry(1967),whichrealisticallyrecreatestheprisonconditionsthathehadexperienced(theprisonsymbolizesSouth
Africaitself),wereboth

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writtenwhenhewasunderhousearrest,andwerefirstpublishedinEastBerlin.IntheFogofaSeason'sEnd(1972)featuresundergroundresistancetoapartheid,
andTimeoftheButcherbird(1979)theforcefulremovalofpeopletothenewBantuhomeland.LaGumaisanartisticwriter,whosepersonalexperienceofthe
situationsheevokes,particularlyinhisearlierbooksandinthestoriespublishedbetween1960and1964,makehimasignificantnovelistofsocialrealismandpolitical
reality.
Lamarck,Chevalierde
seeBUTLER,SAMUEL(Erewhon).
Lamb,Charles(17751834)
Britishessayistandcritic,wasborninCrownOfficeRowintheTemple,London,theyoungestofthreechildrenofalawyer'sclerkwhosurvivedinfancy,andwas
educatedatChrist'sHospital.AfterworkinginSouthSeaHouse,heobtainedaclerkshipinEastIndiaHousein1792,whichprovidedalivelihooduntilheretiredin
1825.Afamilystreakofinsanityaffectedhimbrieflywhenhewas20,andhissisterMary(17641847)moredisastrouslyin1796,whenshekilledtheirmotherwitha
tableknife.HisguardianshipofMarywasaccepted,andhecaredforher,renouncingmarriage,fortherestofhislife.Hisfirstliteraryeffortswereunsuccessful,and
comprisedsomeverses(thequotabilityof'TheOldFamiliarFaces'hasensureditssurvival),anovel,andafarce,MrH(1806),whichhejoinedthefirstnight
audienceinhissing.ThoughhisnamealonewasonthetitlepageofTalesfromShakespear(1807),Marywrotethe14comedies,andhethesixtragedies.Hismajor
criticalwork,SpecimensofEnglishDramaticPoets,whoLivedabouttheTimeofShakespeare(1808),containsextractsfromandpercipientcommentson
hithertounappreciatedwritersotherwisehisbestliterarycriticismisinhisletterstofriends,themostnotableofwhomwasCOLERIDGE.In1820hewrote'TheSouth
SeaHouse',thefirstof67essaysintheLondonMagazineasEliahetookafellowclerk'snameforthatessaytoavoidembarrassinghisbrotherJohn(17631821),
whowasstillworkingthere.Acollectededitionoftheseelegant,informal,oftenfancifulpieceswaspublishedin1823,andTheLastEssaysofElia(fromvarious
journals)in1833.SeeSelectedProse,ed.AdamPhillips,1986EliaandtheLastEssaysofElia,ed.JonathanBate,1987CharlesLambandElia,ed.J.E.
Morpurgo,1993(selection)TheLettersofCharlesandMaryLamb(17961817),ed.EdwinW.Marrs,3vols197578DavidCecil,APortraitofCharles
Lamb,newedn1986.
Lamb,William
seeJAMESON,STORM.
Lamming,George(b.1927)
Barbadiannovelist,wasborninCarringtonVillageandeducatedatCombermereSchool,afterwhichhetaughtinTrinidad.Hispoetryatthistimeexpressedhis
frustrationattheculturalsterilityoftheWestIndies.HeemigratedtoEnglandin1950,thushimselffuellingthemythtowhichherefersinhisvolumeofcriticalessays,
ThePleasuresofExile(1960),as'oneoftheseedswhichmuchlaterbearsuchstrangefruitastheWestIndianwriters'departurefromtheverylandscapewhichis
therawmaterialofalltheirbooks'.Inhisfirstnovel,IntheCastleofMySkin(1953),thegrowthofaboytomaturityisseenagainstthemoderndevelopmentswhich
affecthisvillage.TheautobiographicalelementiscontinuedinTheEmigrants(1954),whichreflectshisownsenseofalienationinEngland.OfAgeandInnocence
(1958)andSeasonofAdventure(1960),writtenafterseveralyearsoftravelinEurope,theUSA,andtheCaribbean,aresetbeforeandaftertheindependenceofa
fictionalisland,SanCristobal.Hisnextbook,WaterwithBerries(1972),outwardlyarealisticnoveloftheplaceoftheartist,hasanallegoricalframeworksuggested
byelementsinSHAKESPEARE'STheTempest.NativesofMyPerson(1972)exploresthetraditionandmythologyoftherootsofWestIndiansocietythroughthevoyage
ofa17thcenturyslaveship.SeeSandraPouchetPaquet,TheNovelsofGeorgeLamming,1982.
Lampedusa,Giuseppedi(DukeofPalmaandPrinceofLampedusa)(18961957)
Italiannovelist,wasbornandbroughtupintheancestralpalaceinPalermo.Hewaseducatedathome,beingtaughtFrenchbyhisdomineeringmother.In1934,
withouttellinghismother,hemarriedAlessandra(Licy)vonWolffStomersee(d.1982),aFreudianpsychoanalystandlinguist,whomhehadfirstmetinLondonin
1925.Itwasshewhointheearly1950sencouragedthisshy,selfeducatedliteraryscholar,whospenthisdaysmainlyeatingcakesincafsandbrowsingin
bookshops,tomarshalhisthoughtsonEnglishliteratureintoaseriesofinformalseminarsforhisyoungfriends.Indoingsohewroteoverathousandpagescovering
theperiodbetweenBeowulfandGRAHAMGREENE,anddiscoveredhisvocationasawriter.Thesurprising(tohim)successofacousin'sbookofversegalvanizedhim
intobeginninganovel.HediedofcanceraweekafterithadbeenfirmlyrejectedbythefirmofMondadori.Heleftinstructionsforhisfamilytopursuepublication,and
IlGattopardo(1958tr.ArchibaldColquhounasTheLeopard,rev.edn1961)appearedundertheimprintofFeltrinelli,wonthenationalStregaPrize,andwassoon
onitswaytobecomingthebestsellingandmostwidelytranslated20thcenturyItaliannovel.Plotless,butartfullyorganizedintoaseriesofsituationsandcharacter
studies,itrecallsthepassingoftheoldregimeinSicilyinthe1860s.TheSirenandSelectedWritings,tr.Colquhounandothers

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(1995)containstwostories,anautobiographicalfragment('PlacesofMyInfancy'),andextractsfromhiswritingsonEnglishliterature.SeeDavidGilmour,TheLast
Leopard:aLifeofGiuseppediLampedusa,newedn1991.
Lampman,Archibald(186199)
Canadianpoet,wasborninMorpeth,CanadaWest,thesonofanAnglicanclergyman,andsufferedfromrheumaticfeverwhenhewassix.Hewaseducatedat
TrinityCollegeSchool,PortHope,andTrinityCollege,TorontoUniversity,wherehereadclassics,tookinspirationfromthepublicationofROBERTS'SOrion,and
wrotepoemsandcriticalessaysforRougeetNoir,thecollegemagazine.AfteraverybriefspellasateacheratOrangevilleHighSchool,hebecamein1883aclerk
withthePostOfficeDepartment,Ottawa,whereheworkedfortherestofhislife.Hemarriedin1887(therewerethreechildren,bornin1892,1894,and1898).He
hadpoemspublishedinAmericanandBritish,aswellasCanadianjournals,andwithmoneyprovidedbyhiswifeprivatelypublishedAmongtheMilletandOther
Poems(1888).In1889hefellinlovewithafellowclerk,KatherineWaddell(18651926),withwhomhemayhavelivedforatime.Theanguishedrelationshipis
discreetlyreflectedinaseriesofpoemshewroteatthetimeseeLampman'sKate:LateLovePoems18871897,ed.MargaretCoulbyWhitridge(1975).In
189293hecontributedacolumn,'AttheMermaidInn',totheTorontoGlobewithD.C.SCOTTandthephilosophicalpoetandmiscellaneouswriter,WilfredCampbell
(18581918).Aneditionof550copiesofLyricsofEarth(1895)waspublishedinBoston,USA.HediedsoonaftercorrectingtheproofsofAlcyone(1899),of
which12copieswerethenprintedontheinstructionsofScott,hisliteraryexecutor,whoeditedThePoemsofArchibaldLampman(1900).Forhisnaturepoetry,
heisregardedasthebestofthefourpoetsoftheConfederationGroup,theothersbeingCARMAN,Roberts,andScott.
Landor,WalterSavage(17751864)
Britishpoetandprosewriter,wasborninWarwick,theeldestsonofadoctorofconsiderableprivatemeans.HewenttoRugbySchool,fromwhichhewasremoved
forimpudence,andTrinityCollege,Oxford,fromwhichhewassuspendedforfiringoffashotguninhisrooms.Heneverreturned.Instead,hehadanaffairwitha
youngwomanhemetinTenby(hecallsher'Ione'inhisverse),quarrelledviolentlywithhisfather,andfoundapublisherforThePoemsofWalterSavageLandor
(1795).OnthebeachatSwanseahemettheHon.RoseAylmer(17791800),whosedeathinIndiainspiredhiselegyonher.Duringtheirbrieffriendshipshelenthim
herlibrarybook,REEVE'STheProgressofRomance,wherehefoundthethemeforhisepicpoem,Gebir(1798),whichhelaterpublishedinLatinverseasGebirus
(1803).ShortlyafterthepublicationofPoetrybytheAuthorofGebir(1802)hemetSophiaJaneSwift(d.1851),whowasabouttomarryhercousin.They
becameloversnonetheless,andheaddressedmanypoemstoheras'Ianthe'.In1808hefoughtasavolunteeragainsttheFrenchfortheSpanish,whosewarof
liberationhealsosubsidizedoutofhisownpocket.ThesameyearhesoldthefamilypropertyinStaffordshire,whichhehadinheritedin1805,andboughtLlanthony
AbbeyinWales.Here,toahalfbuilthouseontheestate,hebroughthis17yearoldbride,JuliaThuiller,in1811.In1814,havingquarrelledwithhiscreditorsandhis
tenants,oneofwhomsuccessfullysuedhimforlibel,hewentintovoluntaryexile,withhiswife,inItaly.HewasaskedtoleaveComoforwritingan'insolent'poemin
Latin,andhewasthreatenedwithexpulsionfromFlorenceformakingderogatoryremarksaboutthelocalpoliceandforbeingcriticalofItalyinImaginary
ConversationsofLiteraryMenandStatesmen(5vols182429).Thesedialogues,mainlybetweenhistoricalcharactersfrommanycivilizations,oftencentreon
dramaticsituationsorinvolvedivergentpersonalities,thoughfrequentlyheputshisownpoliticalandphilosophicalviewsintohisspeakers'mouths.
In1835hepartedfromhiswife,leavingherandtheirfourchildreninFiesole,andreturnedtoEnglandwiththemanuscriptofPericlesandAspasia(1836),an
evocationofclassicalAthensthroughaseriesofimaginaryletters.From1838helivedinBath,wherehemethisfriendsagain,amongtheclosestofwhomwere
SOUTHEY,DICKENS,whoportrayedhimasBoythorninBleakHouse,andJohnForster(181276),whowastowritehisbiography(1869).Hecontinuedtowrite
prolifically,thetwomostnotableproseworksofthisperiodbeingThePentameronandPentalogia(1837),adialoguebetweenPETRARCHandBOCCACCIOwith
particularreferencetoDANTE,andImaginaryConversationsofGreeksandRomans(1853).In1858,now83,hehurriedlyleftforItalyratherthanfacealibel
action,whichinhisabsencehelost,arisingfromsomesatiricalversesonalocalwoman,DrySticks,FagotedbyWalterSavageLandor(1858).Afterayearin
Fiesolewithhisfamily,hefledtoFlorence,wheretheBROWNINGScaredforhimuntilElizabeth'sdeathin1861,andwherehedied.SeeMalcolmElwin,Landor:a
Replevin,1958(biography).
Lang,Andrew(18441912)
Scottishpoet,novelist,translator,mythologist,andessayist,wasborninSelkirk,theeldestsonoftheSheriffClerkofSelkirkshireandanelderbrotherofT.W.Lang
(18541902),whoplayedcricketforGloucestershirewhilestillatschoolandtowhomhelaterdedicated'BalladeofCricket'.HewenttoEdinburgh

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AcademyandStAndrewsUniversity,transferredtoGlasgowUniversity,andwonanexhibitiontoBalliolCollege,Oxford,wherehegotafirstinGreats.Hewas
electedaFellowofMertonCollege,butresignedafterhismarriagein1875tobecomeajournalistinLondon,wherehespenttherestofhislife,latterlywinteringinSt
Andrews.Therangeofhisliteraryoutput,about120booksofhisownplusmorethan150towhichhecontributed,reflectshisinterestsifnotalwayshisparticular
gifts.BalladsandLyricsofOldFrance,andOtherPoems(1872)containedthereflective'TwilightonTweed'and'SunsetonYarrow'.XXIIBalladesinBlue
China(1880)owedevenmoretotheFrench,fromwhichhealsotranslatedthemedievalchantefabIe,AucassinandNicolette(1886).Hemadeprosetranslations
ofHOMER'SOdyssey(1879,withS.H.Butcher)andIliad(1883,withWalterLeafandErnestMyers).AmongmanyhistoricalworksisPickletheSpy(1897),which
conclusivelyrevealedtheidentityofthetraitorintheentourageofCharlesEdwardStuart.Inspiteofhisbeinganinfluentialreviewer,hisappreciationofcontemporary
literaturewaserratic,sincehewasunabletoapplythetestoftime,buthewrotepenetratingcriticalintroductionstoBURNSandSTEVENSON,usefulbiographicalstudiesof
KNOX(1905)andWALTERSCOTT(1906),andamusingparodiesinLetterstoDeadAuthors(1886).ThecollectionofessaysfromtheDailyNews,LostLeaders(ed.
W.PettRidge,1889)isstillreadableforitshumourandbreadthofsubjectmatter,fromgolftoMONTAIGNE.Hisstudyofprimitivebeliefs,Myth,RitualandReligion
(1887rev.edn1899),wasinfluentialinhistimeinTheMakingofReligion(1898)hepropoundedtheexistenceofelementsofreligionintheconsciousnessofearly
man.Suchstudiesweretheinspirationofthe'ColourFairyBooks',ofwhichhewroteinTheLilacFairyBook(1910),'Ifindoutwherethestoriesare,andadvise,
and,inshort,superintend.'Largelyunembellishedandauthentic,andoftentough,thesestoriesengineeredachangeoftastefromtherealisticstorytothefairytale
whichthepublichasneverlostsince.SeeEleanordeSelmsLangstaff,AndrewLang,1978(criticalstudy).
Langland,William(c.1330c.1386)
Englishpoet,theauthorofTheVisionofWilliamConcerningPiersthePlowman,wasayounger(orpossiblyillegitimate)sonofanOxfordshiregentlemanfarmer.
Fromevidenceinthepoem,hewasbornintheparishofColwall,neartheMalvernHills,waseducatedattheexpenseofhisfatherandfriends(probablyatMalvern
Priory),andtookminororders.AtsomepointhemovedtoLondon,wherehelivedwithhissensuallyinclinedwife,Kitty,andtheirdaughterCalotte,andworkedas
anitinerantclericalhack,sayingprayersforthosewhocontributedtohisupkeep.PiersPlowmanexistsinthreedistinctversions:Atext(completedafter1362)B
text(alongerrevision,writtenbetween1377and1379)Ctext(afurtherrevision,probablyfinishedjustbeforethepoet'sdeath).(Apossiblefourthversion,known
asZtext,wasfirstpublishedin1983.)Brimmingwithstirringdescriptionsandpowerfulimaginativepassages,andstuddedwithcolloquialismsandhumour,itisthe
finestalliterativepoeminMiddleEnglishandhasbeendescribedbyProfessorNevillCoghillinLangland:PiersPlowman(1964)as'thegreatestChristianpoemin
ourlanguage'.ItopenswiththepoetbeinglulledtosleepintheMalverncountryside,andcontinuesinaseriesof'visions'.Thewholerepresentsanexhaustive
pilgrimageaftertruth,reason,andtheloveofGod,inthefaceoffalsehood,temptation,ignorance,andtheSevenDeadlySins(graphicallypersonified),andthrough
disputationtotheultimatevision,andbeyondtosalvation.SeeWill'sVisionofPiersPlowman,tr.E.TalbotDonaldson,edElizabethJ.KirkandJudithAnderson,
1990PiersPlowman,ed.A.V.C.Schmidt,2ndrev.edn1995(Btext)JohnNortonSmith,WilliamLangland,1983(criticalstudy).
Lardner,Ring(oldWilmer)(18851933)
Americanshortstorywriter,humorist,andjournalist,wasborninNiles,Michigan,theyoungestofninechildrenofwealthy,educatedparents,andwithtwosiblings
wastaughtathomebyatutoruntilitwasthoughttimeforthemtogotohighschool.Allthreefailedtheentranceexamination,butweretakenanyway.Aftergraduating
in1901,andhavingbeenfiredfromtwojobsasanofficeboyandoneasafreighthustler,hewassenttotheArmourInstituteofTechnology,fromwhichhedropped
outafteraterm.In1905,whileworkingforthelocalgasboard,heproposedhimselfforajobasreporterontheSouthBendTimesinplaceofhisbrother,whowas
onvacationandcouldnotacceptit.In1908hebecamebaseballcorrespondentoftheChicagoExaminer.Severalmoveslater,hewasappointed'IntheWakeofthe
News'columnistonthesportspageoftheTribune.Fromwritingaccountsasthoughbyanunghostedplayer,hedevelopedthetechniqueinaseriesofsixbaseball
storiesintheSaturdayEveningPostin1914,whichgrewintoYouKnowMeAl(1916).Ofthisbook,VIRGINIAWOOLFwrotein'AmericanFiction'(1925):'[He]does
notwasteamomentwhenhewritesinthinkingwhetherheisusingAmericanslangorShakespeare'sEnglishwhetherheisrememberingFieldingorforgettingFielding
whetherheisproudofbeingAmericanorashamedofnotbeingJapaneseallhismindisonthestory.Henceallourmindsareonthestory.Hence,incidentally,he
writesthebestprosethathascomeourway.'Throughhisvernacularidiom,

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oftenintheformofadramaticmonologue,herevealedinnertruthsaboutordinary,ortypical,Americans,whichhecontinuedtodoinGullible'sTravels(1917)and
othervolumes,includingTheBigTown(1921),thenearestheevergottowritinganovel.In1919hebecameaweeklycolumnistfortheBellSyndicate,andin1921
movedwithhisfamilytoGreatNeck,LongIsland.AneighbourwasF.S.FITZGERALD,whoencouragedhimtopublish,fortheliterarymarket,HowtoWriteShort
Stories(WithSamples)(1924),unconnectedpieceswithburlesquecriticaltrappings.Between1926,whenhewasdiagnosedashavingtuberculosis,andhisdeath,
whichwashastenedbydrink,heincreasedhisinvolvementinthestage,withoutmuchsuccess,andreturnedtojournalism,forthemoney.SeeTheBestofRing
Lardner,ed.DavidLodge,newedn1993TheRingLardnerReader,1995.
Larkin,Philip(192285)
Britishpoetandnovelist,wasborninCoventryandeducatedatKingHenryVIIISchoolandStJohn'sCollege,Oxford.From1955untilhisdeathhewasLibrarianof
theBrynmorJonesLibrary,HullUniversity.Hisfirstbookofverse,TheNorthShip(1945),echoedAUDENandYEATS,anditwasnotuntilTheLessDeceived(1955)
thatadistinctivetoneemerged,nowthathehadbeenencouragedbyastudyofHARDYtoconcentrateonprojectinghisownexperiencesandperception.Inthe
meantimehehadwrittentwonovelsofyouthfulanguish,Jill(1946)andAGirlinWinter(1947).TheappearanceofhispoemsinCONQUEST'Santhology,NewLines,
suggestedthathewasamember,ifnotaleader,oftheMovement,agroupofwriterswhowereofferingaprogressivebutsardonicimage,butLarkin'sisapersonal
andprivate,notapublic,voice.Heisapoetofplainfeelingandspeaking,withshaftsofhumour.Histechnicalcontrolofrhyme,rhythm,metaphor,andadjectival
phraseswaspainfullyachievedbymeansofinnumerabledrafts:allcometogetherinsuchpoemsas'TheWhitsunWeddings','ChurchGoing','Toads',and'Toads
Revisited'.Whilethepredominantthemesinhislastcompletevolume,HighWindows(1974),areperhapspredictablytheebbingoflife,disaster,anddeath,his
masteryofformwasassurein'TheOldFools'and'TheBuilding'asever.
Afterthedeathofhismotherin1977inhernineties,Larkinlargelystoppedwritingpoetryapartfromoccasionalorprotestversesorelseitwasthathelosthis
expectancyofbeingabletowriteit.HewasawardedtheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1965.HeeditedTheOxfordBookofTwentiethCenturyEnglish
Verse(1973),andwasjazzcriticfortheDailyTelegraph196171.EssaysareinRequiredWriting:MiscellaneousPieces19551982(1983).Controversy
accompaniedthepublicationofSelectedLettersofPhilipLarkin19401985,ed.AnthonyThwaite(1992),Larkinapparentlyhavinginstructedthatallunpublished
writingsshouldbedestroyedbutthereemergesaclearaccountofthemakingofapoet,alongsideaportraitofacomplex,retiringpersonality.Hehadavoided
marriagebutforallhisdisclaimer,'Sexualintercoursebegan/Innineteensixtythree/(Whichwasratherlateforme)...'('AnnusMirabilis',1967),ittranspiredthat
hehadhadalongtermrelationshipwithonewomansincehismidtwenties,andat53embarkedalsoonaffairswithacolleagueandwithhis'loafhairedsecretary'.See
CollectedPoems,ed.AnthonyThwaite,newedn1993AndrewMotion,PhilipLarkin:aWriter'sLife,newedn1994(biography)JamesBooth,PhilipLarkin:
Writer,1992(criticalstudy)AndrewSwarbrick,OutofReach:thePoetryofPhilipLarkin,1995.
LaRochefoucauld,(Marillac,Franoisde),Ducde(161380)
Frenchprosewriter,wasborninParis,andat14wasmarriedtotheevenyoungerAndredeVivonne(d.1670),anheiresswhoborehimeightchildrenbutwho
otherwiseplayedlittlepartinhislife.Soldierandcourtier,hesurvivedaffairs,politicalintrigues,imprisonment,twoyearsbanishmenttothefamilycastleofVerteuil,
andtwicebeingwoundedinaction.Hesucceededtothedukedomin1650,butin1653,havingfoughtbeforeParisforthePrincedeCond(162186),whosesister
hadbeenhisgrandepassion,hefoundhimselffinanciallymined,andwithoutVerteuil,whichhadbeendestroyed,oranyprospectofapubliccareer.Heretiredtothe
countryandwrotehismemoirs,whichwerefirstpublishedabroadinanunauthorizededitionin1662.HereturnedtoParisin1659,wherehebecamealeadinglightof
theliterarysalonofMinedeSabl(15991678),andanintimateofLAFAYETTEandMmedeSvign(162696),theletterwriter.Hispreciselyworded'Maxims',
ReflexionsouSentencesetMaximesMorales(1665tr.LeonardTancockasMaxims,1959),firstpublishedanonymously,wentthroughfiveeditionsinhislifetime
thelastcomprised504aphorisms,towhichlaterscholarshaveadded58discoveredamonghispapersandafurther79whichhehadatvarioustimeswithdrawn.
TherewereseveralEnglisheditionsduringthe17thand18thcenturies,includingBEHN'SSenecaUnmasqued,orMoralReflections(1685).CHESTERFIELDmadegreat
playofquotingLaRochefoucauld'smaximsinletterstohisson.SeeRichardG.Hodgson,FalsehoodDisguised:UnmaskingtheTruthinLaRochefoucauld,1995
(criticalstudy).
Laurence,Margaret(192687)
neWemyss,Canadiannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninNeepawa,Manitoba,theonlychildofalawyerofScottishdescent.Twodaysafterherfourth
birthday,

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hermotherdiedofakidneyinfection,andafterherfather'sdeathfrompneumoniain1935shewasbroughtupbyherstepmother,whowasalsohermother'selder
sister.Someofthesituationsinherchildhoodandadolescencearerecreatedinthe'semiautobiographical'storiesinABirdintheHouse(1970).Sheattendedthe
localhighschool,wroteherfirststoryin1940(inwhichappeared'Manawaka',thenameshelaterusedforherrepresentativesmallprairietown),andhadanother
printedthatyearintheWinnipegFreePress.ShethenwenttoUnitedCollege,Winnipeg,workedforayearasareporterfortheWinnipegCitizen,andmarried
JackLaurence,acivilengineer,withwhomshewenttoSomalilandin1950andtheGoldCoast(shortlytobeGhana)in1952.HerfiveyearsinAfrica,duringwhich
shehadtwochildren,stimulatedherliterarycreativityinseveraldirections:shortstoriesinwhichsheexplores,withuncannyunderstanding,attitudestocolonialism,
independence,tradition,andtheplaceofwomen,publishedtogetherasTheTomorrowTamer(1963)anoveloftheadjustmenttoindependence,ThisSideJordan
(1960)anaccountofherEastAfricanexperiences,TheProphet'sCamelBell(1963).Shealsofoundtheinterestwhichinspiredhercriticalwork,LongDrumsand
Cannons:NigerianDramatistsandNovelists19521966(1968)thetitleisfromOKIGBO.
In1962,aftershehaddraftedasecondnovel,thedichotomybetweenhervocationandherhusband'scausedtheirseparation(theyweredivorcedin1969).Shewent
withthechildrentoEngland,whereshesettledinthevillageofPenn,Buckinghamshire,inacottagerentedfromherLondonpublisher.TheStoneAngel(1964)
becamethefirstoffour'Manakawa'novels,whichtogethercovertheperiodfromtheDepressionofthe1930stothepresent,andexaminesmalltownattitudesand
theexperiencesofwomenwhotrytobreakawayfromtheinhibitionsoftheirenvironment.ThedeathofHagarinTheStoneAngelattheageof90istheculmination
ofthecycle.AJestofGod(1966reissuedunderitsfilmtitleofRachel,Rachel,1968),isaboutthefrustrationsofaspinsterschoolteacher,thedisillusionmentof
whosemarriedsisterfeaturesinTheFireDwellers(1969).TheDiviners(1974),whichshecalledher'spiritualautobiography',takesupthethemeofdispossession,
asanovelistsearchesforselfrealizationthroughtwounconventionalliaisonswhichreflecttheexperiencesoftheMtisandthe18thcenturyScottishHighland
immigrants.ItwonitsauthorhersecondGovernorGeneral'sAward,butforitsoutspokennessaboutsexwasbannedfromuseinschools,evenwithGrade13
students,inPeterboroughCounty,Ontario,whereshehadboughtahouseinLakefordafterherreturntoCanadain1974.RegardedasCanada'sfinestnovelist,she
receivedhonorarydoctoratesfromtenCanadianuniversities,andwasmadeCompanion,OrderofCanada,in1977.Shehadjustfinishedapreliminarydraftofher
memoirswhenshewasdiagnosedashavingterminalcancer.Beforeshediedsixmonthslater,shemanagedtocompleteafurtherdraft,whichwaseditedbyher
daughterJocelynforpublicationasDanceontheEarth:aMemoir(1989).SeeGeorgeWoodcock(ed.),APlacetoStandOn:EssaysbyandaboutMargaret
Laurence,1983.
Lavin,Mary(191296)
Irishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasbornofIrishparentsinEastWalpole,Massachusetts,whereherfathertrainedhorses.In1922thefamilyreturnedtoIreland,
whereshewaseducatedatLoretoConvent,Dublin,andUniversityCollege,Dublin.Whatsparkedoffherwritingoffictionwasachancemeetingwithanelderly
womanwhoremarkedthatshehadrecentlyhadteawithVIRGINIAWOOLF.Fromthisinspirationcameherfirstvolumeofshortstories,TalesfrontBectiveBridge
(1942).Writing,andparticularlytherevelationofcharacterthroughtheshortstory,laterbecametohera'passionateoccupation',andtheeffectivenessofhercontrol
ofthismediumisenhancedbythewaysheselectsanddramaticallydepictsthemomentoftruthwhentheprotagonistbecomesawareofthemeaningorconsequences
inherentinasituation.'Therealshortstoryispossiblyanidea,burieddeepinthewriter'sconsciousness,whichthey,miraculouslyattimes,seeachanceofembodying
inastory.'Shealsowrotetwonovels,TheHouseinCleweStreet(1945),astudyoflostadolescentinnocence,andMaryO'Grady(1950),afamilysagaofthe
childrenofaDublinsuburbgrowingupintoadulthood.SheisanessentiallyIrishwriterinthatshehasalwaysremainedinthatcountryandhersettingsareexclusively
Irish.SheisinnoparticularIrishtradition,however,beingratheronewhowroteoutofherpersonalfeelingandperceptiveexperience,investinghercharacterswith
Irishnessandmakingthemallthemoreconvincingforbeingsoimbued.ShemarriedWilliamWalshin1942hediedin1954,leavingherwiththreeyoungdaughtersto
bringup.In1969shemarriedMichaelMacDonaldScott(d.1990),alaicizedJesuitpriest,andanauthorityonreligiousart,withwhomshehadfalleninloveasa
student,buthadnotseensince.SeeTheStoriesofMaryLavin,1987AngelineA.Kelly,MaryLavin:QuietRebelaStudyofHerShortStories,newedn
1987.
Lawler,Ray(b.1921)
Australiandramatist,wasborninFootscray,Melbourne,thesonofalabouringmanwhofeltthateachofhiseightchildrenshouldcultivateasensibletrade.Lawlerleft
schoolat13toworkinanengineeringplant,butrefusedtosignasanapprentice.Aftertenyearsoffactoryworkin

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thedaytime,andactinglessons,amateurtheatricals,andwritingatnight,hesetuponhisown,andintimebecamemanagerandproduceroftheUnionTheatre,
MelbourneUniversity.Ofhisnineplays,onlyone,CradleofThunder(1949),hadbeenproducedwhenhewasjointwinnerofaPlaywrightsAdvisoryBoardprize.
SummeroftheSeventeenthDoll(1955,published1957)wasonlystaged,athisowntheatre,aftertheAustralianElizabethTheatreTrusthadguaranteedthe
universityagainstlossandappointedanindependentproducer.Reshaped,withLawlerinaleadingrole,itfulfilledtheAustralianneedforanindigenousplayofquality
whilealso,initsunconventionalsituation,providingsomethingpeculiarlyAustralian.AftertouringAustralia,itwasputoninLondonin1957,whereitwontheEvening
StandardAward,andKENNETHTYNANwrote:'Wehavefoundourselvesaplaywright,anditistimetorejoice.'Americancriticswerelessenthusiastic.Afterliving
abroad,andwritingtwofurtherAustralianplays,ThePiccadillyBushman(1959)andTheManWhoShottheAlbatross(1972),LawlerreturnedtoAustraliain
1975toworkfortheMelbourneTheatreCompany,andwrote,withinmonths,KidStakes(1975)andOtherTimes(1976),abouttheearlierlivesofthecharactersin
'TheDoll'.Thethreewerefirstproducedtogetherin1977(published1978rev.edn1985)asTheDollTrilogyinanalldayprogramme.HewasawardedtheOBE
in1980.
Lawless,Hon.Emily(18451913)
Irishnovelistandpoet,wastheeldestofeightchildrenofthe3rdBaronCloncurry,ofLyonsHouse,Co.Kildare,whocommittedsuicidewhenshewas14.Shewas
educatedathome,wheretheseedsweresownofhereccentricityandofherinterestinscience,whichsheputtogoodusebywritingfornaturalhistoryperiodicals.
Shewasanenergeticsportswoman,towhomOLIPHANT,aclosefriendofhermother,constantlyrecommended'akindofbenignantgentledulness...assogooda
relieffromtheintellectualismsheloves'.AfterAChelseaHouseholder(1882)andasecondanonymousnovel,shepublishedunderherownnameHurrish(1886),a
sentimentalbutsensationalizedandcolourfullywrittennoveloftheviolencewhichaccompaniedtherecentLandLeaguereformsinIreland.ShecontinuedwithIrish
themesinWithEssexinIreland(1890),whichwassoconvincingarepresentationofa16thcenturydocumentthatatfirstitwastakentobegenuine,Grania
(1892),aromanticAranIslands'tale,andMaelcho(1894),inwhichabardnarratesthetaleoftheDesmondRebellion(157982).Herballadsandlyrics,first
publishedinvolumeforminWiththeWildGeese(1902),arestrikingfortheirfeelingfortheharshlandofthewestofIrelandandthepeoplewhotried,manyofthem
unsuccessfully,toearnalivelihoodfromit.LatterlyshelivedquietlyinSurreywithafriend,havingmadethebreakfromanIrelandforwhosefutureshefeared.See
ThePoemsofEmilyLawless,ed.PadraicFallon,1965.
Lawrence,D(avid)H(erbert)(18851930)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,travelwriter,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninEastwood,nearNottingham,thethirdsonofasuccessfulminerandofaformer
schoolteacher,whohadhigheraimsforheroftensickchildthanthecolliery.At13hewonascholarshiptoNottinghamHighSchool,wherehespentthreeyears,and
afteraspellasaclerkandthenapupilteacher,hewenttoNottinghamUniversityCollege,qualifyingasateacherin1908andtakingapostinCroydon.Hisfirst
publishedworkwasaprizewinningstory,printedanonymouslyintheNottinghamGuardianin1907.Shortlyafterwardshisearlypoemswereappearinginthe
EnglishReview,whoseEditorFORDMADOXFORDwasespeciallyencouragingaboutthemanuscriptofTheWhitePeacock,onwhichhehadbeenworkingforfour
years.Afteritspublicationin1911,Lawrencegaveuphisjobtoconcentrateonwritingandtoindulgehispsychologicalandphysicalwanderlust.TheTrespasser
(1912)wasfollowedbySonsandLovers(1913),inwhichherecreatestheatmosphereandattitudesoftheworkingclasshomeofhisyouthaneditionof1992
(ed.HelenBaronandCarlBaron)hasthecutsrestoredwhichweremadebyEdwardGarnett(seeGARNETT),Lawrence'sfriendandmentor,whoediteditforthe
publisher.HeextendedhisrangewithLovePoemsandOthers(1913),TheWidowingofMrsHolroyd:aDrama(1914,firstperformed1920),andThePrussian
Officer,andOtherStories(1914).
In1914hemarriedFriedaWeekley(18791956),theGermanwifeofhisformeruniversityprofessor,withwhomhehadelopedtwoyearsearlierandwhohadthree
childrenseeBrendaMaddox,TheMarriedMan:aLifeofD.H.Lawrence(1994),inUSAasD.H.Lawrence:theStoryofaMarriage,andRosieJackson,
FriedaLawrence(1994),whichincludesFrieda'smemoirNotLButtheWind(1934)andotherautobiographicalwritings.TheRainbow(1915)wassuccessfully
prosecutedforobscenity,asaresultofwhichitssuccessor,WomeninLove,completedin1916,wasnotpublishedinBritainuntil1921.Thisexacerbatedhis
bitternessatthehoundingthecoupleweregettingforherGermanconnectionsandforhisoppositiontoWorldWarI,inwhichhewasunfittoserve.Assoonasthey
could,theyresumedtheirnomadicexistence,fraughtbycontinualfinancialworries,hischronicillhealth,andatraumaticmaritalrelationship.Theywenttoplacesin
Italy,re

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flectedinTheLostGirl(1920)andAaron'sRod(1922),andinthetravelbook,SeaandSardinia(1921)toCeylontoAustralia,wherehewroteandset
Kangaroo(1923),whichshowsaremarkableunderstandingofthecountryandpeople,consideringthathisstaywasbriefandhishumancontactsminimaland
Mexico,thesettingofThePlumedSerpent(1926).Hecontinuedtowriteshortstories,poems,andarticles,evenafterterminaltuberculosishadbeendiagnosed.The
couplenextreturnedtoItaly.Herehebegantopaint,onlytohavesomeofhispicturesremovedbythepolicefromanexhibitioninLondon.Healsoworkedonthree
distinctversionsofLadyChatterley'sLover,whichwasprivatelyprintedinItalyin1928,butnotfinallyinfullforpublicconsumptionuntil1960,afteracasefor
obscenity,broughtbytheDirectorofPublicProsecutions,failedattheOldBailey.In1930hisconditionworsened,andhediedinaclinicinVence,insouthern
France.Hewas44.
Lawrence'sexceptionalnervousenergy,deepbutcircumscribedvision,powersofperceptionanddescription,andinnatehonestyofexpression,werematchedbyhis
formidableallroundtalentasawriter.IntheprefacetoCollectedPoems(1928)hewrotethat'manyofthepoemsaresopersonalthat,intheirfragmentaryfashion,
theymakeupabiographyofanemotionalandinnerlife'.ThisisastrueoftheearlierpoemsabouthomeandteachingasofthecollectionLook!WeHaveCome
Through!(1917),whichrecordshisaffairwithFriedaandtheearlyyearsofmarriage.Hisdisillusionmentwithhumanityintheearly1920sisreflectedintheattention
giveninsteadtothenaturalworldinBirds,BeastsandFlowers(1923).Tohisshortstoriesheappliedatechniquedifferentfromthatofhisnovels,equallyartistic
(whenheisathisbest)andoriginal,butmoreobjectiveandlessrevealingofhisownpsyche.Hisnovels,ofwhichSonsandLovers,TheRainbow,andWomenin
Lovearejustlypraised,andLadyChatterley'sLoveroftenunderestimatedbecauseithasbeenpublicizedforthewrongreasons,areaboutsymbolic,intellectual,and
environmental,aswellashuman,relationships.SomeofhiscriticismiscontainedinSelectedEssays,ed.RichardAldington(1950),andhiscriticalworksinclude
StudiesinClassicAmericanLiterature(1923).SeeCollectedStories,introductionbyCraigRaine,1994CompletePoems,ed.ViviandeSolaPintoandF.
WarrenRoberts,newedn1994KeithSagar,LifeofD.H.Lawrence,newedn1982JohnWorthen,D.H.Lawrence:theEarlyYears18851912,newedn
1992MarkKinkeadWeekes,D.H.Lawrence:TriumphtoExile19121922,1996F.R.Leavis,D.H.Lawrence:Novelist,newedn1994(criticalstudy)
GrahamHough,TheDarkSun:aStudyofD.H.Lawrence,newedn1983JohnWorthen,D.H.Lawrence,1991(criticalintroduction).
Lawrence,T(homas)E(dward)(18851935)
Britishsoldier,prosewriter,andtranslator,knownas'LawrenceofArabia',wasborninTremadoc,Wales,thesecondoffourillegitimatesonsofasonofanAnglo
IrishlandowningfamilyandhisScottishhousekeeper.ThefamilymovedtoOxford,andhewentfromOxfordHighSchooltoJesusCollege,Oxford,wherehewrote
athesisonthemilitaryarchitectureofcrusadercastles.In1910hewentasanarchaeologisttoSyria,whereheacquiredtheskillsandcontactswhichenabledhim
duringWorldWarI,ostensiblyasliaisonofficerwiththerebelArabforces,toorganizethemandleadthemtovictoryagainsttheTurks.In1919hewaselecteda
FellowofAllSoulsCollege,Oxford.In1924heresignedasanadviseronArabaffairstotheColonialOfficeandretiredintoselfimposedobscurityintheranksofthe
newlyformedRoyalAirForce,firstasJ.H.RossandthenasAircraftsmanT.E.Shaw,thenamehetookbydeedpollin1927.Havinglost(onReadingstation)the
manuscriptofhisimaginativereconstructionofhisArabianexploits,herewrotemuchofitfrommemoryandpublisheditin1926forprivatecirculationasTheSeven
PillarsofWisdom:aTriumph.(ToensurecopyrightintheUSA,tencopieswereprintedinNewYorkandofferedforsaleatapricewhichnoonewouldwantto
pay.)Hewouldnothaveitissuedpubliclyduringhislifetime,butagreedtoasingleprintingonlyofanabridgedversion,RevoltintheDesert(1927).Healsomadea
prosetranslationofHOMER'SOdyssey(1932)andwroteanaccountofhisRAFexperiences,TheMint,firstpublishedinBritainin1955.HelefttheserviceinFebruary
1935toliveinthecottagehehadboughtnearbyinBovington,Dorset.On13Mayhispowerfulmotorcyclelefttheroad,andhediedfromhisinjuries.SeeThe
EssentialT.E.Lawrence,ed.DavidGarnett,introductionbyMalcolmBrown,newedn1992LawrenceofArabia,StrangeManofLetters:theLiterary
CriticismandCorrespondenceofT.E.Lawrence,ed.HaroldOrlans,1993JeremyWilson,LawrenceofArabia:theAuthorisedBiographyofT.E.
Lawrence,newedn1992PaulMarriottandYvonneArgent,TheLastDaysofT.E.Lawrence:aLeafintheWind,1996.
Lawson,Henry(18671922)
Australianshortstorywriterandpoet,wasbornina'tent'intheGrenfellgoldfields,NewSouthWales,theeldestchildofNielsLarsen,aNorwegianexseaman,and
hisAustralianwife,Louisa,neAlbury.Theboy,whowasregisteredasLawson,whichthenbecamethefamilyname,begantogodeafattheageofnine.Aftersome
educationatschoolsinEurund

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ereeandMudgee,hehelpedhisfatheronbuildingworkuntil1883,whenhisparentsseparatedandhewentwithhismothertoSydney.HereLouisaLawson(1848
1920)establishedherselfinradicalandfeministcircles,andasajournalist,editor,andpoetseeBrianMatthews,Louisa(1987).Lawsonworkedasacarriageand
housepainter,studiedforandtwicefaileduniversityentrance,andin1887submittedastirringpoem,'SongoftheRepublic',totheBulletin,whichprinteditandother
verses,includinghisfirstsong,'TheArmyoftheRear'.Atthistime,too,hewrotehisearlypoemsofsocialprotest,'TheWatchontheKerb',and'FacesintheStreet',
whichcametohimonastationplatformwhileseeingaboutajob.Hisfirststory,thepoignant'HisFather'sMate',waspublishedintheChristmasBulletin1888.On
NewYear'sEve,whilepaintingaceiling,hereceivedatelegramfromMountVictoriasayingthathisfatherhaddiedwhilebuildingarowofcottages.Hetookthe
midnighttrain,anddidwhatpaintingwasstilltobedoneonthecottagesthenhewentsteeragetothetownofAlbany,WesternAustralia,tolookforwork.In1892,
afterafewmonthsontheBrisbaneBoomerang,hewasbackinSydneyattheheightoftheDepression.Heescapedbymakingatrip,sponsoredbytheBulletin,into
thebush,toBourke,andthenonfoottoHungerfordandback.Thisprovidedcopyforfurtherstoriesandsketches,andalsofirsthandexperiencewithwhichtoturn
hismockbattlewithPATERSONabouttherealisticandromanticschoolsofbushliteratureintoacrusade,inthecourseofwhichhewroteseveraltrenchantarticles.
ThequalityofproductionofShortStoriesinProseandVerse(1894),publishedbyhismother,ledtobadbloodbetweenthem:abetterfateattendedWhilethe
BillyBoils(stories)andIntheDaysWhentheWorldWasWide(verse),bothpublishedbyAngusandRobertsonin1896.Inthatyearhemarriedanurse,Bertha
Brendt(18761957),withwhomhewenttoNewZealandin1897and,withtheirtwochildren,toEnglandin1900.AftertheirreturntoSydneyin1903,they
separated,andamongLawson'ssubsequentsojournsinjailfordrunkennnesswereseveralforarrearsofmaintenance.Thathesurvivedforanothertwentyyearswas
duetothecharityofprivateandpublicfigures.Thoughhecontinuedsporadically,andwhenhedid,profusely,towriteverse(includingnewvolumesin1910,1913,
and1915)andprose,hisreputationrestsonhisearlierwork,especiallyhisshortstories,forwhichheisrightlyregardedasaninnovatorintechniqueandrealism.He
diedinAbbotsford,NewSouthWales,andwasthefirstAustralianwritertohaveastatefuneral.SeeHenryLawson:CollectedVerse,3vols196769,Short
StoriesandSketches,1972,andAutobiographicalandOtherWritings,1972,ed.ColinRoderickColinRoderick,HenryLawson:aLife,1991Brian
Matthews,TheRecedingWave:HenryLawson'sProse,1972(criticalstudy).
Layamon(fl.c.1200)
poet,thesonofLeovenath,wasapriestatArelyKings,Worcestershire,whodecidedthathewould'ofEnglethaethelentellen'[tellofthenobledeedsof
Englishmen].Hetravelledwidelytolookforthebestwrittensources,andfoundanEnglishtranslationofBEDE'S'History',somebooksinLatin,andacopyofWace's
FrenchBrut(seeGEOFFREYOFMONMOUTH).Layamon'sBrutis,at16,000lines,thelongestEnglishpoemapartfromSPENSER'STheFaerieQueen,andLayamonisthe
firstEnglishpoettonamehimselfclearlyastheauthorofaworkandtogivesomeautobiographicaldetails.HewroteintheOldEnglishalliterativestyle,withthe
additionofassonanceandrhyme,incorporatingintohisimaginativerecord(whichismoreabouttheBritish,whoendedupinWales,thantheEnglish,whopushed
themthere)thefirstreferencesinEnglishtoKingLearandCordelia,Cymbeline,KingCoel,andMerlin(theMagician).HeintroducedintotheKingArthurstorythe
giftshereceivedwhenhewasborn,thedescriptionofhisarmour,themakingoftheRoundTable,andthedreamofMordred'streachery.HeisthustheEnglishsource
ofmuchoftheArthurianlegend.SeeWaceandLayamon:ArthurianChronicles,tr.EugeneMason,introductionbyGwynJones,newedn1962Layamon's
Arthur:theArthurianSectionofLayamon's'Brut',ed.andtr.W.R.J.BarronandS.C.Weinberg,newedn1991.
Laye,Camara(192880)
Guineannovelist,wasborninKaroussa,ofaMalinkefamilyofnotablegoldsmiths,andwaseducatedatthetechnicalcollegeinConakry.HethentrainedinFranceas
anengineer,afterwhich,whileworkingbydayasamechanicintheSimcacarfactory,andcontinuinghiseducationateveningclasses,herelievedhissenseofisolation
fromhomebywritingL'EnfantNoir(1953tr.JamesKirkupasTheAfricanChild,1955),animaginativerecreationofhischildhoodandyouth,andthesocietyin
whichhespentthem,whichismoreautobiographythannovel.LeRegardduRoi(1954tr.KirkupasTheRadianceoftheKing,1956)isasymbolicsearchfor
identificationinanAfricansetting.In1956hereturnedtoGuinea,onwhoseindependencehewasappointedDirectorofResearchandStudiesattheMinistryof
Information.Dramouss(1966tr.KirkupasADreamofAfrica,1968)isapartfictional,partautobiographicalcontinuationofTheAfricanChild,inwhichhe
exposedsomeofthenastierexcessesofthecurrentregime.Forcedintoexilein1965,hesettledinSenegal,wherehisresearchintoMalinkeoraltraditiongavehimthe
themeofLeMaitredelaParole(1978tr.KirkupasTheGuardianof

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theWord,1980).SeeAdeleKing,TheWritingsofCamaraLaye,1980.
Layton,Irving(b.1912)
Canadianpoet,wasbornIsraelLazarovitchinNeamtz,Romania,ofJewishparents,whobroughthimtoMontrealwhenhewasone.HewaseducatedatBaronByng
HighSchoolandMacdonaldCollege,wherehestudiedagriculturalscienceafterserviceintheCanadianArmyhereadeconomicsatMcGillUniversity.Hetaughtat
HerziliahHighSchool,Montreal,from1945to1960,whilealsobeingalecturerattheJewishPublicLibrary(194359)andatSirGeorgeWilliamsUniversity(1949
65).HewasaprofessorofEnglishliteratureatYorkUniversity,Toronto,from1970to1978.Hewasassociatedwiththeestablishmentin1942oftheliterary
magazineFirstStatement,onwhoseeditorialboardhewasbeforeandafteritbecametheNorthernReviewin1945italsopublishedhisfirstbookofverse,Here
andNow(1945).WithDUDEKandSOUSTERhefoundedContactPressin1952.'Howtodominatereality?Loveisoneway/imaginationanother'('TheFertileMuck')
isthekeynoteofmuchofhislyricalandreflectiveverse.Powerbyviolentmeansandtheoutspokenexpressionofoppositiontoanythingwhich,oranyonewho,
restrictsthefreedomoftheartistarerecurrentthemesinmanyofhiscollections,ofwhichARedCarpetfortheSun:CollectedPoems(1959)wontheGovernor
General'sAward,andFortunateExile(1987)particularlyreflectshisattitudetohisJewishbackground.WaitingfortheMessiah:aMemoir(1986)isaliterary
autobiographyofhisearlyyears.HewasmadeOfficer,OrderofCanada,in1976.Laytonhasbeenmarriedfivetimes,thelastoccasionin1984.SeeFornalutx:
SelectedPoems19281990,1992FrancisMansbridge,IrvingLayton:God'sRecordingAngel,1995(biographicalstudy)EliMandel,ThePoetryofIrving
Layton,rev.edn1981(criticalstudy).
Leacock,Stephen(18691944)
Canadianhumoristandprosewriter,wasborninEnglandintheIsleofWight,thethirdof11childrenofanasphaltcontractorwho,havingtriedtomakealivingasa
farmerinsouthernAfricaandKansas,settledinOntario,wherehisfamily,whomhelaterabandoned,joinedhimin1876.LeacockwaseducatedatUpperCanada
College,wherehethentaughtwhilestudyingmodernlanguagesatTorontoUniversity.In1899heenrolledatChicagoUniversity,whereheobtainedthedegreeof
PhDinpoliticaleconomyin1903.HewasappointedtolectureinpoliticalscienceatMcGillUniversity,beingWilliamDotProfessorofPoliticalEconomyandHeadof
Departmentfrom1908until'retired,muchagainstmywill,ongroundsofsenility,havingpassedtheageof65'in1936.Hisfirstbookwasatextbook,Elementsof
PoliticalScience(1906rev.edn1921).In1910heprivatelyprinted,asLiteraryLapses:aBookofSketches,someofthehumorousarticleshehadcontributed
overtheyearstoNorthAmericanjournals,includingtheclassicpieces'MyFinancialCareer'(onopeningabankaccount),'BoardingHouseGeometry',and'A,B,
andC'(askitontheconventionallanguageofmathematicalproblems).ItwasseenbyapublisherinBritain,whobroughtoutaneditionthesameyear.Therefollowed
NonsenseNovels(1911),thefirstofseveralvolumesofliteraryparodiesSunshineSketchesofaLittleTown(1912),basedonhisobservationsofsmalltownlife
inOrillia,nearwhichhehadboughtacountryhouseonLakeCouchichingArcadianAdventureswiththeIdleRich(1914),inwhichhissympathiesareespecially
directedtowardsthevictimsofcitymaterialistsandnumerousothercollectionsinwhichhisinnatekindlinessoftenactsasarestraintonhissatire.
Leacockrecorded:'IstartedgivingpublichumorouslecturestohelptheBelgianrefugeesin[WorldWarI],andwentonafterthewartohelpmyself.Mybreadonthe
waterscamebackascake.Ilectured(191537)allovertheUnitedStatesfromKansasCitytothesea,andthroughEnglandandScotlandandinCanadafrom
HalifaxtoVancouver.'HenevertookmoneyforhimselfwhenspeakinginCanada,untilhisfinaltourin1936,afterwhichhewroteMyDiscoveryoftheWest:a
DiscussionofEastandWestinCanada(1937),winneroftheGovernorGeneral'sAwardfornonfiction.Healsowrotehistoricalandcriticalworks,andstudiesof
TWAIN(1932)andDICKENS(1933).SeeTheBodleyHeadLeacock,ed.J.B.Priestley,1957FeastofStephen:aCornucopiaofDelights,newedn1991The
BoyILeftBehindMe,1946(earlyautobiography)JamesDoyle,StephenLeacock:theSageofOrillia,1994(biographical/criticalstudy).
Leakey,CarolineWoolmer(182781)
Britishnovelistandpoet,wasborninExeter,thesixthchildofanartist.Thoughcontinuingillnessrestrictedhereducation,shesailedforHobart,Tasmania,in1847to
helphersisterthere.Herhealthforcedhertoreturnin1853,butnotbeforeshehadwrittenmostofthepoemsinLyraAustralia:orAttemptstoSinginaStrange
Land(1854),muchofwhichispreoccupiedwithsicknessanddeathandinformedbyherprofoundChristianspirit.Shealsoabsorbedtheatmosphereof,and
backgroundto,thetransportationofcriminalstothecolony,whichsheusedinwriting,asOliveKeese,TheBroadArrow:SomePassagesintheHistoryofMaida
Gwynnham,aLifer(1859).PublishedadecadebeforeMARCUSCLARKE'SHisNaturalLife,itisalsothefirstAustraliannovelwhoseprotagonistisafemaleconvict.

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Lear,Edward(181288)
Britishpoetandpainter,wasborninHolloway,London,the20thchildofastockbrokerwhowentbankruptin1816.Asthmatic,depressive,andpronetoepilepsy,he
hadtoearnhislivingat15,whichhedidbymedicaldrawing.In1831hebecameadraughtsmanfortheZoologicalSociety,specializingparticularlyinbirds,onwhich
hepublishedIllustrationsoftheFamilyofthePsittacidae(1832).HewasthentakenonasartistinresidenceatKnowsleyHall,nearLiverpool,thehomeofLord
Stanley(17751851),whohadestablishedamenageriethere.ForthechildrenofthehouseLearimprovisedcomicverses,which,withhisownlinedrawings,became
ABookofNonsense(1846),toallintentsandpurposesthebirthplaceofthelimerickasweknowit.From1837helivedmainlyabroad,forhishealth,thoughhegave
drawinglessonstoQueenVictoriain1845.Hetravelledwidely,evenasfarasIndia,andproducedsketchbooksandillustratedtraveljournalsofAlbania,Corsica,
Greece,andItaly.Hepaintedinbothwatercolourandoils,andexhibitedattheRoyalAcademyin1850.TheromantictoneofNonsenseSongs,Stories,Botanyand
Alphabets(1871),inwhichwere'TheOwlandthePussvCat'and'TheJumblies',gavewaytomusicalmelancholyinLaughableLyrics(1877),especially'The
DongwithaLuminousNose','TheCourtshipoftheYonghyBonghyBo',and'ThePobbleWhoHasNoToes'.Hedied,unmarried,athisSanRemohome.See
CompleteNonsenseofEdwardLear,ed.HolbrookJackson,newedn1993SelectedLetters,ed.VivienNoakes,newedn1990VivienNoakes,EdwardLear
18121888,1988(biography)PeterLevi,EdwardLear:aBiography,newedn1996.
Leavis,F(rank)R(aymond)(18951978)
Britishcritic,wasborninCambridgeandeducatedatthePerseSchool,afterwhichheservedasastretcherbeareratthefrontinWorldWarI.Hereadhistoryand
thenEnglishatEmmanuelCollege,Cambridge,wherehewroteathesisontherelationshipbetweenjournalismandliteratureduringtheearlydevelopmentofthepress
inEngland.In1929hewasappointedtoauniversityprobationarylectureship,which,withhisfellowshipatEmmanuel,waswithdrawnin1931.HewasmadeDirector
ofStudiesinEnglishatDowningCollege,andbecameaparttimeuniversitylecturerin1936,afulltimelecturerin1954,andwasReaderinEnglish195962.His
modestacademiccareerwasduetohispricklypublicexteriorandhisunfashionable(orprophetic)stanceonsuchwritersasHOPKINS,JOYCE,D.H.LAWRENCE,POUND,and
T.S.ELIOT,andbelieshisinfluenceasacriticandteacher.NewBearingsinEnglishPoetry,hisfirstmajorpublication,appearedin1932,theyearoftheestablishment
ofthecriticaljournalScrutiny,ofwhichhelaterwrote,'mywifeandIborethemajorburdenfortwodecades'Q(ueenie)D.Leavis(190681),neRoth,authorof
FictionandtheReadingPublic(1932)wasoneofhisstudents,andtogethertheywroteDickenstheNovelist(1970).Mostofhissubsequentcriticalworksbegan
witharticlesinScrutiny,whichtheyfinallyhadtogiveupin1953seehisASelectionfromScrutiny(2vols1968)theyincludeTheGreatTradition(1948)and
TheCommonPursuit(1952).InhisRichmondlectureatDowningin1962heprovocativelyandpubliclychallengedSNOW'Sargumentsaboutthetwocultures.This
singlemindedman,whoseprofessedaimwasthe'pursuitoftruejudgment',wasmadeCHin1978.SeeValuationinCriticismandOtherEssays,ed.G.Singh,
1986EssaysandDocuments,ed.IanMacKillopandRichardStorer,1995IanMacKillop,F.R.Leavis:aLifeinCriticism,1995(biography)MichaelBell,E
R.Leavis,1988(biographical/criticalstudy).
LeCarr,John,pseudonymofDavidCornwell(b.1931)
Britishnovelist,wasborninPoole,Dorset.Hismotherlefthomewhenhewassixhisroguishfather,whohasaffinitieswiththefatherinAPerfectSpy(1986),was
periodicallyinprison.At16hetookhimselfawayfromSherborneSchoolandenrolledatBerneUniversity,thendidhisNationalServiceintheIntelligenceCorpsin
Austria.HegotafirstinmodernlanguagesatLincolnCollege,Oxford,andtaughtfortwoyearsatEton,beforejoiningtheForeignService.From1961to1964he
wasSecondSecretaryattheBritishEmbassyinBonn,whichfeaturesinASmallTowninGermany(1968).CallfortheDead(1961)andAMurderofQuality
(1962)aremorerelatedtothethrillerorthedetectivenovelthantothespystory,buttheenigmaticspymasterGeorgeSmileyappearsinboth.WithTheSpyWho
CameInfromtheCold(1963)andTheLookingGlassWar(1965),heblewapartthemurkyenvironmentinwhichthespybusinessoperates.Afteran
experimentalnovel,TheNaiveandSentimentalLover(1971),hegaveSmileyacentralroleinatrioofnovelsspanningacomplex,worldwideundertaking:Tinker,
Tailor,Soldier,Spy(1974),TheHonourableSchoolboy(1977),andSmiley'sPeople(1980)publishedtogetherasTheQuestforKarla(1982).The
Arab/IsraeliconflictisthethemeofTheLittleDrummerGirl(1983).AretiredSmileyisthelinkingthreadofTheSecretPilgrim(1991).Therehabilitationof
EasternEuroperesulted,withTheNightManager(1993),inaswitchofattentiontointernationalskulduggeryonthepartofcorporatemillionairesintheWest.In
OurGame(1995),afresheasternEuropeanelementisexploredinataleofdeceptionandseveralincrementsofbluff,involvingspieswhohaveservedtheirtimein
theservice.The

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useandfutureownershipofthegatewaytoworldtradefeatureinTheTailorofPanama(1996).LeCarr'schillingsenseofplace,hischaracterization,dialogue,and
attentiontotellingdetailhaveaddedanartisticdimensiontoamoderngenrewhichhadreacheditshighestpointwithGRAHAMGREENE.In1993hesucceededin
suppressingtheoutlineofanunauthorizedbiographyofhimself.SeeEricHomberger,JohnLeCarr,1986(criticalstudy)AlanBold,TheQuestforLeCarr,
1988(criticalstudy).
Ledwidge,Francis(18911917)
Irishpoet,wasborninSlane,Co.Meath,theeighthchildofanevictedtenantfarmerwhobecameafarmlabourer.Hewaseducatedatthelocalschooluntilhewas
12.At14hewasapprenticedtoaDublingrocer,whomhesoonlefttoreturnhome,whereheworkedinthefields,ontheroads,inacoppermine,andthenasa
countycouncilforeman.Happiestonthelandandincontactwithitscreaturesandflora,hehadversesonsuchthemespublishedintheDroghedaIndependent.In
1912hesentsometoDUNSANY,whoencouragedhim,gavehimtherunofhislibrary,introducedhimtoDublinliterarysociety,andselectedandintroducedSongsof
theFields(1915).In1913,EllieVaughey,thelandowner'sdaughterwithwhomLedwidgewasinlove,brokeofftherelationshipbecauseofhisfamilyandfinancial
circumstances,whichdeeplyaffectedhimandcolouredhispoetry.Hetookapostasalabourunionofficial,organizedtheestablishmentofthelocalIrishVolunteers,
andin1914enlistedintheRoyalInniskillingFusiliersinWorldWarItofight'anenemycommontoourcivilisation'andfor'thefieldsalongtheBoyne'.Heservedin
thelandingsatGallipoliandSalonika.Thisexperience,addedtothenewsofEllie'sdeathshortlyafterhermarriageandtotheshockofthefateofcomradesandother
poetsintheEasterRisingof1916,imbuedhispoetrywithasenseofbroodinganddespair,butalsowithaheightenedsenseofhisIrishnationalandliteraryheritage.
Hispremonitionofdeathwasjustified.HewaskilledoutrightnearYpresbyashell.SeeTheCompletePoems,ed.AliceCurtayne,4thedn1974SelectedPoems,
ed.DermotBolger,forewordbySeamusHeaney,1992AliceCurtayne,FrancisLedwidge:aLifeofthePoet,1972.
Lee,Andrew
seeAUCHINCLOSS.
Lee,JohnA(lexander)(18911982)
NewZealandnovelist,wasborninDunedinofaScottishfatherandaRomanymother.Hewasmadeastatewardinhisteens,butescapedfromindustrialschooland
'wentontheswag',lookingforcasuallabour,aboutwhichhelaterwrotetwobooksofsketchesandstories,ShiningwiththeShiner(1944)andShinerSlattery
(1964).DuringWorldWarIheservedasasergeantwiththeNewZealandforcesinFrance,winningtheDistinguishedConductMedalandlosinganarmincombat.
HewasLabourMemberofParliamentforAucklandEast192228,andforGreyLynn193143,beingUnderSecretarytotheMinisterofFinance193639,and
ControlleroftheStateHousingDepartment193940.Hewasexpelledfromthepartyin1940afterdisputesovertheleadershipandmonetarypolicyseeDiaries
19361940(1981).Hesubsequentlywentintobusiness.Hisfirstnovel,ChildrenofthePoor(1934),narratedthroughthepersonaofAlbanyPorcello,begins,'This
isthestoryofhowIbecameathief...andthecircumstancesthatmademysisteradaughterofthestreets.'Publishedanonymously,itcreatedasensationinboth
LabourandConservativerankswhenitsauthorshipandautobiographicalnaturewererevealed,andithadconsiderableimpactoverseasasanovelofsocialrealism.A
sequel,TheHunted(1936),isabetternovel.Anautobiography,DelinquentDays(1967),coversasimilarperiodandsimilarcircumstancesinhisownlife.
Lee,Laurie(191497)
Britishpoetandprosewriter,wasborninStroud,Gloucestershire,andeducatedatStroudCentralSchool.HisruralboyhoodissensuouslyrecordedinCiderwith
Rosie(1959),Rosiebeingthegirlofhisinnocentinitiationintothepotentialexcitementsofsex.At19,'stillsoftattheedges',ashecontinuesinAsIWalkedOutOne
SummerMorning(1969),hesetoutforLondononfoot,'withasmallrolleduptent,aviolininablanket,achangeofclothesandatinoftreaclebiscuits',goingby
wayofSouthampton,forhehadneverseenthesea.HeplayedtheviolininLondonstreets,hadapoempublished,workedasabuilder'slabourer,wassacked,and
decidedtotakeaonewaytickettoSpain.HewalkedfromVigototheMediterranean,playingincafs,cameacrossandstayedwithROYCAMPBELL,andattheonset
oftheCivilWarin1936wasinCustillo,fromwhichhewasrescuedbyaBritishdestroyer.HereturnedtoSpainthefollowingyear,'tomakeonegrandgestureof
personalsacrificeandfaith',byfightingfortheRepublicancause.HedescribesthewintryhorrorsandskulduggeryinAMomentofWar(1991),thethirdpartofhis
autobiographicaltrilogyinonevolumeasRedSkyatSunrise(1992).DuringWorldWarIIhewasafilmmakerandscriptwriter,andheworkedfortheMinistryof
Educationfrom1944to1946.Thefirstofhismodestlyfewbooksofverse,TheSunMyMonument,waspublishedin1947,andistypicalofhistraditionaland
romantic,butnotsentimental,poeticview.ManyofthecaptionswhichadornedtheFestivalofBritainin195051wereinspiredandwrittenbyhim.

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HewasmadeMBEin1952.SeeSelectedPoems,newedn1985.
Lee,Nathaniel(c.164992)
Englishdramatist,thesonofaclergyman,waseducatedatWestminsterSchoolandTrinityCollege,Cambridge,afterwhich,havingtriedtoearnalivingonthestage,
forwhichhisnervousnessmadehimunsuitable,hedecidedtowriteforitinstead.TheTragedyofNero,EmperourofRome(1675)isthefirstofthreetragediesin
heroiccouplets.ItwasdedicatedtoROCHESTER,whowasbrieflyhispatronandwhosedeathismourned(inthecharacterofRosidore)inThePrincessofCleve
(c.1681,published1689),basedonLAFAYETTE,aplaywhichdoesnotfitLee'stragichistoricalcanonandmaywellhavebeenwrittenassomesortofprotest.
Sophonisba:or,Hannibal'sOverthrow(1676)issaidtohaveappealedparticularlytotheladies,andthreeofhisplayshaddedicationstoroyalmistresses.Lucius
JuniusBrutus:FatherofHisCountry(1681),hisbestplay,ranintocensorshipproblemsandwasquicklytakenoffforits'veryscandalousexpressions'ofanti
monarchalfeeling,notablyinBrutus'sgreatspeechinActV,withitshopesofastate'Wherethere'snoinnovationofreligion.../Nodesperatefactionsgapingfor
rebellion...'.HecollaboratedwithDRYDENonOedipus(1679)andTheDukeofGuise(1683).Hisdozenplayshaveflashesofbrilliance,butmanyoftheleading
charactersteeteronthevergeofmadness,intowhichhehimselfsubsidedin1684.HewasconfinedtoBedlamforseveralyears,andonbeingdischargedwentback
tothebottle.Returninghomeonenightfromanevening'sdrinking,hefelldowninthesnowandstifled.Acollectededitionofhisworksappearedin1687.
Lee,William
seeBURROUGHS.
LeFanu,(Joseph)Sheridan(181473)
Irishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninDublin,thesonoftheDeanofEmly,whosemotherwasSHERIDAN'Ssister.Ayoungerbrother,William(181694),who
becameCommisssionerofWorks,describestheyoungLeFanuinSeventyYearsofIrishLife(1893)asapracticaljokerandfamilypoet.Hewaseducatedathome
andatTrinityCollege,Dublin,wherehecontributedtotheDublinUniversityMagazine,ofwhichtowardstheendofhislifehebecameproprietorandEditor(itwas
thennolongerauniversitypublication,butaleadingEuropeanjournal).HewascalledtotheBarin1839,butpreferredtobecomeanewspaperbaron,purchasingin
turntheWarder,theEveningPacket,andtheDublinEveningMail,whichheamalgamatedandmadeintotheEveningMail.Hisearlypoliticalsympathies
vacillated,buthisdevotioninspiredtwopatrioticballads,'ShamusO'Brien'and'PaudingCrohoore',writteninabout1837.Localpoliticsandstrife,withGothic
overtones,featureinhisfirstnovel,TheCockandtheAnchor,beingaChronicleofOldDublinCity(1845).Thencameanotherhistoricalnovel,followedby
GhostStoriesandTalesofMystery(1851),theinitialworkingsofaningeniousmind.Afterthedeathofhiswifein1858hewithdrewfromDublinsociety(he
becameknownasthe'InvisiblePrince')butcontinuedtowrite.TothisperiodbelongTheHousebytheChurchyard(1863),amurdermystery,andUncleSilas:a
TaleofBartramHaugh(1864),tomanythefinestnovelofpsychologicalsuspense,narratedbyagirlwhoforeseeshercomingdestructionatthehandsofher
guardian.InaGlassDarkly(1872)comprisesfivestoriesofuncannyevil.SeeMichaelBegnal,JosephSheridanLeFanu,1971(criticalstudy)W.J.McCormack,
SheridanLeFanuandVictorianIreland,1980.
Lger,MarieRenAlexis
seeSAINTJEANPERSE.
LeGuin,Ursula(b.1929)
neKroeber,Americannovelistandchildren'swriter,wasborninBerkeley,California,theyoungestchildofdistinguishedacademics,andgraduatedfromRadcliffe
Collegein1951.WhilecrossingtheAtlanticintheQueenMaryin1953,enroutetoFrancetoresearchherPhDthesis,shemetCharlesLeGuin,ahistorian,whom
shemarriedinParisthatsameyear.Thethesiswasneverfinished,andhavinghad,andraised,threechildren,andwrittenmuch,hercareerbeganmodestlywith
Rocannon'sWorld(1966),thefirstofasciencefictiontrilogy.ProblemsofgenreaffectedtheinitialcriticalreceptionofTheLeftHandofDarkness(1969),an
explorationofanandrogynousculture,andTheDispossessed:anAmbiguousUtopia(1974),inwhichtimeslipsenableascientisttocompareanidealisticanarchist
societywithacapitalist/communistworld,whichwerealsoclassifiedassciencefictionandofAWizardofEarthsea(1968),TheTombsofAtuan(1971),andThe
FarthestShore(1972)inUKalsoasTheEarthseaTrilogy(1979)whichwereoriginallypublishedforchildren.Malafrena(1979)isafantasy,andAlways
ComingHome(1985)experimentalfiction,inwhichthereaderisinvitedtoparticipateinplotbuildingfromelementsinavarietyofliteraryforms.Searoad:
ChroniclesofKlatsand(1992)usesbothhorizontalpresentandverticalpastnarrativepatternstodefineanewfeminineidentity.FourWaystoForgiveness(1996)
comprisesfourlinkednovellassetinHainishuniverseofTheLeftHandofDarkness.CollectionsofshortstoriesincludeTheCompassRose(1983),andofverse,
HardWordsandOtherPoems(1981).Criticalessays,includingstudiesrelevanttoherownwriting,areinTheLanguageoftheNight:EssaysonFantasyand
ScienceFiction,ed.SusanWoods(1979)andDancingattheEdgeofthe

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World(1989).EarthseaRevisioned(1993)isalecture,giveninOxford,abouttheideasexploredinTheEarthseaTrilogyandasubsequentnovel,Tehanu:the
LastBookofEarthsea(1990),andexpressingherviewsonthetraditionalrelationsbetweenthesexesinheroicfantasy.
Lehmann,John(190787)
Britishpoet,prosewriter,andeditor,thebrotherofROSAMONDLEHMANN,wasborninBourneEnd,Buckinghamshire,sonbyhisAmericanwifeofRudolphChambers
LehmannMP(18561929),EditoroftheDailyNewsanddistinguishedoarsman,whosemother,Nina,wasadaughterofCHAMBERSandaclosefriendofWILKIE
COLLINS.HewaseducatedatEtonandTrinityCollege,Cambridge.HewasapartnerintheHogarthPress(seeLEONARDWOOLF)from1946to1952,whenhe
establishedhisownpublishingfirm,JohnLehmannLtd.HeestablishedNewWritingin1936andediteditanditsoffshootsuntil1950,andhewasfounderEditorof
theLondonMagazine195461.HisfirstbookofversewasAGardenRevisited,andOtherPoems(1931).FortyPoems(1942)includedtwosectionsofpoems
relatingtoWorldWarII.Subsequentlyheexperimentedwiththe'prosepoem'.HisproseworksincludestudiesoftheSITWELLS(1968)andBROOKE(1980).Hewas
madeCBEin1964.SeeCollectedPoems19301963,1963NewandSelectedPoems,1985InMyOwnTime:MemoirsofaLiteraryLife,1969The
WhisperingGallery,1955,IAmMyBrother,1960,TheAmpleProposition,1966.
Lehmann,Rosamond(190190)
Britishnovelist,thesisterofJOHNLEHMANN,wasborninBourneEndandeducatedprivatelyandatGirtonCollege,Cambridge,whereshemetherfirsthusband.Her
firstnovel,DustyAnswer(1927),partlysetinCambridge,chartsagirl'ssexualawakeninganddisillusionment.Afteradivorcein1928,shemarriedagain,butthat
marriagealsobrokeup,in1940,aftershehadhadtwochildrenandwrittenthreemorenovels.InvitationtotheWaltz(1932)anditssequel,TheWeatherinthe
Streets(1936),followayoungwoman'sdevelopmentfromnaivetytoanadulterousaffairandanabortion,whiletheman'swifeembarksonapregnancy.During
WorldWarIIshewrotesomefineshortstoriesforherbrother'sNewWriting,ofwhich'TheRedHairedMissDaintreys',inTheGipsy'sBaby,andOtherStories
(1946),includesastatementonthecreativeimpulseofhernovels.Thecrisisinherownlifeafterthebreakupofhernineyearaffairwithc.DAYLEWISisreflected
intheharrowingtreatmentofthelovetriangleinTheEchoingGrove(1953),which,inherownwords,brought'somecycletoaclose'.Sheonlywroteonemore
novel,TheSeaGrapeTree(1977),asequeltotheromanticTheBalladandtheSource(1944).TheSwanintheEvening:FragmentsofanInnerLife(1967),
writtenafterthesuddendeathinJavaofherdaughterayearafterhermarriagetoP.J.KAVANAGH,describeshersubsequentdiscoveryofthespiritworldshebecamea
vicepresidentoftheCollegeofPsychicStudies.Sheisregardedasawoman'swriterbecauseofherinsightintowomen'semotionsandherabilitytorecordtheirinner
voices.ShewasmadeCBEin1982.SeeJudySimons,RosamondLehmann,1992(criticalstudy).
Leland,John
seeHOLINSHED.
Lennox,Charlotte(1729/301804)
neRamsay,Britishnovelistanddramatist,wasprobablyborninGibraltar,thedaughterofanarmyofficerwhodiedwhileservinginNewYorkprovinceinabout
1743,whenshereturnedtoEngland.In1747shepublishedPoemsonSeveralOccasionsandmarriedanimprovidentScot,AlexanderLennox(d.c.1797),by
whomshehadadaughterin1765andasonin1771.In174950shemadeseveralappearancesonthestage.ShealsometJOHNSON,whogaveanallnightpartyatthe
DevilTaverntocelebratethecompletionofherfirstnovel,TheLifeofHarriotStuart(1751),partofwhichissetinAmerica,whereitsromanticheroineisbesieged
byadmirersandcapturedbyIndians.TheFemaleQuixote(1752)wentintoasecondeditionafterfourmonths.PartlyaburlesqueonFrenchromancesandpartlya
seriouslovestory,itsuccessfullycombinesthetwogenres.ShakespearIllustrated:or,TheNovelsandHistoriesonWhichthePlaysAreFounded,Collected
andTranslated(175354)isthefirstsuchcompilationofliterarysources.Whenhercomedy,TheSister,basedonhernovelHenrietta(1758),wasperformedin
1769(itwastakenoffafteronenight),GOLDSMITHwasadvisedbyanacquaintanceto'goandhissit'becauseshehad'attacked'SHAKESPEAREinherbook.OldCity
Manners(1775),basedonEastwardHoe(seeJONSON),wasmoresuccessful.In1792shereceivedapensionfromtheRoyalLiteraryFund,butshediedpenniless,
havingspentherworkinglifesupportingherhusband.Johnson,whenhewas75andshe55,announcedafterdiningwithBURNEY,HANNAHMORE,andtheessayistand
poetElizabethCarter(17171806):'Threesuchwomenarenottobefound:IknownotwhereIcouldfindafourth,exceptMrsLennox,whoissuperiortothemall.'
Leopardi,Giacomo(17981837)
Italianpoet,wasborninRecanati,thesonofanimpoverishedcount,inwhosevastlibraryhespentmostofhisyouth,teachinghimselfGreekandstudyingliterature
andphilologyhetooktophilosophywhenin1819hehadtospendayearwithoutreadingbecauseofdamagetohissight.Hebeganpublishingarticlesand
translationsin1816,andverse

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(odesonItalyandonthemonumenttoDANTEbeingerectedinFlorence)in1818.Versi(1824)waspublishedinBologna,wherehehadgoneaftertwoyearsinRome.
HewentontoPisaandFlorence,returninghomein1828inshockinghealth.ICanti(1831)representsItalianlyricpoetryatitsmostimaginative,affective,and
musical:hispessimisticphilosophicalbentemergesintheproseOperetteMorali[MoralEssays](1827),whichincludeironicdialoguesbetweenmythical,historical,
spiritual,andcosmologicalentities,andin'Pensieri'[Thoughts].In1833friendsremovedhimtoNaplesinacountryretreatnearbyhesurvivedthecholeraepidemicof
183637,butdiedofdropsy.SeeALeopardiReader,ed.andtr.OttavioM.Casale,1981Poems,tr.ArturoVivanti,1988SelectedPoems,tr.EamonGrennan,
1995TheCanti:withaSelectionofHisProse,tr.J.G.Nichols,1994.
LePan,Douglas(b.1914)
Canadianpoetandnovelist,wasborninTorontoandeducatedthere,andatUniversityCollege,TorontoUniversity,andMertonCollege,Oxford.Hetaughtat
TorontoUniversityandHarvarduntilWorldWarII,duringwhichheservedwiththeFirstCanadianFieldRegimentinItaly.HethenenteredtheDiplomaticService,in
whichheheldappointmentsinLondonandWashington,wherehewasMinisterCounsellor.HewasSecretaryandDirectorofResearch,RoyalCommissionon
CanadianEconomicProspects195558,andAssistantUnderSecretaryofStateforExternalAffairs195859.Hethenreturnedtotheacademicworld,beinga
professorofEnglishatQueen'sUniversity,Ontario,from1959to1964,andPrincipal,UniversityCollege(196470)andUniversityProfessor(197079)atToronto
University.Inthreecollectionsofverse,ofwhichthefirstwasTheWoundedPrinceandOtherPoems(1948),andTheNetandtheSword(1953)wonthe
GovernorGeneral'sAward,hehasexploredtheCanadianexperienceintermsoftheland,andhasalso,inhisWorldWarIIpoems,interpretedthefeelingsofthose
whofoughtonafrontawholeoceanawayfromhomehemarkedthe50thanniversaryoftheendofthewarwithMacalister,orDyingintheDark(1995),averse
dramaonthelifeandthedeathinBuchenwaldconcentrationcampofacollegefriend.FarVoyages(1990)comprisespoemsofloveaddressedtoayoungman.His
novel,TheDeserter(1964),whichalsowontheGovernorGeneral'sAward,isastudyofanarmydeserterontherunsearchingforameaningfulexistenceinthe
immediatepostwarworld.BrightGlassofMemory:aSetofFourMemoirs(1979)isaliteraryaccountofaspectsofhisgovernmentservice.SeeWeatheringIt:
CompletePoems19481987,1987.
Lermontov,Mikhail(Yurevich)(181441)
Russiannovelistandpoet,wasborninMoscow,losthismother,whohadmarriedbeneathher,whenhewasthree,andwasbroughtupbyhismaternalgrandmother
onthefamilyestateofTarkhany,Penza.AftertwoyearsatschoolinMoscowandafurthertwoattheuniversity,heenteredtheCavalryTrainingSchoolatSt
Petersburg,andwascommissionedinaregimentofhussarsin1834.Hebeganwritingversewhenhewas14.Hisearlierpublishedeffortsrevealastronginfluenceof
BYRON,someofwhosepersonaltraitsaretraceabletothesamekindofirregularupbringingthatLermontovhad.Theofficialresponsetohisangrypoemprotestingat
thecircumstancesofthedeathofPUSHKINin1837wastoremovehimfromhisregimentanddispatchhimtoserveintheCaucasusregion.Onhisreturnin1840,he
wasexiledagain,toaninfantryregiment,afterbeinginvolvedinaduelwiththesonoftheFrenchambassadorinStPetersburg.Hereturnedonleavein1841,hoping
tobeallowedtostayanddevotehimselftowriting,butwasorderedbacktohisregiment.Shortlyafterwardshequarrelledwithafellowofficeroveratrivialinsultand
waschallengedtoaduelnearPyatigorsk.Hewaskilledoutright.[AHeroofOurTime](1840tr.1854tr.VladimirandDmitriNabokov,1958,reissued1992),
regardedasthefirstRussianpsychologicalnovel,buildsup,bymeansoffivelinkedfirstpersonnarratives,aportraitofthe'superfluousman',setapartbyhistalents
butfatednevertofulfilexpectations.SeealsoMajorPoeticalWorks,tr.AnatolyLiberman(1984).
Lessing,Doris(b.1919)
neTayler,Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninKermanshah,Iran.Herfather,whowasabankmanagerthereforawhile,hadlostalegin
WorldWarIhermotherhadnursedhimbacktohealth.WhenLessingwasthree,theymoved,viaMoscowandLondon,toSouthernRhodesiatoseekanewlife.
ForMrsTayler,'Ithinkherwholelifecametoanendwhenshelandedonthatfarmanddiscoveredwhatshewasgoingtohavetocopewith.'Arebelliouschildhood
culminatedinherleavingtheGirl'sHighSchool,Salisbury,at14.Shemarriedacivilservantat19,butlefthimandtheirtwochildrenthreeyearslater.In1945,aftera
divorce,shemarriedGottfriedLessing,likeheraCommunist.Theyweredivorcedin1949,whenwithheryoungestchildshewenttoLondon.Thedistinguishedfirst
volumeofherautobiography,UnderMySkin(1994),whichwontheJamesTaitBlackMemorialPrize,finishesatthispoint.
Herfirstnovel,TheGrassisSinging(1950),isanextensionoftheexperienceofherruralAfricanupbringing.Shenowembarkedonthebildungsromansequenceof
fivenovels,'TheChildrenofViolence',beginningwithMarthaQuest(1952).Atthesametimeshe

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wasemployingotherthemesderivedfromherearlyyearsinshortstoriesseeCollectedAfricanStories(1981).TheGoldenNotebook(1962)usesmemories,
experiences,andpoliticalactivityinthesearchforidentityofa'freewoman'.Therefollowedthreevisionarynovels,featuringpsychologicalbreakdownandthe
destructionofsociety,foreshadowinghersciencefictionsequence'CanopusinArgos:Archives'fivebooksfromShikasta(1979)toTheSentimentalAgents
(1983).Inareversiontorealismandanattempttosubvertthereviewingsystem,Lessingthenpublished,asJaneSomers,twonovelsfeaturingtheplightoftheelderly,
TheDiaryofaGoodNeighbour(1983)andIftheOldCould...(1984).Shereassumedherrealnamefortwodisturbingmodernmoralitydocuments,TheGood
Terrorist(1985)andTheFifthChild(1988).Love,Again(1996),herfirstnovelforeightyears,isalovestorywithinalovestory,whichhasaffinitieswithand
containsmeditationsonaspectsofitsauthor'sownlife.LondonObserved(1992)isacollectionofstoriesandsketchesaboutheradoptedcityAfricanLaughter
(1992),inUSAasTheRealThing,isanaccountofreturningtoherroots.SeeTheDorisLessingReader,1989EarlG.Ingersoll(ed.)PuttingtheQuestions
Differently:InterviewswithDorisLessing19641994,1996RuthWhittaker,DorisLessing,1988(criticalstudy)ElizabethMaslen,DorisLessing,1994(critical
introduction).
Lessinc,GottholdEphraim(172981)
Germandramatistandcritic,wasborninKamenz,thesonofapastor,andwaseducatedatStAfra,Meissen,andLeipzigUniversity,wherehestudiedtheologyuntil
hisassociationwiththelocaltheatre,forwhichhewroteaplay,ledtofamilyructionsandhisswitchingtomedicine.In1748heleftLeipzigforBerlin,registeringat
WittenbergUniversityenroute,andembarkedonthelifeofajournalistanddramatist.Hisindustrywassuchthatafterwritingseveralcomedies,ofwhichDieJuden
[TheJews]issignificantforitsattempttocombatantiSemitism,hewasabletospendayearinWittenbergtakinghisdegreeandstillpublishsixvolumesofcollected
worksin175355.Inadditiontotheatricalcriticism,theyincludedMissSaraSampson(performed1755),a'bourgeoistragedy'whichwasthefirstContinentalplay
ofitskind.Heeditedthedramajournal,TheatralischeBibliothek,from1754to1758,whenhereturnedtoBerlinaftertwoyearsinLeipzig.In1760he
disappeared,tosurfaceinBreslau,whereforfiveyearsheactedassecretarytothePrussiangeneralincommand,whichgavehimtheleisuretoreadandtorefresh
himselfsociallyandintellectually.OneformativeoutcomewasLaokoon(1766tr.EdwardAllenMcCormickasLaocoon:anEssayontheLimitsofPaintingand
Poetry,1984),whichGOETHElaterdescribedas'transportinguswithawrenchfromtheregionofastiltedperceptionintothebroad,openfieldsofthought'.Another
wasMinnavonBarnhelm(1767),regardedasthefirstmodernGermancomedy,whichbecame,intheformofJamesJohnstone'sTheDisbandedOfficer(1786),
theearliestGermandramaticworktobeadaptedfortheEnglishstage.HisemploymentasresidentcriticoftheNationalTheatreinHamburg(176768)lapsed
becauseofthesensitivityoftheactors,butproduced,inHamburgischeDramaturgie(1769),avehicleforhisprojectionofanindigenousdrama.In1770hebecame
courtlibrarianinBrunswick.EmiliaGalotti(1772tr.BenjaminThompson,1800),atragedywhichishismostcontroversialplay,hasbeeninterpretedaspolitical
protest,apsychologicalstudyofcharacter,andademonstrationofsocialconflict.In1776hemarriedthewidowofafriend:sheandtheirnewbornchilddiedayear
later.Latterlyhereturnedtotheologyinhiswriting.
Lever,Charles(180672)
Irishnovelist,wasborninDublin,thesonofanEnglisharchitect,hadalivelyboyhood,andwaseducatedatprivateschools(includingMrWright's)andatTrinity
College,Dublin,wherehereadmedicine,continuinghisstudiesinGottingen.AfteraccompanyinganemigrantshiptoCanada,hefinallyqualifiedin1831,intimetobe
aBoardofHealthdoctorduringthecholeraepidemicof1832.Marriagedidnothingtotemperhislavishways.In1837hebegan,anonymouslyintheDublin
UniversityMagazine,aseriesofebullientepisodesofarmylifeinIrishsocietyasTheConfessionsofHarryLorrequer(1839)hepursuedasimilarveininCharles
O'Malley,theIrishDragoon(1841).In1839hesetuppracticeinBrussels,wherein1841he,LOVER,andtheartistHablotK.Browne(181582)drank108bottles
ofchampagnebetweentheminsixdays.Hereturnedin1842toedittheDublinUniversityMagazine,andwasattackedbynationalistsforhisapparentpolitical
affiliations,thoughinOurMess:JackHinton,theGuardsman(1843)andothernovelshecriticizedEnglishrule.THACKERAYvisitedhimin1843,deploredhis
extravagance,andadvisedamovetoLondon.Insteadin1845hewenttotheContinent,wherehespenttherestofhislife,beingmadeBritishConsulatSpezziain
1857,andatTriestein1867,whoseclimateandsocietyhedetested.Hehadatalentedliteraryimagination,buthewroteasheconfessedhelived,'fromhandto
mouth'.Hewrotemanynovels,ofwhichADay'sRide(1863),sounsuccessfulwhenserializedinHouseholdWordsthatDICKENStooktheunprecedentedcourse
ofannouncingwhenitwouldfinish,featuresinG.B.SHAW'SprefacetoMajorBarbaraashavingmade'anenduringimpression'.Hislast,LordKilgobbin(1872),
writtenafterthedeathofhiswife,isre

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gardedasatragicmasterpieceofIrishpoliticalandsocialdespair.
Leverson,Ada(18621933)
neBeddington,Britishnovelist,wasborninLondonofwealthyJewishparents.Shewaswelleducatedbytutorsathome,andin1881marriedErnestLeverson
againstherfather'swishes.Themarriagewasnotasuccess.ShebecamefriendlywithBEERBOHM,GEORGEMOORE,andotherliteraryfigures.WILDE,whomshesheltered
duringhistrial,calledher'TheSphinx',andsheparodiedhiminaseriesofsketchesinPunchin1893.Shewrotearegularwomen'scolumn,as'Elaine',intheSunday
Refereefrom1903to1905.In1905financialproblemscausedherhusband'sflighttoCanada.Leftinreducedcircumstances,sheextendedherliteraryrangetothe
novel,ofwhichsheultimatelywrotesix,allofthemaboutmarriagesunderstress.InthethreefeaturingBruceandEdithOttley,Love'sShadow(1908),Tenterhooks
(1912),andLoveatSecondSight(1916)publishedtogetherasTheLittleOttleys(1962)Editheventuallyachieveshappinesswhenherawfulhusbandwalksout
andgoestoAmerica.InTheTwelfthHour(1907)andBirdofParadise(1914),themarriageissavedbythehusband'srealizationofhisloveandresponsibilitiesin
TheLimit(1911)itisthewifewhoisbroughtbacktohersenses.Herbooksareamusingandwellcharacterized,withexcellentdialogue.SeeVioletWyndham,The
SphinxandHerCircle:aBiographicalSketchofAdaLeverson,newedn1988(byherdaughter)JulieSpeedie,WonderfulSphinx:theBiographyofAda
Leverson,1993.
Levertov,Denise(b.1923)
BritishbornAmericanpoet,wasborninIlford,Essex,descendedonherfather'ssidefromtheRussianHasidicrabbiShneurZalman(17451813)andonher
mother'sfromtheWelshmysticAngelJonesofMoldseeherpoem'IllustriousAncestors'(1958).Herfather,PaulPhillipLevertoff(18781954),havingconverted
toChristianitywhilestudyingfortherabbinate,becameanAnglicanpriestandwrotebooksinEnglish,Russian,German,andHebrewsupportingtheunificationof
JudaismandChristianity.Sheandhereldersisterwereeducatedathomebytheirmother,andbylisteningtoBBCschools'broadcastsandtotheirparentsreading
aloudshealsohadoutsideinstructioninart,French,andmusic,andfromtheagesof10to16attendedballetschool.Thehomewascrammedwithbooks,and
Europeanintellectualswereregularvisitors.Shepublishedherfirstpoem(inPoetryQuarterly)in1940,andherfirstcollection,TheDoubleImage,in1946.In
betweentimessheservedasanurseduringWorldWarII,andwasthenatutor,nursemaid,andbookshopassistantontheContinent.In1947shemarriedMitchell
Goodman,a24yearoldHarvardstudent,withwhomshecametoNewYorkin1948andspenttheyears195659inMexico(theyweredivorcedin1972).She
becameanAmericancitizenin1955.Bythetimehersecondvolume,HereandNow(1956),hadbeenpublishedintheUSAbyFERLINGHETTI,shehaddiscoveredthe
poetryofW.C.WILLIAMS,andhadbegunthetransitionfrom'aBritishRomanticwithanalmostVictorianbackground'toanAmericanpoet.Thoughshehadno
connectionwithBlackMountainCollege(seeOLSON),shewasamemberofagroupwhichincludedBlackMountainPoetssuchasCREELEYandDUNCAN.WithEyesat
theBackofOurHeads(1960)containedpoeticexpressionsofdissatisfactionwithlifeinMexico.In1961shepublishedherfifthcollection,TheJacob'sLadder,and
wasPoetryEditorofTheNation,aposttowhichshereturnedin196365,bywhichtimeshewasalsoteachingseminarsandcourses.
Levertov'sactiveprotestsduringthe1960sagainstUSinvolvementinVietnamarereflectedinthepoliticalstanceofseveralsubsequentcollections,thoughThe
SorrowDance(1967)alsocontainedthe'OlgaPoems'(firstpublishedinPoetry,1965),asequenceinmemoryofhersister,whodiedin1964attheageof49.In
thesameway,thereareinLifeintheForest(1978)poemsrecordingthefinalyearsofhermother,whohadjoinedtheminMexicoandstayedonaftertheyleft,
dying18yearslaterwhenshewasover90.LevertovwasappointedaprofessorofEnglishatStanfordUniversityin1982.Apoet,then,withaprivateaswellasa
publicvoice,sheevokesthefamilyconnectionswithmysticisminBreathingtheWater(1987),whichincludesthesequence'TheShowings:LadyJulianof
Norwich'(seealsoKEMPE),andapoeminthepersonaofCAEDMON.AmorerecentcollectionisSandsoftheWell(1996).Tesserae:MemoriesandSuppositions
(1996)comprises27poeticmemoirs.EarlierverseisinCollectedEarlierPoems19401960(1979),Poems19601967(1983),andPoems19681972(1987).
EssaysonherownworkareamongthoseinThePoetintheWorld(1973)andLightUptheCave(1981).SeeSelectedPoems,1986NewandSelected
Essays,1993HarryMarten,UnderstandingDeniseLevertov,1989(criticalstudy).
Levi,Peter(b.1931)
Britishpoet,translator,andcritic,wasbornofaCatholicfamilyinRuislip,Middlesex,thesonandgrandsonofcarpetimporters.HewaseducatedatBeaumont
Collegefrom1946to1948,whenheleftschoolandhometojointheSocietyofJesus.HelaterreadclassicsandByzantineandmodernGreekatCampionHall,
Oxford.HewasLecturerinClassicsatCampionHall196577,andatChristChurch197982.In1977,havingresignedfromthepriesthood,hemarriedCONNOLLY'S
widow.ThepoemsinTheGravelPonds(1960)areshotwithstrikingvisualimages'ahollytreedarkand

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crimson','foxcolouredpheasant','yellowandgreentheripeningmelons','blacklightstreaming'.Classicalandarchaeologicaltopics,Christianity,andnature
particularlyfeatureinsubsequentcollections,inwhichheisalwaysconsciousoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandtheme.NotablepoeticsequencesarePancakes
fortheQueenofBabylon:TenPoemsforNikosGatsos(1968),'ThirtyWaysofDrowningintheSea',and'Rivers'.HistranslationsincludePausanias,Guideto
Greece(2vols1971),andGeorgePavlopoulos,TheCellar(1977).TheLifeandTimesofWilliamShakespeare(1988)isanextensiveandimaginativestudy
AlfredLordTennyson(1993),EdwardLear(1995),andEdenRenewed:thePublicandPrivateLifeofJohnMilton(1996)arecriticalbiographies.ABottlein
theShade(1996)isaGreektravelbookflowingwithzest,nostalgia,andliteraryallusions.ThelectureshegaveatOxford,asProfessorofPoetry19841989,were
publishedasTheArtofPoetry(1991),whichisusefulalsoasananthologyofunusualitems.SeeCollectedPoems19551975,2ndrev.edn1984.
Levi,Primo(191987)
Italiannovelist,critic,andpoet,wasborninTurinofJewishparentsandwaseducatedattheLiceoMassimod'AzeglioandTurinUniversity,wherehegraduatedin
chemistry.AftertwoyearsoftemporaryworkwithfirmspreparedtoignoretheregulationsagainstJews,hejoinedtheResistance,andwasin1943betrayedtothe
GermansandtransportedtoAuschwitz.Hesurvivedlargelybecauseofhisscientificknowledgeandqualifications,andattheendofthewarreturnedtoTurin,where
from1948to1974hehadadistinguishedcareerasanindustrialchemist.InSeQuestoeunHomo(1947tr.StuartWoolfasIfThisisaMan,1959),LaTregua
(1958tr.WoolfasTheTruce,inUSAasTheReawakening,1965),andISommersieiSalvati(1988tr.RaymondRosenthalasTheDrownedandtheSaved,
1988)hechronicledtheexperiencesofAuschwitzwithdignityandevenflashesofhumour,whileexploringthementalpredicamentofthosefew,suchashimself,who
'feltinnocent,yes,butenrolledamongthesavedandthereforeinpermanentsearchofajustificationinmyowneyesandthoseofothers.Theworstsurvivedthatis,
thefittestthebestalldied.'ThestructureandinspirationofthestoriesinIlSistemaPeriodico(1975tr.RosenthalasThePeriodicTable,1984)derivefrom
chemistry.SeNonOra,Quando?(1982tr.WilliamWeaverasIfNotNow,When?,1986)isacelebrationoftheJewishcontributiontotheResistanceinWorld
WarIIandacontributiontothedebateaboutJewishpassivityandconsciousness.Hecommittedsuicidebyfallingdownthestairwelloftheapartmentblockinwhich
hewasborn(andwherehehadlivedformostofhislife),unable,itisclaimed,tosufferanylongertheguiltofhavingsurvivedtheHolocaust.TheSixthDayand
OtherTales,tr.Rosenthal(1990),isacollectionofsciencefantasystories,someofthemoriginallypublishedasbyDamianaMalabaila.SeealsoCollectedPoems,
tr.RuthFeldmanandBrianSwann(2ndrev.edn1992).SeeMirnaCicione,PrimoLevi:BridgesofKnowledge,1995(criticalstudy).
Lewes,GeorgeHenry
seeELIOT,GEORGEGOETHE.
Lewis,Alun(191544)
Welshpoetandshortstorywriter,wasborninAberdare,thesonofaschoolmaster,andwenttoCowbridgeGrammarSchool.Attheageof17hewona
scholarshiptoUniversityCollegeofWales,Aberystwyth,wherehegotafirstinhistory.In1938,havingundertakenaresearchstudentshipatManchesterUniversity,
theworkforwhichboredhim(seehisstory'Attitude'),hequalifiedasateacher.In1940,withhisconscriptionimminent,hevolunteeredonimpulsefortheRoyal
Engineers,andwasmovedaboutEnglandfortwoyears.Mostofthestoriesinhiscollection,TheLastInspection(1942),illustratewhathecalled'therootlesslifeof
soldiershavingnoenemy',asdoeshisbestknownpoem,'AllDayIthasRained...',whichappearedinRaider'sDawnandOtherPoems(1942).In1941he
marriedsecretly,forhiswifewasateacherandtherule,upheldbyLewis'sfather,nowDirectorofEducationforAberdare,forbademarriedwomentoteach.In
OctoberhewascommissionedintheSouthWalesBorderersandsubsequentlypostedtoIndia.Severalpoemsrecordthetrip,bytroopshipviaBrazil,andhisearly
reactionstotheOrient.InFebruary1944hisunitwasorderedoutofreserveinBurmatofighttheJapaneseatArakan.AsIntelligenceOfficer,hecouldhave
remained,butheinsistedongoingintoaction.Beforegroundcontactwasmadewiththeenemy,hewas,accordingtotheofficialhistoryofhisregiment,'accidentally
woundedbyapistolshot',anddiedatthecasualtyclearingstation.SeeSelectedPoetryandProse,ed.IanHamilton,1966(includesbiographicalintroduction)
CollectedPoems,ed.CaryArchard,1994CollectedStories,ed.CaryArchard,1991JohnPikoulis,AlunLewis:aLife,newedn1991.
Lewis,C.Day,pennameofCecilDayLewis(190472)
Irishpoet,critic,andnovelist,wasborninBallintubber,thesonofaChurchofIrelandminister.ThefamilymovedtoEnglandin1905.Afterthedeathofhismotherin
1908,hewaslookedafterbyhersister(seehispoem'MyMother'sSister'),andeducatedatSherborneSchoolandWadhamCollege,Oxford.Herehemixedwith
leftwingpoets(notablyAUDEN,withwhomheeditedOxfordPoetryin1927)andexpressedleftwingviews(hewasbrieflya

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memberoftheCommunistParty),whichcolouredmuchoftheversehewrotebetweenabout1928and1934.Hisfirstbook,BeechenVigil(1925),andits
successor,CountryComets(1928),revealnosuchleanings,whilelovelyricstohiswifeincludedinTransitionalPoem(1929)almostcosthimhisjobatCheltenham
JuniorSchool.OverturestoDeath(1938)marksthesecondofseveralchangesofdirectionitreflectsmoregeneralconcerns(vividlypresentedin'TheNabara')and
thebeginningofhisfrequentuseofimagesfromhischildhood(asin'CornetSolo','TheGate',and'LastWords').TheGeorgicsofVirgil(1940)isthefirstofhis
versetranslationsofthecompleteworksofVIRCIL,andbytheendofWorldWarIIhehadbecomeaneminentpillaroftheEstablishment.HedeliveredtheClark
LecturesatCambridgein1946,publishedasThePoeticImage(1947),wasProfessorofPoetryatOxford195156,andwasappointedPoetLaureatein1968.In
1935hepublishedthefirstofanextensiveseriesofdetectivenovelsunderthepseudonymofNicholasBlake.SeeTheCompletePoemsofC.DayLewis,
introductionbyJillBalcon,newedn1996TheBuriedDay,1960(autobiography)SeanDayLewis,C.DayLewis:anEnglishLiteraryLife,newedn1982
(biography).
Lewis,C(live)S(taples)(18981963)
Britishcritic,populartheologian,novelist,andchildren'swriter,wasborninBelfast,thesonofacourtsolicitor,andwaseducatedatMalvernCollege,andprivately,
beforewinningascholarshiptoUniversityCollege,Oxford.HeservedinFranceinWorldWarI,beingwoundedatArras,andreturnedtoOxfordin1919,wherehe
gotadoublefirst,inGreatsandtheninEnglish.HewasaFellowofMagdalenCollege,Oxford,from1925to1954,whenhebecameProfessorofMedievaland
RenaissanceLiteratureatCambridge,towhichhecommutedweeklyfromtheOxfordhomehesharedwithhiselderbrother,themotherofafriendwhohaddiedin
WorldWarI,and,from1957untilherdeathin1960,hiswifeandhertwosons.Lewis'sultimateacceptanceofChristianityin1931,orhisexaminationofallegory,
andsometimesbothtogether,arereflectedinalmosteverythinghewrote.ThePilgrim'sRegress:anAllegoricalApologyforChristianity,Reasonand
Romanticism(1933)wasfollowedbyhisclassicworkofliterarycriticism,TheAllegoryofLove:aStudyinMedievalTradition(1936).HisClarkLecturesat
Cambridgein1944werereworkedintoEnglishLiteratureintheSixteenthCentury(1954).Hepublishedatrilogyofextraterrestrialnovels,beginningwithOut
oftheSilentPlanet(1938),reissuedasTheCosmicTrilogy(1990),andaseriesofChristianapologiae,ofwhichTheProblemofPain(1940)andThe
ScrewtapeLetters(1942)arestillwidelyadmired.His'Narnia'sequenceofsevennovels,beginningwithTheLion,theWitchandtheWardrobe(1950)andending
withTheLastBattle(1956),upholdshisdictumthathewas'almostinclinedtosetitupasacanonthatachildren'sstorywhichisenjoyedonlybychildrenisabad
children'sbook'.SeeSelectedLiteraryEssays,ed.WalterHooper,newedn1979SurprisedbyJoy:theShapeofMyEarlyLife,newedn1995AllMyRoad
BeforeMe:theDiary,ofC.S.Lewis19221927,ed.WalterHooper,newedn1992A.N.Wilson,C.S.Lewis:aBiography,newedn1991WalterHooper,C.
S.Lewis:aCompanionandGuide,1996.
Lewis,Norman(b.1918)
Britishnovelist,travelwriter,andjournalist,wasbroughtupinWalesandinMiddlesex,andwaseducatedatEnfieldGrammarSchool.Hethenworkedinavarietyof
capacities,includingcherrypicker,weddingphotographer,andracingmotorcyclist,beforegettingmarriedandembarkingonhistravels,startingwithSpain.'Travel
camebeforewriting,'hehasexplained,andhisfirstbook,SandandSeainArabia(1938),wasavolumeofmagnificentphotographs.DuringWorldWarIIheserved
intheIntelligenceCorpsintheMediterraneansectorseehiswardiary,Naples44(1978).Hepublishedhisfirstnovel,Samara,in1949ofsubsequentnovels,The
DayoftheFox(1955),setagainstabackgroundoftheSpanishCivilWar,TheVolcanoesAboveUs(1957),basedonhispersonalexperiencesinCentralAmerica
inrevolt,andTheSicilianSpecialist(1964),inwhichherevealednewfactsabouttheKennedyassassination,arehighlyregarded.Hisfirsttwotravelbooksproper,
ADragonApparent:TravelsinIndoChina(1951)andGoldenEarth:TravelsinBurma(1952),werewrittenwhentheseregionswereoutofreachofthe
ordinarytraveller.AquartetofAsianbookswascompletedwithAGoddessinStone:TravelsinIndia(1991)andAnEmpireoftheEast:TravelsinIndonesia
(1993).
Whathecalls'thegreatdivideinmywritings'followedhisvisittoBrazilin1968,afterwhichhewrotethearticle'GenocideinBrazil'reprintedinAViewofthe
World:SelectedJournalism(1986)whichledtoachangeinBrazilianlaw.Afterafurthervisitin1979,hecampaignedforthesurvivaloftherainforests.The
HonouredSociety:theMafiaConspiracyObserved(rev.edn1984)isastudyoftheSicilianMafia.SeeICame,ISaw:'AnAutobiography',new,enlargededn
1994ofJackdawCake,1985TheWorld,theWorld,1996(furthermemoirs).
Lewis,(Harry)Sinclair(18851951)
Americannovelist,wasborninSaukCentre,Minnesota,thethirdsonofacountrydoctor,andwenttothelocalhighschoool.At13helefthometoenlistasa
drummerboyintheSpanishAmericanWar,butwashauledbackfromtherailwaystationbyhisfather.AftersixmonthsatOberlinAcademy,Ohio,

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heenteredYalein1903.Hegraduatedin1908,havingcontributedtothestudentjournals,workedparttimeforlocalnewspapers,goneontwosummervacationtrips
bycattleboattoEngland,anddroppedoutforayear,duringwhichhewasajanitoratUPTONSINCLAIR'ScolonyinNewJerseyuntilitburneddown,livedinNewYork
asastrugglingwriter,andwentsteeragetoPanamatoseekworkonthecanal.Fortwoyearsheroamedthecountry,doingoddnewspaperjobs(fromtwoofwhich
hewasfiredforincompetence)andconceivingideasforplots,14ofwhichhesoldtoLONDONfor$5each.HeendedupinNewYork,havingby1911published
66articles,stories,andpoemsafterseveraljobsinpublishinghebecameaneditorwiththeGeorgeH.DoranCompany.HikeandtheAeroplane(1912),writtenas
TomGraham,wasaboys'story.Hisfirstnovel,OurMrWrenn(1914),gentlysatirizedtheAmericaninEurope.In1915hebecameafulltimewriter,butheonly
emergedasasignificant,andsuccessful,novelistwithhissixth,MainStreet(1920),amuchmoredevastatingsatireonlifeinasmallMidwesterntown.Allhismost
accomplishedworksappearedinthe1920s.Babbitt(1922),anexaminationofasmalltownbusinessmanstrugglingtobreakoutofhismould,waswritteninEurope
sowasArrowsmith(1925),astudyoftheconflictingidealsofamedicalscientist,someoftheresearchforwhichwasconductedintheWestIndiesunderthe
directionofPauldeKruif(18901971),thebacteriologistandauthorofTheMicrobeHunters(1926).In1920thetrusteesofthePulitzerprizesoverruledthe
selectors'choiceofMainStreetandgavetheawardtoWHARTON'SAgeofInnocence,whichwaslesscriticalofAmerica.WhenArrowsmithwasawardedtheprize,
Lewispubliclyrefusedit,outofspiteandadesireforpublicityasmuchasoutofconviction.ElmerGantry(1927),hisfunniestandalsohiswickedestnovel,isan
attacknotsomuchontheProtestantministryasonasocietywhichallowsamonstrousclergymantoflourishasanevangelist.Dodsworth(1929),whosethemeisthe
lonelinessofbeingatthetop,markedachangetowardsamoresympatheticviewofMidwesternmanhood.
In1930hebecamethefirstAmericanwritertowintheNobelPrizeforLiterature,'forhispowerfulandvividartofdescriptionandhisabilitytousewitandhumourin
thecreationoforiginalcharacters'.Inatypicallycontroversialacceptancespeech,henamed,asequallydeservingoftheaward,ANDERSON,CABELL,CATHER,O'NEILL,and
alsoDREISER,whomhehadoncepubliclyaccusedofplagiarism.Thoughhewrotetenmorenovels,ofwhichWorldSoWide(1951)waspublishedposthumously,only
inItCan'tHappenHere(1935),awarningaboutFascism,andGideonPlanish(1943),anattackonprofessionalphilanthropism,inwhichElmerGantrymakesa
briefappearance,istheremuchevidenceoftheearliercontrolofhissatiricalmedium.SeeJamesM.Hutchisson,TheRiseofSinclairLewis19201930,1996
SheldonNormanGrebstein,SinclairLewis,1962(criticalstudy)MartinLight,TheQuixoticVisionofSinclairLewis,1975(criticalstudy).
Lewis,(Percy)Wyndham(18821957)
describedhimselfinhisautobiography,BlastingandBombardiering(1937),as'novelist,painter,sculptor,philosopher,draughtsman,critic,politician,journalist,
pamphleteer,allrolledintoone,likeoneofthoseportmanteaumenoftheItalianRenaissance'.Somedeliberateconfusionsurroundsthecircumstancesofhisbirth.He
wasborninAmherst,NovaScotia,theonlychildofCharlesEdwardLewis(18431918),anAmericanwhohadservedwithdistinctionintheUnionArmyintheCivil
War,andAnnieStewartPreckett(18601920),thedaughterofaboardinghousekeeperinLondon,whomhehadmetthereandmarriedin1876.Thecouplemoved
toCanada,whereCharlesbecameatravellingsalesman.In1888theymovedtotheIsleofWight,offthesouthcoastofEnglandfiveyearslaterCharlesranoffwith
thefamilymaid,andAnniewentwiththechildtohermotherinLondon,andbecamealaundress.ShewasabletosendLewisbrieflytoRugbySchool,wherehefailed
everysubjectbutart,andthentotheSladeSchoolofArt,wherehedistinguishedhimself,butwasexpelledin1901forpoorattendanceandinsubordination.After
someyearsontheContinent,heemergedasaleaderoftheVorticistartisticandliterarymovement,whichflourishedbrieflybetween1914and1920.Heservedatthe
frontinWorldWarI,latterlyasanofficialwarartist.Afterhisfirstnovel,Tarr(1918rev.edn1928),arevealingandstylisticallystartlingportraitofParisianbohemian
life,heembarkedonanambitiousbutunfinishedphilosophicalfantasy,ofwhichTheChildermass(1928)waspublishedwithtwofurtherpartsin195556asThe
HumanAge.HisFascistsympathiesandunprovokedattacksonhisliterarycontemporariesdidnotimprovehispublicimage,buthewasregardedinhistimeasan
experimentalnovelistofsomestatureseealsoTheApesofGod(1930),TheRevengeforLove(1937),andSelfCondemned(1954)andawriterofincisiveif
unevencriticism.SeeTheEssentialWyndhamLewis,ed.JulianSymons,newedn1991CreaturesofHabitandCreaturesofChange:EssaysonArt,
LiteratureandSociety19141956,ed.PaulEdwards,1989JeffreyMeyers,TheEnemy:aBiographyofWyndhamLewis,1980.
Lillo,George(16931739)
Britishdramatist,wasborninLondon,thesonofaDutchjewellerandhisEnglishwife.IthasbeensuggestedthataNonconformistupbringingcontributedtohis
comparatively

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lateconnectionwiththestage,forhehadbeenforseveralyearsapartnerinhisfather'sbusinesswhenhewroteTheLondonMerchant:or,TheHistoryofGeorge
Barnwell(1731).BasedonanElizabethanballad,itdeliberatelyeschews'PrincesDistrestandscenesofroyalWoe',andinsteadoffersatragedyofmiddleclass
society,inwhichanapprenticeisseducedbyaschemingcourtesanintocommittingmurderandrobbery.Critics(includingPOPE)praisedit,audiencesflockedtoit,
andforthenextcenturyapprenticesweretakentoseeitas'improving'entertainment,butitwaslefttoContinentalwriters,suchasGOTTHOLDLESSINGwithMissSara
Sampson(1755)andDIDEROTwithLeFilsNaturel(1757),consciouslytofollowhislead.HisothersuccesswasFatalCuriosity,ashortthreeactdomestictragedy,
originallyputonbyHENRYFIELDINGin1736astheotherhalfofthebilltohisownfarce,TumbleDownDick.Itwastranslatedintoseverallanguagesandultimately
becametheinspirationforRUPERTBROOKE'SLithuania.AmongotherplaysLillowroteanadaptationoftheElizabethandrama,ArdenofFeversham.
Lindsay,Jack(190090)
Australiannovelist,poet,critic,andtranslator,wasborninMelbourne,theeldestchildofNORMANLINDSAYbyhisfirstmarriage,andwaseducatedattheBoys'
GrammarSchool,Brisbane,andBrisbaneUniversity,wherehegotafirstinclassics.WithSLESSORhefoundedtheshortlivedbutinfluentialcriticaljournal,Vision.In
1926heemigratedtoEngland,whereheextendedtheactivitiesoftheFanfrolicoPress,apublisherandprinteroffinelyproducedvolumeswhichhehadhelpedto
establishinSydneythepreviousyear.Fromhisfirstbookofverse,FaunsandLadies(1923),hisfirstnovel,Cressida'sFirstLover:aTaleofAncientGreece
(1931),hisfirstcriticalwork,onBLAKE(1927),andhisfirsttranslation,LysistrataofARISTOPHANES(1925),hecontinuedtobeprolificallyactiveinallthesefields,as
wellasinhistoryandbiography.DuringWorldWarIIheservedasasignalmanintheBritishArmy,andthenspenttwoyears,asaprivate,intheWarOffice,writing
scriptsforthearmytheatreunit.Histhreeautobiographicalstudies,LifeRarelyTells(1958),TheRoaringTwenties:LiteraryLifeinSydney,NewSouthWales,in
theYears19211926(1960),andFanfrolicoandAfter(1962),arevividlywrittenpersonal,social,andculturalhistories.LiterarycriticismisinDecayand
Renewal:CriticalEssaysonTwentiethCenturyWriting(1976).HewasmadeAMin1981.
Lindsay,Norman(18791969)
Australianartist,novelist,andcritic,wasborninCreswick,Victoria,thefourthsonofthetenchildrenofanIrishdoctor,andayoungerbrotherof(Sir)LionelLindsay
(18741961),thepainter.HewaseducatedatCreswickGrammarSchool,whichheleftat16togotoMelbournetoassistLionel,initiallybyghostingtopical
drawingsinaweeklypaper.In1901hebecameastaffartistontheBulletin,withwhichhewasassociated,ascritic,reviewer,andcontributorofstories,untilshortly
beforehisdeath.AnearlyaversiontoNewTestamentstoriestoldbyhismotherledhimeventuallytothephilosophyofNIETZSCHE,whichisthestartingpointofhis
study,CreativeEffort:anEssayintheImagination(1920),andinformsmuchofhisfiction.Hisfirstnovel,ACurateinBohemia(1913),reliveshistimeasanart
studentinMelbourne.Redheap(1930)andTheCautiousAmorist(1932)werebannedinAustraliauntil1958.SmalltownsocietyfeaturesstronglyinSaturdee
(1933),basedonhisboyhoodrecollections,andTheCousinfromFiji(1945),acomedyofthe1890s.Hisdistinctivestyleandimagination,inhisdrawingsaswell
ashisprose,areseenattheirmostebullientinTheMagicPudding(1918),aclassicchildren'sfantasyinwhichthehumourofthesituationandtheverbalwitare
preciselymixed.SeeMyMask,1970(personalreminiscences)JohnHetherington,NormanLindsay:theEmbattledOlympian,1973(biography).
Lindsay,Robert,ofPitscottie(c.1532c.90)
Scottishhistorian,wasbornonthefamilyestatenearCupar,Fife.In1553hewasgrantedanescheaton'allthegoodsmovableandimmovableofthelateAndrew
Lindsay,burgessinEdinburgh'.ThePitscottiefarmhouseinwhichhelivedwasrentedfromtheScottsofBalwerie.HisHistorieandCroniklesofScotlandisa
continuationintimeofBOECE,hisfirstchapterbeingatranslationofthelastchapterofthatwork.Itcoverstheyears1436to1575,whenJamesDouglas(c.152581),
'RegentMorton',heldswayandwastryingtorestoreepiscopacytoalandinwhichKNOXhaduntilrecentlypreachedtheprinciplesofPresbyterianism.Lindsaywas
astaunchProtestant,andforthisreasoninparticular,thoughhishistorywasintendedforpublication,heexpressedthewishthatitshouldnotbe'sprongasyit'.Inthe
enditwasnotpublisheduntil1728.KurtWittiginTheScottishTraditioninLiterature(1958)callsit'thehighwatermark'ofScottishproseuptothattime.The
styleisracy,theeyejournalistic,thedirectspeechconvincing.ParticularlymemorablepassagesincludetheblowingupofJamesIIbyhisowngun,themurderof
JamesIII'sfavourite,andthebattleofFlodden.Therearealsosomesplendidoddities,suchasthebirthofababy'raknittobeanemanchylebotfromthewaistupe
wastwofair,fairpersounswithtallmemberisandprotratourisperteinandtotwabodyis'.
Lindsay,(Nicholas)Vachel(18791931)
Americanpoet,wasbornin

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Springfield,Illinois,'theMysticSpringfieldinwhichIalwayslive,whereverIhappentobe...whereonewalksalone,fromchildhood,amonghistoricstructures,a
placeofclearvisions'.Destinedtobeamissionary,hedroppedoutofHiramCollegein1901,studiedartinChicagoandNewYork,andthentooktomissionizingfor
poetry.Hetrampedthroughthecountryside,ononeoccasionfromSpringfieldtoNewMexico,declaiminghisworks,andbarteringforfoodandlodgingwithcopies
ofaleaflet,RhymestobeTradedforBread'AGospelofBeauty'(1908)wasthepoemhemostfrequentlyrecited.DuringthewintershecampaignedfortheAnti
SaloonLeague.ThetitlepieceofGeneralWilliamBoothEntersintoHeaven,andOtherPoems(1913),completewithinstructionsforvariedmusical
accompaniment,wasfirstpublishedinPoetry:aMagazineofNewVerse,andhenowbegantobuildupareadership.TheCongo,andOtherPoems(1914)
included'AbrahamLincolmWalksatMidnight',abouthisnativeSpringfield.ThetitlepoemofTheChineseNightingale,andOtherPoems(1917)reflectsa
preoccupationwithOrientalismextendingalsotoastudyofEgyptianhieroglyphics,withadaptationsofwhichhedecoratedhisCollectedPoems(1923).Hemarried
in1925,butwithtwochildrentosupportandhispowerswaning,hecommittedsuicidebytakingpoison.SeeEdgarLeeMasters,VachelLindsay:aPoetin
America,newedn1969(biographical/criticalstudy).
Linklater,Eric(18991974)
Scottishnovelist,wasborninPenarth,southWales,thesonofamastermarinerfromOrkney,withwhichfamilyconnectionswerestronglymaintained.Hewentto
AberdeenGrammarSchool.AfterbeingrejectedbytheGordonHighlandersinWorldWarIbecauseofhiseyesight,hecontrivedtojointheBlackWatch,with
whomheservedinFranceasaprivate,andwaswoundedintheheadbyabullet.AtAberdeenUniversityafterwards,heswitchedfrommedicinetoEnglish,andgota
first.HewasanassistanteditorontheTimesofIndiainBombay,andthenbecameassistanttotheProfessorofEnglishatAberdeen.OnatwoyearCommonwealth
fellowshipintheUSA,hebecameaconfirmedwriter.WhiteMaa'sSaga(1929),hisfirstnovel,issetinOrkney.Histhird,JuaninAmerica(1931),takesasits
comicstartingpointthenocturnalencounterbetweenDonJuanandtheDuchessofFitzFulke(seeBYRON):anaiveandaccidentpronedescendantofitsunintended
issuediscoversmodernUSA.MagnusMerriman(1934)drawson,butdoesnotmirror,Linklater'sunsuccessfulattempttowinaParliamentaryseatasaNationalist.
InWorldWarIIheservedasamajorcommandingtheRoyalEngineersinOrkney,andtheninpublicrelationsintheWarOfficeandinItalyPrivateAngelo(1946)
reflectshisunderstandingofthelotoftheordinarysoldierandoftheeffectonthepopulaceofinvadingandoccupyingforces.Hereturnedtouniformin1951,whenhe
visitedKoreawiththerankoflieutenantcolonel.InhislaternovelshecontinuedtoperformtheveryScottishactofbalancingsatiricalcomedy,andoftenfarce,with
highdramaandserious,sometimesfunereal,matters,asinPositionatNoon(1958)andTheMerryMuse(1959),bothofwhichdelvealsointoliteraryhistory.Other
worksincludesomefineshortstoriesseeTheGooseGirlandOtherStories,ed.AndroLinklater(1991)historicalandtopographicalworksplays,ofwhich
BrakespearinGascony(1958)hadsomesuccessandtwochildren'sfantasiesthefirst,TheWindontheMoon(1944),wonthecovetedCarnegieMedal
whoseappealstemsfromthesameinstinctivefeelingfortheridiculouswhichdistinguisheshisadultfiction.HewasRectorofAberdeenUniversity194548,Deputy
LieutenantofRossandCromarty196873,andwasmadeCBEin1954.SeeTheManonMyBack,1941,AYearofSpace,1953,FanfareforaTinHat,1970
(autobiography)MichaelParnell,EricLinklater:aCriticalBiography,1984.
LiPo(70162)
Chinesepoet,wasbroughtupinCh'angming,Szechwan,andwrotehisearliestdatablepoemwhenhewas15ataboutthistimehefellinwithahermit,withwhom
hewenttoliveinthemountains.Afteraperiodasaknighterrant,heseemstohavebecomemerelyawanderer.Inabout726hemarriedthegranddaughterofa
formerchiefminister,andlivedwithherfamily.Afterherdeathinabout735heresumedhisperipateticexistence,withabreakin74244,whenhewasamongthe
poetsstationedattheHanlinAcademyinthecapital,Ch'angan,tocelebratecourtactivitiesandfunctions.In742hemetthepoetTuFu(71270),whoseadmiration
forhimisrecordedinmorethanadozenpoems.In757hejoinedtheYangtzefleetofPrinceLin,the16thsonoftheEmperor,whohaddesignsonthethronebutwas
abandonedbyhisgenerals(andprobablybyLiPo),captured,andexecuted.LiPowasarrestedandimprisoned,butreleasedbyapassingcensor,whotookhimon
hisstaffforatime.Onthefallofthegovernmentcommissionerwhohadformallyapprovedhisrelease,hewasin758banishedtoYehlang,Yunnam,forhis
associationwithLin,butwasfreedthefollowingyearunderageneralamnesty.Hewasmarriedfourtimesinall,thelastoccasionin756.Awriterofconsiderable
technicalskillandinnovativeimagination,'heappears',accordingtoWILEYinThePoetryandCareerofLiPo(1950),'inhisworksasboastful,callous,dissipated,
irresponsibleanduntruthful'.Hewasalsoadrunkard,whoatatimeoframpantbureaucracyseemsnevertohavehadaproperjob.Hispoems

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survivethroughtwocollections,onebyhisliteraryexecutorandfriend,WeiHao,andonebythecalligrapherLiYangping,inwhosehouseatTangt'uhedied.See
TheSelectedPoemsofLiPo,tr.DavidHinton,1996LiPoandTuFu,Poems,tr.ArthurCooper,1973.
Lithgow,William(1582c.1654)
Scottishtraveller,prosewriter,andpoet,wasborninLanark,thesonofaburgessofthetown,andwaseducatedatLanarkGrammarSchool.Itissaidthatfour
brothersofalocalgirlhewascourtingsetuponhimandcutoffhisears(asaresultofwhichheacquiredthenickname'LuglessWill'),andthathewentabroadto
avoidfurtherindignities.Bythetimehewas27hehadconducteda'thoroughsurvey'ofGermany,Switzerland,andtheNetherlands.In1609hesetoutfromParison
thefirstofthree'peregrinations',duringwhichhecoveredbyseaandonfoot36,000miles,andvisitedMediterraneanandAdriaticlandsandislands,theMiddleEast,
andNorthAfrica,includingtheSahara.TheTotallDiscourse,oftheRareAdventures,andpainefullPeregrinations...(1632)revealshimtobeaneccentricand
accidentpronetraveller,whotookwithhimaportablecoffin,andwhohadacoolandpracticalnature,andaneyefortheinteresting,andbizarre,detail.Hislastcall
wasSpain,wherehewasimprisonedasasuspectedspyandtorturedbytheInquisition.OnhisreturntoBritainhedisplayedhis'martyredanatomy'to'allthecourtof
England,evenfromthekingtothekitchen',andwassentattheroyalexpensetorecuperateinBath.FailingtogethispromisedcompensationfromSpain,heassaulted
(orbyanotheraccountwasassaultedby)theSpanishambassadorintheKing'santechamber,andwasimprisonedintheMarshalsea.Hewitnessedandwrote
accountsofthesiegesofBreda(1637)andNewcastle(1645),anddescribedinPresentSurveyofLondonandtheEnglishState(1643)London'sfortifications
againsttheRoyalistarmyatthebeginningoftheCivilWar.Aneditionofhisversewaspublishedin1863.
Livesay,Dorothy(b.1909)
Canadianpoet,wasborninWinnipeg,thedaughteroftwojournalists.ShewaseducatedatGlenMawr,Toronto,TrinityCollege,TorontoUniversity,andthenfora
yearattheSorbonne,Paris.Shepublishedherfirstbookofpoetry,GreenPitcher(1928),whenshewas18,andhersecond,Signpost,in1932bothdemonstrated
acommandofimagisttechniques,alyricalbent,andafeministoutlook.In1932shereturnedtoTorontoUniversitytotakeacourseinsocialwork,whichshe
practisedinNewJerseyandVancouverbetween1934and1939.Shealsojoined,andworkedfor,theCommunistParty.Tothisperiodbelongpoemsofsocialand
politicalprotest('InGreenSolariums','Montreal:1933','DepressionSuite'),andontheSpanishCivilWar('Catalonia','WordsBeforeBattle').In1937shemarried
DuncanMacnair(d.1959):theyhadtwochildren.ThepoliticalvoicewasstillactiveinDayandNight(1944),whichwontheGovernorGeneral'sAward,asdid
PoemsforPeople(1947),inwhichthewartimeeffortsoftheworkersarecelebrated('WestCoast:1943','TheOutrider')andsufferingsarereflectedupon('InTime
ofWar','LondonRevisited:1946').Afterthewarsheworkedasajournalistandadocumentaryscriptwriterbeforeteachingfortwoyearsinhighschool.Shethen
becameaUnescoEnglishspecialistinParis,followedbythreeyearsinpreindependenceZambia,anexperiencewhichinspiredthesequences'TheSecondLanguage
(Suite)'and'Zambia'.Subsequentlyshewasuntil1983writerinresidence,associateprofessor,orvisitinglectureratCanadianuniversities.
InTheUnquietBed(1967)andPlainsongs(1969),whichmarkedachangetoamorecolloquial,lessformaltone,shegivesfullexpressiontomattersoffemale
sexuality.CollectedPoems:TheTwoSeasons(1972),chosenfrompoemswrittenbetween1926and1971,shecalls'apsychicifnotaliteralautobiography'.She
continuedtheprocesswithreflectionsonageinginIceAge(1975),TheWomanIAm(1977),andFeelingtheWorld:NewPoems(1984).Asconcernedwiththe
developmentofCanadianpoetryasawholeaswithherown,shefoundedin1975thejournalCV/II,whichsheediteduntil1977.Beginnings(1988),afictionalized
autobiographyofherearlyyears,isarevisededitionofAWinnipegChildhood(1973).ShewasmadeOfficer,OrderofCanada,in1987.SeePeterStevens,
DorothyLivesay:aWriter'sLife,1992(biographical/criticalstudy)PaulDenham,DorothyLivesayandHerWorks,1994LeeBriscoeThompson,Dorothy
Livesay,1987(criticalstudy).
Livy(TitusLivius)(59BCAD17)
wasbornanddiedinPadua,livedmostofhislifeinRome,hadtwochildren,andknewtheemperorsAugustusandClaudius,thelatterofwhomheencouragedto
writehistory.Thatisaboutallweknowaboutthisgreatwriterandmoderatelygoodhistorian,whosereputationwassuchthatitissaidaSpaniardcamealltheway
fromCadiztoRometolookathim,and,havingdoneso,wentbackhomesatisfied.HisfullhistoryofRomeupto9BCcomprised142books,ofwhichwehave35,
plussynopsesoftherest.Heisapopularhistorianinthatheconcentratesonnarrativeandcharacter,payingparticularattentiontothespeechheattributestohis
protagonists.Hedrewonawiderangeofsourcesandtraditionswithoutbeingveryconcernedabouttheiraccuracy,thoughhemakesupforhisvaguenessabout
geographicalandmilitary

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detailwithhissenseofdrama.SeeTheEarlyHistoryofRome:BooksIV,tr.AubreydeSlincourt,newedn1971RomeandItaly:BooksVIX,tr.Betty
Radice,1982TheWarwithHannibal:BooksXXIXXX.tr.AubreydeSlincourt,ed.BettyRadice,newedn1972RomeandtheMediterranean:Books
XXXIXLV,tr.HenryBettenson,1976.
Llewellyn,Richard,pennameofRichardDafyddVivianLlewellynLloyd(190683)
Welshnovelist,wasborninStDavid's,Pembrokeshire,thesonofahotelier,andwaseducatedatschoolsinsouthWales.At16hestartedtotrainforthehoteltrade,
firstasadishwasheratClaridge'sinLondon,theninItaly.HeservedintheArmyinIndiaandHongKongbetween1926and1931,whenhereturnedtoLondonand
becameafilmcriticforCinemaExpress.Hegainedsomestudioexperience,whichhelpedhiminwritingaplay,PoisonPen,performedinLondonin1937.Healso
startedanovel,thefirstfewhandwrittenpagesofwhichwereshownbyaportraitphotographerofhisacquaintancetoMichaelJoseph(18971958),whohadjustset
uphisownpublishingfirm.Onthestrengthofthese,thebookwascommissioned,anadvanceof150paid,andtheauthordisappearedtowrite.Deliverydateswent
by,andnothingmorewasheardofhimfortwoyears,whenhereappearedwithafinishedmanuscript.HowGreenWasMyValley(1939),afirstpersonnarrativeof
aWelshminingcommunity,writteninavibrantstylewhoserhythmandstructurescorrespondedtotheEnglishspokeninWales,waspublishedamonthafterthe
declarationofwar.Itwasimmediatelyacclaimedandwassubsequentlytranslatedintoovertwentylanguages.DuringthewarLlewellynservedinItalyasacaptainin
theWelshGuards,andwroteNoneButtheLonelyHeart(1943),anovelofLondoninthe1930s.Afterthewarheenjoyedtothefullthefameandthemoneythat
hisfirstnovelbroughthim,andtravelledwidely,usinghisimaginationandthesettingsofthecountriesinwhichhestoppedforastringofnovels,noneofwhich
recapturedhisoriginalfervour.
Llosa,MarloVargas
seeVARGASLLOSA.
Lochhead,Liz(b.1947)
Scottishpoetanddramatist,wasborninMotherwell,Lanarkshire,thedaughterofalocalgovernmentofficer,andwaseducatedatDalzielHighSchool,Motherwell,
andGlasgowSchoolofArt.ShewentontoteachartatBishopbriggsHighSchool.Herfirstbookofverse,MemoforSpring(1972),celebratesthehomeand
neighbourhoodinwhichshegrewup,andthecityofGlasgowwhichshewasnowdiscovering.Itincludestheattractive'LetterfromNewEngland',withitssuggestions
ofirony,aformofstatementwhichshelaterrenouncedinfavourofgreaterdirectnessandpoemswhich'tellastory'.Shebecameafulltimewriterafterbeingin1978
thefirstrecipientofaScottish/CanadianWriter'sFellowship.InTheGrimmSisters(1981)sheusesoraltraditionandfolkandfairytalematerialasabasisforan
assertionofthefemininerole.BloodandIce(1982),herfirstplay,isaboutMARYSHELLEY,andreflectsthe'thrillofterror'whichfascinatesher.MaryQueenofScots
GotHerHeadChoppedOff(1989)isastudyindramaticformofdifferentkindsofambivalenceandconflict.ShehastranslatedMOLIRE'STartuffeintomodern
Scots(1989),whichsheherselfdirectedinEdinburghin1994.ShewrotetheversionoftheYorkMysteryPlayswhichwasperformedin1996.Sheisherselfastage
performerBagpipeMuzak(1991)includesrecitationsandcharacters.SeeDreamingFrankenstein,andCollectedPoems,newedn1994.
Locke,John(16321704)
Englishphilosopher,wasborninWrington,Somerset,thesonofalandsteward,andwaseducatedatWestminsterSchoolandChristChurch,Oxford,wherehewas
alifestudentuntiltheprivilegewaswithdrawnin1684ontheordersofCharlesII.HewasattractedbytheempiricismofBACON,andstudiedmedicine,whichhe
practisedasphysiciantoSHAFTESBURY,whointroducedhimtoleadingthinkersandpoliticiansoftheday,andgavehimapostwiththeBoardofTrade.Forreasonsof
healthorpoliticalexpediency,Lockespentsomeoftheyearsbetween1675and1688ontheContinent,wherehemetphilosophersandtheologians.BackinEngland,
andinfavour,aftertheaccessionofWilliamandMary,hewasappointedtoseveralgovernmentposts,andendedhisdaysincomfortableretirement.AnEssay
ConcerningHumaneUnderstanding(1690)worksfromabasicpremisehehadpropoundedtwentyyearsearlier,whichholdsthatastudyofthenatureofhuman
understandingisaprerequisiteofconstructivethoughtandthatknowledgederivesfromexperience.Ithasbecomeoneofthemostinfluentialphilosophicalworksinthe
Englishlanguage.OthersignificantstudiesincludeTwoTreatisesofGovernment(1690)aseriesof'LettersonToleration'(1689,1690,1692)SomeThoughts
ConcerningEducation(1693)andTheReasonablenessofChristianity(1695),inwhichheadvocatesareunionoftheCatholicandProtestantchurches.See
LockeonHumanUnderstanding,ed.I.C.Tipton,1977(selectedessays)PoliticalWritings,ed.DavidWootton,1993MauriceCranston,JohnLocke,new
edn1985(biography)JohnDunn,Locke,1984(introductiontohisthought).
Lockhart,JohnGibson
seeHOGGSCOTT,WALTERWILSON,JOHN.

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Lodge,David(b.1935)
Britishnovelistandcritic,wasborninaninnersuburbofsouthLondonintoalowermiddleclassCatholicfamilyofmixedorigins,andwaseducatedatStJoseph's
Academy,goingonat17toLondonUniversity,wherehegotafirstinEnglish.Hewrotehisfirstnovel,ThePicturegoers(1960),whenhewas18,andhissecond,
Ginger,You'reBarmy(1962),aboutareluctantNationalServicemanwhoinadvertentlybetrayshisbestfriend,whiledoingNationalServiceintheRoyalArmoured
Corps.Afterwardsheabandonedtheideaofjournalismforanacademiccareer,teachingatBirminghamUniversityfrom1960,andbecomingProfessorofModern
Literaturein1976(onhisretirementin1987towritefulltime,hebecameHonoraryProfessor).WithTheBritishMuseumisFallingDown(1965)heemergedasa
comicnovelist,parodist,andsatirist.HisdualisticvisionisingeniouslyandwittilyexpressedinChangingPlaces:aTaleofTwoCampuses(1975),inwhich
academiclives,andwives,areswappedandanalvsed.ThesamecharactersrecurinSmallWorld:anAcademicRomance(1984),thistimejethoppingbetween
conferencesroundtheworld,withtheadditionofanaiveandoutofplaceyoungIrishmanhotinpursuitofthegirlofhisdreams.InNiceWork(1988),oneworldis
academic,theotherisindustry,astwoutterlyopposedcharacterspoignantlyplayouttheirmutualincomprehension.Therapy(1995)islong,foracomicnovel,butits
excursionsintomodernmiddleageproblems,particularlysex,aresatisfyinglypresented.Hisfirstplay,TheWritingGame(1991),echoeshisexperiencesastutorat
residentialwritingcourses.InanotetoSmallWorld,hereferstothetensionbetween'therealworld'and'figmentsoftheimagination',whichhehasdiscussedinhis
criticalworkstheseincludeTheNovelistattheCrossroadsandOtherEssaysonFictionandCriticism(1971)andWorkingwithStructuralism:Essaysand
ReviewsonNineteenthandTwentiethCenturyLiterature(1986).InAfterBakhtin:EssaysonFictionandCriticism(1990),hediscussestheworkofthe
Russiancriticandappliesittoawideanddiverserangeofnovelists,withasummaryofthecurrentstateofacademiccriticism.TheArtofFiction(1992),'abookfor
peoplewhoprefertotaketheirLitCritinsmalldoses',isbasedonnewspaperarticles.SeeThePracticeofWriting:Essays,Lectures,ReviewsandaDiary,
1997BernardBergonzi,DavidLodge,1995(criticalintroduction).
Lodge,Thomas(c.15581625)
Englishprosewriterandpoet,wasborninLondon,thesecondsonofSirThomasLodge(d.1584),merchant,slavetrader,andLordMayorofLondon,andwas
educatedatMerchantTaylors'SchoolandTrinityCollege,Oxford.HebegantostudyforthelawatLincoln'sInn,butabandonedthatforliteratureandLondon
literarylife,whichappearstohaveinfuriatedhisfamily.Hisfirstwork,adefenceofpoetryandplays(onwhichhiscirclelargelydependedfortheirliving),wasan
answertoapamphletbyStephenGosson(15541624).ProbablycalledHonestExcusesandpublishedin1579,itwassuppressedandreissuedprivately.After
furtherpamphleteering,andserviceonboardashipvoyagingtotheCanaryIslandsin1588,hepublishedScilla'sMetamorphosis(1589),avariationonOVID,
pleasantlytoldinverse,withsomeotherpoems,andthentheprosefictionworkforwhichheisbestknown,Rosalynd:EuphuesGoldenLegacie(1590).An
elegantlywritten,wellplottedpastoralromance,interspersedwithdelicatelyhumoroussongs,itisthesourceofSHAKESPEARE'SAsYouLikeIt.Hiswanderlust
reasserteditselfin1591when,leavingthreelesserpiecesoffictionforpublicationinhisabsence,hesignedupwithSirThomasCavendish,at30alreadyaveteranof
onecircumnavigationoftheworld,forwhatwaspresumablyintendedtobearepeatperformance.TheexpeditiononlyreachedtheStraitofMagellan(South
America),andaftersufferingtremendoushardshipsreturnedin1593withoutitscommander,whohaddiedapparentlyofgrief.IfLodgehadbeenseekingatseawhat
hadinspiredRosalynd,whichhadbeen'wroughtintheoceanwheneverielinewaswetwithasurge',hefailed.Theoutcomewasmerelyacollectionofonly
intermittentlymemorableverses,Phillis:HonouredwithPastorallSonnets,ElegiesandAmorousDelights(1593),andahistoricalromancewithsomespectacular
actsofviolence,AMargariteofAmerica(1596).AFigforMomus,ContainingSatires,EcloguesandEpistlescameoutin1595healsowrotetwoplays,one
ofthemwithROBERTGREENE.Henowhadanewfaith(RomanCatholicism)andanewcareertolookforwardto,asadoctorofmedicine,inwhichhequalifiedin
Avignonin1600andatOxfordin1602.HethenpractisedinLondon,andpublishedATreatiseofthePlaguein1603.
Lofting,Hugh(18861947)
Britishchildren'snovelist,wasborninMaidenhead,Berkshire,ofAngloIrishparentage.HewaseducatedataJesuitboardingschoolinDerbyshire,atthe
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,andattheLondonPolytechnic,afterwhichheworkedasacivilengineerinCanada,WestAfrica,andtheWestIndies.He
marriedanAmericanin1912andsettledinNewYork,butenlistedintheBritishArmyin1917.WhileservinginFlanders,ratherthansendhischildrennewsofthe
front,whichwouldhavebeencensored,hewrote,andillustrated,storiesfortheminspiredbythepartthathorseswereplayinginthecombatandbythephilosophical
reflectionthat'todevelopahorsesurgeryasgoodasthatofourCasualtyClearingStationwouldnecessitateaknowledgeofhorselanguage'.Sothe

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unworldly,lovableDrDolittle,whocouldtalktoanimals,wasborn,anddulyappearedinTheStoryofDrDolittle(1922)andsubsequenttales.Muchofthehumour
stemsfromtheincongruityofanimalsbehavinglikehumans,andthereissatireenoughforthatessentialappealtoadultsaswell.Loftinghimselfwouldhavebeen
mortifiedthathisoccasionallapseoftastehassincebeendenouncedasracism.Hewasreturnedfromthefrontlinein1918withseriouswounds,andspenttherestof
hislifeintheUSA.Afterhiswife'sdeathin1927,hemarriedagain,onlyforhiswifetodiethesameyear.Byhisthirdwife,JosephineTrickerofToronto,whomhe
marriedin1935,hehadason,forwhomthefinalbookinthecanon,DrDolittleandtheGreenCanary(1951),waswritten.SeeEdwardBlishen,HughLofting,
1968(criticalstudy).
Logue,Christopher(b.1926)
Britishpoet,dramatist,andactor,wasborninPortsmouth,asheexplainsin'TheSongofAutobiography':'Icameamongyouinatimeofhunger,/Bornatdaybreak
inadockyardsuburb'.HewaseducatedatPortsmouthGrammarSchool,andservedintheArmyfrom1944to1948.HewasmainlyinParisuntil1956,whenhe
movedintoamewscottageinNottingHillGate,London.Hebeganwritingprofessionallywhenhewas22,andhadabookofversepublishedinParisin1953.During
the1960sheandAdrianMitchell(b.1932)gainedcultstatuswiththeirprotestpoetryreadings.Songs(1959),withitseffectivetypographicalvariations,isstill
regardedashisbestsinglecollection,andcontainstwoparticularlyimpressivelongerpoems,'TheStoryabouttheRoad',aThirdWorldcautionarytale,andhis
renderingofanextractfromHOMER'SIliad.Thislastpreoccupationhadby1981developedintoWarMusic:anAccountofBooks16to19ofHomer'sIliad,which
wasaugmentedbyKings(1991,stagedin1992),aversionofBooks1and2,andbyHusbands(1994),Books3and4.Donefromtranslations,thesehaveavitality
andimmediacywhichareoftenlackingfromstandardrenderings.LoguehasexercisedhissatiricalbentincontributionstoPrivateEyeseeTrueStoriesfrom
'PrivateEye'(1973)andothervolumeshehasedited.AsCountPalmiroVicarionhepublishedanovel,Lust(1950),andabookof'bawdyballads'(1962)withthe
OlympiaPress,Paris:incontrasttothecompilation(underhisownname)ofTheChildren'sBookofComicVerse(1982),withamorestaidpublisherinLondon.
SeeSelectedPoems,ed.ChristopherReid,1996.
London,Jack[JohnGriffith](18761916)
Americannovelist,shortstoryandprosewriter,wasborninSanFrancisco.HewastheillegitimatesonofFloraWellman,anitinerantmusicteacherandlectureron
spiritualism,andofWilliamHenryChaney,atravellingastrologer,whoabandonedherwhenshewaspregnantand,whentracedbyLondonin1897,refusedto
acknowledgehimashisson.Ninemonthsafterthebirth,FloramarriedJohnLondon,whosesurnamehewasgiven.Aneglectedchild,hegaveupschoolin1891to
workinacannery,andthen,withaloanfromhisformerblackwetnurse,boughtasloopandbecameanoysterpirate.Whenforcedoutofbusinessbyrivals,he
joinedtheFishPatrol,andusedhisknowledgetohoundthem.At17hesignedonasaseamanonasealingexpeditiontotheBeringSea,andwonthe$25firstprize
fromtheSanFranciscoMorningCallforanarticle,'StoryofaTyphoonofftheCoastofJapan'.Inasubsequentjobhewasexploitedbyanunprincipledelectricity
superintendent,andjoinedthearmyoftramps,recordinginadiarynoteshelaterusedinTheRoad(1907),thefirstmajorworkontheAmericanhobo,forallthatit
glossesovertheharsherrealities.AfterbeingarrestedforvagrancywhilevisitingNiagaraFallsandserving30daysintheErieCounty,NewYork,Penitentiary,he
beatitbackhometoCalifornia,andenrolledforayearatOaklandHighSchool.In1896,havingimbibedonthesidethephilosophiesofDARWIN,ADAMSMITH,SPENCER,
NIETZSCHE,andKANT,aswellasthatofMARX,andbeenactiveintheSocialistLaborParty,hewenttotheUniversityofCalifornia,fromwhichhewithdrewafterone
semesterbecausethepacewastooslow.HecompletedhiseducationforauthorshipintheYukoninthewinterof189697,duringtheKlondikegoldrush,fromwhich
hereturnedwithscurvyandahostofexperiences.
In1899hesoldhisfirststorytoOverlandMonthly,andAtlanticMonthlysenthim$120for'AnOdysseyoftheNorth'.AbookofAlaskanstories,TheSonofthe
Wolf,waspublishedin1900,when,alreadyaveteranoftwoseriousromances,hedecidedheneededahelpmate,andmarriedBessieMaddern,bywhomhehad
twodaughters.Calledbysomethe'KiplingoftheKlondike'andbyothersthe'BretHarteoftheYukon',hewasnowofferedaretainertowriteanovel,ADaughter
oftheSnows(1902),whichfailed.NotsoThePeopleoftheAbyss(1903),asociologicalstudyoftheslumsofLondon,toresearchwhichhedescendedintothe
worstpartsoftheEastEndindisguiseandTheCalloftheWild(1903),which,withtheantitheticalWhiteFang(1906),exploresanthropologicalissuesina
naturalisticcanineenvironment.WhenBessiedivorcedhimin1905,hemarriedtheemancipatedCharmianKittredge,fiveyearshissenior,whowasatthetimehis
secretary.AsPresidentofthenewIntercollegiateSocialistSocietyhelecturedonthecomingrevolutionthroughouttheEastandMidwest,includingHarvardandYale.
HeboughtaranchnearGlenEllen,California,andbeganbuildinghisfabulous45footyacht,theSnark.In

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1907,withCharmianandheruncleasmembersofanincompetentcrew,theunseaworthycraftlurchedoutofOakfieldharbour,onthefirstlegofacircumnavigation
oftheworldwhichwastobeforLondonapracticalmanifestationofaliteraryandpersonalphilosophywhichpittedmanagainsttheelements.Astheboatlimped
westwards,hewrotethesemiautobiographicalromance,MartinEden(1908),thedeathofwhoseprotagonist,bydroppingoverboardinmidPacific,reflectedhis
owndisillusionmentatatimewhenhehadtoreturnhometemporarilytosortouthistangledfinances.Hefinallygaveupthevoyagein1909,aftersuccumbingtoa
multiplicityoftropicalandothercomplaintsintheSolomonIslands.
WiththemoneyheearnedfromtalesofhisadventuresintheSouthSeasandfromfurthernovels,includingBurningDaylight(1910),anidealizedromanceofa
superman,hedevelopedhisBeautyRanchandstartedbuildinghisdreammansion,WolfHouse.Foradventure,in1911hedrovewithCharmianandamanservant
throughnorthernCaliforniaandOregoninafourinhand.TheconflagrationthatdestroyedanalmostfinishedWolfHousein1913wasprobablyarson.John
Barleycorn(1913),hisguiltriddenautobiographicaltreatiseonthedangersofdrink,reflectedthestateofhishealthaswellasofhismind.Whetherhediedofuremia
orbysuicide,thebodyhadsimplygivenup.Undeniablyafolkhero,hewasalsoasocialcriticandphilosopher,andastorytellerwhodelightedinunclutteredprose.
SeeThePortableJackLondon,ed.EarleLabor,1994NovelsandSocialWritingsandNovelsandStories,ed.DonaldPizer,1982AndrewSinclair,Jack:a
BiographyofJackLondon,1978EarleLabor,JackLondon,1974(criticalstudy).
Longfellow,HenryWadsworth(180782)
Americanpoetandtranslator,wasborninPortland,Maine,thesecondofeightchildrenofalawyerandlegislator.'MyLostYouth'(1855)idealisticallyreflects
aspectsofhischildhood,duringwhich,at13,hehadapoemprintedinthePortlandGazette.HewaseducatedatPortlandAcademyandBowdoinCollege,into
whichhepassedwhenhewas14.Unattractedtothetraditionalprofessionsoflaw,medicine,ortheministry,hewastryingtopersuadehisfathertolethimgoonto
Harvardandthentobecomeawriter,whenBowdoinofferedhimaprofessorshipofmodernlanguages,providedhefirststudyinEuropeathisownexpense.Fluent
nowintheRomancelanguages,hetookupthepostin1829,andin1831marriedthedaughterofajudge.
Hisfirstliterarywork,OutreMer(1835),publishedanonymously,isanaccountofhistravels,patternedonIRVING'STheSketchBook.HereturnedtoEuropein1835
tostrengthenhiscommandofGermaniclanguagesbeforebecomingSmithProfessorofModernLanguagesandBellesLettresatHarvard.HiswifediedinRotterdam,
afteramiscarriage.Hyperion,anallegoricalproseromance(withwhichhehopedtopresshissuitwithareluctantFannyAppleton,tenyearshisjunior),andhisfirst
bookofverse,VoicesoftheNight,inwhichwas'APsalmofLife',bothappearedin1839.BalladsandOtherPoems(1841),whichincluded'TheWreckofthe
Hesperus','TheVillageBlacksmith',and'Excelsior',consolidatedhisreputation.WhenFannyfinallymarriedhimin1843,herfather'sgifttothemwasthehistoric
mansionofCraigieHouse,Cambridge,Massachusetts.ThePoetsandPoetryofEurope(1845),ananthologyoftranslations,manybyhimself,wassignificantin
bringingtheOldWorldtotheNewsowasEvangeline:aTaleofAcadie(1847),aNorthAmericanepicinclassicalhexameters,inestablishinghimasanarrative
poet.
Forwhateverreason,heresignedfromHarvardin1854,andpressedonwithTheSongofHiawatha(1855),anIndianfolklegendforwhichhechosethemetreof
theFinnishepic,Kalevala.Fannydiedin1861,asaresultofabizarreaccidentwhileshewassealingpackagesofhertwosmalldaughters'curls.Longfellow,who
rushedtoherrescue,wasbadlyburned'TheCrossofSnow'(1879)waswrittenlaterasamemorialtoher.Totakehismindoffthetragedy,heimmersedhimselfin
hisblankversetranslationofDANTE'SDivineComedy(186567).In1868,accompaniedbyhisdaughtersandotherrelatives,hevisitedEuropeforthelasttime.In
EnglandhesawhisoldfriendDICKENS,hadbreakfastwiththePrimeMinister,dinedwiththePrinceofWales,andwasreceivedatWindsorCastlebyQueenVictoria.
Shecommentedafterwards:'Inoticedanunusualinterestamongtheattendantsandservants....Ihavesinceenquiredofthem,andamsurprisedandpleasedtofind
thatmanyofhispoemsarefamiliartothem....Suchpoetswearacrownthatisimperishable.'Indeed,ithasbeenestimatedthat,includingpiratededitions,more
copiesofLongfellowweresoldinVictorianEnglandthanofanyotherlivingpoet,evenTENNYSON.HeistheonlynonBritishwriterwhosebuststandsinPoets'Corner,
WestminsterAbbey.SeeTheCompletePoems,1993SelectedPoems,ed.AnthonyThwaite,newedn1993ArvinNewton,Longfellow:HisLifeandWork,
1962CecilB.Williams,HenryWadsworthLongfellow,1964(biographical/criticalstudy).
Longstreet,AugustusBaldwin(17901870)
Americanprosewriter,lawyer,cleric,andeducationist,wasborninAugusta,Georgia,ofparentsofsomesubstancewhohadmigratedfromNewJersey.Hewas
educatedattheWaddellSchool,Willington,SouthCarolina,andYale,thenstud

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iedatthelawschoolrunbyjudgesReeveandGouldinLitchfield,Connecticut,beingadmittedtotheGeorgiaBarin1815.In1817hemarriedFrancesElizaPeake
(17991868),andafterlivingwithherfamilyinGreensborothecoupleboughta600acrefarmnearbyoftheireightchildrenonlytwodaughtersreachedadulthood.
ElectedasGreeneCounty'srepresentativetotheStateAssemblyin1821,andajudgeoftheSuperiorCourtofOcmulgeeDistrict(acircuitofsevencounties)for
182225,hestoodforCongressin1824butwithdrewafterthedeathofhismotherinlawandhisfouryearoldsonwithintwodaysofeachother.Heandhiswife
joinedtheMethodistChurchin1827andmovedtoAugusta,whereheopenedalawfirm.In1833theweeklyMilledgevilleSouthernRecorderpublishedthefirstof
hisrealistic,wittysketchesoffrontierlife,GeorgiaScenes,underthepseudonymsofHall(aGeorgianwhohadsignedtheDeclarationofIndependence)forstories
centredonmenandBaldwinforthosemainlyaboutwomen.TheseriescontinuedintheweeklyAugustaStatesRightsSentinel,ofwhichLongstreetwasownerand
editor183436.Therewasacollectioninvolumeform,GeorgiaScenes,Characters,Incidents&c.,intheFirstHalfCenturyoftheRepublic(1835),'Bya
NativeGeorgian'asecondedition(1840)publishedbyHarperunderLongstreet'sname,withanintroductionbyhim,furtherenhancedhisnationalliterary
reputation.Bynow,however,hehadlargelylostinterestinthiskindofwriting.
In1839hebecameaMethodistminister,andwasimmediatelycalledupontotendto,andnurse,victimsoftheyellowfeverepidemic.Thesameyearhewas
appointedPresidentoftheMethodistfoundationEmoryCollege.Hisproslaverypamphlet,LettersontheEpistleofPaultoPhilemon,ortheConnectionof
ApostolicChristianitywithSlavery(1845),andthevolumeAVoicefromtheSouth:ComprisingLettersfromGeorgiatoMassachusetts(1847)circulated
widelyintheSouth.In1848,believinghewasabouttobeofferedthepostofPresidentoftheUniversityofMississippi,heresignedfromEmory,onlytobepassed
over.InhasteheacceptedthepresidencyoftheundistinguishedandunrulyCentenaryCollege,Louisiana,fromwhichhesoonresigned,havingconsoledhimselfby
exposingthelocalcommunityinaserializationofthefirstfivechaptersofhisdidacticnovelMasterWilliamMitten:or,AYouthofBrilliantTalentsWhoWas
RuinedbyBadLuck(seriallyinfull1859,involumeform1864).HewasnowappointedtotheUniversityofMississippi,wherehetookchargeofadisorderlybody
ofstudentsandincreasedtherollfrom76to225infiveyears.In1856,toresolveacontroversyoverhispoliticalinvolvementandrealestatespeculations,heoffered
hisresignationitwasrefusedandhewasawardedthedegreeofDD.Notfullysatisfied,heresignedagaintohischagrintherewasthistimenoobjection.
AppointedtoSouthCarolinaCollege(nowUniversityofSouthCarolina)in1857,hepubliclyencouragedsecessionfromtheUnion,andin1860hewithdrewfrom
theInternationalStatisticalConferenceinLondonafteraspeakerwarmlyacknowledgedthepresenceofaNegrodelegatefromCanada.HispamphletShallSouth
CarolinaBegintheWar?(1861)didnotpreventhisentirestudentbodyleavingtoenlist.Nowanoldman,heretiredwithhisfamilytoOxford,Georgia,shortly
beforehishouseinOxford,Mississippi,wasburnedbytheYankees.In1865theyreturnedtoacottageinMississippi.StorieswithaMoral(1912),editedbyhis
nephewFitzR.Longstreet,lacksthefreshnessandhumourofGeorgiaScenes,whichstandsasaliterarymonumenttothebenefitsofnature,education,religion,and
government.SeeKimballKing,AugustusBaldwinLongstreet,1984(biographical/criticalstudy).
Lorca,FedericoGarcia
seeGARCALORCA.
Lorris,GuillaumeDe(c.1212C.1237)
Frenchpoet,tookhisnamefromavillageontheLoireaboveOrleans.Hewasapriest,whowrotethefirst4058linesofRomandelaRose,anallegoricaldream
romanceinwhichhesetouttodescribe'alltheArtoflove',towhichMEUNGprovidedthecontinuationinadifferentvein.ItisLorris'scontributionwhichhadthegreater
effectonEnglish,andScottish,courtlylovepoetry,andontheearlyworkofCHAUCER,whoistheprobabletranslatorofthefirstpartofTheRomauntoftheRose,
takenfromLorris'sportionofthepoem.SeeRomandelaRose,tr.CharlesDahlberg,newedn1995TheRomanceoftheRose,tr.anded.FrancesHorgan,1994.
Lovelace,Earl(b.1935)
Trinidadiannovelistanddramatist,wasborninToco,andspenthischildhoodinTobagoandPortofSpain.HisfirstjobwasasaproofreaderwiththeTrinidad
PublishingCompany.Subsequentlyhewasagovernmentforestryandagriculturalassistant.Attheageof23hewenttotheUSAtopursuehisinterestinliterature,
which,afterfurtherstudy,hetaughtatJohnsHopkinsandotheruniversities.HereturnedtoTrinidadin1982,joiningtheTrinidadFolkTheatre,andteachingcreative
writingattheUniversityoftheWestIndies.Inhisfirstnovel,WhileGodsareFalling(1966),theruralexistenceofWalter'schildhoodseemspreferabletourbanlife.
Thecontrastbetween'beingaman'inthevillageandbeingsubmergedinthecompetitivenessofthecityisalsoreflectedinTheDragonCan'tDance(1979)inThe
Schoolmaster(1968)andThe

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WineofAstonishment(1982)themarchofprogresshaserodedoldvaluesforthosewhoareleftbehindinthevillage.Widerquestionsofnationallibertyand
governmentinTrinidadarepresentedinSalt(1996),apanoramicnovelwhichcoverstheperiodfrom1806tothepresent.Humanpredicaments,dramaticsituations,
andrealisticrepresentationofspeecharefeatures,too,ofJestina'sCalypsoandOtherPlays(1984)andABriefConversionandOtherStories(1988).
Lovelace,Richard(161857)
Englishpoet,wasprobablyborninHolland,theeldestsonofSirWilliamLovelaceofWoolwich,Kent,whowaskilledatthesiegeofGrollin1627.Hewaseducated
atCharterhouseandGloucesterHall,Oxford,wherehewasamemberofthefashionableset.Heservedintheroyalistarmyinthetwoingloriousexpeditionsinto
Scotlandin163940.HethenretiredtoKent,wherehebecameajusticeofthepeace,inwhichcapacityhepresentedtoParliamentin1642apetitionopposingits
authoritarianpractices.ForthispresumptionhewasimprisonedintheGatehouse,wherehewrotethesong,'ToAlthea,fromPrison',withitslines'StoneWallsdoe
notaPrisonmake,/NorI'ronBarsaCage'.Hewasfreedonbailaftertwomonths,andspentsometimeinHolland,afterpenning'ToLucasta,Goingbeyondthe
Seas'.HefoughtfortheFrenchatthesiegeofDunkirkin1646,butthereisnoevidenceforthestorythat'Lucasta',havingheardareportofhisdeath,married
another.Nowwiththerankofcolonel,hewasinLondonin1647,whenhewasmadeafreemanofthePainters'Company,amarkofhisaesthetictastes.In1648,
probablyasaprecaution,hewasagaincommittedtoprison,fromwhichhearrangedthepublicationofLucasta:Epodes,Odes,Sonnets,Songs,&c.(1649),
containinghisimmortallyric,'ToLucasta,GoingtotheWarres'.Virtuallynothingisknownofhimafterthat,butthoughhewasforcedtosellLovelacePlace,
Bethersden,in1649,itisunlikelythathediedinsuchastateofpovertyasAUBREYsuggests.Lucasta:PosthumePoems(dated1659),waseditedbyhisbrother,
DudleyPosthumusLovelace,whoalsopublishedacollectionofelegiesonthepoet(1660).SeeSelectedPoems,ed.GeraldHammond,1987.
Lowell,Amy(18741925)
Americanpoetandcritic,acousinofROBERTLOWELL,wasborninBrookline,Massachusetts,ofanoldNewEnglandfamilyofintellectualdistinction.Shewasbrought
uponthefamilyestateofSevenels(whichsheboughtafterherparentsdiedwhenshewasinherlatetwenties)andwaseducatedatlocalandBostonprivateschools.
Disinclined,anddisadvantaged,whenitcametomarriage,sheinterestedherselfincivicaffairsandcharitablework,untilin1902,whilewatchingaperformancebythe
Italianactress,EleonoraDuse(18591924),sheconceivedherdestinyasapoetandidentifiedherselfalsowiththedevelopmentofthetheatre.Shepublisheda
conventionalbookofverse,ADomeofManyColoredGlass,in1912.HerattractiontotheImagistpoetsandherinclusioninPOUND'Santhology,DesImagistes
(1914),alongsideDOOLITTLEandW.C.WILLIAMS,enthusedherintoappointingherselftheleaderandpromoterofthemovementintheUSA.SwordBladesandPoppy
Seed(1914)wassignificantforcontainingpoemsinwhatshecalled'unrhymedcadence'(freeverse)andpolyphonicprose,andwasthefirstofseveralcollectionsofa
similarnature,forwhichmuchinspirationwasprovidedbyherrelationshipwiththeactressAdaDwyer(MrsHaroldRussell),whowas11yearsherseniorWhat's
O'Clock(1925)wasposthumouslyawardedthePulitzerPrize.SheultimatelyacknowledgedherauthorshipoftheanonymousACriticalFable(1922),amock
heroiconcontemporaryliteraryfigureswhosemodelwasAFableforCriticsbyhercollateralancestorJ.R.LOWELL,butonlyaftershehadaccusedseveralothersof
havingwrittenit.HercriticalworksincludeSixFrenchPoets(1915),TendenciesinModernAmericanPoetry(1917),andamonumentalbiographyofKEATS
(1925).SeeTheCompletePoeticalWorks,ed.LouisUntermeyer,1955RichardBenvenuto,AmyLowell,1985(criticalstudy).
Lowell,JamesRussell(181991)
Americanpoetandcritic,wasbornontheestateofElmwoodinCambridge,Massachusetts,ofadistinguishedNewEnglandfamilyonhisfather'sside,andof
Orcadiandescentonhismother's.HewaseducatedlocallyatWilliamWells'sschool,andat15wenttoHarvard,fromwhich,inspiteofascaleofmonetary
incentivesfromhisfatherforscholasticachievement,hewassuspendedforatimeforabsenteeism.Aftergraduatingin1838,hestudiedlawatDaneCollege,butdid
notpractise.Hewassoonpublishingpoetryandproseinjournals,includingaseriesofessaysonJacobeandramaintheBostonMiscellany(1842),aswellas
volumesofverse,AYear'sLife(1841)andPoems(1844).WithalocaljournalisthefoundedthePioneer,whosethreeissuesin1843containedcontributionsfromE.
B.BROWNING,HAWTHORNE,POE,andWHITTIER.Itsdemise,whichpersonallycosthim$1800,wasduetogenuinemisfortuneandtounprincipleddemandsbythepublisher.
In1844,afteralongengagement,hemarriedMariaWhite(182153),aminorpoetandhumanitarianactivist,underwhoseinfluencehecontributedarticlesandpoems
totheAntiSlaveryStandard.Thoughhecontinuedtopublishpoetryalmosttotheend,hisreputationwasmadeby,andsubsistson,aclusterofworks:TheBiglow
Papers,atopicalandpoliticallampooninproseandverse,of

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whichFirstSeriesappearedin1848AFableforCritics(1848),amockheroicsatireonliterarycontemporarieswhichhelaterclaimedtohave'extemporized'and
TheVisionofSirLaunful,anArthurianromanceoftheHolyGrail,publishedfortheChristmasmarketin1848.In1856hesucceededLONGFELLOWasSmith
ProfessorofModernLanguagesatHarvard,andhewastheoriginalEditor(185761)ofAtlanticMonthly.Afterthedeathsofthreeofhischildrenininfancy,and
thenofMaria,hemarriedin1857FrancesDunlap(d.1885),sisterofMaria'sclosestfriend,whohadcometolookafterhissurvivingdaughter.HewasUSMinister
toSpain(187780),andtoBritain(188085),whereheacquiredareputationfordiningout,butfornotmuchelse.SeeEdwardWagenknecht,J.R.Lowell:Portrait
ofaManySidedMan,1971ClaireMcGlinchee,JamesRussellLowell,1967(biographical/criticalstudy).
Lowell,Robert(191777)
Americanpoet,greatgreatnephewofJ.R.LOWELLandcousinofAMYLOWELL,wasborninBoston.HewaseducatedatStMark'sSchool,wherehehadapoet,
RichardEberhart(b.1904),asateacher,andwas'crushed'nottomakethefootballteamandatHarvard,fromwhichin1937hetransferredtoKenyonCollege,
wherehestudiedpoetryandclassicsunderRANSOM.In1940hebecameaCatholic,andmarriedJeanStafford(191579),thenovelistandshortstorywriterthey
divorcedin1948,her'AnInfluxofPoets'(1978)beingafictionalaccountoftheirmarriage.In1943heservedfivemonthsofasentenceofayearandadayfor
refusingarmyserviceinWorldWarIIonthegroundsofhisobjectionstoAlliedpolicies.LandofUnlikeness(1944)wasprivatelypublished.LordWeary'sCastle
(1946),shotwithvividimagery,wonthePulitzerPrize.In1949hemarriedElizabethHardwick(b.1916),thecriticandnovelist.Theydivorcedin1972herfictional
contributiontotheLowelllegendisSleeplessNights(1979).TheMillsoftheKavanaughs(1951)hedescribedtenyearslateras'anobscure,ratherElizabethan,
dramaticandmelodramaticpoem'.LifeStudies(1959),newpoemsandafragmentedprosememoir,markedachangeinstyle,andusheredintheconfessionalmode
ofpoetryofthe1960s.ThepoemsinNotebook19671968(1969)wererevisedforNotebook(1970),andthenrevisedagainandrearrangedintotwovolumes,For
LizzieandHarriet(1973),containingpersonalpoemsreflectingthebreakfromhiswifeanddaughter,andHistory(1973),onmoregeneralandpoliticalissues.
Dolphin(1973),whichwonthePulitzerPrize,isasonnetsequencecelebratinghisloveforhisthirdwife,theBritishnovelistCarolineBlackwood(LadyCaroline
HamiltonTempleBlackwood,193196),bywhomhehadhadasonin1971.HediedofaheartattackinaNewYorktaxi.Aconsiderablepoet,whosecredowas
'revisionisinspiration',andwhosepoetryreflectshisambivalentviewstowardshisancestry(whichalsoledhimtobeaformidablebutdignifiedpublicprotester),the
tangled,oftentormented,natureofhisprivatelife,andhisrecurringmaniccondition,hewasalsoconcernedwithintegratingvisualartintohiswork:'Prayforthegrace
ofaccuracy/Vermeergavetothesun'sillumination/stealinglikeatideacrossamap/tohisgirlsolidwithyearning'('Epilogue',1977).SelectedPoems(1976rev.
edn1977)ishisownchoice.SeeCollectedProse,newedn1990IanHamilton,RobertLowell:aBiography,1983PaulMariani,TheLostPuritan:aLifeof
RobertLowell,newedn1996StevenGouldAxelrodandHelenDeese(eds),RobertLowell:EssaysonthePoetry,newedn1989.
Lowry,(Clarence)Malcolm(190957)
Britishnovelist,wasborninBirkenhead,Cheshire,theyoungestoffourchildrenofawealthycottonbrokerandhiswife,bothstaunchMethodistsandteetotallers,who
senthimawaytoboardingschoolinHertfordshirewhenhewassix,andthentotheLeysSchool,Cambridge.Afteraneyeillnesshetooktogolf,atwhichhewonthe
JuniorPublic[Independent]SchoolsChampionship.Healsoplayedtheukelele,andcomposedpoetryandjazz.BeforegoingontoStCatherine'sCollege,
Cambridge,hepersuadedhisfathertolethimsignonasadeckhandinafreighterboundfortheChinacoastonthereturnvoyagehehadtocopewithaconsignment
ofseasickwildanimals,boundforazoo.Theexperienceresurfacedinhisnovel,Ultramarine(1933rev.edn,fromhismanuscripts,1963),oneofonlytwobooks
hepublishedinacareerofintenseindustrybutlittletangibleresult.HealsostayedinMassachusettswithAIKENseeLettersofConradAikenandMalcolmLowry,
ed.CynthiaSugars(1994),whointroducedhimtoJanGabrial,inthehopethat'shewouldtakehismindoffdrinkingtoomuch'.Theymarriedin1934anddivorced
in1940.Inthemeantimetheytravelledwidely,andinMexicohefinishedadraftofUndertheVolcano,theseedofwhichwasashortstoryofthesamename,written
in1936.
In1940hemarriedthe35yearoldAmericanmysterywriterandformerHollywoodstarlet,MargerieBonner,withwhomhewenttoliveinashackinDollarton,
BritishColumbia,Canada.HereheconceivedaDanteesquenovelsequencetobecalled'TheVoyagethatNeverEnds',ofwhichUndertheVolcano(1947)was
onepart.OthersweretobetheposthumouslypublishedLunarCaustic(1968),DarkastheGraveWhereinMyFriendisLaid(1968),andOctoberFerryto
Gabriola(1970),alleditedfromhismanuscriptdrafts'InBallasttotheWhiteSea'wasirrevocably

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lostwhenfiredestroyedtheshackin1945.ThecouplefinallyleftCanadain1954,andsettledinRipe,Sussex,wherehedied'bymisadventure'ofanoverdoseof
drugsanddrink.UndertheVolcano,asymbolicstudyoftheselfdestructionofanalcoholic,reflectsalsothebreakdownofvaluesinthe20thcenturythroughthe
paralleltragedyofMexico.HearUs,OLord,fromHeavenThyDwellingPlace(1961),asequenceofsevenstorieswhichLowryhadpreparedforpublication,
wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward.Poetrywrittenbetween1925andhisdeathisinTheCollectedPoetryofMalcolmLowry,ed.KathleenScherf,with
annotationsbyChrisAckerley(1992).SeeGordonBowker,PursuedbyFuries:aLifeofMalcolmLowry,1995W.H.New,MalcolmLowry,1971(critical
study)RonaldBinns,MalcolmLowry,1984(criticalstudy).
LuHsn(18811936)
Chinesestorywriterandessayist,wasbornChouShujeninShaohsing,Cheking,theeldestsonofaculturedbutimpoverishedfamily.AfterbeingattheNaval
Academy,Nanking,hewentonagovernmentscholarshiptoJapanin1904.TherehestudiedmedicineatSendaiuntil1906,whenhedroppedoutafterseeingnews
slidesoftheignominiousdecapitationofacountrymanintheRussoJapaneseWarinsteadhechoseliteratureasaway'tomeetthetaskofspiritualtransformation'of
China,towhichhereturnedin1909.AfterteachingmiddleschoolbiologyinHangchowandShaohsing,in1912heacceptedacounsellorshipintheMinistry,of
EducationofthenewRepublicanadministration,whichfrom1920to1926hecombinedwithlecturinginChineseliteratureattheNationalPekingUniversity.In1918
hecontributedtoNewYouthsomepoemsandastory,['TheDiaryofaMadman'](regardedasthefirstChineseWesternstylepieceoffiction),which,withfurther
storiesandcriticalessaysandcommentaries,puthimintheforefrontoftheNewCulturemovement.Hisfirstvolumeofstoriesandotherpieces,[TheOutcry](1923),
contained['TheTrueStoryofAhQ'],acharacterstudywithtragicundertones,whichbeganasthefirstepisodeofacomicserial,andhasachievedinternational
literarystatus.In1927hesettledinShanghai,wherehebecameareluctantliterarypundit,unabletoexorcisecompletelytheghostsoftraditionalism.SeeSilent
China:SelectedWritings,ed.andtr.GladysYang,1973StrawSandals:ChineseShortStories19181933,ed.HaroldR.Isaacs,1974.
Lucan(MarcusAnnaeusLucanus)(3965)
Romanepicpoet,wasborninCorduba,Spain,andwaseducatedinRome.TheemperorNeroengineeredhispoliticaladvancement,butthen,jealousofhisliterary
precocity,bannedhimfrompublishinganymoreverse.LucanrespondedbyjoiningPiso'sconspiracy,onthediscoveryofwhichhewasorderedtocommitsuicide.
Theplotwasalsousedasanexcusetogetridofhisuncle,SENECA.Hisonlysurvivingpoem,Pharsalia(tr.SusanH.BraundasCivilWar,1992),isanunfinishedepic
ofthewarbetweenCAESARandPompey.Dazzlinginitswitandepigrammaticstyle,itlacksthedepthofpoeticsensibilitywhichhemighthaveachievedintime.
Lucas,E(dward)V(errall)(18681938)
Britishjournalist,anthologist,andcritic,wasborninEltham,Kent,ofaQuakerfamily,whichshortlyafterwardsmovedtoBrighton.Afterattending11schools,hewas
at16apprenticedtoalocalbookseller,whomheleftaftertwoyearstojointhestaffoftheSussexDailyNews.In1892,withagiftof200fromanuncle,hewentto
London,whereheengagedinapersonalstudyofliteratureandattendedlecturesbyProfessorW.P.Ker(18551923)atUniversityCollege.Thefollowingyearhe
becameastaffwriterfortheGlobe,aLondoneveningpaper.SubsequentlyhewasamemberoftheeditorialstaffofPunch,towhichovertheyearshecontributed
numerouspieces.HewasappointedChairmanofthepublishingfirmofMethuenin1924.Avoluminousessayist,critic,andtravelwriter,hisaimwastosharewithhis
readersthesimplejoyhetookinliterature,art,thecountryside,romanticplaces,andcricket.Hewroteseverallightnovels,OverBemerton's(1908),setinandabove
abookshop,beingthemosthighlyregarded.Hecompiledmanyanthologiesofverseandprose,ofwhichTheOpenRoad(1899)containstwoofhisownpoemsand
someotherrareitems,andhasanespecialclaimtodubiousfameasoneofthebookscitedbythetediousMrBastinFORSTER'SHowardsEnd.Lucas'sTheLifeof
CharlesLamb(2vols,rev.edn1910)isstillthestandardbiography,andthoughhiseditionoftheLambs'letters(1935)hasbeensuperseded,hiscapablyand
copiouslyannotatedTheWorksofCharlesandMaryLamb(6vols1912)hasnot.HewasmadeCHin1932.SeeReading,WritingandRemembering,1932
(reminiscences).
Lucas,Victoria
seePLATH.
LucieSmith,Edward(b.1933)
Britishpoetandartcritic,wasborninKingston,Jamaica(see'ATropicalChildhood','ThePoloPlayer','TheLimeTree'),andwaseducatedatapreparatoryschool
inEngland(see'TheLesson'),atKing'sSchool,Canterbury,andatMertonCollege,Oxford.Hisfirstbookofverse,publishedinOxfordin1954,waswritten'inthe
wakeoftheMovement'(seeCONQUEST).AfterNationalServiceasan

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educationofficerintheRoyalAirForce,hebecameafreelancejournalist.ATropicalChildhoodandOtherPoems(1961)waspublishedwhilehewasassociated
withtheGroup,latertheWriters'Workshop,ananthologyoftheworkofwhosemembers,AGroupAnthology(1963),heeditedwithitsfounder,thepoetandcritic
PhilipHobsbaum(b.1932).AsaresultoftheGroup'sdiscussionsessionshebegantowritelongerpoemstwodramaticmonologuesinthestyleofROBERTBROWNING,
'SoliloquyintheDark'and'CaravaggioDying',inspiredandgivenextradepthbyhisunderstandingoftheartist'scraft,featureinConfessionsandHistories(1964).
Hewasacofounderin1965ofthespecialistpublisher,TurretBooks,underwhoseimprintsomeofhissubsequentworkappeared.Hepublishedanovel,TheDark
Pageant,in1977.HisstudiesofartincludeThinkingaboutArt:CriticalEssays(1968),EroticisminWesternArt(1972),ToulouseLautrec(rev.edn1983),
ArtintheSeventies(1980),andAHistoryofIndustrialDesign(1983).AmericanRealism(1995)examinespaintingwhichreflects'theingrainedAmericandesire
toconfrontrealitydirectly'.AmonghisanthologiesareThePenguinBookofElizabethanVerse(1965),ThePenguinBookofSatiricalVerse(1967),andBritish
Poetrysince1945(1970rev.edn1984).SeeTheBurntChild:anAutobiography(1975).
Lucretius(TitusLucretiusCarus)(c.9955bc)
Romanphilosophicalpoet,wasadevoteeoftheGreekphilosopher,Epicurus(341270BC),anddedicatedhisgreatpoemtoGaiusMemmius,astatesmanwho
retiredfrompubliclifeafterbeingimpeachedforbribery.Otherwiseweknownothingabouthimpersonallyexceptforthestorythathewaspoisonedbyan
aphrodisiac,wentmad,wrotepoetryinhislucidspells,andcommittedsuicide.Thathewasmadisunlikely:thathisworkultimatelyprovedtoomuchforhimis
possible.DeRerumNatura[OntheNatureofThings]isthefirstsixbooksofanunfinishedpoemuniqueinLatinandwithfewequivalentsinotherliteratures(the
nearestinEnglishisBRIDGES'STheTestamentofBeauty).Itisaworkofinsightaswellasoflearning,inwhich,whilesubscribingtotheEpicureanobjectiontospiritual
godsandtheirimages,LucretiusanticipatesthekindofdilemmathatmodernbiologistshavehadwithregardtoChristiantheology.SoheinvestsVenuswithanoverall
creativepower,beforeexplainingthecompositionofmatterandspaceinatomicterms,andgoingontodiscusstheminditself,feeling,sex,thought,cosmology,
anthropology,meteorology,andgeology.DeRerumNaturaisthusnotonlyaphilosophicalwork,butalsoascientifictreatisewritteninthelanguageofpoetry.See
OntheNatureofThings,tr.AnthonyM.Esolen,1995.
Lurie,Alison(b.1926)
Americannovelist,wasborninChicagoandgraduatedfromRadcliffeCollegein1947.ShemarriedJonathanBishopin1948(divorced1985).Herfirstnovel,Love
andFriendship(1962),suggestedaffinitieswithAUSTENforitstitle,thenameoftheheroine(Emmy),therestrictedcanvas(universityfamilies),anditswit.In
subsequentnovelsshehascontinuedtoinvestigaterelationshipsinavarietyofsituationswithinandoutsideacademia.RealPeople(1969)centresonawriters'colony
thecourseofTheWarBetweentheTates(1974)hasparallelswithprotestsagainsttheVietnamWarinOnlyChildren(1979)theadultworldisviewedthrough
childrens'eyesForeignAffairs(1985),whichwonthePulitzerPrize,hasasitsprotagonistamiddleagedwriterofchildren'sbooksconcernedwithhersexuality.
TheTruthaboutLorinJones(1988)isasustainedexplorationofthemind(andambivalence)ofabiographer.WomenandGhosts(1994)isninesatiricalorironic
storieswhosestructureisprovidedbyaghost.LuriebeganteachingatCornellUniversityin1968,andwasin1976appointedFredericJ.WhitonProfessorof
English,hersubjectsincludingfolkloreandchildren'sliterature.Hercriticalstudy,Don'tTelltheGrownUps:SubversiveChildren'sLiterature(1990)encourages
readerstoexaminestereotypicalworkswithneweyes.
Luther,Martin(14831546)
Germantheologian,leaderoftheReformation,wasborninEisleben.AftertakinghisdegreeofMAatErfurtUniversity,hewasordainedpriestattheAugustinian
monasteryinErfurt.In1513,afterbecomingDoctorofTheology,hebeganlecturingatWittenbergonPsalms,Romans,andGalatiansin1517heissuedhis95theses
againstthesaleofindulgences.Histhreegreatreformtracts,totheChristiannobilityofGermany,ontheBabyloniancaptivityoftheChurch,andonthefreedomofthe
Christian,appearedin1520.Threatenedwithexcommunication,hepubliclyburnedcanonlaw,andacopyofthepapalbull.WhileundertheprotectionoftheElector
ofSaxonyatWartburg,hetranslatedtheNewTestamentintoGerman(1522).In1525hemarriedCatherine(Kate)vonBora,aformernun.Shehadbenefitedfrom
hispleaforthereleaseofyoungwomenofaristocraticbirthwhohadbeenforcedintoconventsbyfamilieswhocouldnotfindsuitablematchesforthem:theyhadsix
children.HiscompleteBibleinGermanwaspublishedin1534,andrevisedseveraltimesinhislifetime.From1530untilhisdeathheissuedanaverageoftwenty
publicationsayear,andwrotenumerousletterswhichsurvive.Aboutfortysongsanda

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dozentunesareallthatcandefinitelybeattributedtohimas'fatheroftheGermanhymn',atitlewhichhealsoearnedforhisencouragementofcongregationstosing
togetherintheirnativetongue,ratherthansimplytolistentotheLatinofthechoir.
Lydgate,John(c.13701449)
Englishpoet,wasborninLydgate,Suffolk,andeducatedattheBenedictineAbbeyofBuryStEdmundswhere,accordingtohispoem,'TheTestament',hewasanill
behavedandinattentiveschoolboy.Afterbeinganovice,hebecameamonkandwasordainedpriestin1397.Thereisagapintherecorduntil1415,whenhe
reappearsatBury,andforseveralyearsafterthathewasPriorofHatfieldBroadoak,Essex.HeknewLondonwell,andspentsometimeinParisinthe1420s.His
significanceasapoetdependsnotsomuchonthequalityofhiswriting,whichisgenerallymundaneandmuddled,butonitssheervolume.About145,500lines
survive,evidenceoftheinfluenceofpatronageonthepoeticoutputofthetimeandtheeffectonthepreservationofliteratureoftheestablishmentoftheprinting
industryinEnglandbeforetheendofthe15thcenturyworksofhishadbeenprintedbyCAXTON,RichardPynson(d.1530),andWynkyndeWorde(d.c.1535).His
major,orlonger,works,alladaptedortranslatedfromtheFrench,includeTheHystonje,SegeandDystruccyonofTroye(knownas'TheTroyBook'),fromGuido
delleColonne(d.1316),writtenbetween1412and1421atthecommandofHenryVwhenPrinceofWalesTheSiegeofThebesThePilgrimageoftheLifeof
Man,fromGuillaumedeDeguileville(fl.133058),fortheEarlofSalisburyandTheFalleofPrincis,donebetween1431and1438fortheDukeofGloucester
fromanenlargedFrenchversionoftheItalianofBOCCACCIO.Thebestofhisshorterpoems,manyofthemcelebratingpublicorprivateoccasions,canbefoundamong
hisreligiouslyrics.SeePoems,ed.JohnNortonSmith,1966.
Lyly,John(1553/41606)
Englishdramatistandprosewriter,wasbornintheKentishWeald,ofaneruditefamily,andwaseducatedprobablyatKing'sSchool,Canterbury,andatMagdalen
College,Oxford.Theappellation'universitywit'hasbeenappliedtohimandseveralofhiscontemporaries.'Wit'inthiscontextmeans'manofwits',suchasisthehero
ofLyly'sdidacticproseromance,Euphues:theAnatomyofWyt(1578),anditssequel,EuphuesandHisEngland(1580).Fromthenamederivestheterm
'euphuism'forastyleofwritingthatisornamentalbutmanneredandartistic,reflectingthehumanisticeducationofitsexponents.Duringthe1580sLylytaughtatSt
Paul'schoirschool,whichwasineffectatheatricalcompanyprovidingrevelsforthecourtofElizabethIintheformofperformancesbyboys.Itisinthislightthathis
eightcomediesmustbeseen,andhisundoubtedartificejudged.TheyrangefromthemultifariousentertainmentofAMosteExcellentComedieofAlexander,
CampaspeandDiogenes(1584),totheelaboratelyandminutelyconstructedMotherBombie(1594),andTheWomanintheMoone(1597),whichwasprobably
intendedalsoforgeneralaudiences,andisthefirstexampleofblankversebeingusedsuccessfullyasthemediumofcomedy.Lylyisthelikelyauthorofagovernment
sponsoredtract,PappewithanHatchet(1589),supportingthebishopsinthefaceofaseriesofsubterraneansatiricalpamphlets.HewasaMemberofParliament
from1597to1601.SeeJohnDoverWilson,JohnLyly,newedn1982.
Lynch,Patricia(18981972)
Irishchildren'snovelist,wasborninCorkandeducatedatconventschoolsinIreland,England,andBelgium.InAStoryTeller'sChildhood(1947),aslightly
romanticizedrecreationofherearlyyears,shedescribesherrelationshipwithMrsHennessy,oneofthegenuinetravellingstorytellers,andtheresponseitwroughtin
her.ShemovedwithhermothertoEnglandafterherfather'sdeath,butin1916shewasbackagaininIreland,sentbythesuffragetteSylviaPankhurst(18821960)to
writeabouttheEasterRising.ShesettledpermanentlyinDublinafterhermarriagetoRichardM.Fox,ajournalistandhistorian,in1922.OfTheTurfcutter's
Donkey(1935),itssequels,andotherbooksinthesamevein,MargeryFisherwritesinIntentUponReading:aCriticalAppraisalofModernFictionfor
Children(1961):'Toread[her]storiesistobeintwoworldsatonce....Insidethehumblecottageeverythingispeacefulandsecure,but,onceoutside,the
enchantmentiseverywhere,sometimesdangerouslyalluring,sometimestreatedwithhumorousdisrespect.'LynchuseslegendarymaterialaboutGranuaileinOrlaof
Burren(1954),andaboutQueenMaeveandCuchulaininFionaLeapstheBonfire(1957),andevokesthepersonandtimesofSWIFTinTheBookshoponthe
Quay(1956).
Lyndsay,(Sir)David,oftheMount(14861555)
Scottishpoetanddramatist,wasbornonthefamilyestateinMonimail,Fife,andnextappearsintherecordsin1511,whenheperformedinaninterludeatcourt,
wearingablueandyellowtaffeta'playcoit'.AfterthedeathofJamesIVatFloddenin1513,hebecameKeeperoftheKingisGrace'sPerson.Atthebeginningofthe
personalruleoftheyoungJamesVin1529,hewasappointedaroyalherald,andundertookthefirstofseveralmissionstocourtsoverseas.TheDremeofSchir
DavidLyndesay(1628),apoliticalallegory,isaddressedtotheKing.Soare'AnExhortatiountotheKyngisGrace'tobewise,steadfast,andjust,

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andtoeschewlechery,and'TheComplaynt',askingforaloanof'anethousandpoundortway'ingold.TheTestamentandComplayntofOurSoveraneLordis
Papyngo(1538)ismarginallymoresubtleandmuchmorefun,asJames'spetparrotismadetodiscourseontopicswhichthepoetfeelsshouldbebroughttohis
master'sattention.Lyndsay'smostspectacularachievement,AnePleasantSatyreoftheThrieEstaitis...,thefirstgreatScottishdrama,wasperformedat
LinlithgowPalaceonTwelfthNight1540inspiteofitsdaringpoliticalandecclesiasticalstanceanddevastatingsatire,itisreportedtohavefoundfavourwiththe
King.CertainlyitsdramaticimpactandcleverstagecraftmadeitapotentweaponofreformatthemostcriticaltimeinScottishhistoryitwasrestaged(ina
strengthenedform)in1552,andagainin1554,beforeMaryofGuise,QueenRegent.Inabout1542LyndsaywasknightedandappointedLyonKingofArms.He
wasanticlericalbutnotantireform,andissaidtohaveencouragedKNOXtopreach.
Lytton,EdwardGeorge
seeBULWERLYTTON.

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M
Maca'Ghobhainn,Iain
seeSMITH,IAINCRICHTON.
MacanTSaoir,DonnchadhBn
seeMACINTYRE.
Macaulay,Rose(18811958)
Britishnovelistandprosewriter,wasborninRugby,thesecondofsevenchildren(noneofwhomevermarried)ofaschoolmaster,andspenttheyears188794with
herparentsinItaly.ShethenwenttoOxfordHighSchoolandSomervilleCollege,Oxford,wherenervespreventedherfromsittingherfinals.Shebecameawriter,
livingfirstathomeandlaterinLondon.Herfirstnovel,AbbotsVerney,waspublishedin1906,butitwasonlywithherninth,Potterism:aTragiFarcicalTract
(1920),asatireonthepopularpress,thatshewonpublicacclaim.OrphanIsland(1924)revealedhertouchforthebizarresituation.Heronlyhistoricalnovel,They
WereDefeated(1932),isastudyoftheCivilWarinwhichHERRICKfeatures.In1943shespentthreemonthsinPortugal,fromwhichshereturnedfiredwith
enthusiasm.HeraffectionateandvividaccountoftheBritishexperiencethereoverthecenturieswaspublishedasTheyWenttoPortugal(1946),cutbythepublisher
tohalfitsoriginallengthseeTheyWenttoPortugalToo,ed.L.C.Taylor(1990)fortherest.AfurthertravelbookinasimilarbouncystyleisFabledShore:
FromthePyreneestoPortugal(1949).Herlastnovel,TheTowersofTrebizond(1956),opens:'''Takemycamel,dear,"saidmyauntDot,assheclimbeddown
fromthisanimalonherreturnfromHighMass.'Brilliantlywitty,italsoreflectstheprivategriefofherown25yearaffairwithO'DONOVAN,whichendedwithhisdeathin
1942andpreventedherfrompractisingherstrictHighAnglicanism.Shealsopublishedtwovolumesofverse(1914and1919),abiographyofMILTON(1934),anda
criticalstudyofFORSTER(1938).ShewasmadeDBEin1958.SeeJaneEmery,RoseMacaulay:aWriter'sLife,1991.
Macaulay,ThomasBabington(180059)
Britishhistorian,critic,poet,andstatesman,wasborninRothleyTemple,nearLeicester,theeldestchildofZacharyMacaulay(17681838),theScottishborn
abolitionist,andwasbroughtupintheintellectual,activistatmosphereofLondon'sClaphamCommon.HewaseducatedatAspendenHall,Hertfordshire,andTrinity
College,Cambridge,wherehewonmanyprizesandwaselectedtoafellowship.HewascalledtotheBarin1826,andbecameacelebritythroughhiscriticaland
topicalessaysintheEdinburghReview.HewaselectedtoParliamentin1830,butin1834moneyproblemsledtohisacceptingaseatontheSupremeCouncilof
India.InfouryearstherehedraftedanewpenalcodewhichisthebasisofIndianlaw,andexertedinfluencetomakeEnglishthemediumofinstructionatalllevels.He
wasin1839electedMemberofParliamentforEdinburgh,whichheremained,exceptforfiveyears,until1856hisdefeatin1847isrecalledinhispoem'Lines
WritteninAugust'.HewasSecretaryforWar183941.TheLaysofAncientRome(1842),withtheirstrongplots,resoundingrhythms,andpredictablerhymes,
wereinstantlypopular.
ThefirsttwovolumesofTheHistoryofEnglandfromtheAccessionofJamesII,whichheintendedshouldgoupto1830,werepublishedin1849.Hebecameill
in1852,butmanagedtocomplete,andseepublishedin1855,twofurthervolumes.Thefifth,uptothedeathofWilliamIIIin1702,waspublishedin1861afterbeing
finalizedfromhisnotesbyhissister,whowastobethegrandmotherofthehistorianG.M.Trevelyan(18761962).Macaulaypopularizedhistorybyforceandpace
ofnarrative,picturesquedetail(culledfromvoluminousandenergeticresearch),sparklingphraseology,andgraphiccharacterization.Someofhisportraits,though,are
biasedorfeaturecontradictoryattributes,andsomeeventsaredistortedbyselectivityoffactshewasaWhigpoliticianaswellasahistorian.Hecouldalsobe
vindictive,asinhisessay(1831)onBOSWELC'STheLifeofSamuelJohnson,forwhichhemadepartialamendswithhisarticleonJOHNSONforEncyclopaedia
Britannica(1856).HewascreatedBaronMacaulayofRothleyin1857.Hedied,fullydressed,sittinginhisarmchairinthelibraryofhishouseinKensington,and
wasburiedinWestminsterAbbey.SeeSelectedWritings,ed.JohnCliveandThomasPinney,1972SelectedLetters,ed.ThomasPinney,1983GeorgeOtto
Trevelyan,TheLifeandLet

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tersofLordMacaulay,newedn1978JohnClive,Macaulay:theShapingoftheHistorian,newedn1987.
McAuley,James(191776)
Australianpoetandcritic,wasborninLakemba,NewSouthWales,andeducatedatFortStreetHighSchool,Sydney,andSydneyUniversity.DuringWorldWarII
hetrainedmembersoftheNewGuineaadministration,andafteritlecturedattheAustralianSchoolofPacificAdministrationuntil1960.HewasappointedReaderin
PoetryattheUniversityofTasmaniain1961,subsequentlybeingProfessorofEnglishuntilhisdeath.Apoetwhose'constantconcern[is]thesearchfor,andthe
struggletoexpress,anintuitionoftheTrueFormofMan',hisfirstcollection,UnderAldebaran(1946),illustratedhisAustralianrootsaswellashispreferencefor
traditionalforms.Hehadalreadypubliclydemonstratedhisaversiontomodernismbyconcocting,withhisprofessionalcolleagueandfellowpoetHaroldStewart(b.
1916),duringthecourseofanafternoonand,inpart,fromwordsextractedatrandomfromavarietyofstandardreferencebooks,acorpusofversepurportedtobe
by'ErnMalley'.ThiswasacceptedandprintedbyAngryPenguins(Autumn1944),andhadadeleteriouseffectonthedevelopmentofavantgardepoetryin
Australiaaswellasonthejournal,onwhoseeditor,MaxHarris(192195),injury,wasaddedtoinsultwhenhewasfined5forpublishingindecentarticlessee
MichaelHeyward,TheErnMalleyAffair(1993).McAuley'sAVisionofCeremony(1956)included'TheHeroandtheHydra',amythologicalsequence,andalso
reflectedhisconversiontoRomanCatholicism.CaptainQuiros(1964)isanarrativepoeminwhichhedevelopshisquestthemethroughtheexploitsofthe
Portugueseexplorerinthesouthernhemisphere,PedroFernandezdeQuiros(15631614).HiscriticalworksincludeThePersonalElementinAustralianPoetry
(1970)andAMapofAustralianVerse:theTwentiethCentury(1975).HewasmadeAMin1975.SeeCollectedPoems,newedn1994TimeGiven:Poems
19701974,1976TheGrammaroftheReal:SelectedProse19591974,1975PeterColeman,TheHeartofJamesMcAuley:theLifeandWorkofthe
AustralianPoet,1980LynMcCredden,JamesMcAuley,1992(criticalstudy).
McBain,Ed
seeHUNTER.
MacBeth,George(193292)
Scottishpoetandnovelist,wasborninShotts,Lanarkshire,thesonofanengineerdraughtsman,andmovedwithhisparentstoYorkshirewhenhewasfour,though
hereturnedtoScotlandforholidaysseeMyScotland:FragmentsofaStateofMind(1973)forreflectionsonhisScottishupbringing,AChildofWar(1987)for
anaccountofhisfirst19years,andhispoem'TheDrawer'foramemoryofhisparents'deaths.HewaseducatedatKingEdwardVIISchool,Sheffield,andNew
College,Oxford,wherehegotafirstinGreats.HejoinedtheBBCasatrainee('IthoughtiftheyemployedLouisMacNeicetheymustbeinterestedinpoetry')and
subsequentlybecameproducer/presenterof'PoetryNow'and'PoetryProms',whichhadalisteningaudienceof250,000.AFormofWords(1954)andTheBroken
Places(1963)containedpoemswhichareviolent,butthereisnothinginsensitiveinhiscontinuedpresentationofhorrificimages,asheillustratedinTheGarden
Cleaver(1986),acompletesequenceof28poemsoffourrhymingtripletsonthethemesofcruelty,pain,anddeath,inmanyformsandcircumstances,including
bloodsports.Thispost1970smoreformalphasesucceededoneinwhichheexperimentedwithvariousavantgardetechniques,andwithconcretepoetryand
amusing'gamepoems'.Healsowrotesomeadmirablepoemsaboutanimals,andversesforchildrenaswellasaboutchildhood.HisfirstnovelwasThe
Transformation(1975),andhisdeparturefromtheBBCin1976waspartlytoenablehimtopursueacareerasanovelist.Dizzy'sWoman(1986)isintheformof
24lovelettersfromtheyoungDISRAELItoLadyLondonderry.AnotherLoveStory(1991)isanunashamedlyautobiographicalaccountofthebreakdownofhisbrief
secondmarriage,tothenovelistLisaStAubindeTern(b.1953),aboutwhichhealsowroteaseriesofpoems,AnatomyofaDivorce(1988).TheTestamentof
Spencer(1992),hisfinal,posthumouslypublishednovel,isamodernlovestorywhoseelementsparallelSPENSER'SsituationinIrelandexactly400yearsbefore.The
Patient(1992)containspoems,poignantbutspirituallyoptimistic,writteninthemonthsbeforehisdeathfrommotorneuronedisease.SeeCollectedPoems1958
1970,1989.
MacCaig,Norman
(191096)Scottishpoet,wasborninEdinburghandeducatedattheHighSchoolofEdinburghandEdinburghUniversity,wherehereadclassics.Hisfather,who
ownedadrugstore,wasfromDumfriesshireandhismothercametoEdinburghfromtheOuterHebrideswhenshewas16,speakingonlyGaelicandhardlyableto
write.AccordingtoMacCaig,itwasaholidayinhismother'snativeScalpaywhenhewas12thatinspiredinhimasenseoffamilyandcollectivehistoryandanacute
awarenessofsightsandsounds(seeespeciallyhispoems'Drifter'and'ReturntoScalpay').SomeofhisearlypoetrywaspublishedinanthologiesoftheNew
Apocalypse(seeTREECE),andhisfirsttwovolumesofverse,whichhehimselfhasdisregarded,aresometimesheldtohavefollowedthattrend.RidingLights(1955)
heraldstheworkofthepoethehadthenbecome.Thatandsucceedingcollectionswithashiftofemphasistofree

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verseinSurroundings(1966)revealhisvividattentiontoordinarythingsandcreatures(hisnaturepoetryembracespigeons,ducks,frogs,goats,andsheep),andto
ordinaryactivities,suchaswalking,fishing,playingskitties,andhospitalvisiting,allexpressedwithpreciselanguageandstraightforwardimages.Heisasassured
whenwritingaboutexperiencesinAssisiandManhattanasheiswhenevokingtheessentialspiritofnorthwesternScotland.Hispoetryisalwaysaccessible,and
enjoyabletoreadevenwheninflectedwithsadness.HebecameaschoolteacherinEdinburghin1932.AsaconscientiousobjectorduringWorldWarIIheserved90
daysinprison.Heretiredasaprimaryschoolassistantheadin1970,andwasReaderinPoetryatStirlingUniversityfrom1972to1979,inwhichyearhewasmade
OBE.SeeCollectedPoems,newedn1993of2ndrev.edn1990MarjoryMcNeill,NormanMacCaig:aStudyofHisLifeandWork,1996.
McCarthy,Mary(191289)
Americannovelist,journalist,andcritic,wasborninSeattle,Washington,theeldestoffourchildrenofaCatholicfatherandaJewishmother,bothofwhomdiedin
1918inthefluepidemic.ShewasbroughtupbyrelativesseeMemoriesofaCatholicGirlhood(1957),ateightwonastateprizeforanessayon'TheIrishin
AmericanHistory',andwaseducatedatAnnieWrightSeminary,Tacoma,andVassar.Aweekaftergraduatingshemarriedanactor:theydivorcedafterthreeyears.
WhenshemarriedEDMUNDWILSONin1938(divorced1946)shewasalreadyreviewingbooksfortheNationandNewRepublic,andwasDramaCriticofthe
PartisanReview.Attheendofthefirstweek'hesaid,"Ithinkyouhaveatalentforwritingfiction."Andheputmeinalittleroom[and]said,"Stayinthere!"'The
resultwastheopeningepisodeofTheCompanySheKeeps(1942),asatiricalstudyoftheurbansetofthe1930s.TheOasis(1949inUKasASourceof
Embarrassment,1950)reflectspostwarconcernaboutthepossibilityofathirdworldconflictTheGrovesofAcademe(1952)hasanacademicsetting,andA
CharmedLife(1955)thatofaprovincialartisticcommunity.TheGroup(1963),abouteightVassargraduates,was'conceivedasakindofmockchronicle...
abouttheideaofprogressseeninthefemalesphere',fromtheinaugurationofPresidentRooseveltin1933tothe1960s.Havingdecidedtoendwiththeinauguration
ofPresidentEisenhowerin1952,shefinallyrestrictedtheactiontojusteightyears.PoliticaljournalismisinVietnam(1967)andHanoi(1968)essencesofhistory
andplaceinVeniceObserved:CommentsonVenetianCivilization(1956)andTheStonesofFlorence(1959)dramacriticisminTheatreChronicles1937
1962(1963)andliterarystudiesinTheWritingontheWallandOtherEssays(1970)seealsoOccasionalProse(1985).HerfriendshipwiththeGermanborn
philosopherandpoliticalactivistHannahArendt(190675)isfollowedinInBetweenFriends:theCorrespondenceofHannahArendtandMaryMcCarthy,ed.
CarolBrightman(1995).SeeCarolGelderman(ed.),ConversationswithManyMcCarthy,1991CarolGelderman,MaryMcCarthy:aLife,1989.
McClure,S.S.
seeCATHER.
McCullers,(Lula)Carson(191767)
neSmith,Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasbornindowntownColumbus,Georgia,andbeganseriouslystudyingmusicatten.Aftercontracting
rheumaticfeverin1932shegaveuptheideaofbeingaconcertpianist,anddeterminedtobeawriter.ShegraduatedfromColumbusHighSchoolin1933.InNew
YorkCityin1934,shelostallhermoneyonthesubwayandhadtotakeoddjobstofinanceherstudyofcreativewritingatColumbiaUniversity.ShemarriedReeves
McCullersin1937,whenshebegantowriteTheHeartisaLonelyHunter(1940),anovelofthe'Southerngrotesque'school,featuringadeafmute.Reflectionsin
aGoldenEye(1941),setinanarmycampinpeacetime,andwrittenasarelaxation,isbothgraphicandviolent.HavingdivorcedReevesin1941,sheremarriedhim
in1945afterhereturnedwithcombatinjuriesfromservinginEuropeinWorldWarII.TheMemberoftheWedding(1946)isanacutestudyofloneliness,expressed
throughthelongingsofa12yearoldgirl.In1947thecouplewereflownhomefromParis,bothonstretchers,sheaftersufferingathirdstrokeandhewithdelirium
tremens.HerdramatizationofTheMemberoftheWeddingopenedin1950onBroadway,whereitranfor501performancesandwonherfourawards.Thetitle
pieceofTheBalladoftheSadCafandOtherWorks(1951)hasahunchbackasaprotagonist,andamurderousfistfightbetweenamanandhisformerwifeasa
climax.In1953ReevestriedtotalkherintoasuicidepactattheirhomenearParis.ShefledbacktotheUSA:hekilledhimselfwithadrugoverdoseinaParishotel
room.Whennolongerabletowritefictionbecauseofherphysicalcondition,sheproducedverseforchildren,publishedinSweetasaPickleandCleanasaPig
(1964).SeeVirginiaSpencerCarr,TheLonelyHunter:aBiographyofCarsonMcCullers,newedn1997.
MacDiarmid,Hugh,pseudonymofChristopherMurrayGrieve(18921978)
Scottishpoet,wasborninLangholm,Dumfriesshire,theeldersonofapostman,andwaseducatedatLangholmAcademybeforebecomingapupilteacher,thena
journalist,andservinginWorldWarIasaRoyalArmyMedicalCorpssergeant.Hisrestlessandcontroversialpubliclifethereafterbeliedhisinherentlygentlenature.
Hewasatdifferenttimes

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expelledfromtheScottishNationalPartyandtheCommunistParty,andhelabouredhardandworldwideinpursuitofhispoliticalandliteraryideals.Initiallyhewrote
poemsandstoriesinEnglish,publishedinAnnalsoftheFiveSenses(1923).Inthemeantime,afteratfirsttinkeringplayfullyinthepubliclibraryinMontrosewith
wordsandphrasesfromScotsdictionaries,hestudiedtheetymologyanddevelopmentofLowlandScots,fromwhichhecreatedaliteraryform,usingwordsfrom
differentdialects,whichwascapableofexpressingtheexperiencesandaspirationsofmoderncivilization.Hisfirstattempts,attributedtoafriendcalled'Hugh
M'Diarmid',werepublishedinSangschaw(1925)andPennyWheep(1926),andthemovementknownastheScottishRenaissancehadbeenlaunched.His
profoundinfluenceonScottishlettersisduealsotothefactthathewasafinelyricalandphilosophicalpoet,withagiftforrhyme,whoseADrunkManLooksatthe
Thistle(1926)isasustainedstudyofnationalandpersonalintrospection.Alsosignificantweretheweeksin1933spentonthebare,bleakShetlandislandof
Whalsay,whereheacknowledgedtheneutralityofthematerialuniverseandcelebratedtheimplacabletopographyofScotlandinversesinbothScotsandEnglish,
publishedinStonyLimitsandOtherPoems(1934).SeeCompletePoems,Vol.1,reissued1993,Vol.2,1994,ed.MichaelGrieveandW.R.AitkenSelected
Poems,ed.MichaelGrieveandAlanRiach,newedn1994SelectedProse,ed.AlanRiach,1992LuckyPoet:aSelfStudyinLiteratureandPoliticalIdeas,
newedn1994(autobiographicalstudy)AlanBold,MacDiarmid,newedn1990(biography)RoderickWatson,MacDiarmid,1985(criticalintroduction).
MacDonagh,Thomas
seePEARSE.
MacDonald,Alexander(AlasdairMacMhaighstirAlasdair)(c.1695C.1770)
Gaelicpoet,thesonoftheEpiscopalianMinisterofArdnamurchan,waseducatedatGlasgowUniversity,whichheleftearly.In1729hewasateacherin
ArdnamurchanfortheSocietyforPropagatingChristianKnowledge,forwhichin1741heproducedaGaelicEnglishdictionary.HewasalsoanelderoftheKirk.In
1745,havingthepreviousyearbeenreprimandedbyhisemployersfor'composingGalicksongs,stuffedwithobscenelanguage',hebecameaCatholicandjoinedthe
armyofCharlesEdwardStuart.ItispresumedthatheistheAlexanderMacDonaldwhowasamongthepartywhichgreetedthePrinceonhisarrivaloffthemainland.
Thusitwasalsohewhorecitedhisownpoem,'CharlesSonofJames',asCharles'sstandardwasunfurledatGlenfinnanandwhobecametheYoungPretender's
Gaelictutor.Somanyofthepoemsinhiscollection,AiseiridhnaSeanChnainAlbannaich[ResurrectionoftheAncientScottishTongue](1751),werededicated
totheJacobitecause,orvirulentlyattackedGeorgeIIortheCampbells(whohadsupportedtheGovernmentandweretheMacDonalds'traditionalenemies),thatitis
saidthatacopywasburnedinEdinburghbythepublichangman.HewasgenuinelyconcernedforthedevelopmentofGaelicliterature,andcomposedmanyintricate
andevocativenaturepoems,aswellasacorpusoflovepoetry,ofwhichthemusical'PraisetoMorag'hasanamusingtwistinitstail.'TheBirlinnofClanranald',
translatedintoEnglishbyMACDIARMID(1935),whichdescribesinheroicandmeticulousdetailthepreparationsforavoyagetoIreland,andtheadventurouscrossing
itself,isoneofthemostoutstandingofallseapoems.
MacDonald,Anson
seeHEINLEIN.
MacDonald,George(18241905)
Scottishnovelist,poet,andchildren'swriter,wasborninHuntly,Aberdeenshire,thesecondsonofthetown'sleadingmiller.Afterbeingeducatedlocally,hehadthree
months'crammingatAultonGrammarSchool,Aberdeen,at15andwonabursarytoKing'sCollege,Aberdeen.Duringayearawayfromuniversityforfinancial
reasons,hecataloguedalibrary,probablyatThursoCastle,inwhichhefoundinGermanliteraturetheromance,mysticism,andtheologywhichweretoinfluencehis
writing.Hegraduatedin1845,andwenttoLondontobeatutor,butin1848enrolledatHighburyCollegetostudyfortheCongregationalistministry.Hewas'called'
toArundel,Sussex,wherehehadalunghaemorrhagein1851,theyearofhismarriage.In1852thedeaconsrespondedtochargesof'heresy'againsthimby
membersofthecongregationbycuttinghissalary,hopinghewouldresign.Hestuckitforayear,andthengaveup,beingfortherestofhislifeafreelancelay
preacher,writer,andlecturer,inwhichcapacityhewasProfessorofEnglishatBedfordCollege,London185967.WithinandWithout:aDramaticPoemwas
publishedin1855,butitwaswithPhantastes:aFaerieRomanceforMenandWomen(1858)thattheextentofhismythopoeicartmanifesteditself.AfterDavid
Elginbrod(1863),inwhoseScottish,autobiographical,romantic,theological,anddidacticelementsaretherootsofhisotherlinesoffiction,hehadareadymarketfor
hisnovels.
OneofhisacquaintancesinLondonatthistimewasCARROLL,whophotographedallthefamily,andwhoseearliestchildfriendwastheMacDonalddaughter,Mary
(185378).HewasalsofriendlywithRUSKIN,whosetraumaticromancewithRoseLaTouchewastheinspirationofWilfridCumbermede(1872).Hewasfortwo
yearsjointEditorofGoodWordsfortheYoung,whichserializedhisclas

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sicfairytale,AttheBackoftheNorthWind(1871).AfterMacDonaldwasawardedaCivilListpensionof100ayearin1877,thefamily,forreasonsofMary's
healthaswellashis,spentsometimeinItaly.Theyreturnedtherein1880,toBordighera,wherefriendshadprovidedthefundsforahousetobebuilt.Insummerhe
lecturedinEnglandandScotland,wherethefamilytouringcompanyperformedhisversionofBUNYAN'SPilgrim'sProgress,andotherplays.InItalyhewrotehismost
powerfulchildren'sstory,ThePrincessandtheCurdle(1883),andLilith:aRomance(1895),thetransitionintowhosedark,troubleddreamworldhasbeena
sourceofinspirationtolaterwriters,includingTOLKIENandC.S.LEWIS.In1898hehadastrokeandlapsedintosilence.Hiswifediedin1902,andhewasbroughtback
toEngland,wherehediedatthehomeoffriends.GeorgeMacDonald:anAnthology,ed.C.S.Lewis(1946)isaselectionofdailyreadingsinChristianthoughtand
feeling,takenfromhisnovelsandfromUnspokenSermons(3vols186769).SeeWilliamRaeper,GeorgeMacDonald,1987(biography)DavidS.Robb,George
MacDonald,1987(criticalstudy).
Macdonnell,A.G.
seeSQUIRE.
McEwan,Ian(b.1948)
Britishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninAldershot,Hampshire,theonlysonofanarmyNCO:'Iwasbroughtupwithastrongsenseofboundaries.And
thenweallwantedtokickoverthetraces.'HewaseducatedatWoolverstoneHallSchoolandtheUniversityofSussex,afterwhich,havingcastaroundforafurther
degree,hesettledforthecourseincreativewritingattheUniversityofEastAnglia,supervisedbyANGUSWILSONandMALCOLMBRADBURY.'Iwastheonlyapplicant.Just
me.Theyprettymuchleftmealone....Idon'tthinkIcouldhavefacedamorecompetitivecourse.'Hisfirsttwobooks,thevolumesofshortstories,FirstLove,
LastRites(1975)andInBetweentheSheets(1978),shockedfortheirprincipalthemesbutimpressedforthetechnicalcommandofthemediumseealsoThe
ShortStories(1995).Aftertwonovelswhichdweltsimilarlyonsex,death,andhiddenperversions,TheCementGarden(1978)andTheComfortofStrangers
(1981),hewrote(havingmarriedin1982andhadchildren)TheChildinTime(1987),whosemainthemeisbabysnatchingbutwhosecharactersareoutwardly
moreconventionaltypes.DarknessreturnedwithTheInnocent(1990),astrikingnovelofsex,death,andespionageinpostwarBerlin.Thehorrifyingconfrontationin
BlackDogs(1992)iscentraltoastudyofhumanrelationshipsandideologicaldifferenceswithinafamily.TheImitationGame:ThreePlaysforTelevision(1981)
includes'SolidGeometry',commissionedin1978bytheBBC,whichwithdrewitwithoutexplanationfourdaysbeforeitwasduetoberecorded.TheDayDreamer
(1994)isanovelforchildren.SeeKiernanRyan,IanMcEwan,1994(criticalintroduction).
McGahern,John(b.1934)
Irishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninDublin,thesonofapoliceofficer,andspenthischildhoodinMohill,Co.Roscommon,whereheovercamethelackof
booksathomebyhavingtherunofthelibraryinafarmhousenearby.HewaseducatedatPresentationCollege,CarrickonShannon,StPatrick'sTrainingCollege,
andUniversityCollege,Dublin,afterwhichhebecameateacher.Thedepictionofawoman'sslowdeathfromcancerinanIrishvillageinhisfirstnovel,TheBarracks
(1963),washighlypraisedforitssensitivityandrevealingcredibility.TheDark(1965),astudyofayouthfacinguptotheconflictsofatorturedexistence,was
bannedbytheIrishCensorshipBoard,butMcGahernrefusedtoallowaprotest,whichhadthesupportofBECKETTandothers,tobemounted.Afewmonthslaterhe
wassackedfromhisteachingpostwithnoreasonbeinggiven.'Ihadnomoney,IwaslivinginLondon,andIwasdoingmostlyreliefteaching.Itwasveryhard,andI
usedtofeeltootiredtowrite....TherearetimesinmylifewhenIhaven'twritten,thoughIdon'tthinkithasevergoneaslongasthat,forIdidn'twriteathingforfive
orsixyears.'EventuallyhewasappointedaResearchFellowatReadingUniversityfrom1968to1971.SubsequentlyhelivedinSpainandtheUSA,wherehewas
onseveraloccasionsVisitingO'ConnorProfessorofLiterature,ColgateUniversity,NewYork,beforereturningwithhissecondwifetoafarmhousenearMohill.
TheheroofTheLeavetaking(1974rev.edn1984),havinglosthismotherfromcancerwhenhewasyoung,fallsforanAmericandivorcetomarryherhehasto
giveuphispostinaCatholicschool.InThePornographer(1979),theharsherironiesofdeath,aswellasofsex,aredramaticallylaidbare.AmongstWomen
(1990),withabackgroundofcountryroutinesandCatholicritualsinthewestofIreland,reflectstheinsubstantiality,inthemodernworld,ofthetraditionsoffamilylife.
InhisvolumesofshortstoriesMcGahernoftenrangesbeyondruralIreland,inparticulartoDublin,London,andSpain,whilefaithfully,oftenpoetically,recordingthe
changesthathavetakenplaceinIrelandsincethe1950sseeTheCollectedStories(1992).Hewasawardedthe1994PrixdeLittraturetrangrebytheSalon
duLivre,Bordeaux.SeeDenisSampson,OutstaringNature'sEye:theFictionofJohnMcGahern,1993(criticalstudy).
MacGillEain,Somhairle
seeMACLEAN.

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McGonagall,William(c.18251902)
Scottishversifier,thesonofanIrishhandloomweaver,wasprobablyborninEdinburgh,andspenthischildhoodinSouthRonaldsay,Orkney.Whenhewas11,the
familymovedtoDundee,wherehelivedformostoftherestofhislife.Initiallyhefollowedhisfather'strade.Histasteforthestage,whichheindulgedbybeing
allowedtoappearasanamateuractorinperformancesoftouringcompaniesattheTheatreRoyal,fosteredhispreoccupationwiththecompositionofverseswhich
weredramaticinintent,butirredeemablybanalinform('OhWaterofLeith!OhWaterofLeith,/Wherethegirlsgodowntowashtheirteeth').Alocalpaper
publishedsomeofthem,andheexploitedthispublicitybyprintinghisworksonsheetsofpaper,whichhesoldpersonallythroughoutcentralScotland.Battlesand
disasterswerehisstocksintrade,titleddignitaries(especiallyroyalty)hisfavouritepersonages.Hetooktothestage,recitinghisownworksandenergetically(withthe
helpofanakedbroadsword)declaimingsoliloquiesofSHAKESPEAREheappearedinLondonin1880andNewYork(expensespaidbyakindlyDundeehotelier)in
1887.Hewasconvincedofhisowngenius,andusuallysufferedthebaitingofraucousaudienceswithpoliteexasperation.WilliamPower(18731951),authorand
critic,whowitnessedonesuchdebacle,wroteinMyScotland(1934):'Headdedtothegaietyofatleastonenation,and,astheOssianoftheineffablyabsurd,hehas
entereduponimmortality.'PoeticGemswaspublishedin1890severalothercollectionshaveappearedsince1962,whennewworkscametolight.SeeCollected
Poems,newedn1992TheCompleteMcGonagall,1992.
McGough,Roger(b.1937)
Britishpoet,wasborninLiverpoolandeducatedatStMary'sCollege,Crosby,andHullUniversity,andqualifiedasateacherin1960.HetaughtinLiverpoolfrom
1960to1964.andwasalectureratLiverpoolCollegeofArt196970,andPoetryFellow,LoughboroughUniversity197375.TheappearanceofhispoemsinThe
MerseySound(1967rev.edn1983),alongwiththoseofAdrianHenri(b.1932)andBrianPatten(b.1946),hiscoperformersinthegroupknownas'The
Scaffold',confirmedtheirreputationandstatusasthe'LiverpoolPoets'.McGoughisthemoreobviouslycomicalofthethree,buthislaconicstyleandalsocompassion
makehimasympatheticobserverof,andshrewdcommentatoron,humantragediesaswellasfrailties,latterlywithatouchofdomesticromanticism.Hiscollections
includeWatchwords(1969)andCrocodilePuddles(1984),andforchildren,bywhomheisequallyappreciated,SkyinthePie(1983).SeeSelectedPoems
19671987,1989YouattheBack:SelectedPoems196787,Volume2,newedn1993(forchildren)DefyingGravity,newedn1993(subsequentcollection).
MachadodeAssis,JoaquimMaria(18391908)
Braziliannovelistandpoet,wasborninRiodeJaneiroandwasorphanedwhenyoung.Heleftschoolat15toworkasatypesetterandjournalist,graduatingtobeing
aneditor/columnistin1860.HejoinedtheMinistryofAgriculture,Commerce,andPublicWorksasaclerkin1874,retiringin1908asDirectorofAccounts.His
earlyworkswereplays,producedbetween1859and1867hepublishedvolumesofversein1864and1870,andhisfirstnovel,ContosFluminenses,in1872.
MemriasPstumasdeBrzCubas(1881tr.WilliamL.GrossmanasEpitaphofaSmallWinner,1953)isacomicnarrativeofadeadmanQuincasBorba
(1891tr.ClotildeWilsonasTheHeritageofQuintasBorba,1954)confronts,andparodies,19thcenturyphilosophiesinDomCasmurro(1899tr.Helen
Caldwell,1953)alternativenarrativesresultlogicallyintwoconflictingconclusions.TheDevil'sChurchandOtherStories,tr.JackSchmittandLorieIshimatsu
(1977),isaselectionfrommorethantwohundredstories.HewasFoundingPresidentoftheBrazilianAcademyofLetters18971908.
Machen,Arthur(18631947)
Welshnovelist,shortstorywriter,andtranslator,wasborninCaerleononUsk,thesonofaclergyman,andwaseducatedatHerefordCathedralSchool.Hebecame
awriterafterfailinghisentrancetotheRoyalCollegeofSurgeons.Hisearliestworkswerepublishedathisownexpensehispassionfortheoccultwasthemotivation
foracollectionoffantasypieces,ThesaurusIncantatus...(1888).Aninheritancefromhisfatherin1887broughthimfinancialindependencefor15years,
whereuponheembarkedonhistranslationofthememoirsofCASANOVA(12vols1894),andonTheGreatGodPan,anoveloferoticoccultism.Thiswaspublishedin
1894withasecondstoryofdiabolism,TheInmostLight,byJohnLane(18541925)inhis'Keynotes'series,whichrepresentedthebestofthenewwritersofthe
Decadentschool.TheHillofDreams(1907),thejourneyofanauthorintotheinfernalregions,whichanticipatesthemodernstreamofconsciousnessnovel,also
belongstothisperiod,duringwhichMachenjoinedtheOrderoftheGoldenDawn,asocietyofChristiancabalistsofwhichYEATSwasamember.In1902hebecame
anactorwiththeShakespeariantouringcompanyof(Sir)FrankBenson(18581939).In1912hejoinedtheLondonEveningNews,forwhomhewroteatopical
story,'TheBowmen',whichisthesourceofthelegendofthe'AngelsofMons',whocametothehelpoftheBritisharmy.Hisrecognitionasawriterofthemacabre
camewhenhehadturnedlargelytothecompositionofpersonalessays.SeeThe

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CollectedArthurMachen,ed.ChristopherPalmer,1988MarkValentine,ArthurMachen,1994(biography).
Machiavelli,Niccol(14691527)
Italianstatesman,politicalphilosopher,historian,anddramatist,wasborninFlorence,thesonofalawyerwhoensuredthatfromtheageofsevenhehadahumanist
educationunderleadingteachers,beforegoingtoFlorenceUniversity.At29hebecameSecondChancellorinthenewadministrationoftheFlorentinerepublic,in
whichcapacityhewasinvolvedalsoindiplomaticmissionsatthehighestlevelandwasamemberofthemilitarycouncil.In1513,afterthecollapseoftheregime,he
wasaccusedofplottingagainstthenewgovernment,tortured,imprisoned,andfined.Releasedunderageneralamnestyafterafewmonths,butunabletoget
employment,hewithdrewtohisfarmatSant'Andrea,toconsiderthepoliticalsceneobjectivelyandtowrite.TheonlyworkpublishedduringhislifetimewasArte
dellaGuerra(1521tr.PeterWhitethorneasArteofWarre,1563,withadedicationtoElizabethI),inwhichhepressedtheclaimsofcitizenarmies.IlPrincipe
[ThePrince](1532),hisstudyofstatecraft,wasprobablycompletedin1513,andDiscorsi[Discourses](1531)before1519.Manuscripttranslationsofbothwere
circulatinginEnglandfromabout1580,butbecauseoftherefusalofalicencefortheirprinting,thefirstpublishedtranslations(byEdwardDacres)didnotappearuntil
1640and1636respectively.InthemeantimeIstorieFiorentine(1532)hadappearedasFlorentineHistorie,tr.ThomasBedingfield(1595).LaMandragola(tr.
BrucePenmanasTheMandragolainFiveItalianRenaissanceComedies,1978),awellconstructedbutratherdistastefulcomedy,wasfirstperformedinFlorence
andRomeinabout1520.Machiavelli'srealisticviewofcontemporarypoliticsandgovernmentandhistrenchantpreceptshaveunjustlymadehisnameabywordfor
guileandunscrupulousness,buthisinfluenceonEnglishandScottishpoliticalthoughtduringthe17thcenturywasconsiderableheisfrequentlyreferredtoin
ElizabethanandJacobeandrama,andevenmakesapersonalappearanceinMARLOWE'STheJewofMalta.SeeThePortableMachiavelli,ed.PeterBondanella,
1979ThePrince,tr.PeterBondanellaandMarkMusa,1984SebastiandeGrazia,MachiavelliinHell,newedn1996(biography)QuentinSkinner,Machiavelli,
1982(introductiontohisthought).
MacInnes,Colin(191476)
Britishnovelist,wasborninLondon,thesonbyherfirstmarriageofthenovelistAngelaThirkell(18901961),afterwhosesecondmarriagehewasbroughtupand
educatedinAustralia.HisserviceasasergeantintheIntelligenceCorpsinWorldWarIIprovidedthebackgroundtohisfirstnovel,TotheVictorstheSpoils
(1950)hissecond,JuneinHerSpring(1952),isthestoryofaromanceintheAustralianoutback.HisthreeLondonnovels,CityofSpades(1957),Absolute
Beginners(1959),andMrLoveandJustice(1960),aretheworksforwhichheisremembered.Racyandarticulate,withdialoguewhichaccuratelyreflectsracial
andsocialcharacteristics,theydissecttheteenagesubcultureofthetimeandlaybaretheattitudesandactivitiesoftheunderworld.Ofhislaternovels,Westwardto
Laughter(1969)isan18thcenturypirateadventurestory,andThreeYearstoPlay(1970)followsthefortunesofanElizabethanboyactor.OutoftheGarden
(1974)isacontemporarythrillerwithaninbuiltpoliticalwarninganddeftsocialcomment.OutoftheWay:LaterEssays(1980)isaselectionfromhiscontributions
toEncounter,NewSociety,andtheSpectator.SeeTonyGould,InsideOutsider:theLifeandTimesofColinMacInnes,newedn1996.
MacIntyre,DuncanBan(DonnchadhBnMacanTSaoir)(17241812)
Gaelicpoet,wasborninGlenOrchy,Argyllshire.Hewasneverable,orcouldneverbebotheredtolearn,toreadandwrite,andhespokenoEnglish.Becausehis
chiefwasaCampbell,hereluctantlyagreed,forabribeof300merks,tofightasasubstituteonthegovernmentsideduringthe'45Rebellion,andtookpartinthe
battleofFalkirk,atwhichhelosttheswordhehadbeenlent.AfterwardshebecameagamekeeperontheArgyllandBreadalbanelands,composingandcommitting
tomemorysongsandpoemswhichexpresshisjoyinthemountainsandruggedmoors,andthegamewithwhichtheywerestockedevenonabadday,suchashe
recapitulatesin'SongonMissingatHunting'.In1768,theyearinwhichabookofhispoems(transcribedbythesonofthelocalminister)waspublished,hewasmade
redundant.HemovedtoEdinburgh,wherehewasfoundworkintheCityGuard(referredtobyFERGUSSONin'TheDaftDays'as'thatblackbanditti').Whilehenow
neededtocelebrateurbantopics,whichhefoundindrinkandtheodditiesoflocaldignitaries,hisqualitiesasapoetandhisstatusasabardbroughthimagrantfrom
theLondonHighlandSociety,andinthelater1780sheandhiswifemadeatriumphaltouroftheHighlands.Incredibly,hejoinedtheBreadalbaneFenciblesin1793,
andservedforsixyearsasasergeant.Apartfromthesheergustoofhisverse,hewasafinenaturepoet,whose'PraiseofBenDorain'hasbeentranslatedby
ProfessorJohnStuartBlackie(180995),andsubsequentlybyMACDIARMIDandIAINCRICHTONSMITH.'SongoftheFoxes'hasapoignantring,asheblessesthemfor
killing'thegreyfacedsheep,whoworkedourwoe'bytakingoverthehillsfromthedeer.

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McKay,Claude(18891948)
Jamaicanbornpoetandnovelist,wasborninSunnyvilleintoablackpeasantfamily,andhadnoformaleducation.Atabout14hewenttoKingston,becamea
memberoftheconstabulary,andpublishedtwovolumesofdialectverse,SongsofJamaica(1911)andConstabBallads(1912).Awardedamedal,andasumof
money,bytheInstituteofArtsandSciences,heinauguratedthecharacteristicexileofCaribbeanwritersbyemigratingtotheUSAin1912.Afterbrieflyattending
TuskegeeNormalandIndustrialInstituteandKansasStateCollege,heopenedarestaurantinNewYork,whichfailed,andthenworkedasadiningcarattendant.He
nowbegantowriteagain,someofhisverseappearinginTheSevenArts.AfteravisittoEngland,wherehewaslaudedbyFRANKHARRISandwasareporterfora
pacifistjournal,hewasanassociateeditoroftheleftwingTheLiberator191922.InSpringinNewHampshireandOtherPoems(1920)andHarlemShadows
(1922)Jamaicandialectgavewaytoarchaicpoeticdiction,andacuteobservationsofJamaicanlifetonostalgiaandtopassionateprotestsagainstracialdiscrimination
inAmerica.
VeeringtowardsCommunism,aswellasactiveintheHarlemRenaissance,hewentasanobservertothe4thCongressoftheInternationalintheUSSR,wherehis
TrialbyLynching:StoriesaboutNegroLifeillNorthAmericafirstappearedinaRussiantranslation(1925tr.RobertWinterintoEnglish,1975).Possiblyto
avoidtheattentionsinNewYorkofhisAmericanwife,fromwhomhewasseparated,hewentontoFrance,whereheremainedfortenyears.Histhreenovelsanda
collectionofstories,Gingertown(1932),reflectblackandwhiteconflictsofcultureandtheproblemsofadjustingfromonetotheother.InHometoHarlem(1928)
ablacksoldierreturnstotheUSAafterservinginFranceBanjo(1929)featurestheblackcultureswhichdrifttoandthroughtheportofMarseilles,whichheknew.
BananaBottom(1933),inwhichhisearlydebttothefolkloristWalterJekyll,authorofJamaicanSongandStory(1907),isreflectedinthecharacterofSquire
Gensir,isastudyofaruralcommunityandofayoungJamaicanwomanwhoisfosteredbyawhiteFreeChurchmissionaryandhiswifeafterbeingrapedasachild,is
sentbythemtobeeducatedinBritain,andafterreturningtoherrootsassertsherculturalheritage.McKaydiedinChicago,havingjoinedtheCatholicChurch.See
ThePassionofClaudeMcKay:SelectedPoetryandProse19121948,ed.WayneECooper,1973ALongWayfromHome,1937(autobiographicalstudy)
WayneECooper,ClaudeMcKay,RebelSojournerintheHarlemRenaissance:aBiography,1996.
Mackenzie,(Sir)Compton(18831972)
Scottishnovelist,wasbornEdwardMontagueComptoninWestHartlepoolofatheatricalfamily,andassumedthenameofMackenzietoemphasizehisScottish
ancestry.HewaseducatedatStPaul'sSchoolandMagdalenCollege,Oxford.Hechosewritingasacareer,andpublishedabookofverseandseveralsuccessful
novels,includingCarnival(1912),amelodramaticromanceofthestage,andSinisterStreet(1913),avividstudyofcontemporaryadolescenceandearlymanhood,
beforeservingbothinactionandinthesecretserviceinWorldWarI.HisdevotiontoScottishissuesisreflectedinhissequenceofsixsemiautobiographicalnovels,
publishedasTheFourWindsofLove(193745).ThesecoverfourdecadesinthemanyfacetedlifeofJohnOgilvieinvariouspartsoftheworldaccordingtothe
pointsofacompass,fromtheestablishmentoftheScottishNationalParty(ofwhichMackenziewasafoundermember)to1945.Hislaternovelsincludethemore
lightheartedbutneverthelesselegantlywrittencomediesof,andsatireson,Scottishlife,manners,andsuperstitions,suchasWhiskyGalore(1947)andHuntingthe
Fairies(1949).Aflamboyantbutoftenfinanciallyembarrassedfigure,aloverofcatsandastaunchsupporteroffriendsandcausesheadmired,hewasknightedin
1952.Hislifeisfaithfullyandmeticulouslyrecordedinhistenvolumeautobiography,MyLifeandTimes(196371).SeeAndroLinklater,ComptonMackenzie:a
Life,newedn1992andinCairnsCraig(ed.),TheHistoryofScottishLiteratureVolume4:TwentiethCentury,newedn1989.
Mackenzie,Henry(17451831)
Scottishnovelist,essayist,andcritic,wasborninEdinburghandeducatedattheHighSchoolofEdinburghandEdinburghUniversity,whichheleftin1761without
takingadegreetobearticledtoaKing'sAttorneyinExchequer.AstheExchequerwasgovernedbyEnglishlaw,hespenttwoyearsstudyinginLondon,fromwhich
hereturnedin1768withsomedraftsofanovel.TheManofFeeling(1771),bywhichtitlehehimselfbecameknown,fulfilledthetenetsofsensitivityinthewritingsof
HUMEandADAMSMITH.Short,sentimental,andquirky(itbeginsatchapterXI),itwasthemostpopularnovelinBritainofthe1770s.TheManoftheWorld(1773)
followed,andlaterJuliadeRoubign(1777),anepistolarynovel.Inthemeantimethisshrewdandcapablelawyer,whoshotgameandfishedforsport,found
anotheroutletforhisliterarytalentswithhisheroictragedy,ThePrinceofTums(1773).
In1779agroupofEdinburghlawyerswhocalledthemselvestheMirrorClubestablishedaliteraryperiodical,theMirroritlasted16months,andwassucceededby
theLounger,whichappearedfortwoyearsfromFebruary1785.BothwereeditedbyMackenzie,whoalsocontributedadmirableessays,amongthemthereview
(Lounger,issue97)

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whichisthefirstconsiderablecritiqueofBURNS.HewasthefirstcritictopraiseBYRON,havingseenacopyofPoemsonVariousOccasionswhich,asHoursof
Idleness,hadbeenhammeredintheEdinburghReview.In1788,apaperonGermandramawhichhereadtotheRoyalSocietyofEdinburghstartedWALTERSCOTT
onhisliterarycareer.Theybecamecloseliteraryassociates,andintheanonymousdedicationtoWaverleyMackenzieishailedas'OurScottishAddison'.HisWorks
(8vols)werepublishedin1808,andhislifeofHOMEin1822.In1825,atthesuggestionofseveralbooksellersandwiththeencouragementofTHOMASMOOREandScott,
hebeganhisAnecdotesandEgotisms.Unpublishedathisdeath,andthenbequeatheddownseveralgenerations,thiscompendiumofcharactersketchesand
epigrammaticalobservationsfinallyappeared(ed.H.W.Thompson)in1927.Mackenziewasfrom1799untilhisdeathComptrollerofTaxesforScotland.He
married,in1776,thedaughteroftheChiefofClanGrant,bywhomhehad14children.ThereisanappealingdescriptionofthemandtheirhomeinJ.G.Lockhart,
Peter'sLetterstoHisKillsfolk(1819).SeeTheManofFeeling,ed.BrianVickers,1987.
Mackenzie,Kenneth(Ivo)(191355)
Australiannovelistandpoet,wasborninPerth,WesternAustralia,andwaseducatedasaboarderatGuildfordGrammarSchool(fromwhichheranawayat16and
didnotreturn),andatMureskAgriculturalCollegeandtheUniversityofWesternAustralia,fromeachofwhichhedroppedoutafterayear.In1934hewentto
Sydney'tobeawriter'andmarriedKateLoveday(d.1972).Journalismdidnotagreewithhim.Alongphilosophicalpoem,TheEarth,appearedinalimitededition
withillustrationsbyNORMANLINDSAYin1937.AsSeaforthMackenzie,thenameheusedforhisnovels(SeaforthisasealochintheIsleofLewisassociatedwithClan
Mackenzie),hepublishedTheYoungDesireIt(1937),adelicatetreatmentofteenageinsecurityandsexualattraction,whichwontheAustralianLiteratureSociety's
GoldMedal,andChosenPeople(1938),animmaturestudyofJewishisolationandcomplexrelationshipsinanurbansetting.Hedidwarserviceattheprisonerof
warcampatCowra,andusedthemassbreakoutofJapaneseprisonersfromitin1944asthebasisofDeadMenRising(1951inUKbannedinAustraliauntil
1969).Acollectionofpoems,TheMoonlitDoorway(1944),containedmanyofapersonalnature.In1948hewenttoliveonhisownintheBlueMountainsonan
averageannualincomefromhispenof250,whilehiswifesupportedtheirtwochildreninSydney.In1953hewasinhospital,aboutwhichhewroteapoetical
sequence'TheHospitalRetrospections'.TheRefuge(1954)isafurthernovelofsexualrelationships,withtherolesreversed.Hedrownedinacreekduringavisitto
Goulburn.SeeThePoemsofKennethMackenzie,ed.EvanJonesandGeoffreyLittle,1972.
Mackenzie,Seaforth
seeMACKENZIE,KENNETH.
Mackintosh,Elizabeth(18961952)
Scottishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninInvernessandeducatedatInvernessRoyalAcademy,fromwhichshechosetogoontoAnsteySchoolofPhysical
Training,Birmingham,ratherthantouniversityorartcollege.ShetaughtphysicaleducationatschoolsinEngland,beforereturningtoScotlandonhermother'sdeathto
keephouseforherfather.TheManintheQueue(1929),writtenforacompetitionasGordonDaviot,introducedherdetective,AlanGrant.Underthesamename
shewroteseveralplays,includingthesuccessfulRichardofBordeaux(1933),whichstarred(Sir)JohnGielgud(b.1904)asRichardII,andQueenofScots(1934),
withthefutureLordOlivier(190789)asBothwell,andClaverhouse(1937),thestandardbiographyofthatcharismaticScottishroyalist.AsJosephineTey,the
nameofhergreatgreatgrandmother,shebecameoneofthemostingeniousandrespectedofmoderncrimenovelists,withtitlessuchasMissPymDisposes(1946),
setinaphysicaltrainingcollege,TheFranchiseAffair(1948),aclassicmodernreworkingofan18thcenturycauseclebre,andBratFarrar(1949),astudyofan
impersonatortoaninheritance.Grant,hospitalizedafteranaccident,featuresagaininTheDaughterofTime(1951)hislongdistanceinvestigationofthemurderof
RichardIII'stwonephews,the'PrincesintheTower',standsalsoasaserious,ifpartisan,pieceofhistoricalscholarship.
Macklin,Charles(16991797)
Irishactoranddramatist,wasborninCuldaff,Co.Donegal,andlearnedhiscraftasastrollingplayerinthewestofEngland.In1733hewasplayingminorrolesin
Londonandlivingwithanactress,AnnGrace(d.1758),bywhomhehadthatyearadaughter,Maria(d.1781),whoalsobecameanactress.Duringabackstage
altercationatDruryLanein1735hethrustacanethroughafellowactor'seye.Themandied,andMacklinwastriedformurder.Heconductedhisowndefence,was
convictedofmanslaughter,andsentencedmerelytobebrandedonthehand,whichwasdonewithacoldiron.HeandAnnmarriedin1739.In1741hefirstplayed
ShylockinTheMerchantofVenice,whichhadnotbeenseeninitsoriginalformsincethetimeofSHAKESPEARE.Hisimmaculatepreparationandsuperlative
performancecausedGeorgeIItoloseanight'ssleepandtosuggesttothePrimeMinisterthattheactorbeemployedtofrightentheHouseofCommons.In1746his
ownplay,KingHenryVII:or,ThePopishIm

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postor,wasproducedatDruryLane,andfailed,asdidseveralsubsequentpieces.InspiteofcontinuedappearancesinsuchpartsasIagoandPolonius,heretired
fromthestagein1753tobecomekeeperofatavern,incorporatinga'SchoolofOratory',atwhichhelecturedonthehistoryofthetheatre.Hereturnedtothestage,
bankrupt,in1755.
In1759,heplayedShylockagainatDruryLane,with,as'afterpiece',hisowncomedy,LovelaMode,inwhichhetookthepartofSirArchyMcSarcasm.Initsfull
version,itstillplayswell.HismuchpublicizedappearanceasMacbethin1773angeredthesupportersofhisrival,DavidGarrick(171779).Therewereangryscenes
inthetheatre,andseveralmenweresubsequentlyconvictedof'riotandconspiracy'afteratrialatwhichMacklinpersonallyprosecuted.HisTheTrueBorn
ScotchmanwaspremieredattheSmockAlleyTheatreinDublinin1764.AsTheManoftheWorlditwastwicerefusedalicencebytheLordChamberlain:athird
versionwasfinallystagedinLondonin1781,withtheagedauthorasSirPertinaxMacsycophant.HisfinalperformancewasasShylockin1790,whenheforgothis
lines.Inhisinsistenceontherightsofanauthortocontrolhisworks,forbreachofwhichheseveraltimestookoffenderstocourt,heanticipatedtheeffortsofBULWER
LYTTONandothers.JamesThomasKirkman(fl.17951810),whoclaimedtobearelationandwasheldbysometobehisillegitimateson,wroteTheLifeofCharles
Macktin(1799).SeeWilliamW.Appleton,CharlesMacklin:anActor'sLife,1961.
Maclean,Alistair
seeMONSARRAT.
Maclean,Sorley(SomhairleMacGillEain)(191196)
Gaelicpoet,wasbornontheislandofRaasay,andeducatedinPortree,Skye,andatEdinburghUniversity,wherehegotafirstinEnglishandbegantowritepoetry.
WhileateacherinMullfortwoyears,heobservedthebarrennessintowhichthelandandthetraditionalculturehaddeclined,andrespondedbitterlyinverse.Atthis
time,too,hecametoknowMACDIARMID,whomhehelpedwithhistranslationsofGaelicverse.Healsohadanintenseandultimatelyunhappyloveaffair,which,withhis
remorseatnotgoingtofightintheSpanishCivilWar,becamethetormentedthemesofhisfirstcollection,DindoEimhiragusDinEile(1943),translatedbyIAIN
CRICHTONSMITHasPoemstoEimhir(1971).HeservedintheRoyalCorpsofSignalsinWorldWarII,andwasseverelywoundedatthebattleofElAlameinin1943.
Hereturnedtoteachingafterwards,firstinEdinburgh,andthenasHeadmasterofPlocktonSecondarySchool,WesterRoss195672.Hisselectedpoemswere
publishedinGaelicandEnglishin1977.InhisdeliberatechoicetowriteinGaelicratherthaninEnglishhedeniedhimselfamarketbutcreatedamodernpoetryinan
ancienttongue.Inthisheisinthetraditionof20thcenturypoetssuchasYEATS,DAVIDJONES,andW.S.GRAHAM,whohavesoughtapoeticlanguagewhichreflectsthe
standardlanguageoftheirtime,theliterarylanguageofthepast,andthelanguageofaregionorculture.HewontheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1991,thefirst
Gaelicpoettodoso.SeeFromWoodtoRidge/OChoilleguBearradh:CollectedPoemsinGaelicandEnglish,newedn1991andinCairnsCraig(ed.),The
HistoryofScottishLiteratureVol.4:TwentiethCentury,newedn1989.
MacLeish,Archibald(18921982)
Americanpoetanddramatist,wasborninGlencoe,Illinois,thesonofaScottishmerchantphilanthropistfromGlasgowbyhisthirdwife,whowasPresidentof
RockfordCollege188488.HewaseducatedatHotchkissSchoolandYale,andmarriedin1916.Avolumeofverse,TheTowerofIvory(1917),waspublished
whilehewasservingintheUSArmyinFranceinWorldWarI,duringwhichherosefromprivatetocaptain.HethengraduatedasLLBfromHarvard,wherehe
taughtconstitutionalandinternationallawbeforepractisinginBoston.Withhisfamilyhespenttheyears192328inFrance,workingonhispoetry,ofwhichhe
publishedseveralvolumes,includingthesequence,TheHappyMarriage(1924).OntheirreturnheboughtafarminMassachusetts,wroteConquistador(1932),a
Mexicanepicinspiredbyatriponfootandbymule,whichwonthePulitzerPrize,anddemonstratedhispoliticalandsocialawarenesswiththepoemsofFrescoesfor
MrRockefeller'sCity(1933)andaradioplay,TheFalloftheCity(1937).HewasLibrarianofCongress193944,andasAssistantSecretaryofStateand
subsequentlyChairmanofDelegationwasinstrumentalintheestablishmentoftheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganizationin1946.Hewas
BoylstonProfessorofRhetoricandOratoryatHarvardfrom1949untilhisretirementin1962.Panic(1935),aplaybasedonthefinancialcrisisof1933,waswritten
inaverseformreflectingtheAmerican'languageofaccents'.J.B.(1958),a20thcenturyversionofthebiblicalstoryofJob,forwhichheused'dramaticpoetry'as
themeansofgiving'illusionsofthereal',wasproducedonBroadwayandwonthePulitzerPrize.SeeCollectedPoems19171982,1985.
MacLennan,Hugh(190790)
Canadiannovelistandessayist,wasborninGlaceBay,NovaScotia,thesonofaGaelicspeakingdoctor,andwaseducatedatHalifaxAcademy,Dalhousie
University,and(asaRhodesscholar)atOrielCollege,Oxford,wherehereadGreats.AfterbeingrejectedbyDalhousieforateachingpost,hecontinuedhisclassical
studiesintheUSAatPrinceton,

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wherehewroteathesisonaRomancolonyinEgypt,Oxyrhynchus:anEconomicandSocialStudy(1935).HetaughtLatinandhistoryatLowerCanadaCollege,
Montreal,from1935to1945,whenhebecameafulltimewriterandfreelancejournalist.Thefocalpointofhisfirstnovel,BarometerRising(1941),whichcovers
theeventsofeightdramaticdays,istheexplosionofthemunitionsshipin1917inHalifaxharbour,whichhewitnessed:catastrophicinitsphysicaleffectand
cataclysmicinsymbolizingtheemergenceofCanadaasanation.ThetitleofTwoSolitudes(1945)representsthedividebetweenFrenchandEnglishspeaking
Canadians.BothThePrecipice(1948)andEachMan'sSon(1951)reflecttheCalvinisticsenseofguiltwhichheinheritedfromhisfamily.Hereturnedtoteachingin
1951,asanassociateprofessoratMcGillUniversity,wherehewasProfessorofEnglish196779.InTheWatchThatEndstheNight(1959)herecreatesthe
agonyofacouplecomingtotermswiththewife'sapproachingdeath,incircumstancessuchashisownfirstwifehaddiedin1957.Thedidacticismdetectedinall
sevennovelsafterhisfirstderivespartlyfromhisneed,asthefirstmajorCanadiannovelist,toexplorehiscountry'snationalcharacter,andpartlyfromhisnatural
facilityasanessayist.Bothhisfirsttwocollections,CrossCountry(1949)andThirtyandThree,ed.DorothyDuncan(1954),wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward
fornonfiction,whichwiththefictionawardsfor1945,1948,and1959gavehimarecordfiveinall.HismostlastingexamplesofthisgenrearecollectedinThe
OtherSideofHughMacLennan:SelectedEssaysOldandNew,ed.ElspethCameron(1978).Hewasgivenhonorarydoctoratesby16Canadianuniversities
(includingDalhousiein1955),andwasmadeCompanion,OrderofCanada,in1967.SeeElspethCameron,HughMacLennan:aWriter'sLife,1981HelenHoy,
HughMacLennanandHisWorks,1990.
MacLeod,Fiona
seeSHARP.
MacNamara,Brinsley(18901963)
Irishnovelistanddramatist,wasbornJohnWeldoninDevlin,Co.Westmeath,oneofsevenchildrenofthelocalschoolmaster.IntendedfortheExcise,hebecame
insteadanactorwiththeAbbeyTheatre,Dublin,withwhosecompanyhetouredtheUSAin1911,remainingthereafterwardstotryandmakeacareer.Afterafew
yearshereturnedtoDevlin,wherehewroteTheValleyoftheSquintingWindows(1918),abitterbutwittyportrayalofthenarrownessofvillagelife.Thebookwas
burnedinDevlin,theschooloftheauthor'sfatherwasboycotted,andhehimself,infearofhislife,wasdriventotakerefugeinDublin.Hecontinuedhisexposof
provinciallifeinTheClankingofChains(1920)inTheIrishman(asOliverBlyth,1920)heofferedanexplanationofhisliteraryrationalewhilesatirizingtheIrish
LiteraryRevival.TheMirrorintheDusk(1921)isbycontrastatragictale.In1922,leavinghiswifetobringuptheirchildinCo.Clare,hebecameRegistrarofthe
NationalGalleryinDublin,aposthehelduntilshortlybeforehisdeath.Ofhissubsequent,andonlyoccasional,novels,TheVariousLivesofMarcusIgoe(1929),a
tragicomicfantasywhichexplorestherelationshipbetweenfictionandreality,isregardedasthebest.HealsowrotenineplayswhichwereperformedattheAbbey,of
whichhewasadirectorin1935heresignedalmostimmediatelyinprotestatthestagingofO'CASEY'STheSilverTassie.Ofthese,TheGloriousUncertainty(1923)
andLookattheHeffernans(1926)werecommerciallysuccessfulcomedies,whileMargaretGillan(1933)isabroodingstudyoffemalefrustration,passion,and
revenge.
MacNeice,(Frederick)Louis(190763)
Irishpoet,translator,andcritic,wasborninBelfast,theyoungestofthreechildrenofafutureAnglicanbishop,andwaseducatedinEnglandafterthedeathofhis
motherin1914(seehispoems'Carrickfergus'and'CarrickRevisited').HewenttoMarlboroughCollegeandMertonCollege,Oxford,wherehegotafirstinGreats
andeditedOxfordPoetrywithAUDEN.Hisfirstbookofverse,BlindFireworks,waspublishedin1929.HavingobtainedalectureshipinclassicsatBirmingham
Universityin1929(see'Birmingham')hemarried,againstthewishesofhisfatherandhermother,'Mariette'Ezra,thestepdaughteroftheProfessorofClassical
ArchaeologyatOxford.ShelefthimforanAmericanformercollegefootballstarin1934,shortlyafterthebirthoftheirson.HemovedtoLondon,wherehewasa
lecturerinGreekatBedfordCollege,London193639hisversetranslationofTheAgamemnonofAeschylus(1936)ishighlyregardedandwassuccessfully
staged.AutumnJournal(1938),whichhedescribedtoT.S.ELIOT,hispublisher,as'rapportage,metaphysics,ethics,lyricalemotion,autobiography,nightmare',is
regardedasthemostmovingandbestofhislongpoems.InManhattanin1939,hesharedaplatformwithAUDENandISHERWOOD,andhereturnedtotheUSAlaterthat
yeartolectureatCornellUniversity.From1941to1961hewasaproducerofradiofeaturesfortheBBC,forwhomhealsowrotesomeoutstandingdocumentaries
anddramasseeTheDarkTower,andOtherRadioScripts(1947).Hecombinedafulltimecareerandthedistractionsofanunsettledfamilylifewithhiscreative
impulse,publishingregularvolumesofverseandwritingcriticalworks,includingModernPoetry:aPersonalEssay(1938),andhis1963Clarklectures,Varietiesof
Parable(1965).Hediedofpneumonia,havingcaughtaseverechillunderground

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whilesupervisingsoundeffectsforaradioprogramme.Hewasaninspirationalpoet,wholettheformandcontentfindtheirowndisposition,theensuingvarietyof
themesandmoodsbeingmatchedbyhisearforanexactsoundandhiseyeforapreciselyrememberedimage.In1942hemarriedHedliAnderson,asingeractress
withwhomheusedtoappearonthesamecabaretorconcertplatform.HewasmadeCBEin1958.SeeCollectedPoems,ed.R.R.Dodds,2ndrev.edn1979
SelectedPlays,ed.AlanHeuserandPeterMcDonald,1993SelectedLiteraryCriticism,1987,andSelectedProse,1990,ed.AlanHeuserTheStringsAre
False:anUnfinishedAutobiography,newedn1996JonStallworthy,LouisMacNeice,newedn1996(biography)PeterMcDonald,LouisMacNeice:thePoet
inHisContexts,1991EdnaLongley,LouisMacNeice:aCriticalStudy,newedn1996.
Macpherson,James(173696)
Scottishpoet,wasborninRuthven,Invernessshire,thesonofafarmer.HewaseducatedasapoorstudentatKing'sCollege,Aberdeen,andstudieddivinityat
EdinburghUniversity,withouttakingadegreeateither.AfterteachinginRuthyenheemigratedtoEdinburgh,wherehepublishedanunremarkableromanticpoem,
TheHighlanders(1758).HewasencouragedbyHOMEandothersalsotopublishwhatheclaimedwereFragmentsofAncientPoetryCollectedintheHighlands
ofScotlandandTranslatedfromtheGalicorErseLanguage(1760).Anexcitedliteraryestablishmentcommissionedhimtoinvestigatefurthertheoraltraditionin
theHighlandsandtolookforlostmanuscripts.HedulyreturnedwithwhathedeclaredwasanepicbyOssian,a3rdcenturyGaelicwarriorpoet,sonofthelegendary
Fingal.His'Ossianpoems',Fingal(1761)andTemora(1763),werelargelyifnotentirelyhisowncomposition,buttheyappealedenormouslytoapublicwhichwas
enthralledbyROUSSEAU'S'noblesavage'andavidfortalesofprimitivepassionsandheroicactioninsublimesettings.NotonlyScotswantedthepoemstobeauthentic:
NapoleoncarriedthemaboutwithhimandBYRONthoughtthemsplendid.JOHNSON,inanopenlettertothepressin1775,calledthem'animposture'.Acommitteeofthe
HighlandSociety,chairedbyHENRYMACKENZIE,concludedin1805thatsomeelementsweregenuine.MacphersonwassecretarytotheGovernorofPensacola,West
Florida,from1763to1766,whenhereturnedtoLondonandbecameapoliticaljournalist.AsagentfortheNabobofArcot,hemadeafortune.In1784the
Governmentofferedhimthelandsofhiskinsmanandclanchief,EwanMacphersonofCluny(d.1756),whichhadbeenforfeitedafterthe'45Rebellion,buthe
insistedthattheyberestoredtoCluny'sson.HediedontheestatewhichhehadboughtinBadenoch,Invernessshire,andwasburied,athisownexpense,in
WestminsterAbbey.SeeThePoemsofOssianandRelatedWorks,ed.HowardGaskill,1996(annotatededition).
Macpherson,(Jean)Jay(b.1931)
Canadianpoetandcritic,wasborninEnglandinLondon,andin1940emigratedwithherparentstoNewfoundland,fromwhichtheymovedtoOttawa.Shewentto
CarletonCollege,Ottawa,andTorontoUniversity,wherein1957shebecameamemberoftheEnglishdepartment,andsubsequentlyaprofessorofVictoriaCollege.
NineteenPoems(1952)waspublishedbyCRAVESathisSeizenPress,Mallorca.OEarthReturn(1954),nineshortpoemsunderthesubtitle'ASpeculumforFallen
Women',wasissuedbyherownsmallpress,EmblemBooks,whosethirdtitlewasLIVESAY'SNewPoems(1955).'OEarthReturn'becamethesecondsectionofThe
Boatman(1957),anintricatesequenceofmythologicalandbiblicalallusionsinavarietyofpoetic,oftenepigrammatic,forms,whichwontheGovernorGeneral's
Award.WelcomingDisaster:Poems19701974(privatelypublished1974)isafurthersequenceintheformofasymbolicquestwith,asguide,ateddybear,whom
thepoetfirstdiscovers'Inachair,/Fillinginfor/Himnotthere'probablytheonlyteddyinseriouspoetryoutsideBETJEMAN.BothbookswerereprintedinPoems
TwiceTold(1981).Shehasalsopublishedthecriticalstudy,TheSpiritofSolitude:ConventionsandContinuitiesinLateRomance(1982).SeeLorraineWeir,
JayMacphersonandHerWorks,1994.
MacThmais,Ruaraidh
seeTHOMSON,DERICK.
Maeterlinck,Maurice(18621949)
Belgiandramatist,poet,andessayist,wasbornMauritiusPolydorusMariaBernardusMaeterlinckinGhent,thesonofanotary.HewaseducatedattheJesuitCollege
ofSainteBarbeandGhentUniversity,wherehereadlawattherequestofhisparents,whomin1885hepersuadedthatfurtherstudyinPariswascalledfor.There,he
pursuedinsteadhisinterestincurrentliterarytrends,meetingMALLARMandotherSymbolistpoets,particularlyVilliersdel'IsleAdam(183889),astudentofthefable
andtheoccult,andpublishingashortstoryasMoorisMaeterlinck(thereafteritwasMaurice).HepractisedlawinGhent,butafteravolumeofverse,Serres
Chaudes[Hothouses],andagoodcriticalreceptionforaSymbolistplay,LaPrincesseMaleine,bothprivatelypublishedin1889withtheconnivanceofhismother,
heacceptedbothparents'supporttoliveasawriter.HefollowedL'Intruse[TheIntruder]andLesAveugles[TheBlind],bothperformedinParisin1891,with
anotherdeathdrama,PellasetMlisande(1892tr.ErvingWinslow,

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1894),forwhichhewashailedinLondonas'theBelgianShakespeare'whenitwasperformedtherein1898withMrsPatrickCampbell(18651904)intheleadit
alsobecametheopera(1902)byClaudeDebussy(18621918).
In1895MaeterlinckmettheactressandsingerGeorgetteLeblanc(18761941),whowasseparatedfromherSpanishCatholichusband.Duringthefifteenyearsthat
theylivedtogethersheplayedmanyofhisheroinesandalsoproducedthespectacularversionofSHAKESPEARE'SMacbeth,inhistranslation,atthe14thcenturyAbbey
ofStWandrille,whichtheyhadacquiredasahome.HisgreatesttheatricalsuccesswasL'OiseauBleu(tr.A.TexeiradeMattosasTheBlueBird,1909),acreation
mythpartlyinspiredbyBARRIE'SPeterPan.Writtenin1905,itwasfirstperformedattheMoscowArtTheatreunderthedirectionofConstantineStanislavsky(1863
1938)in1909,andinLondonthefollowingyear.AtarehearsalfortheFrenchproductionin1911hemetan18yearoldminoractress,ReneDahon,whomhe
marriedin1919.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1911forhis'diverseliteraryactivity',whichincludedhisessays,ofwhichhewentontopublish12
collectionsbetween1927and1942,onentomologicalandbotanicalaswellasphilosophicalandmysticalthemes.HewascreatedCountofBelgiumin1932.
Mahfouz,Naguib(b.1911)
Egyptiannovelist,wasbornofmiddleclassparentsintheancientquarterofCairodescribedinhisnovel[MidaqAlley](1947tr.TrevorLeGassick,rev.edn
1975),fromwhichtheymovedwhenhewasfivetotheEuropeanstyleinnersuburbofAbbasiyah,wherehewenttoschool.Havingtakenadegreeinphilosophyat
CairoUniversity,wherehediscoveredWesternfiction,andbeenforawhileamemberoftheuniversitysecretariat,hebecameacivilservant.Heworkedinthe
MinistryofReligiousAffairsuntil1954,whenhemarriedandmovedfromhismother'shouse,andthenintheMinistryofCultureuntilhisretirementin1971.Hisfirst
book,atranslationfromEnglish,wasfollowedbythreepharaonicnovelsofhisown.HavingpublishedMidaqAlley,hissecondnovelofmodernlife,andembarked
upon,andcompleted,his'CairoTrilogy',hewrotenothingduringthefiveyearsfollowingtheEgyptianRevolutionof1952.Thetrilogy,afamilysagawhichdealswith
explosiveissuesandthehithertoforbiddenareaofsex,andchartstheprogressofEgyptiannationalismduringthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,waspublishedinvolume
form195657,earninghimashareoftheStatePrizeforLiteratureinEnglishasPalaceWalk,tr.WilliamM.HutchinsandOliveE.Kenny(1990),Palaceof
Desire,tr.Hutchins,Kenny,andLorneM.Kenny(1991),andSugarStreet,tr.HutchinsandAngeleBotrosSamaan(1992).
Mahfouzbrokehissilencewith[ChildrenofGebelawi](serialized1959tr.PhilipStewart,1981),inwhichsuccessiveprotagonistsinstinctivelyrecreateinaCairo
alleythelivesofAdam,Moses,Jesus,andMuhammad.StillneverpublishedinEgyptinvolumeform,itearneditsauthoraretrospectivefatwain1989,onthe
groundsthathaditbeendeclaredatthetime,RUSHDIEmighthavebeendeterredfromwritingTheSatanicVersesanattemptonMahfouz'slifewasmadein1994.In
[AdriftontheNile](1966tr.FrancesLiardet,1993),Mahfouzexplores,inamannerwhichonecriticcomparedwiththatofCHEKHOV,theimpactofrealityonthe
artificialparadiseofagroupofbourgeoisdrugaddictsinEgyptinthe1960s.ArabianNightsandDays(1982tr.DenysJohnsonDavies,1995)isaloosereworking
of13talesfromtheArabianNights,withpoliticoreligiousovertones.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1988.SeeEchoesofanAutobiography,tr.
DenysJohnsonDavies,forewordbyNadineGordimer,1997MattiMoosa,TheEarlyNovelsofNaguibMahfooz,1994(criticalstudy).
Mahony,FrancesSylvester
seePROUT.
Mailer,Norman(b.1923)
Americannovelistandprosewriter,wasborninLongBranch,NewJersey,andwasbroughtupinBrooklyn,NewYork,'themostsecureJewishenvironmentin
America',wherehewenttoBrooklynHighSchool.HegraduatedfromHarvardcurelaudeinaeronauticalengineering,havinginhissecondyearwonStory
magazine'scollegecontest,andlatterlydrivenhimselftowritethreethousandwordsoffictionaday.HeenlistedintheUSArmyinWorldWarIIwiththeideaof
writing'ashortnovelaboutalongpatrol'.TheNakedandtheDead(1948),alongnovelaboutalongpatrol,immediatelyestablishedforhimareputationonwhich
onlyanextremelyambitiousandinventivecraftsmancouldimprove.BarbaryShore(1951)andTheDeerPark(1955)werestilltheworksofanapprenticewriter,
wholaidbarehisturbulentegoandcreativephilosophyinthestoriesandessaysinAdvertisementsforMyself(1959).AnAmericanDream(1965)isastudyofthe
Americanconsciousnessthroughthepersonaofamiddleaged'hipster'.TheArmiesoftheNight:theNovelasHistory,HistoryasaNovel(1968),whichwonthe
PulitzerPrizefornonfiction,isanimaginativereconstructionofthe1967marchonthePentagon(inwhichheandROBERTLOWELLparticipated)inprotestagainstthe
VietnamWar,atopictowhichhereturnedmetaphoricallyinhisnovel,WhyAreWemVietnam?(1967).ForTheExecutioner'sSong:aTrueLifeNovel(1979),
whichwonhissecondPulitzerPrize,hefashioned,fromathousand

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hoursoftaperecordedinterviewsandhundredsofpagesofnotes,aportraitofGaryGilmore,aconvictedmurdererwhoinsistedonhisownexecution.
ThetechniqueofselectionandarrangementseemedtodesertMailerwhenhecametowritetwoenormousnovels,AncientEvenings(1983),aboutancientEgypt,
andHarlot'sGhost(1991),acombinationofhistory,biography,literature,basicphilosophy,andromance,whichis,accordingtoalegendinthebook,justthe
beginningofasagaoftheCentralIntelligenceAgency.Oswald'sTale:anAmericanMystery(1995)isaninvestigationintothecharacterofPresidentKennedy's
assassin.ThereisagreatdealoftheauthorhimselfinPortraitofPicassoasaYoungMan:anInterpretativeBiography(1996),forwhichhedrawsalsoonthe
memoirs(1988)oftheartist'sfirstmistress,FernandeOlivier.SeePeterManso,Mailer:HisLifeandTimes,rev.edn1987BrianMorton,NormanMailer,1991
(criticalstudy)MichaelK.Glenday,NormanMailer,1995(criticalstudy).
Mair,Charles(18381927)
Canadianpoet,wasborninLanark,UpperCanada,andstudiedmedicineforayearatQueen'sUniversity,whichhelefttoworkinthefamilytimberbusiness.In
1868hepublishedDreamlandandOtherPoems,intheEnglishRomanticvein,andreturnedbrieflytoQueen'sbeforegoingtoOttawa,wherehebecameafounder
oftheAngloProtestantmovement,CanadaFirst.LocalMtistookexceptiontolettershewrotetohisbrotherwhilepaymasterofagovernmentroadbuildingproject
betwenPortArthurandRiverSettlement(Winnipeg),whichwereprintedintheTorontoGlobe.DuringtheRedRiverRebellionin1870hewasimprisonedbythe
insurgents'leader,LouisRiel(184485),andsentencedtodeath.Heescaped,andreturnedtothefrayin1885asaquartermasterduringRilel'sfinalrebellion,after
whichhewasdubbedthe'warriorpoet'.Tecumseh:aDrama(1886),whichrecallsinblankversetheShawneechief'ssupportoftheBritishintheWarof1812,isa
genuinenationalplay,inwhichtherearesomefinedescriptivesweeps,notablyonthebison.Hisconcernforthepreservationofthisspeciesisfurtherreflectedinthe
poem'TheLastBison'.Heworkedforthefederalimmigrationservicefrom1898to1921.ThroughtheMackenzieBasin:aNarrativeoftheAthabascaand
PeaceRiverTreatyExpeditionof1899(1908)ishisrecordofamissiontonegotiatelandtransferswiththeIndians.SeeDreamlandandOtherPoemsand
Tecumseh:aDrama,ed.NormanShrive,1974.
Mais,Roger(190555)
Jamaicannovelist,wasborninKingstonofmiddleclassparents,andafteranearlyprivateeducationspentthreeyearsatCalabarHighSchool.At17hebecamea
clerkintheDepartmentofEducation,whichheleftafterayear.Duringthenextfifteenyearshewasatdifferenttimesabananatallyman,insurancesalesman,rice
planter,photographer,andreporterontheDailyGleaner.In1940hebecameastaffwriteronPublicOpinion,thejournalofthePeople'sNationalParty,forwhich
hewrotestoriesseeFaceandOtherStories(1942)andAndMostofAllMen(1943)andnumerousarticles,oneofwhich,decryingBritain'scolonialpolicy,
landedhiminjailforsixmonths.Onhisreleasehetookuphorticulture,andwentbacktopaintingand,eventually,towriting.TheHillsWereJoyfulTogether(1953),
whichBRATHWAITEhascalled'theEnglishspeakingWestIndies'firstghettonovel',incorporateselementsofhisprisonexperiences.InBrotherMan(1954),draftedin
afortnightintherainyseasonof1951,thetensionisbetweentheinhabitantsofanurbanghettoandtheRastafarianwhoistheagentof'peacean'love'.Maisspentthe
years195254abroad,returningtoJamaicaravagedbycancer.BlackLightning(1955),inwhichheexplorestheplaceoftheartistandhumanrelationshipsinarural
community,waspublishedposthumously,thoughhesawanadvancecopybeforehedied.SeeJeanD'Costa,RogerMais,1978(criticalstudy).
Maitland,(Sir)Richard,ofLethington(14961586)
Scottishpoetandanthologist,describedas'anevaliant,graveandworthyKnight',succeededtothetitleandthefamilyestatesonthedeathofhisfatheratthebattleof
Floddenin1513.HewaseducatedatStAndrewsUniversity,afterwhichhestudiedlawinParis.HewasintheserviceofJamesVofMary,QueenRegentoftheir
daughterMary,QueenofScotsandofhersonJamesVI.Thoughnowcompletelyblind,hewasin1561appointedajudgeandmadeLordLethington.Hewas
KeeperoftheGreatSealfrom1562to1567,whenheresignedinfavourofhissecondson,John(154595),laterLordThirlestane,andretiredtodevotehimselfto
literature.TheMaitlandFolioisacollectionmadebyhimselfofearlyScottishpoetry,notablyofDUNBARandHENRYSON,withanonymouspoemssuchasChristisKirk
ontheGreneandPeblistothePlay:theMaitlandQuarto,madefororbyhisdaughterMargaret,comprisesalso16thcenturyworks,includingthoseofJAMESVIand
MONTGOMERIE.BotharesecondonlytothecollectionofGeorgeBannatyne(15451608)asauthenticsourcesofScottishpoetry.Maitland'sownverse,writtenlaterin
life,isnotableforitstartcommentsonfoiblesoftheage,asin'SatireonTownLadies':'Onclaithistheywair[spend]monyacroun/Andallfornewfangilnessofgeir'.
Major,John
seeBLINDHARRYBUCHANANHOLINSHED.

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Malamud,Bernard(191486)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninBrooklyn,NewYork,theeldersonofJewishimmigrantsfromRussia.'Myfatherwasagrocer,mymother,who
helpedhim,afteralongillness,diedyoung.'HewaseducatedatErasmusHallHighSchool,CityCollege,NewYork,andColumbiaUniversity.Hetaughtfornine
yearsineveninghighschoolsinNewYork,andthenatOregonStateUniversityuntil1961,whenhewenttotheDivisionofLanguagesandLiterature,Bennington
College,Vermont.Hisfirstnovel,TheNatural(1952),isanallegoryfeaturingthefallandrehabilitationofabaseballplayer.HistreatmentofJewishthemes('Iwrite
aboutJews,whenIwriteaboutJews,becausetheysetmyimaginationgoing')beginswithTheAssistant(1957),inwhichdaytodayexistenceinasmallgrocer's
storeisthesettingforastudyofJewishandGentileassimilation.ThetitlestoryofTheMagicBarrel(1958)hasbecomeaclassicforitsblendofhumour,poignancy,
anduseofJewishtradition.TheprotagonistofANewLife(1961)isaJewishlectureratoddswithlifeinaremoteWestCoastuniversity('Ipreferautobiographical
essencetoautobiographicalhistory.Eventsfromlifemaycreepintothenarrative,butitisn'tnecessarilymylifehistory.')TheverymuchdarkerTheFixer(1966),
whichwonthePulitzerPrize,issetinTsaristRussia.TheTenants(1971)isshort,brutal,anddisturbingthedisintegrationofawriterisalsothemainthemeofDubin's
Lives(1979).MalamudreturnedtoallegoryinGod'sGrace(1982),anappealforreasonbeforethemodernworlddestroysitself.SeeSelectedStories,newedn
1993TalkingHorse:BernardMalamudonLifeandWork,ed.AlanCheuseandNicholasDelbanco,1996(interviews,essays,andnotes).
Malan,Herman
seeBOSMAN.
Mallarm,Stphane(184298)
Frenchpoet,wasborntienne,inParis.Afterhismother'sdeathwhenhewasfive,heandhissister(whodiedin1858)werebroughtupbytheirmaternal
grandparents.Hewenttohisfirstboardingschool,inPassy,atten,andwasalreadywritingpoetrywhenheleftschoolat18.HisenthusiasmforPOEledhimtostudy
Englishseriously.ShortlyaftermarryingaGermangirlinLondonin1863,hebeganteachingitinTournonhelaterpublishedatranslationof'TheRaven'(1875)and
ofacollectionofPoe'sverse(1888).Whilehecontinuedtoteach,evenaftermovingtoParisfromAvignonin1871,heexperiencedinTournonanemotionalcrisis
duringwhichhelosthisreligiousfaithanddevotedhimselftopoetry.HebecamepreeminentinaliterarycirclewhichincludedGIDE,VALRY,andPaulClaudel(1868
1955),andwasapublicfigureafterthepublicationofHUYSMANS'SRebours(1884),inwhichheiscitedasthefavouritepoetoftheembodimentofdecadence.A
SymbolistinthetraditionofBAUDELAIRE,hestated:'Tonameanobjectistosacrificethreequartersofthatenjoymentofthepoemwhichcomesfromtheguessingbitby
bit.'HismusicalequivalentwasClaudeDebussy(18621918),afrequentvisitortohishouseinParis,whosettomusicthedramaticpastoralpoemwhichwashisfirst
book,L'AprsMidid'unFaune[TheAfternoonofaFaun](1876).LesPosies(1887)wasfirstpublishedinalimitededition:cheapereditionsfollowed.Thefirst
three'PomesenProse'inPages(1891)weretranslatedbyGEORGEMOOREinConfessionsofaYoungMan,wherehealsowarmlyrecollectsMallarm'sTuesday
eveningliteraryconversazioniroundthefire.SeePoems,tr.BrianCoffey,1990(bilingualedition)GordonMillan,Mallarm:aThrowoftheDicetheLifeof
StphaneMallarm,1994CharlesChadwick,TheMeaningofMallarm,1996(paralleltexttranslationandcriticalstudy).
Malley,Ern
seeMCAULEY.
Malory,(Sir)Thomas(c.141071)
prosewriter,wasofanoldWarwickshirefamily,cameintohisfather'sestateatNewboldRevelinabout1433,servedinFranceattheraisingofthesiegeofCalaisin
1436,andwasMemberofParliamentforWarwickshirein1445,havinginthemeantimebeenknighted.Betweenabout1450and1460hewasarrestedand
imprisonedeighttimes(andescapedtwice)onchargeswhichamounttoambushandintenttomurder,aggravatedburglary,rape,cattlerustling,andextortion.In1462
hewaswiththeEarlofWarwick'sarmyinNorthumberland,butitwouldappearthathewassoonbackinprison,wherehedied,havingcompletedtherein1469what
hereferstoas'thehoolebookofkyngArthurandofhisnobleknyghtesoftheRoundeTable',whichwasprintedandpublishedin1485byCAXTONasLeMorte
Darthur.Thiswasregardedasthedefinitivetextuntilthediscoveryofafullercontemporarymanuscriptversionin1943intheFellows'LibraryofWinchesterCollege.
WhetheronetakestheviewofEugneVinaverseeMalory:Works(2ndedn,reissued1977)thatitcompriseseightseparatebooksorthatofc.s.LEWISthatitis
aconglomerateofmanyoftenunfinishedorunconnectedstories,thisremarkableproseromanceisthemostcomprehensiverenderingofthelegendsofKingArthur,
toldinaracy,descriptivestyle,withcompletebalanceofdialogueandnarrative,andisalandmark,ifnotanoasis,inthehistoryofEnglishprose.SeeP.J.C.Field,
TheLifeandTimesofSirThomasMalory,1993ElizabethArchibaldandA.S.G.Edwards(eds),ACompaniontoMalory,1996.

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Malouf,David(b.1934)
Australiannovelistandpoet,wasborninBrisbaneandeducatedatBrisbaneGrammarSchoolandtheUniversityofQueensland.HehassincelivedinEnglandandin
Italy,aswellasinAustralia,wherehewasalectureratSydneyUniversityfrom1968to1977.Thereminiscenttoneoftwovolumesofverse,BicycleandOther
Poems(1970)andNeighboursintheThicket(1974rev.edn1980),becomesmorereflectiveandcosmopolitaninFirstThingsLast(1980).Theboyhoodand
youthofhispoemsaretosomeextentrecapitulatedinhisfirstnovel,Johnno(1975).Whilehehasretainedinallhissubsequentfictionthedeviceofcharactersof
oppositetemperamentsorcircumstances,thesituationsareextraordinarilyvaried.AnImaginaryLife(1978)hasanexiledOVIDobsessedbyawolfchild.InFly
AwayPeter(1982),Harland'sHalfAcre(1984),andTheGreatWorld(1990),whichwontheMILESFRANKLINAward,theCommonwealthWritersPrize,andthe
PrixFeminaEtrangerinFrance,heisconcernednotonlywithaspectsof20thcenturyAustralianlifeandcharacteristics,butwiththeeffectonthemofoutside
inhumanity,particularlyofthewarsinEuropeandtheFarEast.RememberingBabylon(1993)isastudyoftheeffectona19thcenturyQueenslandcommunityofa
Britishyouth,castoverboardasachild,whohasspent16yearswithanAboriginetribeitwasin1996giventheinauguralInternationalIMPACDublinLiteraryAward,
theworld'smostvaluableprizeforasinglework.TheConversationsatCurlowCreek(1996),setinNewSouthWalesin1820,describestherelationshipand
dramaticlinksbetweenapoliceofficerandanIrishmanwhohasbeencondemnedtobehanged.ThoughMaloufhaslatterlydividedhistimebetweenAustraliaand
Italy,hemaintainsinhisworkhispresidingthemeofhomebyregardingeachjourneyasahomecoming,whethertothelandofhisbirthortothatwhichheregardsas
hisculturalhome.Thelinkedessaysin12EdmonstoneStreet(1985)developthistheme.HewasmadeAOin1987.SeeSelectedPoems19591989,1992Ivor
Indyk,DavidMalouf,1993(criticalstudy).
Malraux,Andr(190176)
Frenchnovelistandcritic,wasborninBondy,justoutsideParis,thesonofastockbrokerandabaker'sdaughter.Heleftschoolwithoutpassinghisbaccalaureateto
workasabargainhunterforanantiquarianbookseller,publishedstoriesandreviewsinavantgardemagazines,and,whenhewas19,impulsivelymarriedtherich,23
yearoldClaraGoldschmidt.OnanarchaeologicalexpeditioninCambodiain192324hewasconvictedoflootingahistoricalmonumentandreleasedona
technicality.HereturnedtoIndochinain192526,andindulgedinpoliticalactivityinSaigonduringtheeventswhichformthebackgroundtoLesConqurants(1928
tr.WinifredStephensWhaleasTheConquerors,1929).LaConditionHumaine(1933tr.HaakonM.ChevalierasMan'sFate,1934tr.AlastairMacdonaldas
Man'sEstate,1948),whichwonthePrixGONCOURT,coverstwodaysin1927duringwhichtheCommunistinsurrectioninShanghaifailed.In1934,afteraflightover
theArabianDesert,heannouncedthathehaddiscoveredthelegendarycityoftheQueenofSheba.HewasinBerlinthesameyearwithGIDE,helpingthedefendantsin
thetrialfollowingtheReichstagfire.LeTempsduMpris(1935:tr.ChevalierasDaysofWrath,1936)reflectshisconcernaboutFascism,asdoesL'Espoir(1937
tr.StuartGilbertandMacdonaldasMan'sHope,1938),writtenafterhehadfoughtintheSpanishCivilWarin193637.DuringWorldWarIIheservedinaFrench
tankunit,wascaptured,escaped,joinedtheResistance,andthencommandedabrigadeinNormandyaftertheAlliedinvasion,beingawardedboththeCroixde
GuerreandtheDistinguishedServiceOrder.HewasMinisterofInformation194546,andMinisterofStateforCulturalAffairs195969.Aninfluentialif
controversialartcriticaswellasanovelistandmanofaction,hismajorworkinthatfieldwasreissuedasLesVoixduSilence(1951tr.GilbertasTheVoicesof
Silence,1954).HeandClarawerefinallydivorcedin1946,bywhichtimehehadhadtwosonsbyJosetteClotis,whodiedinabizarrerailwayaccidentin1944.He
marriedMadeleineMalraux,hishalfbrother'swidow,in1948.
Mandel,Eli(asWolf)(192294)
Canadianpoetandcritic,wasborninEstevan,Saskatchewan,ofaJewishfamily.HeservedwiththeArmyMedicalCorpsinEuropeinWorldWarII.Hereturnedto
theUniversityofSaskatchewan,afterwhichhetaughtatTorontoUniversity,CollgeMilitaireRoyaldeSaintJean,Quebec,andtheUniversityofAlberta.In1965he
wasappointedtoYorkUniversity,Ontario,wherehebecameaprofessorofEnglishandhumanitiesin1967.HisfirstbookofversewasFuseliPoems(1960),andin
thisandotherearlyvolumes,ofwhichAnIdiotJoy(1967)wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward,mythologicalthemespredominate.ImagesofJewishsufferingrecur
throughoutStonyPlain(1973),inwhichtheshockatthehorrorsoftheconcentrationcampsisreflectedinthedisintegratedprosodyof'Onthe25thAnniversaryof
theLiberationofAuschwitz...'.OutofPlace(1977)isasinglepoemonJewishsettlementinSaskatchewan.LifeSentence:PoemsandJournals19761980
(1981)reflectshistravelsinSouthAmericaandIndia.CriticalessaysarecollectedinAnotherTime(1977),andheeditedseveralsignificantanthologies,including
PoetsofContemporaryCanada19601970(1972).SeeDreamingBackwards:Selected

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Poetry19541981,1981DennisCooley,EliMandelandHisWorks,1992.
Mandelstam,Osip(18911938)
Russianpoetandcritic,wasborninWarsawofJewishparents(hisfatherwasaleathermerchantandhismotherateacherofmusic),andwasbroughtupinSt
Petersburg,whereonlyprivilegedJewswereallowedtolive.HewaseducatedatTenishevSchool,afterwhichhespentseveralyearstravellingandstudyingin
France,Italy,andGermany,followedbyayearofphilosophyatStPetersburgUniversity.Hisfirstbookofverse,[Stone](1913rev.edn1923tr.RobertTracy,
1981),proclaimedhimasanAcmeist(seeAKHMATOVA)ratherthanaSymbolist.Bythetimehereturnedfromweatheringoutinthesouththecivilwarsfollowingthe
Revolutionof1917,hehadfoundadistinctivelyricalvoiceTristia(1922)owedmoretotheclassicaltraditionofHOMER,OVID,VIRGIL,andDANTEthantoanymore
localizedorcontemporaryinfluence.HemarriedNadezhdaKhazina(18991980)in1922.In1928hepublishedabookofcriticalessays,acollectionof
miscellaneousprose,andathirdvolumeofpoetry,incorporatingtheearliertwoandincludingsomemorerecentpoems.Itwashislast.Laterthatyear,afterhis
personalhonourhadbeenpubliclyimpugnedinaliteraryslangingmatchoveratranslationhehadedited,thecouplewerespiritedoutofharm'swaytoArmenia.
[JourneytoArmenia],tr.ClarenceBrown(newedn1989),comprisingaseriesofimpressionswhichcelebratedhisrecoveryfromseveralyearsofwriter'sblock,
wasfirstpublishedinajournalin1933inaheavilycensoredform.
In1934theauthoritieslearnedfromaninformerofashortpoemmakingfunofStalin('theKremlinmountaineer')andhistasteforexecutionsseeinJ.M.Coetzee,
GivingOffense:EssaysonCensorship(1996).Mandelstamwasarrested,interrogated,abused,andfinallyexiled,firsttotheUrals,wherehalfmadfromhis
treatment,hetriedtokillhimself,andthentoVoronezhseeVoronezhNotebooks,tr.ElizabethandRichardKane(1994),forpoemscomposedorcommittedto
paperatthistime.In1937heandhiswife(whohadinsistedonaccompanyinghimthewholetime)returnedtoMoscow,wheretheyweredeniedanywheretoliveand
hehadtwoheartattacks.Hewasarrestedwhilerecuperatinginasanatorium,andsentencedtofiveyears'hardlabourfor'counterrevolutionaryactivities'.Hewas
putonaprisontrain,anddied,supposedlyofafurtherheartattack,inatransitcampnearVladivostock.NadezdhaMandelstampublishedtwomemoirs,Hope
AgainstHope(1971)andHopeAbandoned(1974),tr.MaxHayward.Thattwohundredofhislaterpoemssurviveisduetoherdedicationandtohermemorizing
themseeBethHolmgren,Women'sWorkinStalin'sTime:onLydiaChukovskaiaandNadezhdaMandelstam(1994)foranaccountoftheliterarylegaciesof
tworemarkablewomen.SeeSelectedPoems,tr.ClarenceBrownandW.S.Merwin,newedn1989(verse)PoemsfromMandelstam,tr.R.H.Morrison,1990
(prose)TheCollectedCriticalProseandLetters,tr.JaneGaryHarrisandConstanceLink,newedn1991ClareCavanagh,OsipMandelstamandthe
ModernistCreationofTradition,1995(criticalstudy)NancyPollak,MandelstamtheReader,1995(criticalstudy).
Mander,Jane(18771949)
NewZealandnovelist,wasbornnearDrury,Auckland,thedaughterofafirstgenerationNewZealanderwhohadtimbermillinginterestsintheNorthland,whereshe
grewupandbecameapupilteacherin1892.Sheturnedtojournalismin1902,andworkedforherfather'sNorthernAdvocateandfortheNorthAucklandTimes.
In1912shemovedtoNewYork,wheresheattendedColumbiaUniversitySchoolofJournalismfortwoyears,andwhereshewrotethreenovels.TheStoryofa
NewZealandRiver(1920)isinherentlyastudyofconflicts,betweenthegenerations,betweenpersonalsensitivitiesandtheraw,naturalworld,andbetweencultural
awarenessandthepioneeringspirit.InThePassionatePuritan(1921),whoseprotagonistisateacher,thereisareversaloftheacceptedgenderroles.TheStrange
Attraction(1922)isaboutajournalistandherromance.AllthreewerecondemnedinNewZealandfortheirpreoccupationwith'sexproblems'.In1923shewentto
London,whereshewroteAllenAdair(1925),anexplorationofrelationshipsintheisolatedsocietyofthe'gumcountryofthenorth'whichisregardedasherbest
novel,andtwoothers,withNewYorkandLondonbackgrounds.ShereturnedtoAucklandin1932,tolookafterherelderlyfather,whodiedin1942.Shewroteno
morefiction.
Mangan,JamesClarence(180349)
Irishpoetandtranslator,wasborninDublin,thesonofagrocer,andwaswelleducatedataprivateschoolinSaul'sCourtuntilforcedbyhisfather'sbankruptcyto
supportthewholefamily.Eccentricindressaswellasinmanner,hetoiledforsevenyearsasascrivenerandtheninalawyer'soffice,beforebeingfoundajobinthe
OrdnanceSurvey.Hehadversespublishedinalmanacsinhisteens,andin1831hejoinedtheCometClub,forwhosejournalhewroterichlyornatebutwellcrafted
poemsasClarence,whichheadoptedasoneofhisownnames.In1834hebegancontributingtotheDublinUniversityMagazine,mainlyeffectivetranslationsfrom
theGerman,whichheknew,butalsoadaptationsofIslamicmaterialfromotherpeople'stranslations.ThroughhisworkandcontactsintheOrdnanceSurveyhe
developedaninterestinandanationalistic

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passionforIrishmaterial,whichhebrilliantlyreworkedinsuchpoemsas'DarkRosaleen'and'O'Hussey'sOdetotheMaguire',whilealsocompilingoriginalpoemson
Irishthemes.In1842,whentheOrdnanceSurveycloseddown,hebegancontributingtotheNation,whosefounderEditor,(Sir)CharlesGavanDuffy(18161903),
himselfalsoapoet(andlaterPrimeMinisterofVictoria),evenpaidhimasalary,butMangan'sfataladdictiontoalcoholmadeanyformalworkingarrangement
impossible.Hediedinacholeraepidemic,havingspenttheprevioustwoyearsinhospital,recoveringfirstfromillnessandthenfromanaccident.SeeCollected
Prose,1996,andCollectedPoems,1997,ed.MartinVanDeKampandJacquesChutoAutobiography,ed.JamesKilroy,1968BrendanClifford,The
Dubliner:theLives,TimesandWritingsofJamesClarenceMangan,1988EllenShannonMangan,JamesClarenceMangan:aBiography,1995HenryJ.
Donaghy,JamesClarenceMangan,1974(criticalstudy).
Mankowitz,Wolf(b.16631724)
novelist,dramatist,screenwriter,andauthorityonceramics,wasborninBethnalGreen,London,andeducatedatEastHamGrammarSchoolandDowningCollege,
Cambridge,wherehewasastudentofLEAVIS.HewasforatimeavolunteercoalminerinWorldWarII.AKidforTwoFarthings(1953),anaffectionate,funny,
movingcelebrationofhisEastEndJewishupbringing,followedMakeMeanOffer(1952),inwhichprofitmakingbyanymeansintheantiques'businessisthetheme
ofaquestnovella.JewishlifeandtraditionsalsofeatureinseveraldramaticpiecesseeFiveOneActPlays(1955).SubsequentnovelsincludeMyOldMan'sa
Dustman(1956),astudyoflowlifesurvivalCockatrice(1963),anexposofsomeofthelessattractiveaspectsofthefilmindustryandtwosupernaturalfantasies
ofthemodernAmericanWest,TheDevilinTexas(1984)andExquisiteCadaver(1990).ANightWithCasanova(1991),whichheannouncedasbeinghislast
book,isamoralfableaboutmortality,inwhichCASANOVA,inthelastyearofhislife,meetstheWanderingJew.VolumesofshortstoriesincludeTheBlueArabian
Nights:TalesofaLondonDecade(1973).HereceivedanOscarforscreenplayin1957,andhasbeenatheatreandfilmproducer,Londonrestaurantowner,
antiquesandartdealer,andfrom1982to1986AdjunctProfessorofEnglishattheUniversityofNewMexico.HeandhisfamilywenttoliveintheIrishRepublicin
1971,whenhewasalsoHonoraryConsulinDublintotheRepublicofPanama.
Manley,(Mary)Delarivire(16631724)
Englishnovelist,dramatist,andpoliticaljournalist,wasadaughterofSirRogerManley,historianandroyalistsoldier,whowasLieutenantGovernorofJersey1667
74.Afterhisdeathin1688,shewaspersuadedtomarryanoldercousin,JohnManley(d.1714).Hewasalreadymarried,andinduecourseabandonedherandtheir
child.Afterliving(andquarrelling)withtheroyalmistress,theDuchessofCleveland(16411709),shewrotetwoplays,TheLostLover:or,TheJealousHusband
andTheRoyalMischief,whichwereperformedinLondonin1696.Nowlaunchedonherliterarycareer,shealsohadseveralaffairs,oneofthemwiththeWardenof
theFleetPrison.SheeditedTheNineMuses(1700),elegiestoDRYDENbyherselfandotherwomenpoets.TheSecretHistoryofQueenZarahandtheZarazians
(1705),inthenewvogueof'scandalstory',wasalsoaromanclef,thevictimbeingtheDuchessofMarlborough(16601744).InTheSecretMemoirsand
MannersofSeveralPersonsofQuality,ofbothSexes.FromtheNewAtalantis(1709),shewentevenfurther,andwasarrestedandheldinprison.Undeterred,
shepublishedfurther'Atalantis'exploits(1710and1711).In1711shetookoverfromSWIFTasEditoroftheToryjournal,theExaminer.Hedinedwithherin
January1712,andreportedto'Stella'thatshewas'veryillofadropsyandsorelegtheprintertellsmeheisafraidshecannotlivelong...sheisaboutforty,very
homelyandveryfat'.Sherecovered,towriteTheAdventuresofRivella:or,TheHistoryoftheAuthoroftheAtalantis(1714),asourceofinformationabouther
earlylife,andThePowerofLoveinSevenNovels(1720),inwhichsheadaptsandembellishesheroriginals.SeeAWomanofNoCharacter:anAutobiography
ofMrsManley,ed.FidelisMorgan,newedn1987.
Mann,Heinrich
seeMANN.
Mann,Thomas(18751955)
Germannovelistandcritic,youngerbrotherofthenovelistHeinrichMann(18711950),wasborninLubeck,thesecondoffourchildrenofSenator'Henry'Mann
(184191),industrialist,andJuliadaSilvaBruhns(18521923),whosemotherwasPortugueseCreole.HeattendedtheKatharineum,whereherepeatedhislasttwo
grades.HewasapprenticedtoaninsurancecompanyinMunich,towhichhiswidowedmotherhadmoved,whenin1894hehadastoryprintedinDieGesellschaft.
Sheagreedthatheshouldextricatehimselffromhisapprenticeshipprovidedheenrolforsomecoursesatthelocaltechnicalhighschool.Hepublishedavolumeof
storiesin1898.In1900hegaveup(orwasmaderedundantfrom)hisjobassifterofmanuscriptsforthesatiricaljournal,Simplicissimus,andfinishedandpostedoff
hisfirstnovel.HemanagedtogethimselfdischargedfrommilitaryserviceintheRoyalBavarianInfantryGuardsforan'inflamedfiatfoot'.Thenovel,Buddenbrooks:
VerfalleinerFamilie(1901asBuddenbrooks:theDeclineofaFamily,tr.H.T.LowePorter,1924tr.JohnE.Woods,1993),astudy

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oftheeffectofacreativetalentonseveralgenerationsofaLubeckfamilyresemblinghisown,andpublishedinfullafterhehadrefusedtocutitbyhallsoldslowlyuntil
itssecondimpression.Tristan(1903)containedthestory'TonioKrger',inwhichhisalteregostruggleslyricallytofindacompromisebetweenartisticfreedomand
thecommonplaceelementsofdailylife.In1905hemarriedthetalented19yearolddaughteroftheProfessorofMathematicsatMunichUniversity,whowastheonly
femalestudentthereandsharedhispassionforcycling:theyhadsixchildren.AfterKniglicheHoheit(1909tr.A.CecilCurtisasRoyalHighness,1916),'anovel
ofhighlife,withahappyending',hewrote,asWorldWarIthreatened,DerTodinVenedig(1912tr.LowePorterasDeathinVenice,withTonioKrger,1928),
astudyofanageingauthor'sfatalattractionfora13yearoldboyhisownhomoeroticism,whichhiswifeandchildrenrecognizedandindulged,becamecommon
knowledgewiththereleaseofhisdiariesin1977.DuringWorldWarIMannfelloutwithhisbrotheroverthewayforwardforGermanhumanity,whichheexploredin
DerZauberberg(1924tr.LowePorterasTheMagicMountain,1927),whosethemeistheapplicationofartandphilosophytothecrisesofcontemporary
existence.HavingacceptedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1929,hewentintoexileinSwitzerlandwhenHitlercametopower.Thoughhisworkswereinitially
excludedfromtheNazibookburningceremonies,afterhissuccessfulproposalfortheNobelPeacePrizeofCarlyonOssietsky(18891938),whohadbeenina
concentrationcampsince1933,hewasdeprivedofhiscitizenship.In1939heandhiswife(whowasJewish)sailedfortheUSA,ofwhichtheybecamecitizensin
1944.Fromtherehemade55antiNazibroadcaststothepeopleofGermanyviatheBritishBroadcastingCorporation.Hewasgivenasalariedprofessorshipat
PrincetonandastipendasaFellowoftheLibraryofCongress.
LotteinWeimar(1939tr.LowePorterasTheBelovedReturns,1940),aninsightintotheGOETHEstory,andDoktorFaustus(1947tr.LowePorterasDoctor
Faustus:theLifeoftheComposerAdrianLeverkhnasToldbyaFriend,1949),ahistoricalparableofmodernGermany,arereflectionsofhisdeterminationto
keepalivetheculturaltraditionsofhiscountry,towhichhereturnedforthefirsttimeonavisitin1949.HelefttheUSAforSwitzerlandin1952inthewakeofthe
hysteriaoverCommunism,whichhehadneversupported.Hebrokeofffromcompletinghislongplannedcomicnovel,BekenntnissedesHochstaplersFelixKrull
(1954tr.DenverLindleyasConfessionsofFelixKrull,ConfidenceMan,1955),ofwhichafragmenthadbeenpublishedin1922,towriteDieBetrogene(1953
tr.WilliardR.TraskasTheBlackSwan,1954),abitternovelreflectinghisdisillusionment.
HeinrichMann'sengagementwithpoliticswasmoreopenthanhisbrother's(hewasinvitedtostandforPresidentoftheGermanRepublicin1932),andhisepicsatire,
DerUntertan(1918tr.ErnestBoydasManofStraw,1947)isovertlyantiGerman.ProfessorUnrat(1905),animpressionisticstudyofdegradationinasmall
townsetting,wasthebasisofthefilm,TheBlueAngel(1930),withMarleneDietrich(190492)inherfirststarringrolethenovelwastranslatedintoEnglishunder
thattitlein1932.HediedinCalifornia.SeeDonaldPrater,ThomasMann:aLife,1995RonaldHayman,ThomasMann:aBiography,newedn1997Nigel
Hamilton,TheBrothersMann,1978(jointbiography)AnthonyHeilbut,ThomasMann:ErosandLiterature,newedn1997(criticalstudy).
Manning,Frederic(18821935)
Australiannovelist,wasborninSydney,thefourthsonofafourtimeslordmayorofthecity.Becauseofchronicasthmahewaseducatedathome,apartfromafew
monthsatSydneyGrammarSchool.At15hewenttoEngland,wherehelivedwith,initiallyashispupil,afamilyfriendwhowasVicarofEdenhill,Lincolnshire.Here
hewrotepoetryTheVigilofBrunhild(1907)andPoems(1910)andprose,includingScenesandPortraits(1909),asetofimaginaryhistoricaldialogueswhich
anticipatedaspectsofthepoetryofPOUND,whomheknew,andT.S.ELIOT.In1914,thoughhewasoverageforservice,heenlistedasaprivateintheKing's
ShropshireLightInfantry.HeservedinthefightingontheSommeandAncrefrontsin1916,andwrotesomenotablewarpoems,publishedinEidola(1917).In1917
hebecameanofficerintheRoyalIrishRegimentinIreland,wherehewaschargedwithinsubordinationanddiagnosedas'shellshocked'.In1918hereturnedtohis
reclusivelifeasasemiinvalidinLincolnshire.Someyearslaterhewasbulliedbyaninspiredpublishertorecounthiswarexperiencesasanovel.TheMiddlePartsof
Fortunewaspublishedanonymouslyin1929,andreissuedinanexpurgatededitionasHerPrivatesWe(1930)by'Private19022'.Graphicandgripping,itis
unusualinwarfictionforbeingwrittenby,aswellasrepresentingthepointofviewof,anordinarysoldier.SeeVernaColeman,TheLastExquisite:aPortraitof
FredericManning,1990.
Manning,Olivia(190880)
Britishnovelist,wasborninPortsmouth,theelderchildofaretirednavalofficerbyhissecondmarriagetoanIrishwomanofAmericandescent.Herchildhoodwas
insecure,andmoneywasshort.ShewaseducatedatPortsmouthGrammarSchool,andthenstudiedartatPortsmouthTechnicalCollege,whichshehadtoleaveto
earnaliving.WhileatypistinaLondonstore,shesoldforafewpoundsthecopyrightinsome'luridserials',written

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underthepseudonymofJacobMorrow(hermother'smaidenname).Aftermanyattempts,shehadTheWindChanges(1937)published.In1939shemarried
ReginaldSmith(d.1985),aBritishCouncillecturer.ShewentwithhimtoRomania,fromwhichtheymanagedtoescapetoGreeceaswarthreatened.DuringWorld
WarIIsheworkedasapressofficerinCairoandJerusalem,wherehewasposted.Inher'BalkanTrilogy',TheGreatFortune(1960),TheSpoiltCity(1962),
FriendsandHeroes(1965),hermaincharactersmanagealwaystokeeponestepaheadoftheactionofthewar.Themovingforceofher'LevantTrilogy',The
DangerTree(1977),TheBattleLostandWon(1978),TheSumofThings(posthumously,1980),isthewaritselfintheMiddleEast.Togetherthesesixlinked
novelsrepresentadeliberatelyintendedchronicleofthetimes.Shewroteseveralothernovels,andalsovolumesofshortstories,includingGrowingUp(1948).She
wasmadeCBEin1976.
Mansfield,KatherinepseudonymofKathleenMansfieldBeauchamp(18881923)
NewZealandshortstorywriter,wasborninWellington,thethirdofsixchildrenof(Sir)HaroldBeauchamp(18581938)andAnnieDyer(18641918).Between
1893and1898shewenttothelocalvillageschoolatKarori,towhichherparentshadmoved.WhenherfatherbecameadirectoroftheBankofNewZealand,the
familyreturnedtoWellington,whereshewenttoWellingtonGirls'HighSchoolin189899,andtoMissSwainson'sSchoolfrom1900to1902.In1903sheandher
twooldersistersenrolledatQueen'sCollege,London,whereshemetIdaBaker(18881978),oftenreferredtoas'LM'(LesleyMoore),whobecameherlifelong
friend.Shealsofellinlovewith'Arnold'(Thomas)Trowell(18891966),themusicalsonofaWellingtonmusician.In1906shereturnedwithherparentstoNew
Zealand,herfatherhavingopposedhertakingupthecelloseriously,'somyhopeforamusicalcareerisabsolutelygone'.Sheoptedtobeawriterinstead(essaysand
storieshadappearedintheQueen'sCollegeMagazine),andreadilyslippedintotheprevailingmodeofthe'vignette',orprosepoem,ofwhichthreewerepublished
intheNativeCompanionin1907seePoemsofKatherineMansfield,ed.VincentO'Sullivan(1988),whichcontainsherspasmodicpoeticeffortsfrom1903to
1922.
In1908shepersuadedherfathertogiveheranallowanceandletherreturntoLondon,wheresheimmediatelyhadanaffairwithGarnetTrowell(18891947),twin
brotherofArnold,towhichhisparentsputastop.ShemarriedGeorgeBowden(18771975),amusicscholarandsingingteacher,inMarch1909,butlefthimthe
sameday,andresumedherliaisonwithTrowell,bywhomshewasalreadypregnant.ShemiscarriedinBavaria,whereshehadgonetohavethechild.
BackinLondon,shebegantowriteinNewAgetheblackcomedyBavariansketchespublishedasInaGermanPension(1911).JohnMiddletonMurry(1889
1957),theyoungeditorofRhythm(latertobecomeaninfluentialliterarycriticofhistime)accepted'TheWomanattheStore'(1911),aharshstoryofNewZealand
coloniallifewhichwasherfirsttoportrayhernativecountry,andaskedtomeether.Hebecameherlodgerand,shortlyafterwards,herlover.Theflightabroad(to
avoidchargesofbigamyandfraud)ofthepublisherbothofherbookandofRhythmleftMurryfacingbankruptcy.Withanewbackerandregularcontributionsfrom
Mansfieldundervariousnames,themagazinestruggledonuntil1913,havingsurvivedforthreefinalissuesastheBlueReview.Thefirstissueunderthenewname
carriedastorybyD.H.LAWRENCE,whoseweddingtoFriedaWeekleytheyattendedin1914.
InMarch1915,aloneintheParisflatofthewriterFrancisCarco(18861958),withwhomshehadjusthadafleetingaffair,Mansfieldbegananovel,tobecalled
'TheAloe'.ShereturnedtoitafterheronlybrotherhadbeenkilledinactioninFrance,asaNewZealandmemorialtohim.Whenrevised,cut,andretitledPrelude,it
waspublishedin1918bytheWOOLFS,andbecamethemainiteminhersecondcollection,BlissandOtherStories(1920).Inworkingonitshehaddiscovered,inthe
wordsofC.K.STEAD,that'afictionsurvives,notbyleadingusanywhere,butbybeingateverypointauthentic,arecreationoflife'.IntheBurnellsshecreatedaNew
Zealandfamilywhosemembersrecurin'AttheBay'and'TheDoll'sHouse'andthroughwhomsheestablishedtheambiencewithinwhichanotherfamily,the
Sheridans,alsomove,inTheGardenPartyandOtherStories(1922).
In1917shewasdiagnosedastubercular,andadvisedtospendwintersabroad.Herdivorcewasfinalizedin1918,andshemarriedMurry,afewweeksafteralung
haemorrhage.ShespentthenextfouryearsbetweenLondonandplacesinItalyandFrance,usuallyaccompaniedbyMurryorIdaBaker,andsometimesbyboth
MurrywasnowEditoroftheAthenaeum,towhichinitiallyshecontributedregularbookreviews.InOctober1922shewasadmittedtoGurdjieff'sInstituteforthe
HarmoniousDevelopmentofMan,Fontainebleau.ShecontinuedtowritecheerfullytoMurry,whoarrivedtovisitheron9January1923.Shediedthateveningaftera
suddenhaemorrhage.TheposthumousTheDove'sNestandOtherStories(1923)containedtheunfinished'AMarriedMan'sStory'.Thissinistertalemarksherfinal
developmentinthetechniqueofthecentralcharacterasnarratorwhicheffectivelybeganin1918withthelongstory'JeneParlepasFranais',loosely

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basedonthevisittoParisin1913withMurryduringwhichshefirstmetCarco.SeeTheStoriesofKatherineMansfield,ed.AntonyAlpers,1985Collected
Stories,1989SelectedLetters,ed.VincentO'Sullivan,newedn1990TheCriticalWritingsofKatherineMansfield,ed.ClareHanson,1987AntonyAlpers,
TheLifeofKatherineMansfield,newedn1982ofrev.edn1980ClaireTomalin,KatherineMansfield:aSecretLife,newedn1988(biography)ClareHanson
andAndrewGurr,KatherineMansfield(criticalstudy),1981andinC.K.Stead,IntheGlassCase:EssaysonNewZealandLiterature,1981.
Manzoni,Alessandro(17851873)
Italiannovelist,wasbornontheManzoniestatenearLakeComo,thesonofthelively23yearolddaughterofaprominentwriterand(onlyprobably)ofthe50year
oldwidowertowhomshehadbeenmarriedofftoavoidascandalwithsomeoneelse.Atfivehewasdispatchedtoboardingschool,wherehismotherdidnotvisit
himevenbeforeshewentoffin1792tolivewitharichMilaneseliberalinParis.Hewasreunitedwithhertherein1805,havinghadanecclesiasticallyoriented
education,againstwhichhepubliclyreactedin1801inapoemcelebratingthetriumphoflibertyachievedbyNapoleon.NominallyaCatholic,hehadaProtestant
weddingin1808toHenrietteBlondel(17911833),bywhomhehadninechildrenwhosurvived.BothwereformallyacceptedintotheCatholicfaithin1810,after
whichthecouple,andhismother,returnedtoMilan.Inabout1812heembarkedonaseriesofsacredhymnsandsecularverses,andin1819publishedahistorical
versetragedyandavindicationofCatholicmorality.ItwasprobablythepopularityofWALTERSCOTTwhichsuggestedtohimthehistoricalnovelasavehicleforhis
viewsonreligionandsociety,andonauthoritariangovernmentandforeigninterference.Setin17thcenturyLombardyduringtheperiodofSpanishdomination,and
invokinghistoricalcharactersaswellashistoricalincidents,IPromessiSposi(1827tr.CharlesSwanasTheBetrothedLovers,1828tr.BrucePenmanasThe
Betrothed,1972)becameanationalinstitutionevenbeforehepublishedanewversion(184042)inthemodernTuscandialect,whichwasthusconfirmedasamore
acceptableliterarymediumthanthehybridItalianoftheopposingschoolofthought.SeeOntheHistoricalNovel,ed.andtr.SandraBermann,1996.
Marchbanks,Samuel
seeDAVIES,ROBERTSON.
MargueriteDeNavarre(14921549)
Frenchpoetandprosewriter,wasthedaughteroftheComted'Angoulme(d.1496)andeldersisterofFrancisI,whosucceededtothethroneofFrancein1515.
ShewasbroughtupinCognac,Blois,andAmboise,whereshehadanexcellenteducationinlanguages,theBible,andphilosophy.In1509shemarriedCharles,Duc
d'Alenon.Afterhisdeathin1525shemarriedHenrid'Albret,KingofNavarre,bywhomshehadadaughter,Jeanne(themotherofHenryIVofFrance).Activein
publicaffairs,patronessofthearts,andprotectoroftheProtestantreformers,shepublishedin1531areligiouspoem,LeMiroirdel'mePcheresse,whichwas
condemnedashereticaluntilherbrotherintervenedonherbehalf.MargueritesdelaMargueriteDesPrincessesandasequel(both1547)containedplaysanda
greatnumberofpoemsofapersonal,reflective,andphilosophicalnature.TheproseworkknownasHepaticron,firstpublishedin1558,recallsBOCCACCIOinthe
generalbackgroundsettingtoitsseventytales,butthoughtheprincipalthemeislove,sheismoreconcernedwithrealisticallyportrayingthemoralconflictswhichit
generatesinthecontextofcontemporarysociety.SomeofthestoriesweretranslatedbyWilliamPainter(c.154094)inThePalaceofPleasure(156667).
Marivaux(16881763)
Frenchdramatist,novelist,andessayist,wasbornPierreCarletinParis,thesonofacivilservant.Hestudiedlawbutneverqualified,havingmeanwhilehadaplay
performedandanovelpublished,andbegunusingthenameofMarivaux(orCarletdeMarivaux).Hemarriedin1717,butlosthisinheritancein1720andhiswifein
1723(hisonlydaughterbecameanunin1746).Awriterofconsiderableversatility,hebegancontributingessaystoMercurein1717,andfrom1721to1724
publishedhisownSpectateurFranaise,inthemannerofADDISONandSTEELE.PreferringtheimprovisationandsubtletyoftheItalianstyleofactingtotheformalityof
thecontemporaryFrenchtheatre,hewrote,mainlyfortheComdiensItaliens,aseriesofcomedieswhichexplorewithpsychologicalinsightthedevelopmentofthe
courseoflove,notablyLaDoubleInconstance(1723)andLeJeudel'AmouretduHasard(1730),tr.DavidCohenasInfidelitiesandTheGameofLoveand
Chance(1980).Hefinishedneitherofhismajornovels,bothingeniousstudiesofmiddleclassmoralsensibilities.Part1ofLaViedeMarianneappearedin1731
parts9,10,and11,whichdonotadvancetheaction,werepublishedin1741.InthemeantimehepublishedfivepartsofLePaysanParvenu(173536tr.Leonard
TancockasUpfromtheCountryinthesamevolumeasthetwocomedies,1980),inwhichtheprotagonistismale.
Marlowe,Christopher(156493)
Englishpoetanddramatist,wasborninCanterbury,thesonofaprosperousshoemaker,andwaseducatedatKing'sSchool,Canterbury,andCorpusChristiCollege,

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Cambridge.HegraduatedasBAin1584,andasMAin1587,butonlyafterthePrivyCouncilhadmediatedwiththeuniversityauthorities,stressingthatMarlowehad
inthemeantimeundertakenaconfidentialmissionabroadthiswouldalmostcertainlyhaveinvolvedattemptingtounearthpotentialCatholicplotsagainstElizabethI.
HewasprobablydestinedfortheChurch,buthepreferredtopursuetheliterarycareerwhichhehadbegunatCambridge.In1589hewasinvolvedinaswordfightin
whichhisfriendThomasWatsonkilledamanbutwasacquittedofmurder.In1592theconstableofShoreditchsoughtaninjunctiontobringMarlowetojustice.On
18May1593,awarrantwasissuedbythePrivyCouncil,ontheevidenceofKYD,forhisarrestforpossessinghereticaldocuments.Hewasneverquestioned.On30
MayhewaskilledinahouseinDeptford,apparentlyinabrawlseeCharlesNicholl,TheReckoning:theMurderofChristopherMarlowe(1992).Hewasonly
29,thesameageasSHAKESPEAREwhowasstilltowritehisdarkcomediesandhistragedies.
BlankversehadfirstbeenusedinEnglishbySURREYforatranslationofVIRGILin1557,andwasemployedbySACKVILLEandThomasNortoninthefirstknownEnglish
tragedy,Gorboduc(1561).MarlowedevelopedtheformintowhatisbasicallytheblankverseofShakespeareandMILTON.Hisknownplaysaresix.TheTragedieof
Dido,QueenofCarthage(performedin1586,publishedin1594),writtenwithNASHEwhiletheywerebothatCambridge,isbasedonVIRCIL'SAeneid,BooksI,II,
andIV.ThetwopartsofTamburlainetheGreat(performed1587,published1590)tellwithmassivesweepsoforatoryanddramaticvisualactiontherisetopower
ofthe14thcenturyTatarconqueror,Tamerlane.TheJewofMalta(performed1591,published1633withaforewordbyHEYWOOD)followsthefalltoandescape
fromignominyofaJewishmerchant,whowreaksawfulandindiscriminaterevenge,betraystheislandtotheTurks,isrewardedwiththegovernorship,andhimself
meetsanendasingeniouslyviolentasanyintheplay.EdwardII(performed1592,published1594)isatelescopedaccountofanuneasyreignandoftheKing's
passionforhisfavourite,Gaveston,concentratingonthecharactersandachievingdramatictensionbyquickandfrequentchangesofscene.TheMassacreatParis
(performed1593,published1594),whichexistsonlyinacorruptandtruncatedtext,covers17yearsofcontemporaryeventsfromtheStBartholomewmassacreof
theHuguenotstothedeathsoftheDukeofGuiseandHenryIIIofFrancein1589.TheTragicalHistoryofDrFaustus(performed1594,published1604,but1616
withabettertext)isaclassicversionofthetaleofthemanwhosoldhissoultothedevil,basedontheapparentexploitsofa16thcenturyitinerantGermanwizard
calledFaust.Marloweinveststhestorywithgenuinetragicovertones,evenifthemiddleportionoftheplay,representingthe24yearsbetweenFaustus'sbargainand
hisdeath,tendstolapseintoaseriesofknockaboutconjuringroutines.Whilethese,orsomeofthese,mayhavebeentheworkofacollaborator,forwhomSamuel
Rowley(d.?1633)istheleastunlikelycandidate,Marlowepresumablyconceivedtheplay,andcertainlywrotethecrucialscenes.Poetryknowntohavebeenwritten
byhimcomprisesatranslationofsomeofOVID'SAmoresandofLUCAN'SPharsalia,BookIthefamouslyric'Comelivewithmeandbemylove'andthefirsttwo
sestiads(books)ofthemythologicalcautionarytaleofforbiddenlove,HeroandLeander,whichwascompletedbyCHAPMAN.
Inthecourseofashortandturbulentlife,Marloweearnedrespectamonghiscontemporariesandaplaceinliteraryposterity.Hewasafinepoet,someofwhoselines
arenotjustmemorable,butfamiliar:'Whoeverlovedthatlovednotatfirstsight'(HeroandLeander)theamassingofwealthbymeansofpreciousstones,thus
enclosing'Infiniterichesinalittleroom'(TheJewofMalta)'Thesweetfruitionofanearthlycrown'(Tamburlaine)'Wasthisthefacethatlaunchedathousand
ships?'and'See,seewhereChrist'sbloodstreamsinthefirmament'(DrFaustus).Heinheritedthemetreofblankverse,withitsalmostuniformendstoppedline,and
byvaryingthestressesandthepositionofthestopsforgeditintosomethingquitenewandpotent,sothatJONSONcouldacknowledge,inhispoemtothememoryof
Shakespeare,'Marlowe'smightyline'.HewasalsothefirstEnglishdramatistconsistentlytodisplayanunderstandingofdramaticaction,andofconflictandsuspense
asessentialcomponentsofdrama.SeeCompletePlaysandPoems,ed.E.D.Pendry,rev.edn1976DoctorFaustusandOtherPlays,ed.DavidBevingtonand
EricRasmussen,1995(AandBTexts,Tamburlaine,TheJewofMalta,EdwardII)HarryLevin,ChristopherMarlowe:theOverreacher,1965(criticalstudy)
RogerSales,ChristopherMarlowe,1991(criticalstudy)ThomasHealy,ChristopherMarlowe,1994(criticalintroduction).
Marquand,JohnP(hillips)(18931960)
Americannovelist,wasborninWilmington,Delaware,andeducatedatNewburyportHighSchool,Massachusetts,andHarvard,wherehemajoredinchemistry.He
servedintheNationalGuardontheMexicanborderin1916,andtheninFranceasanintelligenceofficerwiththeUSArmy77thArtilleryin191718inWorldWarI.
AfterayearontheNewYorkHeraldTribunehewentintoadvertisingtoearnmoremoney,andworkedontheLifebuoysoapcampaign.With$400saved,he
retiredtoanoldmillandwroteTheUnspeakableGentleman(1922),a

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historicalcloakanddaggerromance.HeemergedtosettleinCambridge,Massachusetts,afterhismarriage(thefirstofthree)in1922.Afterwritingseveralnovelsfor
thepopularmarket,hetravelledfortheSaturdayEveningPostinChinaandtheFarEast,whichprovidedthebackgroundofseveralnovels,includingthoseabout
thepoliteJapanese,MrMoto.TheLateGeorgeApley(1937),gentlysatiricalofBostonsociety,wasthefirstofhisnovelstobetakenseriouslybythecritics,and
wonthePulitzerPrize.H.M.PulhamEsq(1941)takesawiderlookatthesamestratumofNewEnglandlife.MarquandreturnedtoarmyintelligenceinWorldWar
II,duringwhichhetravelledextensivelyinthePacific.SoLittleTime(1943)andB.F.'sDaughter(1946inUKasPollyFulton,1947)exploretheeffectofthewar
onAmericansociety.InMelvilleGoodwin,USA(1951),theinnercharactersofatwostargeneralandajournalistarerevealedduringthecourseofanextended
interview.Theprotagonistofwhatheannouncedbeforehandashislastnovel,WomenandThomasHarrow(1958),hasaffinitieswithitscreatorandhispast.
Mrluez,GabrielGarcA
seeGARCAMRQUEZ.
Marquis,Don(aldRobertPerry)(18781937)
Americanhumorist,poet,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninWalnut,Illinois,sonofadoctorwithaloveofnatureandliterature.Afterhighschoolanda
varietyofjobs,includingchickenplucker,hebrieflyattendedKnoxCollege,Galesburg,in1898.Hethenworkedasacountyschoolteacherandontherailroad
beforejoiningthestaffofaweeklycountynewspaper,forwhichhewrotearegularcolumn,fillingunusedspacewithsonnetsof13lines,thecapacityofthe
typesetter'scomposingstick.AfteraspellattheCensusBureauinWashingtonandworkingforvariousnewspapersthereandinPhiladelphia,hesettledinAtlanta,
wherehewasanassociateeditorontheAtlantaNewsandthenonJ.C.HARRIS'SUncleRemus'sMagazine,andmetandmarriedajournalist,ReinaMelcher.In1909
hemovedtoNewYork,whereheandReinasupportedthemselvesbyfreelancinghisfirstbook,thenovelDanny'sOwnStory(1912),wasfinishedthen.Theirlife
changedin1912,whenhewastakenontowriteadailycolumnintheNewYorkEveningSun.
In1908hehadwritteninUncleRemus'sMagazineabout'LiteraryCockroaches'.Inhis'SunDial'columnon29March1916,heintroducedArchy,aphilosophical
aswellasaliterarycockroach,whosecontributionswerefoundeachmorninginthetypewriter:'iwiththegiftofahomer/mustsmilewhenamousecallsmepal/
tumblebugsaremyfamiliars/thisisthepunishmentmeted/becauseIhavewrittenverslibre'thelackofcapitalswasduetoArchy'sinabilitytomanagetheshift
key.AscompanionandfoilMarquisinventedthecatMehitabelthepairfirstappearedasabookinarchyandmehitabel(1927),andsubsequentlyinother
volumesseealsoarchyology:thelonglosttalesofarchyandmehitabel,ed.JeffAdams(1996),uncollectedstories.Thoughremembered,ashefearedhewould
be,asthe'creatorofagoddamcockroach',heusedothercomicpersonae,suchasHermioneseeHermioneandHerLittleGroupofSeriousThinkers(1917),
monologuesinfreeversesatirizingupperclasspretentiousness.ClemHawley,the'OldSoak','whosedevotiontoalcoholicfellowshipandendearinggenerosityof
spiritsupersededthepracticalconcernsofworkandfamilysupport',andwhopersonifiedMarquis'soppositiontoProhibition,inspiredTheOldSoak'sHistoryofthe
World(1924)andaplay,TheOldSoak(1922),whichranfor423performancesonBroadway.Thiswashisgreatestdramaticsuccess:hisgreatestandmost
demoralizingfailurewashisplayabouttheCrucifixion,TheDarkHours(published1924),whichranforonlyeightperformancesin1932.
In1925,havingwrittenadailycolumnfor13years,thelastthreefortheHeraldTribune,hegaveuphis'23inchgrave'.Nowwithoutaregularsalary,hetried
Hollywoodforatime.TothisperiodbelonganovelofHollywood,OfftheArm(1930),thevolumesofshortstoriesWhentheTurtlesSingandOtherUnusual
Tales(1928)andAVarietyofPeople(1929),andLoveSonnetsofaCavemanandOtherPoems(1928).Hislifewasdoggedbytragedy.His5yearoldson
diedin1921,Reinain1923,andtheir13yearolddaughterin1931.In1926hemarriedMarjorieVonnegut,whodiedsuddenlyin1936,shortlyafterhehadsuffered
athirdstroke,whichlefthimhelpless.SeeTheBestofDonMarquis,ed.ChristopherMorley,1946EdwardAnthony,ORareDonMarquis,1962(biography)
LynnLee,DonMarquis,1981(biographical/criticalstudy).
Marryat,Frederick(17921848)
Britishnovelistandseaman,wasborninWestminster.Havingseveraltimestriedtorunawaytoseafromschool,hewasin1806enteredasamidshipmaninthe
Imprieuse,commandedbythedashingLordCochrane(17751860).HeservedintheWestIndiesandofftheNorthAmericancoast,becomingalieutenantin
1814,andacommanderin1815,whenhewasinvalidedhome.Hewasbackatseain1820,commandingthesloopwhichguardedNapoleon'sescaperoutesfromSt
Helena.HewasSeniorNavalOfficerinRangoonin1824,andin1825commandedthedaringexpeditionagainsttheBurmeseuptheBasseinRiver,andwas
promotedtocaptain.HeservedintheAtlanticfrom1828to1830,whenheresignedfor'private'reasons.

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Hewasawardedagoldmedalin1818forsavinglifeatsea,waselectedaFellowoftheRoyalSocietyin1819forhisworkonsignalling,andwasmadeCBin1826.
Nowhebecameanovelist,havingalreadywrittenatseaTheNavalOfficer:or,ScenesandAdventuresintheLifeofFrankMildmay(1829).Thefatherofthe
Englishseastory,heusuallycentreshisactiononaboygrowingintomanhood,asinMrMidshipmanEasy(1836)andPercivalKeene(1842),inwhichan
illegitimateyouthservesunderhisfatherandbringshimroundtoasenseofresponsibilityforhim.Healsowrotechildren'snovels,notablyTheChildrenoftheNew
Forest(1847),aCivilWarromance.In1847,eagerforachange,heappliedtotheAdmiraltyforapostingatsea.Inhisangeratbeingrefused,hebrokeablood
vessel.Hisdeathwashastenedbythelossatseaofhiseldestson.HisdaughterFlorence(183899)wroteoverseventybooks,includingnovelswithsuchtitlesasA
ScarletSin(1890).SeeOliverWarner,CaptainMarryat:aRediscovery,1953.
Marsh,Ngaio(18951982)
NewZealandnovelistandtheatricalproducer,wasborninChristchurch'ofwhattheVictoriansusedtocallpoorbutgenteelparentage',andwaseducatedatSt
Margaret'sCollegeandCanterburyUniversitySchoolofArt.Herambitiontobeapainter,aswhichshewasoneofanotableChristchurchgroup,wasdivertedwhen
anactormanagerturneddownaromanticplayshehadwritten,buttookheronasanactress.Afterseveralyearsasaproducer,shejoinedafriendinaninterior
decoratingbusinessinLondon,whereonerainydayshestartedwritingadetectivenovel.AManLayDead(1934)wasthefirstof31,allofwhichfeatureas
detectivetheurbaneRoderickAlleyn,namedafterthefounderofherfather'sschool,DulwichCollege.Shereturnedhomein1932,afterwhichshedividedhertime
betweenEngland,whereshewasftedasanovelist,andNewZealand,whereshelivedinthewoodenhousebuiltbyherfatherintheCashmereHillsabove
Christchurch,and'intellectualfriendstactfullyavoid[ed]allmentionofmypublishedwork'.InNewZealand,however,sheexercisedhertalentasaproducer,
especiallyofSHAKESPEARE,andworkedfortheestablishmentofaprofessionaltheatre.Inherlastnovel,LightThickens(1982),shecombinedhertwointerestswitha
murdermysterycentredonaperformanceofShakespeare'sMacbeth.Itwasprobablydiffidencewhichpreventedherfromwritingthe'seriousnovelaboutNew
Zealand'whichshecontemplated.Herautobiography,BlackBeechandHoneydew(rev.edn1981),iswhollyreticentaboutherwriting.ShewasmadeOBEin1948
andDBEin1966.SeeMargaretLewis,NgaioMarsh:aLife,newedn1992KathryneSlateMcDorman,NgaioMarsh,1991(criticalstudy)Rahn,B.J.(ed.),
NgaioMarsh:theWomanandHerWork,1995.
Marston,John(15761634)
Englishpoetanddramatist,wasborninOxfordshire,thesonofawelltodolawyerandofthedaughterofanItalianphysician.HewaseducatedatBrasenose
College,Oxford,andforacareerinthelawattheMiddleTemple,wherehisfatherhadrooms.Hepreferredthecompanyandexampleoftheliterarycoterieofthe
time,andin1598publishedTheMetamorphosisofPigmalionsImage,andCertaineSatyres(thetitlepiecehasbeenvariouslyreadasapoorattemptaterotic
verse,aseductionpoem,andaparody),andTheScourgeofVillanie,inwhichhecontinuedhisattacksontheliteraryprelate,JosephHall(15741656).Itseems
thathewasalreadyworkingonhisdidacticsatiricalcomedy,Histriomastix,forthechildactorsofStPaul'stoperformin1599,whenanedictinspiredbyJohn
Whitgift(c.15301604)effectivelybannedthepublicationofversesatiresandepigrams.AllMarston'splayswerewrittenforboys'companies,buttheyvaryinform.
JackDrum'sEntertainment(1600)isafarceAntonioandMellidaandAntonio'sRevenge(both1602)areItalianatetragicburlesques.InTheMalcontent
(1604)andParasitaster:or,TheFawne(1606)theplotsturnonthedisguisemotif.In1605hecollaboratedwithJONSONandCHAPMANtowriteEastwardHoe,for
whichJonsonanywaywasimprisonedinTheDutchCourtezan(1605)hesimilarlyexploitscharactercontrastsandthebalancebetweencomedyandtragedy.The
WonderofWomen:orTheTragedieofSophonisba(1606)isanoutandouttragedy(afterSENECA),inwhichthepoetryshinesthrough.In1608hewasbriefly
imprisonedforareasonwhichisobscure,butimmediatelyafterwardshesoldhisshareintheBlackfriars'company,andstudiedfortheAnglicanpriesthoodatSt
Mary'sHall,Oxford,beingordainedin1609.HewasRectorofBarfordStMartin,Wiltshire,until1616,andofChristChurch,Hampshire161631.SeeSelected
Plays,ed.EJacksonMacdonaldandMichaelNeill,1986AnthonyCaputi,JohnMarston,Satirist,1961(criticalstudy).
Martial(MarcusValeriusMartialis)(c.40104)
Romanepigrammaticpoet,wasaSpaniardfromBilbiliswhocametoRomein64,andwastakenupbyhisfellowcountrymenSENECAandLUCAN,untiltheywere
purgedbyNero.InitiallyhelivedinathirdfloorflatontheslopeoftheQuirinalHill,andscrapedalivingbywritingshortversestoorder.Hewentontopublish
severalbooksofthem,andtoownafarminthecountryaswellasahouseinRome.Hewasahack,aparasite,and,whenitsuitedhim(aswhenwritingaboutthe
emperorDomitian),anunctuousflatterer.Hewas,however,almostalwayswittyandfrequentlypoetic,and

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pioneeredaformofliteraturewhichhashadmanyexponents.SeeTheEpigrams,tr.JamesMichie,1978(includesLatintexts)MartialinEnglish,ed.JohnSullivan
andAnthonyBoyle,1996.
Martin,Theodore
seeAYTOUN.
Martin,Violet
seeSOMERVILLE.
Martineau,Harrier(180276)
Britishnovelist,essayist,andeducationist,wasborninNorwich,thesixthofeightchildrenofamanufacturerofclothandbombazine.ShereceivedagoodUnitarian
educationathomeandatalocalschool,butbegantogodeafinherteensshealreadyhadnosenseofsmell.Whenshewas24,herfianc,aUnitarianminister,
becameinsane,andherfatherdied.In1829herfamilywasdestitute,andshetookfinancialresponsibilityforthem.Unabletoteachbecauseofherdeafness,she
wrote,andcametoearnmoremoneybyherpenthananywomanbeforeher.IllustrationsofPoliticalEconomy(183234),storiesexemplifyingeconomic
principles,soldphenomenallyandmadeherfamous.ShemovedtoLondon,andtouredAmerica,whereshefearlesslycondemnedslaveryandpromotedwomen's
rights.Deerbrook(1839),herbestandmostconventionalnovel,isadidacticstudyofprovinciallife.In1846shebuiltherselfahouseinAmbleside,intheLake
District,fromwhichshewrotetoE.B.BROWNINGthat'here[sensualvice]isbeyondanythingIcouldeverhavelookedfor',andwhereshewasvisitedbyCHARLOTTE
BRONT,GEORGEELIOT,andotherliteraryluminaries.WORDSWORTH,herneighbour,thoughther'adangerouscompanion',andparticularlydeprecatedherproselytizingzeal
formesmerism,whichsheclaimedhadcuredherofanearfatalillnessthepublicationofLettersonMesmerism(1845)suggestedtomanyothersthatshehad
abandonedherrationaliststance.In1847shevisitedtheMiddleEast.Shewrotenumerouscrusadingworks,andfrom1852to1869contributedleadingarticlesto
theDailyNews.Outspoken,eccentric,andfrequentlyill,shedeclared,'Ilongagocametotheconclusionthat...Iamprobablythehappiestsinglewomanin
England.'SeeAutobiography,newedn1983SelectedLetters,ed.ValerieSanders,1991RobertK.Webb,HarrietMartineau:aRadicalVictorian,1960
ShelaghHunter,HarrietMartineau:thePoeticsofMoralism,1996(criticalstudy).
Marvell,Andrew(162178)
Englishpoetandsatirist,wasborninWinesteadinHolderness,Yorkshire,thesonofthevicar,whomovedhisfamilytoHullin1624.HewaseducatedatHull
GrammarSchoolandTrinityCollege,Cambridgein1637versesofhisinLatinandGreekwerepublishedinavolumecelebratingthebirthofachildtotheKing.In
about1639hehadabriefassociationwithCatholicism,butwasrecalledtoAnglicanismandCambridgebyhisfather,whowasdrownedintheHumberin1641.He
travelledabroadbetween1642and1647,andflexedhispoeticmusclesinthesatire,'Flecknoe,anEnglishPriestatRome'RichardFlecknoe(d.c.1678)priest,
traveller,anddudpoet,wasinRomeduringLentin1645and1646,andreappearsinDRYDEN'SMacFlecknoe.In1650Marvellwrote'AnHoratianOdeupon
Cromwell'sReturnfromIreland',thefirstofseveraltributestotheLordProtector,butsignificantinthatheisequallyfairtoCharlesI,whoevenwhenon'thetragic
scaffold','Henothingcommondidormean/Uponthatmemorablescene'.From1650to1652hewastutortothedaughterofLordFairfax(161271),the
Parliamentarygeneral,atNunAppletonHouseinYorkshire,whereitispresumedhewrotemostofhislyricalpoems,including'Bermudas',aswellassomevery
pleasingexamplesoflocalandpastoralverse,suchas'UponAppletonHouse','UpontheHillandGroveatBilbrough','TheGarden',andthe'Mower'pieces.Fora
timein1656,andagainbetween1662and1665,hewasabroadonpoliticalorundercoverbusinessofstate.In1657,ontherecommendationofMILTON,hewas
appointedLatinSecretarytotheCouncilofState,anditissaidthathesupportedMiltonatthetimeoftheRestorationoftheMonarchyin1660.Hewaselected
MemberofParliamentforHullin1659,andsatuntilhisdeath.TheLastInstructionstoaPainter,writtenin1667,isastandardformofattackonthelicenceofthe
court,andlessinspiredthanhisanonymousprosesatireagainstreligiousintolerance,TheRehearsalTranspros'd(1672).Noneofhisearlypoemswereprintedinhis
lifetime.MiscellaneousPoems(1681)waspublishedfrommanuscriptsfoundbya'MaryMarvel',whoclaimedtobehiswifebutappearstohavebeenhis
housekeeper,MaryPalmer.
Marvell'slyricthemesareconventionalandatfirstsighttheirtreatmentisalmostcommonplace,buthisintellectualcapacityandcommandofrhythm,rhyme,phrase,
andwitendowthemwithextraordinaryquality.'OnaDropofDew'beginsasanaturepoembutexpandseffortlesslyintoananalogyofthesoul.'TheNymph
ComplainingfortheDeathofHerFaun'incorporatesawholerangeofadditionalemotions.'ToHisCoyMistress'isrightlyfamousforitstreatmentof,andscholarly
butdelightfulvariationson,HERRICK'Sexhortationto'Gatheryerosebudswhileyemay':typifiedbyhisattributioninasinglephraseofbothwingsandchariottoTime,
'Time'swingdchariot',andtheaptnessofhismetaphors.Inhispoliticalandsatiricalpoems,helooksforwardtoandoftendoesnotsufferbycomparisonwith
DRYDEN.

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See[Works],ed.FrankKermodeandKeithWalker,1991TheCompletePoems,ed.GeorgedeF.Lord,1993[SelectedVerse],ed.FrankKermodeandKeith
Walker,1994RobertWilcher,AndrewMarvell,1986(criticalstudy)AnnabelPatterson,AndrewMarvell,1994(criticalintroduction).
Marx,Karl(181883)
Germanpoliticalphilosopher,wasborninTrier,thesonofaJewishlawyerwhohadnominallyconvertedtoProtestantismtoenablehimtopractise.Hewaseducated
atthegymnasiuminTrierandatBerlinUniversity,havingtransferredfromBonnafterbeingjailedfordrunkennessandwoundedinaduel.Adoctoralthesiswas
acceptedin1841,butwhennoacademicpostmaterialized,hetooktojournalism,writingonsocialandpoliticalaffairsforRheinischeZeitung,whichheeditedin
1842untilitwasbanned.In1843hemarriedhischildhoodsweetheart,JennyvonWestphalen(d.1883),towhomhehadbeenengagedforsevenyears.Theysettled
inParis,wherehemetFriedrichEngels(182095)andbegantocollaboratewithhiminwritingpamphlets.ExpelledfromParis,hewenttoBrussels,wherehesigneda
contractforastudyofeconomicsandpolitics,whichhedidnotdeliverthefirstofmanydeadlinesmissedbyDasKapital.Followingthecongressofthenewly
establishedCommunistLeagueinLondonin1847,heandEngelsproducedthecelebratedCommunistmanifesto(1848ed.DavidMcLellan,1992),outlininghis
theoryofpolitics.AfterfurtherexpulsionsandparticipationinrevolutionaryactivitiesinCologne,heandhisfamilytookrefugeinLondon,wherehespenttherestofhis
life.ZurKritikderpolitischenkonomie(1859tr.N.I.StoneasAContributiontotheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy,1904)wasonlyaportionofwhatwas
intendedtobeawiderwork.In1864,attheinauguralmeetingoftheInternationalWorkingmen'sAssociation(laterFirstInternational),hewaselectedtoitsgeneral
council.ThefirstvolumeofDasKapitalwaspublishedin1867.Henevercompletedthesecondorthirdvolumes,whichwerepreparedforpressafterhisdeathby
EngelsandfirstpublishedinEnglish(tr.SamuelMooreandEdwardAveling)in1887.SeeSelectedWritings,ed.DavidMcLellan,1977DavidMcLellan,Karl
Marx:aBiography,3rdedn1996FrankE.Manuel,ARequiemforKarlMarx,1995(criticalbiography).
Masefield,John(18781967)
Britishpoet,novelist,children'swriter,anddramatist,wasborninLedbury,Herefordshire,thethirdofsixchildrenofacountrysolicitor.Hismotherdiedin1885,and
in1888hewentasaboardertoKing'sSchool,Warwick,fromwhichhewasremovedthreeyearslateronthedeathofhisfather.Hecontinuedhiseducationinthe
schoolshipHMSConway,andsailedforSouthAmericaasanapprenticemerchantseamanin1894,butwassenthomeafterbeingill.Hereturnedtoseaayear
later,butdesertedshipinNewYork,spendingthreeyearsworkinginacarpetfactoryinYonkersanddoingotherjobs,whilereadingtheEnglishpoetsandstartingto
write.BackinEngland,hewasabankclerkforthreeyears,duringwhichherecoveredhishealth.HealsometYEATS,andpublishedSaltWaterBallads(1902)and
twofurthervolumes,containingsuchpopularpoemsas'SeaFever'and'Cargoes',aswellasevocationsoftheland('TewkesburyRoad'and'Twilight').Suchpoems
gavehimareputationasakindofmaritimeKIPLING,aninfluenceMasefielddenied.Hemarriedin1903andforatimeworkedfortheManchesterGuardian,before
increasinghisliteraryrangeandoutputwithsomeexcellentadventurestories,includingLostEndeavour(1910)andJimDavis(1911),andplays,ofwhichThe
TragedyofNan(1908),adomestictragedysetintheearly19thcentury,ispraisedbyProfessorAllardyceNicollinBritishDrama(4thedn1947)forits'unflinching
realism'.Thesameattributecouldbeappliedtothenarrativepoem,TheEverlastingMercy(1911),someofwhosescenesandlanguageshockedtheliteraryworld
but,accordingtoFrankSwinnertoninTheGeorgianLiteraryScene(1935),'madethegeneralpublicreadwhathehadwritten'.InDauber(1913),writteninrhyme
royal,theconflictbetweentheartistandhisenvironmentissetwithinastirringnarrativeofthesea.MasefieldservedwiththeRedCrossinFranceandtheDardanelles
inWorldWarI,immediatelyafterwhichhepublishedReynardtheFox(1919),anarrativepoemaboutafoxhuntwhichisredolentoftheEnglishcountryside.
Heandhiswife(shediedin1960)nowsettledinBoar'sHill,Oxford,wherehebuiltasmalltheatrenextdoor.Whilecontinuingtowritepoetryandplays,including
TheComingofChrist(1928),hebecameanotedchildren'sauthor,whosefantasiesTheMidnightFolk(1927)andTheBoxofDelights(1935),androusing
costumethrillers,DeadNed(1938)andLiveandKickingNed(1939),arestillreadandadmired.TheNineDaysWonder(1941)isaproseaccountoftheretreat
fromDunkirk,writtenwithoutthedeliberateromanticismofhisequivalentworkofWorldWarI,Gallipoli(1916).HewasappointedPoetLaureatein1930,apost
whichheundertookseriouslyandassiduously,andhewasawardedtheOMin1935.SeeCollectedPoems,1929SelectedPoems,ed.DonaldE.Stanford,1984
SoLongtoLearn:ChaptersofanAutobiography,1966ConstanceBabingtonSmith,JohnMasefield:aLife,newedn1985MurielSpark,JohnMasefield,
newedn1992(biographical/criticalstudy)MargeryFisher,JohnMasefield,1963(studyofhischildren'sbooks).

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Mason,A(lfred)E(dward)W(oodley)(18651948)
Britishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninCamberwell,London,andwaseducatedatDulwichCollegeandTrinityCollege,Oxford,afterwhichhewentonthestage,
touringintheprovinces.In1894,thoughhewasinthefirstproductionofG.B.SHAW'SArmsandtheMan,hecouldgetnootherpartinLondon,andturnedtowriting
novelsinstead.Hisaptitudeforcloakanddaggerintriguewasconfirmedbyhissecondnovel,TheCourtshipofMorriceBuckler(1896),forthetaleofadventureby
MirandaoftheBalcony(1899),andforhistoricalromancebyClementina(1901),aboutthemotherofCharlesEdwardStuart.AtriptotheSudanafterthebattle
ofOmdurman(1898)gavethesettingforTheFourFeathers(1902),anadventurestorywhichisalsoapsychologicalstudyofheroisminseveralforms.AttheVilla
Rose(1910)introducedtheFrenchdetective,InspectorHanaud,whoreappearsinsubsequentnovels,notablyThePrisonerintheOpal(1928).MasonwasLiberal
MemberofParliamentforCoventry190610,andasamajorintheRoyalMarineLightInfantryinWorldWarIwasasecretagentinSpain,Morocco,andMexico.
LatterlyhereturnedtothehistoricalnovelwithFireOverEngland(1936),Knigsmark(1938),andMuskandAmber(1942).Ofhisplays,TheWitnessforthe
Defence(produced1911)hasmostmerit.AttheVillaRose(1920)andRunningWater(1922),fromhisownnovels,hadmixedsuccess,theformerrunningfor126
performances,verygoodforthattime,andthelatterforonly28.Deservedlypopularforhisversatilityaswellasforhisskill,herefusedaknighthoodasbeingan
irrelevancetoachildless,unmarriedman.SeeRogerLancelynGreen,A.E.W.Mason:theAdventuresofaStoryTeller,1952.
Mason,BobbieAnn(b.1940)
Americanshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasborninKentuckyandbroughtupagainst'theshelteredandisolatedbackground'ofafarmnearMayfield.After
graduatingfromtheUniversityofKentucky,shetookfurtherdegreesinEnglishattheStateUniversityofNewYork,Binghamton,andtheUniversityofConnecticut,
afterwhichshetaughtEnglishandjournalismatMansfieldStateCollege,Pennsylvania,forsevenyears.Herfirsttwobookswerecriticalstudies:Nabokov'sGarden:
aGuidetoAda(1974)andTheGirlSleuth:aFeministGuidetotheBobbseyTwins,NancyDrew,andTheirSisters(1975).Whenshediscoveredhertrue
mtier,'towriteaboutmyrootsandthekindsofpeopleI'dknown,butfromacontemporaryperspective',sheproduced,inShilohandOtherStories(1982),asetof
portraitsofsmalltownsocietywhosedistinctionisintheirbeingpresentedwithoutironyorsentimentality.AfurthervolumeofstoriesisLoveLife(1989).InCountry
(1985)isanovelwhichisbothcomicandpoignant,asayoungwomanwhosefatherdiedintheVietnamWartriestomakesenseofitandofherrelationshipwithher
uncle,whosurvivedthesameconflict.ItwasfollowedbySpence+Lila(1988),astudyprimarilyoftheerosionbyeconomicchangeofanageingcouple'straditional
rurallivelihood,andFeatherCrowns(1993),inwhich,in1900,thewifeofawesternKentuckytobaccofarmerbearsquintupletsandbecomesacelebrity.
MasonBruce(192182)
NewZealanddramatist,wasborninWellington,broughtupinTakapuna,andeducatedatWellingtonCollege.HespentayearatWellingtonTeachersTraining
College,wherehisoneactplay,Focus,writtenwhenhewas19,wasperformedin1941.DuringWorldWarIIhewasanavalsublieutenant,servingonRussian
convoyduties.Hethenbecamearesearchassistantandacuratorofmanuscripts,hadhisfirstshortstorypublished('TheGlassWig',Landfall1947),andbeganan
associationwiththeUnityTheatre,Wellington,whichbetween1948and1960heservedasPresident,Secretary,andcommitteemember.Hewasacofounderofthe
DownstageTheatre,Wellington,forwhich,toensurecontinuityofproduction,healsowrote,directed,andperformed.Thefirsttwoofhisquartetofdomesticplays,
TheBondsofLoveandTheEveningPaper,wereproducedattheUnityTheatrein1953.ThePohutukawaTree(produced1957,published1960)wasthefirstof
asequenceoffiveplayswithMaorithemes.Frustratedatthelackofopportunitiesfortheproductionofindigenousdrama,hepresentedandperformedin1960the
firstofhissolopieces,TheEndoftheGoldenWeather,aboyhoodreverieseeinBruceMasonSolo(1981).Latterlyhereturnedtothedramaofsocialissues
withTheBloodoftheLamb(1981).Hediedaftersurvivingseveraloperationsforcancer.HewasmadeCBEin1980.SeeDavidDowling,IntroducingBruce
Mason,1982.
Mason,R(onald)A(lison)K(ells)(190571)
NewZealandpoet,wasborninPenrose,Auckland,andeducatedatAucklandGrammarSchoolandAucklandUniversityCollege.ApartfromvisitstoSamoa,
Tonga,Australia,andChina,hisworkinglifewasspentalmostentirelyinAuckland,aspublicworksforeman,tradesunionsecretary,landscapegardener,andpart
timecollegecoachingtutorandschoolteacher.In1923hecirculatedinmanuscriptacollectionofhispoetry,underthetitleofIntheMannerofMen.TheBeggar
(1924),aselectionofpoemsallwrittenbeforehewas19,andpublishedbyhimselfinbookforminbrownpapercovers,isregardedasthefirst

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manifestationofanoriginalandgiftedNewZealandpoeticvoice.ThecommercialpublicationofalimitededitionofNoNewThing:Poems19241929(1934),in
whoseopeningpoemhedescribeshis'bitterverses'as'spongessteepedinvinegar/uselesstothehappyeyed/buthandyforthecrucified',wasfraughtwith
productionproblems,andonlyafewcopiesreachedthepublic.ThisDarkWillLighten:SelectedPoems19231941(1941),forwhichherearrangedthe
typographyofearlierpoemsanddispensedwithconventionalpunctuation,wasadequatelymarketedbutrevealedhowlittlehehadcomposedsincehisinitialburstof
enthusiasm.HealsowrotedramasandwasanactivepoliticaljournalistwithMarxistleanings.SeeCollectedPoems,introductionbyAllenCurnow,1990J.E.
Weir,R.A.K.Mason,1977(criticalstudy).
Massinger,Philip(15831640)
Englishdramatist,wasborninSalisbury,thesonofArthurMassinger(d.1606),amanofstandingintheacademicandpoliticalfields,andwaseducatedatStAlban
Hall,Oxford,withouttakinghisdegree.HecollaboratedwithDEKKERandTOURNEUR,andregularlywithJOHNFLETCHER.Hisowntragedies,whichincludeTheDukeof
Millaine(printed1623)andTheRomanActor(1629),fallintimebetweenthoseofSHAKESPEAREandthemoredecadenthorrorsofJOHNFORD,andthoughthereisa
superficialstructure,thecharactersfailtoinspireemotion.Thesamelackofvitalityaffectshisromantictragicomedies,ofwhichTheBondman:anAntientStory
(1624)andTheMaidofHonour(1632)areneverthelessinterestingexamplesoftheirkind.Itiswithhistwooutandoutcomedies,ANewWaytoPayOldDebts
(1633)andTheCityMadam(licensed1632),thatheemergesasworthytostandwithJONSONthoughtheyarenearertothecomedyofCONGREVE,overfortyyears
ahead,intheirdependenceonintrigueandintheirmemorableportraitureofhypocrisyintheformsofSirGilesOverreach,basedonareallifevillain,andLukeFrugal,
theservilebrotherturnedmonsterwhenhebelievestheheadofthehouseholdisoutoftheway.MassingerdiedsuddenlyonenightinhishouseinSouthwark,andhis
body,accompaniedbyactors,wastakentothenearbychurchofStSaviour'sand,accordingtooneaccount,buriedinthesamegraveasFletcher.SeeSelected
Plays,ed.ColinGibson,1978.
Masters,EdgarLee(18681950)
Americanpoet,dramatist,andnovelist,wasborninGarnett,Kansas,andwasbroughtupinIllinois,wherehegraduatedfromLewistownHighSchool,andwas
admittedtotheIllinoisBarin1891.HehadalreadypublishedABookofVerse(1898)andMaximilian:aPlayinFiveActs(1902)whenhewentintolaw
partnershipwithClarenceDarrow(18571938),whoin1925wastomakethefamous(andinitiallyunsuccessful)defenceoftheTennesseescienceteacher,JohnT.
Scopes,chargedwithteachingthedoctrineofevolution.Thepartnershipbrokeupinacrimonyin1911andDarrowlaterrepresentedMasters'sfirstwifeinher
divorceproceedings.SongsandSonnets,by'WebsterFord',waspublishedintwovolumes191012.AstudyofSelectedEpigramsfromtheGreekAnthology
(1890),editedandtranslatedbyJ.W.Mackail(18591945),gavehimtheinspirationandpoeticformforSpoonRiverAnthology(1915),aningeniousarrangement
ofepigrammaticstatementsfromthegrave,revealingthelivesandinnerthoughtsofawholesmalltowncommunity,muchextendedinTheNewSpoonRiver(1924).
Hegaveupthelawin1920andmovedtoNewYork,wherehewroteextensively:novelsintheSpoonRivervein,biographies,includingthoseofVACHELLINDSAY
(1935),WHITMAN(1937),andTWAIN(1938),andanautobiography,AcrossSpoonRiver(1936),aswellasmoreverseandplays.Henevermatched,stillless
transcended,thecreativitywhichmadetheSpoonRiverpoemsinfluentialinthedepictionofcommunitiesandinthedevelopmentoftheshortstory.
Mather,Cotton(16631728)
Americanprosewriter,scholar,andPuritandivine,wasborninBoston,eldestsonofIncreaseMather(16391723),clericandwriter,andgrandsonofRichard
Mather(15961669)andJohnCotton(15841652),EnglishbornpioneersofNewEnglandCongregationalism.HeenteredHarvardCollegeattheageof12,
alreadyabletowriteandspeakLatin,toreadNewTestamentGreek,andtounderstandHebrew.Hegraduatedin1678and,feelingthathischildhoodstammer
disqualifiedhimfrompreaching,decidedtobeaphysician.Heovercamehishandicap,however,tookhisMAdegreeatHarvardin1681,andwasin1685installedas
hisfather'scolleagueattheSecondChurchofBoston,whereheremainedfortherestofhislife.PassedoverasPresidentofHarvard,heplayedapartinmany
politicalandsocialissues.Heactivelysupportedtherebellionin1689againsttheGovernorofNewEngland,SirEdmundAndros(16371714),whowascaptured,
imprisoned,andreturnedtoEngland.Hisgenuineinterestinwitchcraft,aboutwhichhewroteMemorableProvidencesRelatingtoWitchcraftandPossessions
(1689),andhispronouncementsontheinfluenceoftheDevilinunderminingreligiousstability,ledhimtobeheldpartlyresponsibleforthewitchcrafttrialsofSalemin
1692.Hedid,however,recommendcautionintheacceptanceofevidencehisfaultwasthathedidnotspeakoutagainstthemiscarriageofjustice.Healsoadvocated
schoolsforthechildrenofslaves.Havingin1714beenoneoftheveryfewAmericanselectedtotheRoyalSocietyinLondonbefore

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1750,hestudiedtheeffectsofsmallpoxinoculationsometimebeforehechampionedthepracticehewasstrenuouslyopposedandhadabombthrownthroughthe
windowofhishouse.
Hisfirstwife,AbigailPhilips,diedin1702after16yearsofmarriage.In1703hemarriedElizabethHubbard,awidow,whodiedin1713.Histhirdwife,Lydia
George,whomhemarriedin1715,wentmad.Ofhis15childrenbyhisfirsttwomarriages,onlysixlivedbeyondchildhood,andonlytwosurvivedhim.Throughout
traumasinhispersonallife,andtheperformanceofpastoralaswellaspublicduties,hecontinuedtoresearchandwriteinalibrarywhichnumberedseveralthousand
volumes.
Themostimpressiveofhisnumerousworks,whichembracedalmosteveryknownkindofnonfictionandforwhichheemployedavarietyofstyles,isMagnalia
ChristiAmericana:or,TheEcclesiasticalHistoryofNewEnglandfromItsFirstPlanting,intheYear1620,untotheYearofOurLord,1698(London,
1702).Insevenvolumes(800largeformatpages),andincorporatingsomeofhispreviouslypublishedworks,itcomprisesahistoryofthecolony,ofHarvard
College,andoftheCongregationalChurch,biographiesofgovernors,ministers,andHarvardgraduates,andaccountsofGod'sworkings.Bonifacius:anEssay
UpontheGood,thatistobeDevisedandDesigned...(1710),laterknownasEssaystoDoGood,whoserelevancetosucceedinggenerationswas
acknowledgedbyBENJAMINFRANKLIN,isastudyofChristiancivicresponsibilitywithpracticalsuggestionsforexercisingit.InTheChristianPhilosopher(1721),
Mathersummarizedaspectsofscientificknowledgeandarguedforareconciliationofscienceandreligion.ThePoliticalFables(unpublishedinhislifetimebut
circulatedinmanuscriptinabout1692)isuniqueinearlyAmericanliteratureandreflectstheprecisionandstyleofEnglishprosemastersofthetime.SeeSelections
fromCottonMather,ed.KennethB.Murdock,newedn1960KennethSilverman,TheLifeandTimesofCottonMather,1984DavidLevin,CottonMather:
theYoungLifeoftheLord'sRemembrancer16631703,1978.
MatsuoBasho
seeBASH.
Maturin,CharlesRobert(17821824)
Irishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninDublinandeducatedatTrinityCollege,Dublin.HebecameCurateofLoughrea,andlaterofStPeter's,Dublin.In1809his
father,whohadbeenhelpinghimfinancially,waswrongfullydismissedfromhisgovernmentpost.Thoughhewassubsequentlyreinstated,thefamilysufferedinthe
meantime,andMaturinsetupaschoolinhishousetoaugmenthisstipend.Hewasalsowritingnovels:FatalRevenge:or,TheFamilyofMontorio(1807),a
prenticeGothictale,whichWALTERSCOTTpraisedintheQuarterlyReviewTheWildIrishBoy(1808),inwhichROUSSEAU'SandWORDSWORTH'Sphilosophyofnatureis
broughttobearonIrishnationalismandtheIrishcharacterandTheMilesianChief:aRomance(1812).Disasterstruckwhenhelosthishouse,andwithithis
school,fromstandingsuretyforafriend.Indesperation,hesentthemanuscriptofatragedytoScott,whosenthim50andpassedtheplayontoBYRON,whoalso
contributed50,andpersuadedEdmundKean(17871833)tostageitatDruryLane.Bertram:or,TheCastleofStAldobrand(1816)didmoderatelywell:notso
Manuel(1817)andFredolfo(1819),andMaturinwentbacktofiction.AfterWomen:or,PouretContre(1818),cameMelmoththeWanderer(1820),a
compellingGothichorrornovel(someregarditasthemostsublimeofthegenre),whoseprotagonistsellshissoultothedevilinreturnforalongerlife,andregretsit
WILDE,whowasrelatedtoMaturinthroughhismother,assumedthenameSebastianMelmothafterhisreleasefromprison.Amanwhosepenchantforextravagance
andshowwastemperedbyeccentricityandabroodingmorbidity,allofwhicharereflectedinhissinglemasterpiece,itissaidMaturin'sdeathwasacceleratedbyhis
takingthewrongmedicine.SeeRobertE.Lougy,CharlesRobertMaturin,1975(criticalstudy).
Maugham,W(illiam)Somerset(18741965)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninParis,theyoungestsonofthelegaladvisertotheBritishEmbassy.HelivedinFranceuntilattenhewas
orphanedandputintothecareofanuncle,theVicarofWhitstable,Kent.HewaseducatedatKing'sSchool,Canterbury,andlaterspentayearatHeidelberg
Universitywithouttakingadegree.Athisowninsistence,hebecameamedicalstudentatStThomas'sHospital,andmanagedwhilestudyingtoreadvoraciouslyand
toobservehumanlife.Hisfirstnovel,LizaofLambeth(1897),waspublishedtheyearhequalifiedasMRCSLRCP,whereuponheabandonedmedicineforliterature
andtravelledinSpain.Thefailureofsubsequentnovelsandtherejectionofseveralplaysalmostmadehimreversehisdecision.Hisfirstplaytobeperformedwasa
oneactpieceinGerman,Schiffbrchig(1901).AManofHonourwasputonbytheStageSocietyin1903.In1907LadyFrederick,atraditionalcomedyof
manners,wasstagedattheRoyalCourtTheatreasastopgap.Itranfor422performanceswithinayearhehadthreeotherplaysalsorunningintheWestEnd.He
continuedtowriteplaysuntil1933,inavarietyofstylesandmoods,hiscynicalcomediesTheCircle(1921),someofwhosecastwerelustilybooedforinaudibilityon
itsfirstnight,andTheConstantWife(1927)beingthemosthighlyregarded.

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In1911,nowmorecomfortablyoff,hebeganhismostlastingliterarywork,thesemiautobiographicalOfHumanBondage(1915),whosedepressiverealismdidnot
atfirstappealtoacountryinvolvedinWorldWarI.DuringthewarheservedintheIntelligenceDepartment,hisexperiencesbeingreflectedlaterinAshenden:orthe
BritishAgent(1928).In1916hemarriedSyrieWellcome,thedaughterofthephilanthropistThomasBarnado(18451905):theyweredivorcedin1927.Meanwhile
hevisitedtheEastwithhissecretary/companionGeraldHaxton(18921944)publishedTheMoonandSixpence(1919),basedonthelifeofPaulGauguin(1848
1903),theFrenchpostimpressionistpainterandabsorbedthebasicsocialatmospherewhichheusedmosteffectivelyinthemanyofhisshortstoriessetinthatregion,
ofwhichthemostfamousis'Rain'(1921).In1928hesettledinavillaatStJean,CapFerrat,wherehewroteCakesandAle(1930),anovelinwhichhegentlytakes
revengeontheEnglishliteraryestablishment.HavingescapedfromFranceinacoalboat,hespentthewaryearsintheUSA,fromwhichhereturnedtoFrance,after
publishingTheRazor'sEdge(1944),whichreflectshisinterestinIndianmysticism.HefoundedtheSomersetMaughamAwardin1947,toenablepromisingyoung
Britishwriterstotravel.HewasappointedCHin1954.SeeShortStories,4vols,newedns1990SelectedPlays,newedn1991TheSummingUp,1938
(autobiographicalstudy)AWriter'sNotebook,newedn1991(extractsfromjournal)RobertCalder,Willie:theLifeofW.SomersetMaugham,newedn1992
BryanConnon,SomersetMaughamandtheMaughamDynasty,1996(familyhistory)JohnWhitehead,Maugham:aReappraisal,1988.
Maupassant,Guyde(18501893)
Frenchshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasbornatChateaudeMiromesnil,nearDieppe,andgrewupintretat,Normandy,afterhisparentsseparatedinabout
1856.HewaseducatedattheseminaryinYvetot,andforayearatCollgeImprial,Rouen.HisstudyoflawwasinterruptedbyserviceintheFrancoPrussianWar,
afterwhichheenteredtheMinistredelaMarinein1872asaclerk,subsequentlytransferringtotheMinistredel'InstructionPublique.Acountrymanandsportsman
byinclination,towhomcitystreetswereanathema,hepublishedhisfirstshortstoryin1875,asJosephPrunier.ThroughFLAUBERT,whowasafriendofhismother,he
metnovelistssuchasDAUDETandZOLA,towhosecollectionofstories,LesSoiresdeMdan(1880),subsidizedbyZolaasameansofpublicizinghisliterary
philosophyofNaturalism,hecontributed'BouledeSuif'[BallofFat].Itwasaliterarysensation.Heresignedfromthecivilserviceandpublishedinquicksuccession
twocollectionsofstories,LaMaisonTellier(1881)andMademoiselleFifi(1882),andanovel,UneVie(1883).Thesewerefollowedbymoreofthesamekindas
wellasbybooksabouthistravels.Ofhissixnovels,PierreetJean(1888tr.ClaraBellasPierreandJean,1890tr.LeonardTancock,1979),astudyoffamily
rivalriesanddiscontents,prefacedbysomegeneralcommentsonthenovelasanartform,haslastedbest.Hisnatural,anddeveloped,gift,however,wasfortheshort
story,whichheimbuedwithtruthaswellasstyleseeADayintheCountryandOtherStories(1990)andMademoiselleFifiandOtherStories(1993),tr.
DavidCoward.Thefirstsymptomsofsyphilismanifestedthemselvesbeforehewas30.Hismindbegantogoin1889,andin1892hetriedtocommitsuicide.He
diedinaprivateasylum.
Mauriac,Franois(18851970)
Frenchnovelist,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninBordeaux,whereafterhisfather'sdeathin1887heandhisthreetalentedbrotherswerebroughtupbytheirmother
inaccordancewithstrictCatholictenets.Hewaseducatedatthelocallyce.anduniversity,afterwhichheenteredthecoleNationaledesChartres,Paris,in1906,
thoughattendanceatclasseswassecondarytohisdevelopmentasawriter.HeservedasahospitalorderlyduringWorldWarIuntilinvalidedoutin1917after
contractingmalariainSalonika.Hefoundatrueliteraryvoicewithhisfifthnovel,LeBaiserauLpreux(1922tr.JamesWhittalasTheKisstotheLeper,1923tr.
GerardHopkinsasAKissfortheLeper,1950),anaccountofadisastrousarrangedmarriageinthewakeofCatholicprotestsathispessimism,afterGnetrix
(1923tr.Hopkins,1950)headoptedamorenaturalisticstanceinhisdepictionoffamilyconflicts.ThrseDesqueyroux(1927asThrsetr.EricSutton,1928tr.
Hopkins,1947),theselfdiscoveryofawomanacquittedofattemptingtopoisonherhusband,wasinpartapersonalprotestwhichculminatedinacrisisoffaith,from
whichheemergedacalmerwriter,moreconcernedwithmattersofsalvation.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1952.
Maurois,Andr(18851967)
Frenchnovelistandbiographer,wasbornmileHerzoginElbeuf,ofafamilyofJewishindustrialists,andwaseducatedattheLyceCorneille,Rouen,andCaen
University.Attheendofhisyear'sarmyservicehewentintohisfather'sclothfactoryuntilWorldWarI,inwhichheservedatthefrontasaliaisonofficerwiththe
BritishArmy.Hisfirstnovel,LesSilencesduColonelBramble(1918tr.ThurfridaWakeasTheSilenceofColonelBramble,1919),caughtthetoneofanEnglish
officers'mess,observedthroughtheeyesofaFrenchman.InthecourseofacareerinwhichhecontinuedtointerprettheFrenchtotheEnglish,the

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EnglishtotheFrench,andbothtotheAmericans,hewroteahistoryofEngland(tr.1937)aswellasofFrance(tr.1949)andperpetuated,withAriel(1923tr.Ella
D'Arcy,1924),hislifeofP.B.SHELLEY,aformofbiographyofwhichhesaidthatthewriter'mightandshouldarrangehisauthenticmaterialsinthemannerofanovel
andgivehisreaderthefeelingofahero'sprogressivediscoveryoftheworld,whichistheessenceofromance'.TheOxfordHistoryofEnglishLiteraturecallsit'of
littlevalue',but,in1935,asthefirstoftheinitialtenPenguintitles,itwassoldalongsidefictionbyCHRISTIE,HEMINGWAY,andSAYERS(at6deach).Healsowrote
biographicalstudiesofDISRAELI(tr.1927),BYRON(tr.1930),VOLTAIRE(tr.1932),DICKENS(tr.1934),PROUST(tr.1950),DUMAS(tr.1957),andBALZAC(tr.1965).During
WorldWarIIhewasaliaisonofficerinFranceuntilthecountryfell,whenhewenttotheUSA.Heenlistedagainin1943whenFranceofficiallyreenteredthewar,
andservedinnorthAfricaandItaly.HewasmadeHonoraryKBEin1938.SeeMemoirs18851967,tr.DenverLindley,1970.
Mavor,O.H.
seeBRIDIE.
Maxwell,Gavin
seeRAINE,KATHLEEN.
Mayakovsky,Vladimir(Vladimirovich)(18931930)
Russianpoetanddramatist,wasborninBagdadi(nowMayakovsky)andwasbroughtupandwenttoschoolinMoscow,wherehejoinedtheBolshevikpartyand
wasimprisonedin190910.AttheMoscowInstituteofPainting,Sculpture,andArchitecturein191114,hebecameassociatedwiththeFuturistliterarymovement,
underwhosebannerhebegantopublishhisegocentricverseanddrama,includingthetragedyVladimirMayakovsky(1913).Havingstatedin1917thattherewas
noprobleminhisacceptanceoftheRevolution,hesetaboutbecomingapoetofthemasseswithout,seemingly,anyclearnotionastohowthismightbeachievedhe
wastornbetweenattemptingto'democratize'hisstyle,ashedidinhismemorialpoemtoLenin(1924),andwaginganalloutwaragainsttheaestheticsofart,in
pursuitofwhichhehelpedtofoundandedittheperiodicalsLef(192325)andNewLef(192728).Twofurtherplays,[TheBedbug](1929)and[TheBathhouse]
(1930),failedtoappealtothepublic.Asunfortunateinloveashewasconfusedinhisdestiny,heshothimself:onlytoberehabilitatedbyStalinin1935as'themost
talentedpoetofourSovietepoch'and,accordingtoPASTERNAK,compulsorilypropagated'likepotatoesinthereignofCatherinetheGreat',whichwas,headded
wryly,'hisseconddeath'.SeePoems,ed.HerbertMarshall,1965TheCompletePlays,tr.GuyDaniels,1968WiktorWoroszylski,TheLifeofMayakovsky,tr.
BoleslawTaborski,1972.
Mehta,Ved(b.1934)
Indianprosewriter,wasborninLahore.Afterbeingblindedbymeningitisattheageofthree,hewassentbyhisfather,apublichealthofficer,tobetrainedatDadar
SchoolfortheBlind,anorphanageinBombay.HewassubsequentlyeducatedatEmersonInstitutefortheBlind,Lahore,andlearnedtotypeandtoreadBrailleatthe
StDunstan'scentreforarmypersonnelinDelhi.At15hewenttoArkansasSchoolfortheBlindandthentoPomonaCollegeintheUSA,afterwhichhestudied
historyatBalliolCollege,OxfordseeUpatOxford(1993),andHarvard.HebecameastaffwriterontheNewYorkerin1961,andaUScitizenin1975.Face
toFace,anaccountofhislifewhichhelatersawas'asortofoutline'for'alargeautobiographicalwork',waspublishedin1957.WalkingtheIndianStreets(1960),
likemostofhisbookscomposedofmaterialfirstpublishedintheNewYorker,washisversionofareturnvisittoIndiaaftertenyearsaway,madewithMORAES,who
wroteitupasGoneAway:anIndianJourney(1960).ThetwoaccountsdifferedsomarkedlythatMehtaissuedarevisededition,withanexplanatoryintroduction
(1971).The'autobiographicalwork',spanningtheyearsupto1949andsetagainstthedisturbedIndianpoliticalbackgroundofthetimes,dulymanifesteditselfasfour
classicaccounts,Daddyji(1972),Mamaji(1979),Vedi(1982),andTheLedgeBetweentheStreams(1984).FlyandtheFlyBottle(19632ndedn1983)and
TheNewTheologians(1966)areinterviewswithhistorians,philosophers,andtheologians.Hehasalsopublishedhistoricalstudies,notablyAFamilyAffair:India
underThreePrimeMinisters(1982),andacomicnovel,DelinquentChacha(1967).
Melville,Herman(181991)
Americannovelistandpoet,wasbornMelvill(the'e'wasaddedinthe1830s)inNewYork,thethirdofeightchildrenofacoupleofScottishandDutchColonial
descentrespectively.In1830hisfather,adrygoodsmerchant,wentbankruptandtookajobinAlbany,wherehediedinsanein1832.Thefamilyfinancialsituation
wasnothelpedbythefactthatanillegitimatedaughterofMrMelvillandhermothernowmadeaclaimonhisinheritancefromtheestateofhisownfather.Melville
wastakenoutofAlbanyAcademy,didclericaljobsandabitofteaching,andtookacourseinsurveyingandengineeringatLansingburghAcademynoneofwhich,in
theaftermathofthe1837Depression,ledtoanything.In1839hesignedonasadeckhandinapacketshiptoLiverpoolandback,anexperiencewhichherecreated
laterinRedburn:HisFirstVoyage(1849).Havingstillfailedtolandajob,inJanuary1841hesailedasasea

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maninthewhalerAcushnet,boundfortheSouthSeas,'myYaleCollegeandmyHarvard'.Inspiteoftheboatbeingnew(itcarriedalibrary),anditsowners
acquaintancesofthefamily,heandacolleaguedesertedintheMarquesasIslandsin1842,andspentfourweekswithaTaipitribe.TakenoffbyanAustralianbarque,
hegotinvolvedinamutiny,andafteraperiodofsomewhatludicrousconfinementinTahiti,shippedinanotherwhalertoHawaii,whereheenlistedasanordinary
seamaninaUSwarship,whichdepositedhiminBostoninOctober1844.AshelaterwrotetoHAWTHORNE(1851):'FrommytwentyfifthyearIdatemylife.Three
weekshavescarcelypassed,atanytimebetweenthenandnow,thatIhavenotunfoldedwithinmyself.'
Melville'sfictionalaccountofhissojournwiththenativeswastakenbyhiselderbrotherGansevoort(18161846),SecretaryoftheAmericanLegationinLondon,and
showntoJohnMurray(180892),thesonofBYRON'Spublisher.ItappearedasTypee:aPeepatPolynesianLife,DuringaFourMonths'ResidenceinaValleyof
theMarquesas(1846),andwaspublishedinNewYorkinanexpurgatedversionunderaslightlydifferenttitlethediscrepancybetweenthe'FourMonths'andthe
fourweeksheactuallystayedenabledhimtoincludeanthropologicalobservationsfromotheraccounts.Asequel,Omoo(1847),recountingwithgoodhumourhis
subsequentadventuresamongthemutineersandinTahiti,wasequallywellreceived,andhepromptlymarriedElizabethKnappShaw,whosefatherwastheChief
JusticeofMassachusetts.Mardi:andAVoyageThither(1849),begunasthethirdinthesequence,became,inthehandsofitsquixoticauthor,asatiricalromantic
fantasy,packedwithliteraryallusions.HerestoredhisreputationasanarratorwithRedburnandWhiteJacket:or,TheWorldinaManofWar(1850),loosely
basedonthelastlapofhisvoyagebutwithelementsfromothersourcesandfromhisimagination.JournalofaVisittoLondonandtheContinent18491850(ed.
EleanorMelvillMetcalf,1948)recordsamomentoustrip,primarilytoarrangeforthepublicationofWhiteJacketinthefaceofthelackofcopyrightprotection
affordedinBritaintoAmericanauthors.
In1850hemovedwithhisfamilytoPittsfield,Massachusetts,afewmilesfromthehomeofHawthorne,whosewifefoundhim'apersonofgreatardor&simplicity.
Heisallonfirewiththesubjectthatinterestshim.Itringsthroughhisframelikeacathedralbell.'MobyDick(1851inBritainasTheWhale),hisepicnovelofaquest
forthewhitewhalewhichsymbolizesawholerangeofaspirations,wasdescribedseventyyearslaterbyFORSTER(AspectsoftheNovel)as'aneasybook,aslongas
wereaditasayarnoranaccountofwhalinginterspersedwithsnatchesofpoetry.Butassoonaswecatchthesonginit,itgrowsdifficultandimmenselyimportant.'
Itsimportancewasbeliedbyitssales,whichduringthelast25yearsofMelville'slifeaveragedanannual22copies.Pierre:or,TheAmbiguities(1852),aweird
amalgamofstylesandgenres,foundevenlessfavourwiththepublicitwaseffectivelyrefusedbyhisBritishpublisher.TheIsleoftheCrosswasrejectedbyhis
Americanpublisherandwasprobablydestroyed.Henowfelthimselfforatimereducedtowritinganonymousstoriesformagazines,amongwhichwere'Bartleby,the
Scrivener'(1853)and'BenitoCereno'(1855).IsraelPotter:HisFiftyYearsofExile(1855),aboutarejectedherooftheAmericanWarofIndependence,was
morestraightforwardbutthereceptionofTheConfidenceMan,HisMasquerade(1857),astudyofevilwithallegoricalimplications,publishedwhilehewasona
Europeantourforhishealth,madeitthelastnoveltoappearduringhislifetime.Hedidthelecturecircuitforthreeyears,andthenmovedtoNewYorktolookfora
job,hisdepressionandthereactiontoacarriageaccidentmakinghimsodifficultthathisfamilythoughthewasgoinginsane.
In1866hewasappointedaninspectorofcustoms,whichheremaineduntil1885.Hewasnowwritingpoetry:BattlePiecesandAspectsoftheWar(1866),Civil
WarversewhichrankswithWHITMAN'SDrumTapsClarel:aPoemandPilgrimageintheHolyLand(1876)andJohnMarrandOtherSailors(privately
published1888)seeSelectedPoemsofHermanMelville,ed.HennigCohen(1991).Andin1888hebeganthestory,BillyBudd(discoveredafterhisdeathand
publishedin1924),hisfinalstatementongoodandevil.Inthis(toreturntoForster),'aftertheinitialroughnessofhisrealism[he]reachesstraightbackintothe
universal,toablacknessandsadnesssotranscendingourownthattheyareindistinguishablefromglory'.TheyearbeforehediedMelvillereceivedfromtheBritish
Museumwhatwasalmostcertainlyarequestforbiographicalinformationforamonograph:hisreplyindicatedthathewasastonished,becausehehadthoughtthathis
bookswerelongforgotten!SeeLeonHoward,HermanMelville:aBiography,1951LaurieRobertsonLorant,Melville:aBiography,1996HershelParker,
HermanMelville:aBiography,Volume118191851,1996DavidKirby,HermanMelville,1994(criticalbiography)A.R.Humphreys,Melville,1962(critical
study)TyrusHillway,HermanMelville,1985(criticalstudy).
Mencken,H(enry)L(ouis)(18801956)
Americanjournalistandcritic,wasborninBaltimore,wherehelivedallhislife,andwaseducatedatKnapp'sInstituteandBaltimorePolytechnicInstitute.Whenhe
announcedthathewantedtobeanewspa

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permanandnotgotocollege,hisfatherconsignedhimtothefamilycigarfactory.Hetookacorrespondencecourseinwriting,andwascommendedforusing
'conversationalstyleandcolloquialexpressionsthatprevailinthepurlieusofalargecity'.Afterhisfather'ssuddendeathin1899,hebecameareporteronthe
BaltimoreHerald,forwhichheworkedinvariouscapacities,includingdramacritic.In1906hebecameEditoroftheSundaySun,forwhosegroupheworkeduntil
1941.Hislife'sworkasliterarycriticbeganseriouslyin1908,whenhebecameLiteraryEditorofSmartSet,ofwhichhewasEditorfrom1914to1923withGeorge
JeanNathan(18821958).Theyfoundedthedetectivemagazine,theBlackMask(1920),andtheAmericanMercury(1924),ajournalofliteratureandopinionas
Editorofthelatteruntil1933,heactivelyengagedinbattleagainstpuritanism,whichhedefinedas'thehauntingfearthatsomewhere,someonemaybehappy'.Hisfirst
bookwasVenturesintoVerse(1903)hisfirsttwoproseworkswerestudiesoftheplaysofG.B.SHAW(1905)andofthephilosophyofNIETZSCHE(1908).The
AmericanLanguage(1919),severaltimesrevisedandenlarged(thelastin1949),isaformativestudyofthedevelopmentandusageofthisseparatestreamof
English.HepublishedananthologyofhiswritingsasAMenckenChrestomathy(1949):hepreparedafurthercollection,onlyrecentlydiscoveredinmanuscript,A
SecondMenckenChrestomathy,ed.TerryTeachout(1995).OfHappyDays(1940),thefirstofthreeautobiographies,followedbyNewspaperDays(1941)and
HeathenDays(1943),heonceremarked:'Ishouldsayitisabouteightypercenttruth.Therestconsistsoficingonthecake.'Furthervolumesofautobiographywere
embargoedfor35yearsafterhisdeath:MyLifeasAuthorandEditor,ed.JonathanYardley(1993),wasfinishedin1948,justbeforeaseverestrokecosthimhis
abilitytoreadandwriteseealsoThirtyFiveYearsofNewspaperWork,ed.FredHobson,VincentFitzpatrick,andBradfordJacobs(1994).SeeFredHobson,
Mencken:aLife,newedn1995.
Meredith,George(18281909)
Britishnovelist,poet,andcritic,wasborninPortsmouth,thesonofanavaltailor.Afterthedeathofhismotherin1833andthedepartureofhisfathertoLondonand
thentoCapeTown,hewasbroughtupbyaunts,andeducatedlocallyandattheMoravianschoolatNeuwiedontheRhine,andwasthenarticledtoasolicitorin
London.HemarriedthewidoweddaughterofPEACOCKin1849,butsheelopedin1858withtheartistHenryWallis(18301916),whohadusedMeredithasthe
modelforhisfamouspaintingofthedeathofCHATTERTONasequenceofeventsimaginativelyrecalledbyACKROYDinhisnovel,Chatterton(1987).Asecondmarriage
in1864washappier.Meredithpreferredtobeknownasapoet,butitwasasanovelistthathebecame(withHARDY)regardedasagrandoldmanofliterature,though
withouttangiblereward,towhichhistendencytoplayouthisownmisfortuneswithanoverwroughtintensitycontributed.ThetitlepoemofModernLove,andPoems
oftheEnglishRoadside,withPoemsandBallads(1862)isasonnetlikesequence,recordingincidentsinabrokenmarriage.Aftertwoearlyprosefantasies,he
published12novels,andhiscontinuousexperimentationwithformjustifieshisinfluentialstatus.InTheOrdealofRichardFeverel(1859),arunawaywifeleavesa
fathertocareforhisson.Afather/sonrelationshipisalsothethemeofTheAdventuresofHarryRichmond(1871).TheEgoist(1879),intellectuallyhismost
satisfyingnovel,isapracticalexpositionofhislecture'OntheIdeaofComedyandtheUsesoftheComicSpirit'(1877).HismostsuccessfulnovelwasDianaofthe
Crossways(1885),basedonacontemporaryscandal,andagainfeaturinganerringwife.SeeLionelStevenson,TheOrdealofGeorgeMeredith,1954V.S.
Pritchett,GeorgeMeredithandEnglishComedy,1970.
Meres,Francis
seeKYDSHAKESPEARE.
Merrill,James(192695)
Americanpoet,wasborninNewYorkCity,sonofCharlesE.Merrill(18851956),thefinancierandbroker,andhissecondwife.Hewasbroughtupinsomestyle,
andwaseducatedatLawrencevilleSchoolandAmherstCollege,wherehisfatherhadbeen.'BrokenHome'(1966)reflectsthebreakupofthemarriagein193738
andhisfeelingsforhismotheratatimewhenhe'founditdifficulttobelieveinthewaymyparentslived'herecreatedhisfamilyastheTanningsinhisnovelThe
Seraglio(1957).AtAmherst,wherehisstaywasinterruptedbyserviceintheUSArmy,hegraduatedsummacurelaude,havingsubmittedathesisonPROUST,
whosesubsequentinfluenceonMerrill'swritingwasprofound.'Whenitcametosex,'hesaidinaninterview,'Ihadtofaceitthattheworstiniquitymyparents(and
manyofmyfriends)couldimaginewasformeablessedsourceofpleasureandsecurityaswellassuffering,tobesure.'Hishomosexuality,likethatofProustand
CAVAFY,anotherwriterwithwhomheidentified,isarecurringthemeinhispoetrythelifeandearlydeathfromleukemiaofhisclosefriend,theyoungDutchpoet
HansLodeizen(192450),arefrequentlyalludedto.
Hisfirsttwobooksofversewereprivatelyprinted,thoughheincludedmuchofthesecond,TheBlackSwan(1946),inhisfirstcommerciallypublishedcollection,
FirstPoems(1951),inwhichheintroducedanalterego,Charles,whoreappearsinseverallater

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poems.WithTheCountryofaThousandYearsofPeace(1959),whichincorporatedmanyofthepoemsinShortStories(1954),hehadcometothechoiceofsell
inmanypersonificationsandsettings,asthedominantthemeinhisart.Hiscanvaswasextendedbytravel,andfrom1959fortwentyyearsheandhiscompanion,
DavidJackson(b.1922),winteredinGreecefromtheirspectacularhomeinStonington,onLongIslandSound.BothenvironmentsfeatureinNightsandDays
(1966),whichwontheNationalBookAward.ImagesoffirelinkthesequenceofmemoriesinTheFireScreen(1969)inBravingtheElements(1976)theviewis
cosmic.TheDivineComedies(1976),incorporating'TheBookofEphraim',wonthePulitzerPrize.AtrilogywithMirabell:BooksofNumber(1978),winnerofthe
NationalBookAward,andScriptsforthePageant(1980),thewholewasreissuedwithanepilogue,'Coda:theHigherKeys',asTheChangingLightat
Sandover(1982).'Ephraim'isaspiritoriginallycontactedbyMerrillandJacksonin1955throughthemediumofanOuijaboard,whoseintimationsareusedasthe
basisforthepoet'sexplorationofthree'otherworlds'keyfiguresarehisfriendsAUDENandMariaMitsotki(190774).Hisfinalcollection,AScatteringofSalts
(1995),isoneofhismostreflective,andincludes'TheRingCycle',whichlooksbackbothto'Matinees'(1969)andtothelongtermeffectsoftheoperabyRichard
Wagner(181383),whichhefirstsawwhenhewas12,onhissubsequentemotions.ShorterpoemsareinFromtheFirstNine:Poems19461976(1982).Proseis
inRecitative(1986).SeeSelectedPoems,1996ADifferentPerson:aMemoir,1993RossLabrie,JamesMerrill,1982(biographical/criticalstudy)Stephen
Yenser,TheConsumingMyth:theWorkofJamesMerrill,1987(criticalstudy).
Merwin,W(illiam)S(tanley)(b.1927)
Americanpoet,dramatist,andtranslator,wasborninNewYorkCity,sonofaPresbyterianminister.HewasbroughtupinUnionCity,NewJersey,andScranton,
PennsylvaniarecollectionsofanausterechildhoodoccurinpoemsinTheDrunkintheFurnace(1960)andTheMovingTarget(1963).HisstudiesatPrinceton
wereinterruptedbyserviceintheUSNavyAirCorps.HegraduatedinRomancelanguages,afterwhichhedidayear'spostgraduatestudy.Hethenspenttwoyears
asatutorinFrance,Portugal,andMajorca,wherehispupilwasasonofCRAVES,oneofhisearliermodelsalongwithPOUND,YEATS,andAUDEN,whopublishedhisfirst
bookofverse,AMaskforJanus(1952),intheYaleYoungerPoets.InLondon(195154)heworkedasatranslatorofFrenchandSpanishclassicsfortheBBC.
DarklingChild,averseplaywrittenwithDidoMilroy,whoin1963becamehissecondwife,wasperformedattheArtsTheatreinLondonin1956.Hewas
PlaywrightinResidence,Poet'sTheatre,Cambridge,Massachusetts195657,wherehisFavorIslandwasproducedin1957.HewasPoetryEditorofTheNation
196163.Inhispoetryhenowadoptedanewstyleandform,blunterinlanguageanddeeperinthought.HeacceptedthePulitzerPrizeforTheCarrierofLadders
(1970)butgaveawaytheprizemoneyonthegroundsthathiscountry'sattitudetointernationalpoliticsmadehim'tooconsciousofbeinganAmerican'.TheMiner's
PaleChildren(1970)andHousesandTravelers(1977)arevolumesofprosepoemsintheformoffictionalnarratives,fablesandfolktales,parables,andpersonal
recollections.Inthecollectionofverse,TheRainintheTrees(1988),heisprimarilyconcernedwithecologicalmattersandtheerosionoflanguageandbelief.The
poemsinTheVixen(1996),inwhichMerwindispensesnotonlywithpunctuation(usingjustacapitallettertoindicatethebeginningofdirectspeech)butalsolargely
withthelinebreakasapoeticdevice,arelamentsfortheextinctionofancientcultureinruralsouthwestFrance,aregioninwhichhehaslivedandwhichhedepictedin
theproseTheLostUpland:StoriesofSouthwestFrance(1992).LamentfortheMakers(1996)isaseriesofelegiesonpoetswhohaveinfluencedhim.
Merwin'sfirstpublishedvolumeoftranslationwastheSpanishepicThePoemoftheCid(1959).Hebegantranslating'withtheideathatitcouldteachmesomething
aboutwritingpoetry....Itislove,Iimagine,morethatlearningthat...willimpelmetobewaryofanyskillcomingtoshadowanddoctorthesource.'Aswellas
translatingfromLatinandfromtheRomancelanguages,includingNERUDA(1969),GARCALORCA,andJIMNEZ,hehascollaboratedwithanativespeakerorscholarto
produceversionsofSanskritlovepoetry(1977)andofMANDELSTAM(1973)seealsoSelectedTranslations19481968(1968),SelectedTranslations19681978
(1979),andFourFrenchPlays(1985).
UnframedOriginals:Recollections(1982)comprisesprosereminiscencesRegionsofMemory:UncollectedProse19491982(1987)includesautobiographical
essaysandcommentontheartofpoetry.SeeTheFirstFourBooksofPoems,newedn1989TheSecondFourBooksofPoems,1993SelectedPoems,1988
CheriDavis,W.S.Merwin,1981(criticalstudy)MarkChristhilfW.S.Merwin,theMythmaker,1986(criticalstudy).
Meung,Jean(Clopinel)de(c.12401305)
Frenchpoetandtranslator,probablycamefromthevillageofMeungsurLoire.HewaseducatedinParisinthesevenliberalarts,andthereorelsewhereinphilosophy
andtheology,whilealsointerestinghimselfinlawandmedicine.Ascholarbeforeacleric,wholedanunclericallife,hewrotethe17,722linecontinuationofRoman

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delaRoseofLORRIS,butinadifferentstylesatirical,oftencynical,withexcursionsintosocial,theological,andphilosophicalissuesofthetimes.Itishistoneand
outlookwhichCHAUCERabsorbedbythetimehecametowriteTheCanterburyTales.Amongotherworks,MeungtranslatedintoFrenchDeConsolatione
PhilosophiaeofBOETHIUS,thetopographyofIrelandofGIRALDUS,andthelettersofABLARDandHlose.
Mew,Charlotte(18691928)
Britishpoet,wasborninBloomsbury,London,thedaughterofanarchitectshewaseducatedatLucyHarrison'sSchoolforGirls,andattendedlecturesatUniversity
College,London.Ofthefourchildrenwhosurvivedinfancy,twobecameinsaneandhadtogointoasylums,andthefamilyfinanceswerefurthercrippledbythe
father'sdeathin1898.Hergrimstory,'Passed',appearedin1894inanearlyissueofTheYellowBook,andsomemoneycameinfromthepublicationofcritical
articles,poems,andstoriesinliteraryjournals'TheFte'waspublishedbyPOUNDinTheEgoistin1914.'TheFarmer'sBride',apatheticlittlecameooffemale
frigidityandfear,alsoprovidedthetitleofavolumeof17ofherpoemspublishedin1916(2ndenlargededn1921).ACivilListpensionwasprocuredforherin
1923,attheinstigationofHARDYandotherliteraryfigures,buthermotherdiedthatsameyear,andhersister,withwhomshelived,in1927.Shortlyafterthatshe
committedsuicideinanursinghomebydrinkingdisinfectant.Afurthervolumeofherverse,TheRamblingSailor,waspublishedin1929.Theineffablesadnessofher
lifeisreflectedinherpoetry,whichdwellsonchildhood,grief,passion,and,ofcourse,death,andisexpressed,oftenintheformofadramaticmonologue,with
control,restraint,precision,andafineattentiontorhythm.SeeCollectedPoemsandProse,ed.ValWarner,1982PenelopeFitzgerald,CharlotteMewandHer
Friends,newedn1989.
Meynell,Alice(18471922)
neThompson,Britishpoetandcritic,wasborninBarnes,Surrey,andwaseducatedathomeandinFranceandItalybyherfather,whowasafriendofDICKENS.
Followinghermother'sexample,shebecameaRomanCatholicin1872,whichbroughtherintocontactwiththecircleofDEVERE.ThroughhimshemetTENNYSON,who
encouragedhertopublishherpoetry.Preludes(1875)wasmuchadmired.In1877shemarriedWilfridMeynell(18521948),withwhomsheeditedseveraljournals,
includingtheWeeklyRegisterandMerryEngland,anddiscoveredandcaredforFRANCISTHOMPSON.BeginningwithTheRhythmofLife(1893),shepublished
severalvolumesofcriticalessays,almostallofthemreprintedfromthemanyjournalsforwhichshewrote.Althoughthereareninevolumesofversefromherfirstto
TheLastPoems(1923),heroutputwassmallandherrangelimited,comprisinginthemaincarefullyconstructedobservationsofsmallthingsandanalysesofinner
andreligiousemotions.Herliteraryjudgmentwasusuallysound,andexpressedwithsubtletyandauthority.AmonghereightchildrenwereViolaMeynell(1886
1956),novelistandpoet,andSirFrancisMeynell(18911975),typographerandfounderoftheNonesuchPress.SeeJuneBadeni,TheSlenderTree:aLifeof
AliceMeynell,1981.
Mickiewicz,Adam(17981855)
Polishpoet,wasbornnearNovogrodek,Lithuania,andwaseducatedatVilnaUniversity,afterwhichhebecameateacherinKovno,andin182223publisheda
twovolumebookofverse.In1823hewasarrestedbytheRussianauthoritiesandwasforcedtoliveinRussiauntil1829.Hethentravelledandlivedinwestern
Europe,beingProfessorofLatinatLausanneUniversity(183940)andofSlavonicLiteratureatCollgedeFrance(184044)inParis,fromwhichhewasdismissed
forbringingnationalistpoliticsintohislectures.Asactiveapatriotashewasanardentpatrioticpoet,whoseromanticismwasinfluencedbyBYRON,hediedin
ConstantinopletryingtoraiseaPolishbattaliontofightagainstRussiaintheCrimeanWar.HismainworksareKonradWallenrod(1828),anarrativepoemof
Poland'sstruggleagainstRussia,Dziady(182332),atripartitedramatizedpoemofnationalconsciousness,andPanTadeusz(1834tr.KennethMackenzie,1966),
anepicpoemoftheliberationofPolandandLithuaniabyNapoleononhisillfatedmarchtoMoscowin181112.
Middleton,Thomas(15801627)
Englishdramatist,wasbornintheCityofLondon,thesonofaprosperous'citizenandbricklayer',waseducatedatTheQueen'sCollege,Oxford,withoutapparently
takingadegree,andby1601isrecordedas'dailyaccompanyingtheplayers'inLondon.Shortlyafterthishemarriedthesisterofanactor,havingnowpublishedThe
WisdomofSolomonParaphrased(1597),MicroCynicon:SixSnarlingSatires(1599),andTheGhostofLucrece(1600),acontinuationofSHAKESPEARE'Spoem
withlengthylamentations.HecollaboratedwithDEKKERonTheHonestWhore,PartI(1604),andthenwroteseveralcomediesforboystoperformtomiddleclass
audiences.Moresophisticateddramasfollowedthedeclineoftheboys'companies.InWomenBewareWomen(performedc.1621),atragedywithironictwistsand
twoplots,Bianca,aVenetiangirlmarriedtoaFlorentine,findsherselfoutofplaceinwhateversocialstationsheseeks.AChasteMaidinCheapside(1613)isa
comicalskitoncontemporaryattitudestosexandmoney.AGameatChesse(1624),avery

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popular,brilliantlystaged,satireoninternationalpolitics,wassotopicalthatitwasprosecuted.TheChangeling,writtenwithROWLEYandperformedin1622,isa
skilfullyconstructedtragedyoftheeffectsoflustandevil,withadepthoffeelingrareforthetimesoutsideShakespeare.TheRevenger'sTragedy(1607)hasbeen
attributedtoMiddletonbut,followingT.S.ELIOTandothercritics,ishereregardedasbyTOURNEUR.SeeFivePlays,ed.BryanLoughreyandNeilTaylor,1988A
MadWorld,MyMasters,andOtherPlays,ed.MichaelTaylor,1996(comedies).
Mill,JohnStuart(180673)
philosopherandpracticalreformer,wasborninLondon,theeldestsonofJamesMill(17731836),Scottishphilosopher,journalist,historianofIndia,andofficial
(from1830Head)oftheadministrationoftheEastIndiaCompanyinLondon.Jamespersonallyundertooktheeducationofhisson,whichwasinaccordancewiththe
principlesofhisfriendBENTHAMandincludedayearinFrance.In1823Millbegan,underhisfather,acareerinIndiaHouse.Hewasaregularcontributortothe
WestminsterReviewfromitsinceptionin1824,inwhichyearhewasarrestedfordistributingcopiesofapamphletonbirthcontrolbythrowingthemintobasement
areaswheremaidservantsworked.Hesufferedanervousbreakdownin1826,probablycausedbytheintellectualtensionimposeduponhimfromchildhood.Ata
dinnerpartyin1830atwhichMARTINEAUwasalsopresent,hemetHarrietTaylor(180758),theboredandbrilliantwifeofapharmacist.Theircommoninterests,
notablyinwomen'srights,drewthemtogethertheirwildlyindiscreetromancelasteduntil1851,twoyearsafterthedeathofhercomplaisanthusband,whenthey
marriedandsetuphometogetherinBlackheathPark.AfterHarriet'sdeath,herdaughter,HelenTaylor(18311907),whohadhadabriefcareeronthestage,
becameMill'ssecretary,housekeeper,andintellectualhelpmeet.
In1858MillretiredfromIndiaHouse,havinginthemeantimebeenproprietorandEditoroftheamalgamatedLondonandWestminsterReviewfrom1837to1840,
andpublishedASystemofLogic(1843),whichrevivedinterestinthesubject,andPrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy(1848),whichowedsomethingtohisfriend
DavidRicardo(17721823),aswellastothewritingsofADAMSMITHandThomasMalthus(17761834).OnLiberty(1859)isregardedasoneofthefinest
expressionsofpoliticalandsocialfreedom,uponwhichheenlarged,inthecontextofthepracticalworkingsoftheadministration,inConsiderationson
RepresentativeGovernment(1861).In1865heagreedtobeputupasMemberofParliamentforWestminsteronaLiberalticket.Hecondescendedtovisitthe
constituencyonlytwice,butwaselectedandservedforthreeyears.In1867,inacarefullypreparedbutweaklypresentedspeech,heproposedanamendmenttothe
ReformBill,involvingthesubstitutionof'person'for'man',whichwouldopensuffragetoproperlyqualifiedwomen.Itwasdefeated,butnotsodisastrouslyashe
expected.Paradoxically,TheSubjectionofWomen(1869),withitscontroversial,butinconclusive,proposalsfordivorce,hadmoreinfluenceonthewomen'srights
movementoverseasthanitdidimmediatelyinBritain.Havingsufferedforsomeyearsfromtuberculosis,MilldiedasaresultofanattackoferysipelasinAvignon,
wherehewasburied.HeleneditedhisAutobiography(1873),whichhadbeenlargelydraftedin185354underHarriet'sguidance,andalsoThreeEssayson
Religion(1874).SeeOnLibertyandOtherEssays,ed.JohnGray,1991Autobiography,ed.JohnM.Robson,1989MichaelStJohnPacke,TheLifeofJohn
StuartMill,1954JosephineKamm,JohnStuartMillinLove,1977(biographicalstudy)WilliamThomas,Mill,1985(introductiontohisphilosophy).
Millay,EdnaStVincent(18921950)
Americanpoetanddramatist,wasborninRockland,Maine,theeldestofthreedaughtersofacouplewhodivorcedwhenshewaseight.Hermother,whoworkedas
anurse,encouragedherinmusicandpoetry,andin1912,threeyearsaftersheleftCamdenHighSchool,herpoem'Renascence'waspublishedinTheLyricYear.
WiththesupportofabenefactorshewenttoVassar,whereshestarredinherownplay,ThePrincessMarriesthePage(published1932),oneofthreeshewrote
whileshewasthere.Renascence,andOtherPoems(1917)waspublishedintheyearshegraduated,afterwhichshelivedinpovertyinGreenwichVillage,New
York,hadaffairs,wroteformagazines,andactedwiththeProvincetownPlayers,forwhomshedirectedherAriadaCapo(published1920),anenigmatic
combinationofharlequinadeandpastoral.AFewFigsfromThistles(1920enlargededns1921,1922)justfailedtowinthePulitzerPrize,whichwasawardedto
herin1923for'thebestversepublishedin1922'shewasthefirstwomantoreceiveitforpoetry.TheHarpWeaver,andOtherPoems(1923),muchofitreflecting
disillusionmentorgrief,waspublishedonherreturntotheUSAaftertwoyearsinEurope.DistressingDialogues(1924)includessatiricalpieceswrittenasNancy
Boydwhileshewasabroad.WinefromTheseGrapes(1934)markedachangefromthecynicismandopensexualityofherlovepoetrytophilosophicalobjectivity
thisisalsodisplayed,withapoliticalawareness,inthePlatonicdialogueinverse,ConversationatMidnight(1937),whichsherewroteafterthemanuscriptwas
destroyedinahotelfire.Oneoftheleadingpoetsofhertime,andanactivefeminist(andfeministpoet),shepublishedCollectedSonnetsin1941,andCollected
Lyricsin1943.In1923shemar

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riedEugenJanBoissevan(d.1949),animporter,withwhomshelivedonafarminAusterlitz,NewYork.SeeCollectedPoems,newedn1992SelectedPoems,
ed.ColinFalck,introductionbyRichardEberhart,1991NormanA.Brittin,EdnaStVincentMillay,rev.edn1982(criticalstudy).
Miller,Arthur(b.1915)
Americandramatist,wasborninManhattan,NewYork,thesecondsonofanAustrianJewishimmigrantwho,thoughalmostilliterate,builtupaclothingbusiness
employingathousandworkers,whichcollapsedinthecrashof1929.'Theimpact[oftheDepression]wasincalculable....Americaishope,evenwhenitdoesn't
work.Americaispromises....Idon'tthinkAmericaevergotovertheDepression.'ThefamilymovedtoBrooklyn.Aftergraduatingfromhighschool,hesaved$13
ofhisweeklywageof$15fromanautopartswarehouseforhiscollegetuition,andin1934persuadedtheUniversityofMichigantoignorehislowschoolgradesand
toadmithimtostudyjournalism.WithhisconfidenceboostedbywinningtheAveryHopwoodAwardforhisfirstplay,HonorsatDawn(produced1936),writtenin
fourdaysfromminimaltheatricalknowhow(hewonitagainthefollowingyearforhissecond,NoVillains),hegraduatedasBAin1938,andmarriedin1940.By
thetimeTheManWhoHadAlltheLuck,setinasmallMidwesttown,wasproducedonBroadwayin1944,hehadwrittenanumberofplaysforradio
programmes,doneanextraordinaryvarietyofjobs(includingmouseattendantinalaboratory),andcollectedmaterialforafilmscriptonatourofarmycampsin
WorldWarII,aboutwhichhepublishedajournal,SituationNormal(1944).Theplayfailed.Hepublishedanovel,Focus(1945),andthenhadhisfirstsuccess.All
MySons(1947),afteradeliberatelyslowstart,representing'undisturbednormality',introducesallsortsofrevelationsandconflicts,albeitwiththehelpofstock
devices.DeathofaSalesman(1949),subtitled'CertainPrivateConversationsinTwoActsandaRequiem',whichwonthePulitzerPrize,alsoendswithasuicide,
butinthiscaseitisadramaticconsummationofthedelusionswithwhichmenlikeLomanareaffected,andwhicharetheninflictedontheirfamilies.Inthe
Congressionalhysteriainthe1950sabouttheinfiltrationofCommunismhefoundparallelswiththeSalemwitchtrialsinthe17thcentury.TheCrucible(1953)isso
firmlysetinitsowncontext,thatacriticofjustoneofitsrevivalsatvariouscentresintheUKin1990couldcomment:'Miller'splayisastimelessasitwasinthe''new
times"ofthe1950s.'In1954hewasrefusedapassporttogotoBrusselsfortheContinentalpremiere,onthegroundsthathewas'believedtobesupportingmembers
oftheCommunistmovement'.In1956herefusedtoidentifytotheCommitteeonUnAmericanActivitiespeoplehehadseenatwriters'meetings.Hisconvictionof
contempt,withafineof$500anda30daysuspendedprisonsentence,wasquashedonappeal.
AftertheFall(1964)wasseenatthetimeasanautobiographicalreflectionofhisdivorcein1956andsubsequentmarriagetothefilmstarMarilynMonroe(1926
62).Aftershemiscarriedhewroteascreenplay,TheMisfits(1961),forherasagiftthestoryonwhichitisbasedappearedinIDon'tNeedYouAnyMore:
Stories(1967).Bythetimethefilmwasshotthemarriagewasover.Theyweredivorcedin1961,butherlifeandmysteriousdeathhavecontinuedtoexcitepublic
susceptibility.InitsinherentexpressionofguiltfeelingsabouttheHolocaust,AftertheFallisalsoaprefacetoMiller'sdeeperstudyof'therandomnessof
victimization',IncidentatVichy(1964).ThePrice(1968)representsareturntothesubjectoffather/sonrelationshipsandrecriminations.WithTheRideDownMt
Morgan(1991),sevenyearsinthewriting,hespranganothersurpriseonthepublic,withacomicplayaboutretribution,inthiscaseinflicteduponabigamist.The
LastYankee(1992),afurtherminorpiece,whichplaysfor90minutes,isastudyofcontrastingmiddleclassmores,inthesettingofthepsychiatricwardofaNew
Englandhospital.TheelusiveJewishnesswhichpervadesBrokenGlass(1994)reflectshisownfeelings:'Ifthereweren'tanyantiSemitism,Iwouldn'tthinkofmyself
asJewish.'PlainGirl(1995),52pageslong,isanovelinwhichthedaughterofJewishimmigrantslooksbackoveralifewhichbeganforheramongtheleftwing
intellectualcirclesof1930s'NewYork.MillerwasCameronMackintoshVisitingProfessorofContemporaryTheatreatOxford199495.In1962hemarriedthe
photographerIngeborgMorath(b.1923),withwhomhehasproducedseveraltopographicalstudies.SeeCollectedPlays,5vols198895TheTheaterEssaysof
ArthurMiller,ed.RobertA.Martin,newedn1994Timebends:aLife,newedn1995(autobiography)MatthewC.Roudane(ed.),ConversationswithArthur
Miller,1987NeilCarson,ArthurMiller,newedn1989(criticalstudy)AliceGriffin,UnderstandingArthurMiller,1996.
Miller,Henry(18911980)
Americannovelistandprosewriter,wasborninNewYorkCity,theonlychildofGermanAmericanlowermiddleclassparents,andwasbroughtupinBrooklyn,
wherehewenttoEasternDistrictHighSchool.HedroppedoutoftheCityCollegeofNewYorkaftertwomonths,travelled,workedinhisfather'stailor'sshop,
married,andthenhadhisonlysteadyjob,asmessengerandthenmessengeremploymentmanagerforWesternUnionfrom1921to1924.Hethen,whileaspiringto
beawriter,revertedtooccasionallabour,ran

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aspeakeasy,andbegged.In1930hewent,withoutmoneyor,initially,hissecondwife,whorecursastheenigmaticMona/Marafigureinhisworks,toParis,where
helivedfortenyears.DuringthistimeheestablishedanintellectualrelationshipofsomeintimacywithNIN,andwrotethesemiautobiographical,unashamedly
exhibitionisticTropicofCancer(1934)andTropicofCapricorn(1939),andthefictionalizedsketchesofBlackSpring(1936),allofwhichwerebannedinthe
USAuntilthe1960s.AsojourninGreecein1939resultedinTheColossusofMaroussi:or,TheSpiritofGreece(1941),aninterestingandlivelyvariationonthe
standardtravelogue.In1946hesettledinBigSur,California,wherehewrotetheautobiographicalfantasy,'TheRosyCrucifixion':Sexus(1949),Plexus(1953),and
Nexus(1960),allpublishedinParis.Hemarriedforthefifthtimein1967.SeeAHenryMillerReader,ed.JohnCalder,1985MaryV.Dearborn,TheHappiest
ManAlive:aBiographyofHenryMiller,newedn1992.
Miller,Hugh(180256)
Scottishprosewriter,journalist,andgeologist,wasborninCromarty,thesonofaseacaptainwhowentdownwithhisshipandallhandsofftheeastcoastin1807.In
hisphilosophicalautobiographicalstudy,MySchoolsandSchoolmasters(1854),hetellsthestoryofhislifeupto1840,whenheacceptedaninvitationtoeditthe
evangelicalweekly,theWitness,whichbecamethevoiceoftheFreeChurchaftertheDisruptionin1843.Animaginativeandbookishboywhoreactedagainstthe
disciplineofschool,heworkedasastonemason,whichinspiredhispursuitofgeologyandtheultimatepublicationofseveralbeautifullywrittenstudies,includingThe
OldRedSandstone(1841),whichranhimintodifficultieswhenhetriedtoreconcilehisownscientificobservationwiththeteachingofhisChurchabouttheCreation.
In1825thestonedustinhislungsforcedhimtoleaveEdinburghforInverness,wherehemarriedandwroteavarietyofworks,includingPoems,Writteninthe
LeisureHoursofaJourneymanMason(1829),LettersontheHerringIndustry(1829),andScenesandLegendsoftheNorthofScotland(1835).Hewasan
accountantintheCommercialBankofScotlandfrom1834untilhisappointmentinEdinburghtotheWitness,inwhichcapacityhecondemnedtheClearances,and
advocatedtheeducationoftheworkingclasses,butopposedChartismasbeingtooradical.Heshothimselfinafitofdepressionbroughtonbyoverworkandillness.
SeeHughMiller'sMemoir:fromStonemasontoGeologist,ed.MichaelShortland,1995GeorgeRosie,HughMiller,OutrageandOrder:aBiographyand
SelectedWritings,1981.
Millin,SarahGertrude(18891968)
neLiebson,SouthAfricannovelist,wasborninZagar,Lithuania,ofJewishparents,whobroughthertoSouthAfricawhenshewasfivemonthsold.Atfirstthey
weretheonlyEuropeanfamilyattheVaalRiverdiamonddiggings,nearKimberley,whereshewaseducated.Herfathercametoown'tradingrights,ferryrights,
waterworks,andafarm,hereandtherealongtheriver'.Thoughonherabilityshecouldhavegonetocollege,shepreferredtowrite.ShelivedinJohannesburgafter
hermarriagetoPhilipMillin(18881952),abarristerwhobecameaSupremeCourtjudge.Shepublished15novels,ofwhichtheearlyones,beginningwithThe
DarkRiver(1919),werenaturalisticallybasedonherobservationoflifealongtheVaal.Foritstreatmentof,andherattitudeto,miscegenation,thefamilysagaGod's
Stepchildren(1924)wasvigorouslypublicizedbytheNazis.Itis,though,apoignantaswellasatragicnovelbyatalentedwriter,ofwhichDavidRabkininhis
comparativestudywithPLOMER'STurbottWolfeinKennethParker(ed.),TheSouthAfricanNovelinEnglish(1978)concludes:'Theimportanceofthese
writersinthedevelopmentoftheSouthAfricannovellies...intheiridentificationofthecolourquestionasthecentralmoralissueofSouthAfricansociety.'Shealso
wrotebiographiesofCecilRhodes(1933)andGeneralSmuts(1936).SeeTheNightisLong,1941(autobiography)MartinRubin,SarahGertrudeMillin:a
SouthAfricanLife,1977.
Mills,Martin
SeeBOYD,MARTIN.
Milne,A(lan)A(lexander)(18821956)
Britishdramatist,novelist,journalist,andchildren'swriter,wasborninHampstead,London,andeducatedatWestminsterSchoolandTrinityCollege,Cambridge,
whereheplayedcricket,editedGranta,andgotathirdinmathematics.In1906,afterstrugglingasafreelancewriter,hebecameAssistantEditorofPunch,forwhich
healsoregularlywrotesketches.Thoughapacifist,heservedcreditablyontheSommein1916asasignalsofficer,beinginvalidedhomewithtrenchfever.Acomedy,
WurzelFlummery,wasperformedinLondonin1917andledtoasuccessfulcareerasawriteroflightplayswhichlastedintothe1930sandincludedMrPim
PassesBypublishedinSecondPlays(1921)andTheDoverRoadinThreePlays(1923).TheRedHouseMystery(1922)isamodeldetectivenovel,which
twomonthsafteritspublicationISHERWOODdramatizedforanendoftermHouseSupperatschool.Intoxicatedbytheinfancyofhisson,Milneproducedtwovolumes
ofverseforchildren,WhenWeWereVeryYoung(1924)andNowWeAreSix(1927),andtwobooksofstoriesaboutthechild'stoyanimals,WinniethePooh
(1926)andTheHouseatPoohCorner(1928).Theseearnedhimtheimmortalitywhichhecraved,butimposedaninescapable,andunwelcome,typecastingonhis
lit

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eraryreputation.Thestoriessucceedfortheirdepictionofauniquelyimaginedworldinwhichthechild/adultrolesarereversedinanidyllicsetting.Peacewith
Honour(1934),adenunciationofwar,reflectedpublicopinionatthetime.Hisson,ChristopherMilne(192096),served,andwaswounded,intheItaliancampaign
inWorldWarII,marriedacousin,andin1951settledinDevon,whereheopenedabookshop.Intwoelegantautobiographicalworks,TheEnchantedPlaces
(1974)andThePaththroughtheTrees(1979),hedescribeshissearchforatrueidentityandforpsychologicalindependencefromthepersonafoisteduponhimby
hisfather.SeeAnnThwaite,A.A.Milne:HisLife,newedn1991andinAlisonLurie,Don'tTelltheGrownUps,1990.
Milosz,Czeslaw(b.1911)
Lithuanianbornpoet,novelist,andcritic,wasborninSzetejnieandwenttoschoolanduniversityinVilnius,takingadegreeinjurisprudencein1934seeBeginning
withMyStreets:BalticReflections,tr.MadelineG.Levine(1992).HeworkedforPolishNationalRadiobeforeWorldWarII,duringwhichhewasamemberof
theResistance.HewasinthePolishDiplomaticServiceinWashington,D.C.,andParisfrom1945to1950,whenhisdisenchantmentwithCommunismcausedhimto
breakawayfromhisroots.AfterlivinginParis,hewenttoCalifornia,wherefrom1961to1978hetaughtSlaviclanguagesandliteratureatBerkeley,becomingaUS
citizenin1970.AfterpublishingseveralbooksofverseinPoland,andotherssubsequentlyinParis,heachievedinternationalrecognitionwithacollectionofessays,
[TheCaptiveMind](1953tr.JaneZielonko,1953),inwhichheexploredthereactionofPolishintellectualstoCommunism.Inanautobiographicalstudy,[Native
Realm:aSearchforSelfDefinition](tr.CatherineS.Leach,1968),hesetouthisapproachtopoetry:'Insteadofthrustingtheindividualintotheforeground,one
canfocusattentiononthebackground,lookingupononeselfasasociologicalphenomenon.'Englishtranslationsofhispoetrybegantobepublishedinthe1970s,with
BellsinWinter,aselectiontranslatedbyhimselfandLillianVallee,appearingintheUSAin1978seealsoTheCollectedPoems19311987(1988),Provinces:
Poems19871991,tr.theauthorandRobertHass(1991),andFacingtheRiver:NewPoems,tr.theauthorandHass(1995).Hisnovelsinclude[TheIssaValley]
(1955tr.LouisIribarne,1981),asemiautobiographicalevocationofanundisturbedchildhoodinruralLithuania.HehasalsowrittenTheHistoryofPolish
Literature(1969),andisanunusuallygiftedtranslatorwhohasrenderedSHAKESPEARE,MILTON,andT.S.ELIOTintoPolish,andPolishpoetsintoEnglishseehis
PostwarPolishPoetry:anAnthology(rev.edn1983).HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1980.
Milton,John(160874)
Englishpoetandprosewriter,wasborninLondon,theeldestsonofawealthyProtestantscrivenerandminorcomposer,whodestinedhim'fromachildtothe
pursuitsofliterature'.HewaseducatedatStPaul'sSchoolandChrist'sCollege,Cambridge,wherehewasdubbed,accordingtoAUBREY,'theladyofChrist'sCollege',
forhisfaircomplexion.HegraduatedasMAin1632,havingdemonstratedhisskillatLatinverseandcomposedtheconsiderablepoems'OntheMorningofChrist's
Nativity','L'Allegro',and'IlPenseroso'.Until1638hestudiedonhisfather'sestateatHorton,Buckinghamshire,acceptingcommissionstowritethemasquesArcades
andComus,forperformancewithmusicbyHenryLawes(15961662)seethesonnet'ToMyFriendMrHenryLawes'(1646).Comus,performedatLudlow
Castleon29September1634fortheinaugurationoftheEarlofBridgewater(15791649)asLordPresidentofWales,containsgenuineconflictwithinatraditional
formofentertainment.Theelegy'Lycidas'waswrittenin1637inmemoryofaformerfellowstudent.In1639MiltoncutshortastudytourofItalyandGreece
becauseoftheimpendingEnglishCivilWar.HethenrentedahouseinLondonandtookinpupils,startingwithhisownnephews,whileinvolvinghimselfinthe
argumentsforareformationoftheProtestantChurch.TothisendhewroteseveralnotablepamphletsinsupportofPuritanism,includingTheReasonofChurch
GovernmentUrg'dagainstPrelatry(1641),inwhichhealsosuggestedhispersonalresponsibilitiesasapoet.In1642hemarriedMaryPowell,the16yearold
daughterofanOxfordshiresquire.Shewenthomeafterafewweeks,whichmayormaynothaveinducedhimtowriteTheDoctrineandDisciplineofDivorce
(1643),inwhichheadvocatesincompatibilityasgroundsfordivorce.HecounteredthegrowingthreatofcensorshipwithAreopagitica(1644),animpassionedplea
forthefreedomofthepress.HepublishedPoems,bothEnglishandLatinin1645,theyearinwhichMaryreturnedtohimshediedin1652,havinghadthree
daughterswhosurvived.AfewweeksaftertheexecutionofCharlesIinJanuary1649,MiltondefendedtherevolutioninTheTenureofKingsandMagistrates,and
wasthenappointedLatinSecretarytotheCouncilofState.Hewasalreadygoingblind,andby1652wasentirelyso,thoughhecontinuedinpublicofrice.He
recordedhisfeelingsinthesonnet'WhenIconsiderhowmylightisspent',butwasmoreresignedtohisstatewhenhewrote'Cyriack,thisthreeyears'daythese
eyes...'(1655).
In1656hemarriedKatharineWoodcock,whohadadaughterin1657,butdiedthefol

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lowingyear,beingrememberedinthesonnet'MethoughtIsawmylateespousedsaint'(1658).InspiteofCromwell'sdeathin1658,hecourageouslyproduced
furtherpamphletsinsupportofthatregime,includingTheReadie&EasieWaytoEstablishaFreeCommonwealth(1660).Hewasthusindeeptroubleatthe
RestorationofCharlesIIinMay1660,butthankstotheinterventionofhisfriendsescapedwithabriefprisonsentenceandapardon.In1663hemarriedElizabeth
Minshull(16381727),acousinofNathanPaget(161579),hisfriendandprobablyalsohisdoctor,whohadrecommendedhertothepoet.AthishouseinBunhill
Fieldshenowusedhisfamilyandothersasamanuensestohelphimcompletethegreatepicpoemhehadbeencontemplatingforyears,andhadprobablybegunin
about1658.ParadiseLostwaspublishedin1667,andinarevisedversionin12booksin1674in1680hiswidowsoldthecopyrightfor8.Itisnotablelessfor
itsencompassmentofthewarinHeavenandprojectionsofworldhistorythanfortherepresentationofSatanandthegraphicandsympatheticaccountoftheFallof
Man.Duringtheplagueof166566thefamilymovedtoacottageinChalfontStGiles,Buckinghamshire,whichstillsurvives,buttheyreturnedtoLondonintimeto
enduretheGreatFireof1666.Miltoncontinuedtowriteandtopublish:thelesserandshorterepic,ParadiseRegain'd,andthebiblicaldramaticpoem,Samson
Agonistes,togetherin1671andaneweditionofhispoemsin1673aswellasproseworks,includingHistoryofBritain(1670),intheunfinishedforminwhichhe
hadabandoneditin1659.Hediedofgout.
DoubtsaboutthevalidityofthepoeticinfluenceexertedbyParadiseLost,aswellasitsportraitofGodseeLEVISinhisTheCommonPursuit(1952)andEMPSON,
Milton'sGod(rev.edn1981),whereissueistakenwithc.s.LEWISinhisAPrefacetoParadiseLost(reissued1960)aresecondarytothefactthatitisthemost
noblepoeminthelanguage.SeeCompleteEnglishPoems,with'OfEducation'and'Areopagitica',ed.GordonCampbell,newedn1993[SelectedVerse],ed.
StephenOrgelandJonathanGoldberg,newedn1994JohnMilton:SelectedProse,ed.C.A.Patrides,1974A.N.Wilson,TheLifeofJohnMilton,newedn
1996WilliamRileyParker,Milton:aBiography,2ndedn1996,andMilton:aBiographicalCommentary,2ndedn1996,ed.GordonCampbellPeterLevi,
EdenRenewed:thePublicandPrivateLifeofJohnMilton,1996E.M.W.Tillyard,Milton,rev.edn1966(criticalbiography)LoisPotter,APrefaceto
Milton,newedn1986DennisDanielson(ed.),TheCambridgeCompaniontoMilton,1989.
MishimaYukio(192570)
Japanesenovelist,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninTokyo,wherehegraduatedfromthePeers'Schoolin1944withacitationfromtheEmperor.He
tookadegreeinjurisprudenceatTokyoUniversityin1947,andpublishedhisfirstnovel(andthirdbook)thefollowingyear.ThefirsttobepublishedintheWestwas
[TheSoundofWaves](1954tr.MeredithWeatherby,1956),ataleofrurallove,followedby[ConfessionsofaMask](1949tr.Weatherby,1958),asemi
autobiographicalcasehistoryofthedevelopmentofasadomasochistichomosexual.Similarpreoccupationsinform[ForbiddenColours](195153tr.AlfredH.
Marks,1968)and[TheSailorWhoFellfromGracewiththeSea](1963tr.JohnNathan,1965).HisdistasteforthespiritualdesolationofmodernJapan
comparedwiththetraditionsofitsimperialpastledhimtoraiseaprivatearmyandtomountacoupinsupportoftheEmperor.Whenit,predictably,failed,he
disembowelledhimselfinceremonialfashion,inthesamewayasdoestheheroofhisstory,['Patriotism'](tr.GeoffreyW.SargentinDeathinMidsummer,1967),
aftertheattemptedcoupin1936.ActsofWorship,tr.JohnBester(1991)comprisessevenstoriesspanninghisliterarycareer.
Mitchell,Adrian
seeLOGUE.
Mitchell,JamesLeslie
seeGIBBON,LEWISGRASSIC.
Mitchell,Margaret(190049)
Americannovelist,wasborninAtlanta,Georgia,thesecondchildofanattorneyandofadedicatedsuffragette.ShewaseducatedatWashingtonSeminary,Atlanta,
andstudiedmedicineforayearatSmithCollege,Massachusetts,beforereturninghometokeephouseforherwidowedfatherandmakingadramatic,if
unconventional,impressiononlocalsociety.Hermarriagein1922to'Red'Upshawlastedlessthanayear,andshethenbecameafeaturewriterandreporteronthe
AtlantaJournalSundaymagazine.In1925shemarriedJohnR.Marsh,anadvertisingexecutive,andthefollowingyearresignedfromherjobafteranankleinjury.
ForthenexttenyearssheworkedonthemanuscriptofhernovelabouttheAmericanCivilWarwhichwouldtakeupthechallengethrownatSouthernwomen:'They
don'tdeservetosurvivebecausetheywon'tfightdon'tknowhowtofight.'ShereluctantlyagreedtoallowaMacmillaneditor,HaroldS.Latham(18871969),to
readit,andthenaskedforittobereturned.Herefused.GonewiththeWind(1936)wonthePulitzerPrize,andsoldoveramillioncopiesinitsfirstsixmonths.After
theworldpremiereinAtlantaofthetechnicolorfilm(1939),sheretiredintohiding,andimpersonatorswerereportedinvariouspartsofthecountry.Heronlyother
workoffiction,LostLaysen,wasdiscoveredmanyyearslaterandpublishedin1996.Apremonitionthatshewoulddieinacaraccidentwasdulyvindicatedwhen
shewasrunoverandkilled

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whilecrossingthestreet.Afterherhusband'sdeaththeestatepassedtoherbrother,StephensMitchell(d.1983),whoauthorizedasequeltoGonewiththeWind.
AlexandraRipley'sScarlett(1991)wasafinancialbutnotacriticalsuccess.In1994theexecutorsoftheMitchellestatecommissionedafurthersequelfromEMMA
TENNANT,whichwasultimatelyrejectedbytheAmericanpublisherwhohadcontractedtopublishit.SeeDardenAsburyPyron,SouthernDaughter:theLifeof
MargaretMitchell,1992.
Mitchell,W(illiam)O(rmerod)(b.1914)
Canadiannovelist,wasborninWeyburn,Saskatchewan,butaftercontractingbovinetuberculosiswastakenbyhiswidowedmothertoStPetersburg,Florida,where
hewenttoStPetersburgHighSchool.HisfurtherstudiesatManitobaUniversity,wherehewonagoldmedalforphilosophyin1934,wereinterruptedbya
recurrenceofillnesstheywereresumedseveralyearslaterattheUniversityofAlberta,wherehegraduatedineducationin1942,havinginthemeantimetravelledin
NorthAmericaandEuropeandworkedasaseamanandsalesman.HetaughtinAlbertaschoolsuntil1944,when,havinghadstoriespublishedinMaclean's,
Toronto,hebecameafulltimewriter.Hisfirstnovel,WhoHasSeentheWind(1947),thedevelopmentfrominfancytoselfrealizationofaboyinSaskatchewan,is
alsohismostfamous.Theprotagonistsinhisweeklycomicsketchesonradio,'JakeandtheKid'(194957),rematerializedinabookofshortstories,Jakeandthe
Kid(1961),whichwontheStephenLEACOCKMedalforHumourseealsoAccordingtoJakeandtheKid:aCollectionofNewStories(1989).Otherradioand
stageplaysareinTheDramaticW.O.Mitchell(1982),whichincludeshisstageadaptation(produced1981)ofhissecondnovel,TheKite(1962),anextended
anecdotefeaturinga111yearoldCalgarymanwithafertilememoryandamindofhisown.HereturnedtothethemeofthevulnerabilityofyouthinHowISpentMy
SummerHolidays(1981).HewasmadeOfficer,OrderofCanada,in1973.SeeDickHarrison,W.O.MitchellandHisWorks,1994.
Mitford,MaryRussell(17871855)
Britishprosewriter,poet,anddramatist,wasborninAlresford,Hampshire,theonlychildofadoctorwhopreferredgamblingtoworkasaresultthefamilywas
reducedtolivinginlodgingsinLondonwhenshewasten.Onavisitwithhimtothelotteryoffice,shechoseanumberwhich,whenhehadboughtupothersharesin
theticket,wonthem20,000.ShenowspentfouryearsataschoolinHansPlace,London,andherfatherbuiltthemaGeorgianmansioninthecountry.Between
1810and1813shepublishedfivevolumesofverse.By1820thefamilywasagaininstraits,andhadtomovetoacottageatThreeMileCross,nearReading,'aseries
ofclosets,thelargestofwhichmaybeabouteightfeetsquare'.Hereshebuckleddowntosupporthermother,whodiedin1829,andherfecklessfather,onwhose
deathin1842,stillindebt,shedeclared,'Everybodyshallbepaid,ifIsellthegownoffmybackorpledgemylittlepension'(120ayearfromtheCivilList,which
shehadbeenawardedin1837).Shewroteplays,ofwhichJulian:aTragedy(1823)wasoneofseveraltobestagedinLondon.Somepiecesoncountrylife,
publishedintheLady'sMagazinein1819,grewintoOurVillage(5vols182432).Thedetailedobservationofnature,sympatheticcharactersketchesofthesocial
spectrum,andlivelydescriptionsofruralactivitiesandrecreations(sheisthefirstwomantowriteknowledgeablyaboutcricket),haveprovedirresistibletoreaders
eversince.RecollectionsofaLiteraryLife(1852)incorporatesquotationsfromliterature.HercorrespondentsincludedLAMB,LANDOR,RUSKIN,andE.B.BROWNING,to
whomshegavethefamousFlush,apuppyofherowncockerspaniel.SeeVeraWatson,MaryRussellMitford,1949(biography).
Mitford,Nancy(190473)
novelistandbiographer,wastheeldestofsevenchildrenofDavidFreemanMitford(18781958),whobecame2ndBaronRedesdalein1916,andwhomshe
caricaturedmercilessly,butwithlittleexaggeration,inhernovels,notablyThePursuitofLove(1945).Becausehedidnotbelieveinhisdaughtershavingany
education,shereceivedlittleexceptwhatshelearnedatfinishingschool,atartcollege,andsubsequentlyinFrance,fromwhichshereturnedtothreeseasonsof
debutantesocializing.Shelefthomeat24,subsistedprecariouslybywritingformagazines,andpublishedseveralsatiricalnovelsofupperclasslife,ofwhichthefirst
wasHighlandFling(1931).ShemarriedtheHon.PeterRoddin1933:theywerefinallydivorcedin1958.DuringWorldWarIIshewasanAirRaidPrecautions
driverinLondon,andwasassistantinandthenmanagerofaWestEndbookshop.WithThePursuitofLove,whichalsocelebratesherownloveforanofficerinthe
FreeFrenchforces,sheachievedpopularsuccess,whichsheconsolidatedwithLoveinaColdClimate(1949).Don'tTellAlfred(1960)mockstheDiplomatic
Service.Heronlyplay,TheLittleHut(1951),adaptedfromAndrRoussin(191188),wassuccessfulalsoasafilm.From1947shelivedinParis,whereshewrote
gracefulbiographicalstudiesofMmedePompadour(1954),VOLTAIRE(1957),LouisXIV(1966),andFredericktheGreat(1970),whicharefullofsocialand
domesticdetail.AnarticleinEncounterin1955reprintedinATalenttoAnnoy:Essays,Journalism,andReviews19291968,ed.CharlotteMosley(1988)
sparkedoffthecontroversyabout

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thedistinctionbetweenU[pperclass]andnonU.ShewasmadeCBEin1972.SeeLovefromNancy:theLettersofNancyMitford,ed.CharlotteMosley,1993
SelinaHastings,NancyMitford,newedn1986(biography).
Mittelholzer,Edgar(190965)
Guyanesenovelist,wasborninNewAmsterdamofamiddleclassfamilywithEuropeanoriginsonbothsidesseehisearlyautobiography,ASwarthyBoy(1963).
HewaseducatedatBerbiceHighSchool,failinghisSeniorSchoolCertificateafterwritingashortstoryinplaceoftheEnglishcompositionessay.In1928hebegan
bombardingEnglishpublisherswithstoriesandnovels,butitwasnotuntil1939,whenhewas'doingoddjobsforthecustoms',thatCorentyneThunder(1941)was
accepted,thefirstnovelofpeasantlifeinBritishGuiana.ShortlyafterwardshewenttoTrinidad,wherehesetAMorningattheOffice(1950),andfromwhichhe
emigratedtoEnglandin1948,thefirstWestIndianofhisgenerationtodosoinordertomakeacareerasawriter.Thisheachievedwithtwentyfurthernovelswhich
reflecthispreoccupationwiththeCaribbeandividedidentityaswellashisowndividedmind.Themostsensationalofthesearethequartet,ChildrenofKaywana
(1952intwovolumes,thesecondentitledKaywanaHeritage,1976),TheHarrowingofHubertus(1954asKaywanaStock,1968),andKaywanaBlood
(1958),thesagaofaGuyanesefamilyofmixedraceoriginsduringthreehundredyearsofhistory.Mittelholzercommittedsuicidebyburninghimselftodeathinafield
inSussex.
Moir,DavidMacbeth(17981851)
Scottishnovelist,poet,anddoctor,wasborninMusselburgh,andwasapprenticedtoadoctorwhenhewas13.AfterqualifyinginEdinburgh,hereturnedtohishome
towntopractise.Underthecryptogram' '(theGreekcharacter'Delta')hecontributedsketches,essays,andpoemstoBlackwood'sEdinburghMagazinethrough
thejournalhewasanassociateofJOHNWILSONandmetGALT,whosefriendhebecameandamemoirofwhomhelaterwrote(1841).TheLifeofMansieWauch,
TaylorinDalkeith(1828)beganasaserialinthemagazine.ThesesmalltownsketcheslacktheimaginationandironyofGalt,andintheirunsophisticatedcomedy
presagetheKailyardnovelists(seeBARRIE).DomesticVerses(1843)commemoratesthedeathsofthreeofhischildrenandofseveralofthoseoftheBlackwood's
coterie.HealsowroteOutlinesoftheAncientHistoryofMedicine(1831),thefirstinstalmentofafullerstudywhichhenevercompletedowingtopressureofwork,
andseveralpapersoncholera,anepidemicofwhichheobservedatfirsthandinMusselburghin1832.HeeditedthepoemsofHEMANS(7vols1839onevol.1848).
Hishealthwasunderminedin1844byhissittingupallnightindampclothesatthebedsideofapatient,andbyacarriageaccidentin1846.Hediedafterafall
sustainedwhendismountingfromhishorse.HisPoeticalWorks,ed.ThomasAird,waspublishedin1852.
Molesworth,(MaryLouisa),Mrs(18391921)
neStewart,Britishnovelistandchildren'swriter,wasborninRotterdam,thedaughterofaScottishmerchant.ShewasbroughtupinManchesterTheCarved
Lions(1895)incorporatessomeofherchildhoodmemoriesandwaseducatedathomeandataboardingschoolinSwitzerland.In1861shemarriedMajorRichard
Molesworth(d.1900),whoseviolenttemper(theresultofaheadwoundintheCrimea)wasultimatelythecauseoftheirseparationin1879.Theyhadfourchildren,
afterthedeathsoftheeldestandyoungestofwhomshewroteLoverandHusband(1869),underthepseudonymofEnnisGraham.Shebegantowriteforchildrenin
1875,andthoughthemoralofCarrots:JustaLittleBoy(1876)isaimedatadults,thestoryisrealisticandthechild'smentalprocessesconvincing.TheCuckoo
Clock(1877)isafantasyinvolvingarealchildandamagical,butcrotchety,cuckoo.LikeTheTapestryRoom(1879),herseventhbookofmanyandthefirsttobe
publishedunderherownname,itleavesthediscerningreadertodecidewhethertheadventureshappenedoraretheimaginingsofthecharacters.SeeRogerLancelyn
Green,MrsMolesworth,1961(criticalstudy).
Molire(162273)
Frenchdramatist,wasbornJeanBaptistePoquelininParis,thesonofaprosperousupholstererwhoarrangedin1637thatthehonorarypostatcourtwhichhehad
boughtwasvestedinhisson.HewaseducatedattheJesuitCollgedeClermont,andstudiedlawatOrleans.In1643herenouncedeverything,includingthepostat
court,assumedhispseudonym,andsetuptheIllustreThtrewiththetheatricalfamilyofBjart.Theeldestdaughter,Madeleine(161872),isassumedtohavebeen
hismistresstheyoungest(oraccordingtosome,Madeleine'sdaughter),ArmandeGrsindeClaireElisabeth(16421700),becamehiswifein1662andsubsequently
thefemaleleadinmostofhisplays.In1646,afterhehadbeenimprisonedfordebtandbailedoutbyhisfather,heandthecompanytooktotheprovinces,fromwhich
theyreturnedtoParisin1658.AshortfarceofhiscompositionamusedtheyoungLouisXIVandledtothecompanybeinginstalledinthehallofthePetitBourbon
underthepatronageoftheKing'sbrother,theDucd'Orlans,andsubsequentlyinthePalaisRoyal.LesPrcieusesRidicules(1659)wasapopularsuccessL'cole
desFemmes(1662)gavenoticeofacomictalentwhichwasconcernedalsowithdeeper,

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ifcontroversial,issues.Tartuffe(1664tr.M.Medbourne,1670),astudyofareligioushypocrite,causedanoutrage,andwasbannedforseveralyears,despitethe
personalsupportofitsauthorbytheKing,whostoodasgodfathertohisfirstchild(asonwhoonlylivedafewweeks),andin1665appointedthecompanyTroupe
duRoi.LeMisanthrope(1666)andL'Avare(1668tr.andadaptedbyThomasShadwellasTheMiser,1672)arefurtherexplorationsofmenwithobsessions.
Balletmasteranddeviserofmusicaloccasions,aswellasactoranddramatist,Molirepresentedmanyentertainmentsatcourt,ofwhichLeBourgeoisGentilhomme
(1670)isalsooneofhisbestknownplays,andwasrevived(inanewEnglishversionbyNickDear)inLondonin1992.Byasupremestrokeofdramaticirony,he
wastakenillwhileplayingtheleadinLeMaladeImaginaire(1673)anddiedsoonafterwards.Hisplays,someinverseandsomeinprose,usuallyconsistoffiveacts
andobservethetraditionaldramaticunitiesofaction,setting,andtime.TheywereborrowedorplunderedbytheEnglishdramatistsofthetimes,evenbyDRYDEN.
Sometimes,asinthecaseofTheCitizenTurn'dGentleman(1672)byEdwardRavenscroft(16441704),twoplayswereamalgamatedwhereasingleFrench
comedywasnotregardedassubstantialenoughtomakeoneEnglishplay.TherearemoderntranslationsofMolirebyJohnWood(1953,1968),RichardWilbur
(1982),andGeorgeGravelyandIanMaclean(1989).
Momaday,N(avarre)Scott(b.1934)
Americannovelistandpoet,wasborninLawton,Oklahoma,ofaKiowafatherandapartCherokeemother,bothofwhomwereartistsandteachers.Hewas
broughtupinNewMexicoandArizona,attendingreservation,mission,andpublicschools,andamilitaryhighschoolinVirginia.HegraduatedfromtheUniversityof
NewMexicoin1958,andin1963becameaPhDofStanfordUniversity,wherehistutorinliteraturewasthepoetcriticYvorWinters(190068).Hesubsequently
taughtattheuniversitiesofCalifornia(SantaBarbaraandthenBerkeley),andStanford,beingappointedProfessorofEnglishandComparativeLiteratureatthe
UniversityofArizonain1980andRegentsProfessorofEnglishLiteraturein1985.Hisfirstnovel,HouseMadeofDawn(1968),whichwonthePulitzerPrize,isheld
tohaveinitiatedtheNativeAmericanLiteraryRenaissanceseealsoERDRICHandORTIZ.InitamixedbloodveteranofWorldWarIIvainly,asittranspires,triesto
effectaculturalcompromise.InTheAncientChild(1989)anartistdoessucceed,withthehelpofhisKiowalover,incrossingaspiritualdivide.Kiowafolkmaterial
inTheJourneyofTaime(privatelypublished,1967)wasincorporatedinTheWaytotheRainyMountain(1969),aquestforatribalheritagefromitsbeginningsto
finaldecline,inproseandverse,withcommentaryandtypographicaleffects.Hehasalsopublishedseveralvolumesofverse,beginningwithAngleofGeeseand
OtherPoems(1974)seealsoInthePresenceoftheSun:StoriesandPoems19611971(1992).SeeTheNames:aMemoir,newedn1987Matthias
Schubnell,N.ScottMomaday:theCulturalandLiteraryBackgrounds,1985(criticalstudy).
Monsarrat,Nicholas(191079)
Britishnovelist,wasborninLiverpool,thefourthchildofasurgeonofFrenchdescentandofthedaughterofaformerLordMayorofNottingham,andwaseducated
atWinchesterCollegeandTrinityCollege,Cambridge.AftertwoyearsarticledtoaNottinghamsolicitorhewenttoLondontobeawriter,andgavenoticeofhis
pacifistviewsbyparticipatinginpublicdemonstrations.Withhisfourthnovel,ThisIstheSchoolroom(1939),heachievedsomenoticeintheUSAaswellasin
Britain.InclinedbyhisconsciencetojointheStJohn'sAmbulanceBrigadeatthebeginningofWorldWarII,hechangedhismindinthedarkdaysof1940and
answeredanadvertisementfor'gentlemenwithyachtingexperience'tobeofficersintheRoyalNavalVolunteerReserve.Heservedatseathroughouttherestofthe
war,attheendofwhichhewascommandingafrigatewiththerankoflieutenantcommander.From1946to1953,whilecontinuingtowritenovels,hewasDirectorof
theUKInformationServiceinJohannesburg,fromwhichhetransferredtoOttawaasBritishInformationOfficer.Hebecameafulltimewriterin1956.TheCruelSea
(1951),whichhewasthreeyearswriting,istheBritishmaritimenovelofWorldWarII,admiredforitsdepthofcharacteraswellasfortheaction.Itoutgunnedits
nearestrivalandsuccessor,H.M.S.Ulysses(1955)byAlistairMaclean(192288),thoughMaclean,withhismorelimitedrange(theadventurethriller),hadthe
greaterpopularsuccessthereafter.Monsarrat'ssubsequentnovelsincludedseveralparticularlystrongstories,notablyTheStoryofEstherCostello(1953),aboutthe
exploitationofagirlwhoisblind,deaf,anddumb,TheTribethatLostItsHead(1956)anditssequel,RicherthanAllHisTribe(1968),setinanemergingAfrican
state,andTheKapillanofMalta(1973),whichheresearchedonthespot.SeeLifeisaFourLetterWord,2vols,newedns196972(autobiography).
Montagu,Elizabeth
seeMORE,HANNAH.
Montagu,LadyMaryWortley(16891762)
Britishprosewriterandpoet,wasborninCoventGarden,London,theeldestdaughterofEvelynPierrepont(c.16651726),soontobecome5thEarlandlater1st

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DukeofKingston,andLadyMaryFielding(d.1692).Shesupplemented,andcountered,hergoverness'seducationalmethodsbyherownprecociousnessand
passionforlearning,whichsheindulgedinherfather'slibraries,andby13hadsecretlytaughtherselftoreadandwriteLatinfluently.Shewasaprettyandhighspirited
girl,andin1710,withoutherfather'spermission,begantocorrespondwithEdwardWortleyMontagu(16781761),arisingMemberofParliament,whomshehad
metthroughhissister.Theyelopedandweremarriedtwoyearslater,herfatheronlybeingreconciledin1714,afterthebirthoftheirson.In171516shecollaborated
withPOPEandGAYinaliteraryescapadehercontributionwassixsatirical'Eclogues'forprivatecirculation,inoneofwhichshedescribesheranguishatcontracting
smallpox,whichleftherfaceseverelypitted.In1716herhusbandwasappointedAmbassadortoTurkey,andduringtheirtwoyearsinConstantinopleshekepta
journalfromwhichshelatercompiledhercolourful'EmbassyLetters',publishedin1763afterherdeathseeTurkishEmbassyLetters,ed.MalcolmJack,
introductionbyAnitaDesai(1993).
BackinEngland,withhousesinCoventGardenandTwickenham,sheenhancedherreputationasawit,poet,intellectual,andjournalistTheNonsenseof
CommonSense,apoliticalweeklywhichappearedin173738,waswrittenbyher.ShewasalsoinstrumentalintheintroductionintoBritainofinoculationagainst
smallpox,whichshehadseenpractisedinTurkey.In1739,forreasonsofwhichprobablyonlyonewasherromanticattachmenttoatalented,bisexual,Italian
charmer,CountFrancescoAlgarotti(171264),sheabandonedherhusband,family,andfriendsfortheContinent,whereshelivedinVenice,Avignon,Brescia,and
Padua.DuringthistimeshewroteanumberofshortpiecesoffictionwhichsurvivedasdraftsandfragmentsthesehavenowbeenpublishedasRomanceWritings,
ed.IsobelGrundy(1996).ShereturnedtoEnglandinJune1762,afterEdward'sdeath,andherselfdiedsixmonthslater.Knowingthatherdaughterandsoninlaw,
withtheiraristocraticantipathytowardsthebooktrade,wouldnotfavouranythingofhersbeingpublished,sheprudentlyleftamanuscriptofherlettersfromTurkey
withaclergymaninRotterdam,'tobedisposedof'ashethought'proper'.Hetookthehint.Works(1803)containedtherestofhervoluminousandentertaining
correspondencewhichsurvived.SeeCompleteLettersofLadyMaryWortleyMontagu,ed.RobertHalsband,3vols196567EssaysandPoems:and
'Simplicity',aComedy,ed.RobertHalsbandandIsobelGrundy,newedn1993RobertHalsband,TheLifeofLadyMartyWortleyMontagu,newedn1961.
Montague,John(b.1929)
Irishpoet,wasborninBrooklyn,NewYork(see'TheCage'),butspenthischildhoodinCo.TyroneandwaseducatedatStPatrick'sCollege,Armagh,and
UniversityCollege,Dublin.Hehasbeenajournalistaswellasateacher,inwhichcapacityhewasAssociateProfessorofEnglish,UniversityCollege,Cork.Hisfirst
bookofpoetrywasFormsofExile(1958),andhepublishedavolumeofshortstoriesin1964.HisthemesareIreland,love,andnature.HisCatholicbackground,
unusualforanUlsterpoet,findsexpressioninTheRoughField(1972),whichspansthehistoryoftheprovinceandthelivesofsomeofhisfamily,inASlowDance
(1975),inwhichthecurrentviolenceisinvokedanddeplored,andinTheDeadKingdom(1984),apersonalandmythicjourneyfromCorktoFermanagh.The
FigureintheCaveandOtherEssays,ed.AntoinetteQuinn(1989),includesstatementsabouthispoeticdevelopmentandphilosophy.SeeCollectedPoems,
1995SelectedPoems,1982NewSelectedPoems,1990.
Montaigne,Michel(Eyquem)De(153392)
Frenchprosewriter,wastheeldestofeightchildrenofalawyerandlandownerinBordeauxandMontaigneandofawealthyJewessofSpanishorPortuguese
descent.HewenttoCollgedeGuienne,Bordeaux,whenhewassix,totheuniversitythereat13,andtoToulouseUniversityat16.Hewasappointedtoalegal
positioninPerigueuxin1554,andinBordeauxin1557.Heservedatcourtin156162,afterwhichhereturnedtoBordeaux,wherehemarriedin1565(onlyoneof
hissixdaughterslivedformorethanafewmonths).Onhisfather'sdeathin1568heinheritedtheestatesofMontaigne.Hisfirstliterarywork(1569)wasatranslation
fromtheLatinofthe'NaturalTheology'ofRaymondSebond,aCatalanwhotaughtmedicineandtheologyinToulouseinthe1420sseealsoMontaigne'sApology
forRaymondSebond,tr.M.A.Screech(1987).In1571hewentintosemiretirementinthelibraryinatowerofhiscountryhouse,andcoinedtheliterarytermessai
[trial]todenotehispersonalresponsetoandhisopinionsonanyoneofarangeofhistorical,social,philosophical,andliterarytopicswhichtogethercomprisean
autobiographicalstudy.AfterpublishingthefirsttwovolumesofEssais(1580),hewenttoGermanyandItalytoseekacureforhisgallstones,beingrecalledin1581
bythenewsthathehadbeenelectedMayorofBordeaux.Afterasecondtermofoffice,andarevisionofhisgreatwork(1583),hetookhisfamilyawaytoavoidthe
plague,returningin1586toaddathirdvolume(1588).Hisadopteddaughter,MariedeGournay,editedadefinitiveedition(1595),thefirstEnglishtranslationbeing
that

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ofJohnFlorio(1603)seealsoTheEssays:aSelection,tr.M.A.Screech(1993).
Montale,Eugenio(18961981)
Italianpoet,critic,andtranslator,wasborninGenoa,leftschoolat14,studiedoperasinging,andservedinthetrenchesasaninfantryofficerinWorldWarI.With
othershefoundedinTurinin1922theliteraryjournalPrimoTempo,whichhecoeditedforitslifeofeightissues.Hisfirstbookofverse,OssidiSeppia(1925tr.
WilliamArrowsmithasCuttlefishBones,1990),reflectedbothpoliticalconcernandanawarenessofthenaturalworld.In1927hebecameCuratoroftheVieusseux
LibraryinFlorence,whereheremainedafterlosinghispostin1938forrefusingtojointheFascistparty.ThesharperlanguageofLeOccasioni(1939tr.Arrowsmith
asTheOccasions,1987)carriedmessagesofcomingchaos,analysed,alongsideoccasional,topographical,andpersonalpoems,inLaBuferaeAltro(1956tr.
ArrowsmithasTheStormandOtherThings,1985).In1948hemovedtoMilan,wherehewasformanyyearsacontributingeditoroftheliterarysectionofIl
CorrieredellaSera.HistranslationsincludepoetrybySHAKESPEARE(alsoplays),EMILYDICKINSON,HARDY,andT.S.ELIOT,andfictionbyMELVILLE,STEINBECK,andANGUS
WILSON.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1975.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.GlaucoCambon,1965(bilingualedn).
Montesquieu,(Secondat,CharlesLouisde),Baronde(16891755)
Frenchsocialandpoliticalphilosopher,wasbornathisfather'sseatofLaBrde,nearBordeaux,losthismotherwhenhewasseven,andwaseducatedbythe
OratoriansatTuilly,nearParis,afterwhichhestudiedlawatBordeaux.In1714hewasappointedcounsellortotheparliamentatBordeaux,andin1716succeeded
tohisuncle'sofficeasitspresidentandalsotohisuncle'stitle.Hewasmoreinterested,however,inscientificresearchandinliterature.Havingpublishedanonymously
LettresPersanes(1721asPersianLetterstr.MrOzell,1722tr.C.J.Betts,1973),asocialsatireintheformoflettersbetweentwoPersianprincesandtheir
friends,multiplewives,lovers,andeunuchs,andsomeminorworks,hesoldhisofficein1726andmovedtoParis,whereatthesecondattempthewaselectedtothe
AcadmieFranaise.InEnglandin172931,hebecamethefriendofCHESTERFIELD,studiedtheHouseofCommonsinaction,andwaselectedtotheRoyalSociety.
HereturnedtoLaBrde,wherehepreparedL'EspritdesLois(1748tr.ThomasNugentasTheSpiritoftheLaws,1750),asystematictreatiseonpolitics,based
onhistoricalfactsandpublishedanonymously,ofwhichhewasabletoacknowledgethat22editionswereprintedwithinashorttime.
Montgomerie,Alexander(c.1545c.1598)
Scottishpoet,wasasonoftheLairdofHessilheid,andwasthroughhismotherdistantlyrelatedtoJAMESVI,himselfnomeanpoet,whoseteacherhebecame.In1583
theKinggrantedhimapension,chargeableagainstcertainrentsofthearchbishopricofGlasgow,whichledtoaprotractedlawsuit,andthelossofthepension.Inthe
meantimeMontgomeriewasactiveintheCatholicinterest,andwasimprisoned.HewasfurtherimplicatedinaCatholicplotin1597,afterwhichhedisappearsfrom
therecords.'TheFlytingbetwixtMontgomerieandPolwart[SirPatrickHumeofPolwarth,MasteroftheRoyalHousehold]',aspirited,coarse,highlyalliterative
pieceofextendedinvective,wasprobablyfirstspokeninpublicinabout1582.TheCherrieandtheSlae,publishedinEdinburghin1597,isatraditionalallegorical
poem,butitsinterestisintheinterpretationofthetwoforcesasCatholicism(thesweet,refreshingcherriesinthetree)andProtestantism(thebitterbutmore
accessiblesloesonthebush),inthemetricalform(probablyhisowninvention),andintheopeningrealisticratherthanstylizedsceneofnature.Healsowrotesome
neatlovesonnets,ofwhich'ToHisMistress'and'TheTenderSnowofGranisSoftandQuhyt...'areparticularlydelightful.UntilFERGUSSONandBURNSrediscoveredit
asaliteraryform,hewasthelastnotablepoettowriteinScots.SeeHelenaM.Shire,AlexanderMontgomerie:aSelectionfromHisSongsandPoems,1960R.
D.S.Jack,AlexanderMontgomerie,1985(criticalstudy).
Montgomery,L(ucy)M(aud)(18741942)
Canadiannovelist,wasborninClifton,PrinceEdwardIsland,'ofScotchancestry,withadashofEnglish,IrishandFrench'.Hermotherdiedwhenshewasababy,
andshewasbroughtupbyhermaternalgrandparentsinCavendish,whereshewenttothedistrictschoolandat15hadapoemprintedinalocalpaper.Shedida
teachertrainingcourseatPrinceofWalesCollege,Charlottetown,andthenstudiedatDalhousieUniversity.Shetaughtforthreeyearsbeforereturningtocareforher
nowwidowedgrandmother,whodiedin1911.ThatyearshemarriedaPresbyterianminister,Rev.EwanMacDonald,withwhomshewasinruralOntarioparishes
untiltheyretiredtoTorontoin1936.Herfirstandmostfamousnovel,AnneofGreenGables(1908),whichisstillenjoyedbychildren,beganasanideajotteddown
inanotebookandeventuallyutilizedforashortserialinaSundaySchoolmagazine:'Elderlycoupleapplytoorphanasylumforaboy.Bymistakeagirlissentthem.'
Itshumourandgenuinecharm

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arelessevidentintheseriesofromanticizedsequels,culminatinginAnneofIngleside(1939),inwhichtheheroineisnowmaterfamilias.Moredowntoearth,and
moreautobiographical,areEmilyofNewMoon(1923),aboutastrugglingwriter,whoreappearsinEmilyClimbs(1925)andEmily'sQuest(1927).Shewasmade
OBEin1937.Thereareeditionsofhercorrespondence(1960,1980)andofherjournals(1986,1987,1993).SeeCatherineM.Andronik,KindredSpirit:a
BiographyofL.M.Montgomery,1993.
Montherlant,Henride(18961972)
Frenchnovelistanddramatist,wasborninParisofanancientCatalonianfamily.Hebecameinterestedinbullfightingattheageofnine,andkilledhisfirstbullwhenhe
was15.In1912hewasdismissedfromthecoleSainteCroixdeNeuilly,butpassedhisbaccalaureate.AfterWorldWarI,inwhichhewasbadlyinjuredbyashell,
hedevotedhimselftosport(particularlyathleticsandsoccer),andtowriting.LeSonge(1922tr.TerenceKilmartinasTheDream,1962),isanovelinwhichhis
recurringmotifofuniversalmanhoodhasabackgroundofthewarLesOlympiques(1924)isacelebratoryamalgamofprose,poetry,anddramawithanathleteas
linkingprotagonist.ThenovelLesBestiaires(1926tr.PeterWilesasTheMatador,1957)isalyrical,sometimesmystical,exaltationofbullfighting,inwhichhe
himselfhadceasedtoparticipateafterbeinggoredin1925.LesClibataires(1934tr.KilmartinasTheBachelors,1961)isastudyofthefutilityoffadednobility.
LesJeunesFilles(1936tr.ThomasMcGreevyasYoungGirls,1937)isthefirstnovelofatetralogy(tr.Kilmartin1968)inwhichheexploresthereactionsof
selectedtypesofwomentothemonstrousegocentricityandnihilismofhisnonhero.AfterWorldWarIIheturnedmoretothetheatreseeTheMasterofSantiago
andFourOtherPlays,tr.JonathanGriffin(1951).
Montrose,(Graham,James),5thEarland1stMarquisof(161250)
Scottishroyalistsoldierandpoet,wasborninMontrose,succeededtohisfather'stitlein1626,andwaseducatedatStAndrewsUniversity.In1629hemarried
Magdalen(d.1648),theyoungestofsixattractivedaughtersofLordCarnegie(15751658).InitiallyasupporteroftheNationalCovenant,hechangedhisallegiance
outofdisaffectionwiththosewhosoughttocontrolScotland,especiallytheEarl(laterMarquis)ofArgyll(15981661).AttheoutsetoftheCivilWarin1642he
threwhissupportbehindCharlesIhispoem'Mydearandonlylove...'isamovingexpressionofhispoliticalloyaltyandnobleideals.HewascreatedMarquisin
1644,andinanastonishingcampaigninScotlandoverthesucceeding12monthshesmashedthearmyoftheCovenant.Glasgowwasathismercy,buthisHighland
troopsmeltedawayonpersonalbusiness.WithonlysixhundredmenlefthewasdefeatedbyanarmyofsixthousandsentfromEngland.HeescapedtoEurope,from
whichhereturnedtotheHighlandsin1650,hopingtoraiseanarmyforCharlesII.HisrudimentaryforcewasoverwhelmedatCarbisdale,andhewashandedoverto
hisenemiesbyalairdfromwhomhehadsought,andexpected,shelter.HewastakentoEdinburgh,wherethedeathsentencehadalreadybeenpassed.With
incredibledignity,hefacedhisaccusersinParliament,andonhislastnightcomposedthesadlypropheticlines'Letthembestowoneveryairthalimb...'.Hewas
hanged,andhislimbswerecutoffanddistributedamongthechieftownsofScotland.Allthebitsthatcouldbefoundwerereassembledforhisstatefuneralin1661,
aftertheRestorationoftheMonarchy.SeeJohnBuchan,Montrose,newedn1996(biography).
Moodie,Susanna(180385)
neStrickland,Canadianprosewriterandnovelist,theyoungestSisterofthebiographers,Agnes(17961874)andElizabeth(17941875)Strickland,andof
TRAILL,wasborninEnglandatStoweHouse,nearBungay,Suffolk,thedaughterofanimporterandLondondockmanager.In1808thefamilymovedtoReydon
Hall,nearSouthwold,whereshewaseducatedbyherfatheruntilhisdeathin1818inrestrictedcircumstances,andthenbyhersisters.Herfirstnovel,Spartacus:a
RomanStory(1822),writtenwhenshewas13,wasfollowedby'aseriesofchildren'stales',andbyarticles,stories,andpoems(somesigned'Z.Z.'or'Sophia
Sandys')injournalsandannuals.In1831shepublishedEnthusiasms,andOtherPoems,andtwoanonymousantislaverypamphletsforPRINGLE,whointroducedher
toaScotrecentlyreturnedfromSouthAfrica,JohnW.DunbarMoodie(17971869),whomshemarriedthesameyear.Dunbarhavingsuccumbedto'Canada
mania',theyemigratedin1832withtheirfirstchildtoUpperCanadaandboughtaclearedfarminNewcastledistrict.In1834theymovedtotheunbrokenlandin
Douro,Peterborough,whichhadbeengrantedtothem,neartheTraills.Theexperiencesoftheseterriblepioneeryears,duringwhichshehadfourmoreoftheirseven
children,andwhichincludedtherebellionof1837,arerecountedwithrefreshingfranknessandremarkablegoodhumourinRoughingItintheBush(1852),towhich
sheaddedasequel,LifeintheClearings,VersustheBush(1853).DunbarwasappointedSheriffofthecountyofHastingsin1839,andthefamilymovedthankfully
toBelleville.ShewasamajorcontributortotheLiteraryGarland,Montreal,forthewholeofits,forthosedays,longexistencefrom1838to1851,andin184748
sheandDunbareditedandlargely

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wroteVictoriaMagazine,Belleville,aperiodicaldesignedtoeducatefarmersandmechanics.Shealsowroteseveralsentimentalnovelsofsensationandintrigue,and
FloraLyndsay:or,PassagesinanEventfulLife(1854),asemiautobiographicalnovelwhichchronologicallyprecedesRoughingItintheBush.Dunbar,whohad
alreadypublishedTenYearsinSouthAfrica(1835),andwhohadtoresignfromhispostin1863afterbeingaccusedof'farmingofoffices'andwronglyconvictedon
atechnicality,addedtothecanonwithScenesandAdventuresofaSoldierandSettler(1868).AfterhisdeathMoodielivedinToronto.SeeLettersofaLifetime,
ed.CarlBallstadt,ElizabethHopkins,andMichaelPeterman,1985(correspondencewithbiographicalcommentary)JohnThurston,TheWorkofWords:the
WritingofSusannaStricklandMoodie,1996(criticalstudy).
Moore,Brian(b.1921)
IrishbornCanadiannovelist,wasborninBelfast,thefourthofninechildrenofasurgeonwhomarriedat50anddiedwhentheboywas18.HewenttoStMalachy's
DiocesanCollege,Belfast,whichreappearsinallitsgrimnessinTheFeastofLupercal(1957)asanindictmentoftheCatholiceducationofthetime.Unabletogoto
university,ashisparentswanted,becauseofafailinginmathematics,hejoinedtheAirRaidPrecautionsservicefromschool,aperiodofhislifewhichisreflectedin
TheEmperorofIceCream(1965),hismostautobiographicalnovel.In1943heleftIrelandtoworkfortheMinistryofWarTransport,whichheservedasacivilian
inAlgiers,Naples,andMarseilles.AfterthewarhewaswiththeUNReliefandRehabilitationAdministrationinPolandforayear,andthenworkedasafreelance
journalistinScandinaviaandFrance.In1948hewenttoCanadainpursuitofayoungwomanheadmired.Thequestwasinvain,buthestayed,andbecamea
Canadiancitizen.HewasaproofreaderandthenareporterontheMontrealGazetteuntil1952,afterwhichtheearningsfromfourthrillers(writtenfortheAmerican
marketasMichaelBryan)enabledhimtolivewhilehewroteseriousfiction,whichhebegantododuringseveralmonthsinalogcabinintheLaurentianMountains.
JudithHearne(1955inUSAasTheLonelyPassionofJudithHearne,1956),acompellingportraitofanageingBelfastspinster,wasfollowedbyTheFeastof
LupercalandTheLuckofGingerCoffey(1960),amuchlighterstudyofanIrishimmigrantinMontrealwhohasputhisCatholicismaside,whichwontheGovernor
General'sAward.In1959hesettledintheUSA,wherehewroteafilmforAlfredHitchcock(18991980),becamein1976aprofessorincreativewritingatthe
UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,andsettledwithhissecondwifeinMalibu.TheDoctor'sWife(1976)completedaquartetofnovelsinwhichBelfastisthe
backdroptocitizens'privatelives.HavinginTheColourofBlood(1987)examinedinanEasternEuropeansettingtheclashbetweenChurchandStatewhichleads
toterrorism,hereturnedtothemilieuofBelfastwithLiesofSilence(1990),asuspensethrillerwhoseaimistoreflecttheviewsofthe'silentmajority'.
Awriterwhoexcelsattheportrayaloffemaleprotagonistsbutwhohasstressed,'It'sboringwhenanovelististotallyinlovewiththecentralcharacter.Theminor
onesmustbecomevivid,'hedefiescategorizationbecauseofthevarietyofhisthemes,settings,andmoods:TheGreatVictorianCollection(1975),winnerofhis
secondGovernorGeneral'sAward,isafantasyofacademiawhichmovesbetweenCaliforniaandCanadaTheManganInheritance(1979inUSAasFamily
Album,1979)isanexcursionintotheGothicintheformofafailedwriter'ssearchforselfthroughlinkswithhisreputedancestor,MANGANNoOtherLife(1993)is
ostensiblyastraightforwardadventurenovelintheveinofGRAHAMGREENE(inthatthesettingandbackgroundpoliticalsituationresemblethoseofHaitiinrecenttimes),
butitcarriesalarmingundercurrentsofeschatologicalandotherfears.TheStatement(1995)investigatesCatholicsympathywithNazisandantiSemitesduringand
aftertheOccupationofFranceduringWorldWarII.SeeJoO'Donoghue,BrianMoore,1990(criticalstudy).
Moore,George(Augustus)(18521933)
Irishnovelist,dramatist,andcritic,wasbornatthefamilyseatofMooreHall,Ballyglass,Co.Mayo,theeldestsonofthepolitician,landowner,andownerand
breederofracehorses,GeorgeHenryMoore(181170),andwaseducatedatOscottCollege,Birmingham.Afterthedeathofhisfather,andonhiscomingofage,he
wenttoParistobeapainter,buthavingfailedtomakethegrade,turnedtoliterature.HisfirstpublishedworksweretwovolumesofverseinthestyleofBAUDELAIRE
FlowersofPassion(1878)andPaganPoems(1881)andMartinLuther:aTragedyinFiveActs(1879).In1880,themoneyfromhisIrishrentshavingdried
up,hewenttoLondon,wherehewrotetwonovelswhosesocialrealismvergesonthenaturalistic:AModernLover(1883),laterrewrittenasLewisSeymourand
SomeWomen(1917),andAMummer'sWife(1885),theprissyattitudetowhichonthepartofthecirculatinglibrariesmovedhimtoissueatrenchantpamphlet,
LiteratureatNurse(1885).HisambivalentfeelingstowardstheIrishsurfacedinADramainMuslin(1886),inwhichtheplightofthetenantsiscontrastedwiththe
frivolities,anddomesticrealities,ofthewelltodo.Afterseveralfurthernovelswhichhelatersuppressed,heproducedEstherWaters(1894),astrikingEnglishnovel
whichconcentratesonaseducedservinggirlandhersubsequentstruggles,againstaback

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groundoftheracingworldwhichheknewwell.In1900,disillusionedwithEngland,hemovedtoDublinandjoinedYEATSinmanagingtheIrishLiteraryTheatreandin
generatinganewIrishliterature.TheycollaboratedinabizarrefashionontheplayDiarmuidandGrania(1901)itwaswrittenbyMooreinFrench,translatedinto
English,thenintoIrish,backagainintoEnglish,andfinallypolishedbyYeats.MorelastingmanifestationsofthisIrishphasearethedeliberateharshnessanddirectness
ofthestoriesinTheUntilledField(1903)andthemelodiclinehecreatedforTheLake(1905).
HereturnedtoLondonin1911,andsettledinEburyStreet,fromwhichdistancehepublishedthreemischievousautobiographicalexpossoftheIrishLiteraryRevival
andofIrishCatholicism,underthegeneraltitleofHailandFarewell(191114newedn,ed.RichardAllenCave,1985).Alwaysconcernedwithimprovingwhathe
hadwritten,hedevelopedanideainhisplayaboutStPaul,TheApostle(1911),intothenovelTheBrookKerith(1916),forwhichheadoptedarationalisticstance,
rewritingtheNewTestamentstoryasthoughJesuswassecretlytakenfromthecrossandsaved.Itsucceedsbecausehedidnotsetouttoshockandhehadfirst
journeyedthroughPalestinetoabsorbtheatmosphereoftheterrain.HeldinequalregardisHeloiseandAbelard(1921),inwhichtheloversstandoutfromacanvas
ofdreamlikesettings,crowdedwithcolourfulmedievalcharacters.Hewasarespectedcritic,someofhisessaysbeingcollectedinImpressionsandOpinions(1891)
andAvowals(1924privatelyprinted1919).TorecapturetheessenceofmeetingswhichmakeupConversationsinEburyStreet(1924),hedictatedittoa
secretary.ModernPainting(1893)wasinstrumentalinextendingthereputationoftheFrenchImpressionists.SeeTonyGray,APeculiarMan:aLifeofGeorge
Moore,1996RichardAllenCave,AStudyoftheNovelsofGeorgeMoore,1978.
Moore,John(17291802)
Scottishnovelist,travelwriter,anddoctor,wasborninStirling,andeducatedattheGrammarSchoolofGlasgowandGlasgowUniversity,wherehestudiedliterature
andphilosophywhilebeingalsoapprenticedtoasurgeon.HeservedasanassistantarmysurgeoninEurope,andwasforatimedoctortotheBritishAmbassadorin
Paris.HewastheninpracticeinGlasgowuntil1772,whenheembarkedonafiveyearEuropeantourwithhischarge,theyoung8thDukeofHamilton(17561837)
theoutcomewasAViewofSocietyandMannersinFrance,SwitzerlandandGermany(1779),andasimilarworkonItaly(1781).Hisfirstnovel,Zeluco(1789),
astudyofsheerwickednessinthepersonofaSiciliannoble,withhumorousinterludes,wasadmiredbyBYRON,whointheprefacetoChildeHaroldreferstohishero
as'thesketchofamodernTimon,orapoeticalZeluco'.ItwasalsopraisedbyBURNSinthecourseofacorrespondencewithMoore.Edward(1796)is,bycontrast,
thestoryofathoroughlygoodman.Mordaunt(1800)isanepistolarynovelinthreeincongruentparts,comprisingatravelogue,anaccountoftheterrorsinFrance,
andaseriesofcharactersketches.AfteritspublicationhemovedforhishealthfromCliffordStreet,Mayfair,toRichmond,wherehedied.HealsowroteMedical
Sketches(1786),inwhichheusestheeffectofeatingicecreamtoillustratethetransferenceofsensesbetweennervesAVietooftheCausesandProgressofthe
FrenchRevolution(1795),whoseroyaliststanceoffendedBurnsandamemoirofhisfriendSMOLLETT(1797).HiseldestsurvivingsonwasSirJohnMoore(1761
1809)ofCorunna,rememberedin'TheBurialofSirJohnMoore'byCharlesWolfe(17911823),'Notadrumwasheard...'.
Moore,Marianne(18871972)
Americanpoetandcritic,wasborninKirkwood,Missouri,wheresheandherelderbrotherwerebroughtupbytheirmotherinherparents'home:theirfather,an
engineer,havinghadanervousbreakdownafterfailingtobuildasmokelessfurnace,retiredtohisparentsinOhio.AfteramovetoCarlisle,Pennsylvania,shewas
educatedatMetzgerInstituteschoolsandBrynMawr,whereshehadpoetrypublishedincollegemagazines.Shegraduatedin1909,tookasecretarialcourseat
CarlisleCommercialCollege,andtaughtattheUSIndianSchoolinCarlisle.Herprofessionalpublicationbeganin1915withapoemintheEgoistinLondon,andfive
intheinfluentialChicagojournal,Poetry:aMagazineofVerse.DuringWorldWarIandtheearly1920ssheregularlycontributedto'little'magazineswhich
promotedtheworkofthe'newpoets',includingAIKEN,STEVENS,andW.C.WILLIAMS,amongwhosegroupshewasalsoadmiredfor'Titianhair,abrilliantcomplexion,and
amellifluousflowofpolysyllables'seeRobinG.Schulze,TheWebofFriendship:MarianneMooreandWallaceStevens(1996).
In1918sheandhermother(wholivedwithheruntilherdeathin1947)movedtoNewYork,whereforfouryearsshewasaparttimeassistantinherlocalbranch
library.Poems(1921),aselectionof24madebyDOOLITTLEfromthosewhichhadappearedinmagazines,andpublishedinLondonwithoutMoore'sknowledge,
included'Poetry',herenigmatic,oftenrevised,criticalstatement,inwhichthefunctionofpoetsistobe'literalistsoftheimagination'andtopresent'imaginarygardens
withrealtoadsinthem'.Theoccasionbroughtheroutofherinnatereticence,andshereprinted21ofthepoemsamongthe53inObservations(1924),publishedin
NewYorkbyDialPress,whoseinternationalliteraryjournal,theDial,sheeditedfrom1926untilitceasedpublicationin

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1929.Forthenextthreedecadessheworkedasafreelancewriterandcritic,increasingherreputationwithSelectedPoems(1935)andCollectedPoems(1951),
whichwonthePulitzerPrize,theNationalBookAward,andtwofurtherhonours.HercelebritystatuswassuchthattheFordMotorCompanyinvitedhertopropose
anameforanewcar,hermovefromBrooklyntoManhattanin1966provokedacontroversyinthepress,andin1968shethrewthefirstballofthenewbaseball
seasonattheYankeeStadium.Thiswasachievedinspiteofherreputationasa'poet'spoet',whousedcomplexandsubtlemeanstoillustrateparadoxes.SeeThe
CompletePoemsofMarianneMoore,ed.CliveDriverandPatriciaC.Willis,2ndrev.edn1984TheCompleteProseofMarianneMoore,ed.PatriciaC.Willis,
1987CharlesMolesworth,MarianneMoore:aLiteraryLife,newedn1991BernardEEngel,MarianneMoore,rev.edn1989(criticalstudy)CristanneMiller,
MarianneMoore:QuestionsofAuthority,1996(criticalstudy).
Moore,Thomas(17791852)
Irishpoetandbiographer,wasborninDublinofCatholicparents(hisfatherwasagrocer),andwaseducatedataprivategrammarschoolinDublinandatTrinity
College,Dublin.HereadfortheBarinLondon,wherehisfinevoiceandmusicalabilitymadehimawelcomeguestofthearistocracy.OdesofAnacreon(1800),a
metricaltranslationdoneatcollege,wasfollowedbythepseudonymousbutonlyfaintlyimproperThePoeticalWorksoftheLateThomasLittle,Esq(1801).In
1803hewasappointedAdmiraltyRegistrarinBermuda,butin1804helefttheposttoadeputy,travelledinAmerica,andreturnedtoLondon,wherehepublished
Epistles,OdesandOtherPoems(1806).IrishMelodies,with'symphoniesandaccompaniments',appearedininstalments(18071834)andconfirmedhisreputation
asalyricistandIrishnationalbard.LallaRookh(1817),versetaleswithlinkingprose,wasafullyresearchedattempttosatisfythevoguefortheoriental,butwhileit
waspopularthroughoutEurope,onlythesongshavelasted.In1818hisBermudadeputydecampedwiththeofficialfunds.Moorewasdeclaredbankrupt,andhadto
spendseveralyearsabroad,duringwhichhevisitedBYRONinItaly,whopresentedhimwithhis'Memoirs',writtenbetween1818and1821.In1822Moore'sdebtto
theAdmiraltywaspaidoffandhereturnedtoLondon.OnByron'sdeath,hewaspersuadedtoconsenttothedestructionofthe'Memoirs'andintheirplacetowrite
andeditLettersandJournalsofLordByron:withNoticesofHisLife(1830).HealsowroteaperceptivelifeofSHERIDAN(1825).Hisversatilityasawriteris
furtherdemonstratedbythesatiricalversecollection,TheFudgeFamilyinParis(1818),andanoveloftheIrishsituation,MemoirsofCaptainRock(1824).See
TheJournalsofThomasMoore18181841,ed.PeterQuennell,1964TheLettersofThomasMoore,ed.WilfredS.Dowden,2vols1964TerencedeVere
White,TomMoore,theIrishPoet,1977.
Moraes,Dom(inic)(b.1938)
Indianpoet,wasborninBombay,thesonofFrankMoraes(d.1974),EditorofTheTimesofIndiaandlateroftheBombayExpress,withwhomhetravelled
extensivelyasachild,andofadoctor.Hehadabookoncricketpublishedwhenhewas13.WhileatJesusCollege,Oxford,hepublishedabookofverse,A
Beginning(1957),forwhichhebecamethefirstnonBritishwinneroftheHawthorndenPrizeforaworkofimaginativeliterature.Aboutthistime,havinglentFORSTER
someofhispoemsandreceivedthecomment,'I'llwritetoyouaboutthem',herespondedcourteously,'Idonotwishyoutowriteaboutthem,Iwishyoutoread
them.'HewasoneofthreeCommonwealthpoets(withPETERPORTERandWALCOTT)amongthoseinvitedtocontributeto15PoemsforWilliamShakespeare(1964).
JohnNobody(1965)andPoems19551965(1966)concludedhisearlyperiodofverse,inwhichmysticalandpersonalelementsandthesocialeffectsofmodern
politicaloppressionpredominate.HewasarovingreporterfortheNewYorkTimesSundayMagazinefrom1968to1971,ManagingEditor,AsiaMagazine,Hong
Kong197173,andChiefLiteraryConsultant,UnitedNationsFundforPopulations,inIndia197377.Absences(1983)representedareturntoversewritingafter
17years,markedespeciallybypoemsinwhichtheexploitsofmythicalcharacters('Gabriel','Gladiator','Merlin',andothers)illuminatethetragediesinherentin
modernsociety.Hehaspublishedseveralbooksonhistravels,aswellasstudiesofthestateswomanMrsGandhi(1980)andthecricketerSunilGavaskar(1987).
SeeCollectedPoems19571987,1987MySon'sFather,newedn1991andNeveratHome,newedn1994(autobiography).
Moravia,Alberto,PseudonymofAlbertoPincherle(190790)
Italiannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninRome,thesonofaJewisharchitectandofthedaughterofaCatholiccivilservant.Aftercontractingatubercular
infectionofthelegboneswhenhewaseight,whichlefthimwithapermanentlimp,heneverreturnedtoschool,butacquiredawideknowledgeofliteraturethrough
readingandwiththehelpofasuccessionofEnglish,French,andGermangovernesses.Sentat16toasanatoriumintheDolomites,hebeganandforfiveyears
workedonGliIndifferenti(1929tr.AidaMastrangeloasTheIndifferentOnes,1932tr.AngusDavidsonasTheTimeofIndifference,1953),aforerunnerofthe
existentialistnovel,originallypublishedinMilanathisfather'sexpense.Duringthe1930shetravelled,mainlytodistancehimselffromtheFascist

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regime,ofwhichhefinallyfellfoulwiththesatiricalLaMascherata(1941tr.DavidsonasTheFancyDressParty,1947).AftertheGermanoccupationin1943he
andhisnovelistwifeshelteredintheAbruzzimountains,anexperiencewhichopenedhiseyestothedailyrealitiesoflifeamongthepoorandinspiredLaCiociara
(1957tr.DavidsonasTwoWomen,1958).ManyaspectsofthelowerlifeofRome,towhichhemovedin1954,featureintwoheftyvolumesofstories(1954,
1959),aselectionfromwhichisinRomanTales,tr.Davidson(1988).WithIoeLui(1971tr.DavidsonasTwo:aPhallicNovel,1972),alivelydialoguebetween
ascriptwriterandhissexualorgan,hedroppedallpretenceofkeepingeroticismwithinbounds.Filmcritic,traveljournalistseeAQualeTribAppartieni?(1972
tr.DavidsonasWhichTribeDoYouBelongTo?,1974),literaryphilosopher,andsocialactivist,hewasin1984electedtotheEuropeanParliamentasa
representativeoftheindependentleft.Afterseparatingfromhiswifeandlivingformanyyearswithaprominentfeministwriter,hemarried,inhis80thyear,a34year
oldSpanishdivorceewhowasapressofficerathispublisher.SeeThomasErlingPeterson,AlbertoMoravia,1996(biographical/criticalstudy).
More,Hannah(17451833)
Britishpoet,dramatist,andprosewriter,wasborninStapleton,nearBristol,thefourthoffivedaughtersofadictatorialheadmasterwhowasdeterminedthatthey
shouldallbecometeachers,ashecouldnotafforddowries.ShewaseducatedathomeandthenattheschoolsetupbyhereldestsisterinBristol,atwhichshe
becameateacher.In1767shebecameengagedtoawealthyestateownertwentyyearshersenior,whojiltedheraftersevenyearsofvacillation,offeringanannuityof
200ascompensation.Vowingnevertomarry,sherefusedthemoney,whichwasthenacceptedonherbehalfwithoutherknowledge.OnannualvisitstoLondonshe
movedinliterarycircles,becameveryclosetotheactormanagerDavidGarrick(171779)andhiswife,andthroughElizabethMontague(17201800),theessayist
andletterwriter,becameamemberoftheBluestockingCircle,aninformalsocietyofwomenwhometforintelligentandintellectualconversation.
Herfirstliteraryexercise,SearchafterHappiness:aPastoralDrama(1773),waswrittenforherpupils,aswasTheInflexibleCaptive(1774),whichwithan
epiloguebyGarrickwasperformedattheTheatreRoyal,Bath.SirEldredoftheBower,andTheBleedingRock,comprisingtwolushballads,waspublishedin
1776.OdetoDragon,MrGarrick'sHouseDogatHampton(1777)lamentstheretirementfromthestageofGarrick,withwhoseencouragementshewrotetwo
melodramatictragedies,Percy(1778)andTheFatalFalsehood(1779).Shebecamemoreinclinedtogoodworks,andwasentangledwithAnnYearsley(1752
1806),the'poeticalmilkwoman',whosepoemssheedited(1784)butfromwhomshegotnothanks.NowlivinginCowslipGreen,Somerset,shemetWilliam
Wilberforce(17591833),theabolitionistandEvangelicalreformer,wroteSlavery,aPoem(1788),andathisinstigationestablishedalocalSundaySchool,which,
withthehelpofhersisters,wasthefirstofmanyintheCheddararea.VillagePolitics(1793)wasatractforthepoorintendedtocountertheradicalismthathad
sparkedofftheFrenchRevolution.Her49'CheapRepositoryTracts'(179597)ledtothefoundationoftheReligiousTractSocietyin1799.CoelebsinSearchofa
Wife(1809),heronlyrealnovel,suggeststheEvangelicalidealofwifehood.Herlastsisterdiedin1819,afterwhichshewasterrorizedandcheatedbyherservantsin
thehouseinWringtonwhichtheyhadboughtin1802,untilpersuadedtomovetoCliftonin1828.SeeSelectedWritings,ed.RobertHole,1996MaryGwladys
Jones,HannahMore,1952(biography).
More,(Sir)Thomas(14781535)
Englishprosewriterandstatesman,wasbornintheCityofLondon,thesonofajudge,andwaseducatedatCanterburyHall,Oxford.HewascalledtotheBarbut
chosetospendfouryearsinretreat,fromwhichheemergedtoresumeabrilliantlegalcareer,toenterParliament,andtomarry.HewasknightedbyHenryVIIIin
1521andheldseveralpostsofstate,thelast,whichheacceptedreluctantly,beingLordChancellor.Heresignedin1532,unabletoaccepttheKing'sdivorcefrom
CatharineofAragonsothathecouldmarryAnneBoleyn.WhenHenryappointedhimselfheadoftheEnglishChurchin1534,Moretwicerefusedtoaccepthis
supremacyoverthePope,andwasbeheaded.Hewascanonizedin1935.Utopia,oneofthefineststatementsofhumanism,partlywrittenwhileonadiplomatic
missiontoFlanders,waspublishedinLatinin1516,andtranslatedintoEnglishbyRalphRobynson(1551).Theideal,butinsomerespectsidyllic,stateiscontrasted
withEnglishsocial,corporate,andreligiouslifeintheearly16thcenturyseenbyanimaginarytraveller.HistoryofKingRichardtheThirde,writteninEnglishand
Latininabout1513,becameviathechroniclesofGraftonandHall(seeHOLINSHED)thesourceofSHAKESPEARE'SRichardIII.Whileawaitingexecution,Morewrotethe
movingADialogeofComfortagainstTribulacion(1553).HisfriendshipwithERASMUS,whomhefirstmetin1499,ledtoacorrespondencebetweenthemwhich
upholdstheRenaissanceidealofimmortalitythroughthepreservationofpersonalletters.Hissoninlaw,WilliamRoper(14961578),wroteTheMirrourofVertue:
ortheLifeofMore(1625).SeeASirThomasMoreReader,ed.RudolphE.Habenicht,1996R.W.

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Chambers,ThomasMore,newedn1982AnthonyKenny,ThomasMore,1983(introductiontohisthought).
Morgan,Charles(18941958)
Britishnovelist,wasborninBromley,Kent,theyoungersonofadistinguishedcivilengineerofWelshoriginwhohadbeenbornandbroughtupinAustralia.Hewas
educatedattheRoyalNavalCollege,Dartmouth,andservedintheAtlanticandontheChinastation,butresignedin1913,hopingtogotoOxfordandbecomea
writer.Herejoinedin1914,andwaswiththeNavalBrigadeoftheRoyalNavalVolunteerReserveatAntwerp,duringtheretreatfromwhichhewasinternedin
Holland.Hereheremained,onparole,until1917,imbibingEuropeancultureandwritinganovel,basedonhisnavalexperiences,TheGunroom(1919),whichhehad
torewriteinEnglandaftertheshipcarryinghisbaggagehomewassunkbyamine.HewasatBrasenoseCollege,Oxford,from1918to1922,andwasPresidentof
theOxfordUniversityDramaticSociety,throughwhichhebecameAssistantDramaCriticofTheTimesin1921hewasDramaCritic192639.PortraitinaMirror
(1929),anexplorationoftheinspirationoftheartist,broughthimrecognitionalsoinFrance,whereitwonthePrixFminaVieHeureuseAnglais.TheFountain
(1932),awartimelovestorysetinHollandandtoldwithpoeticintensity,isastudyalsoofthesearchforspiritualfreedominthecontemporaryworld,athemeto
whichhereturnedinTheVoyage(1940)andhisimpressionisticplay,TheFlashingStream(1938).HeservedintheAdmiraltyinWorldWarII,duringwhich
articlesbyhimweresecretlycirculatedinOccupiedFrance,andhewasoneofthefirstBritishcivilianstoenterParisafteritsliberationin1944.EpitaphonGeorge
Moore(1935)isafineessayonthenovelist.HisvolumesofessaysincludeTheWriterandHisWorld(1960).SeeH.C.Duffin,TheNovelsandPlaysofCharles
Morgan,1959.
Morgan,Edwin(b.1920)
Scottishpoet,critic,andtranslator,wasborninGlasgow,thesonofaclerkwithafirmofironandsteelscrapmerchantswholaterbecameadirectorofit.Hewas
educatedatGlasgowHighSchoolandGlasgowUniversity,servingintheRoyalArmyMedicalCorps,mainlyintheMiddleEast,duringWorldWarII'Morganate
sand,sleptsandatElBallah/whilegangrenedlimbsdroppedinthepail',hewritesinSonnetsfromScotland(1984).HereturnedtoGlasgowUniversity,afterwards,
asateacher,andwasTitularProfessorinEnglish197580.Someofhismostpersistentthemeswerealreadyapparentinhisfirstbookofverse,TheVisionof
CathkinBraes(1952).Sincethenhehasusedhisacutecomicsenseandtalentforenthusiasmparticularlytoexpresshisconvictionthatinchangethereishope,
employingavarietyofformsincludingconcrete/visualpoetry,sometimeswithajudicioususeofScots.Glasgowoftenfeaturesasalaunchingpadforhisobservations.
HistranslationsembraceBeowulfaswellasBRECHT,NERUDA,PASTERNAK,TSVETAYEVA,MAYAKOVSKY,andYEVTUSHENKO.CriticalstudiesincludeEastEuropeanPoets
(1976)andCrossingtheBorder:EssaysinScottishLiterature(1990).SeeCollectedPoems,newedn1996NothingNotGiven:ReflectionsonHisLifeand
Work,ed.HamishWhyte,1991.
Morgan,(Sydney),Lady(d.1859)
neOwenson,Irishpoetandnovelist,thedaughterofRobertOwenson(17441812),aProtestantactormanagerofCatholicdescent,andhisMethodistwifefrom
Shrewsbury,wasborneitheronboardtheIrishpacketin1776orinDublinin1783.ShewaseducatedataHuguenotschoolinClontarf,andbecameagoverness
afterherfather'sfailureasaproducer.ShepublishedPoemsin1801,followedbyStClair:or,TheHeiressofDesmond(1803),anovelofPlatonicfriendshipin
romanticsurroundings.TheWildIrishGirl(1806),Ossianicinitsromanticism,didacticinitsexpositionoftraditionalIrishlifeandculture,andMessianicinits
approachtoIrishnationalism,madeherreputation,whichsheexploitedincharacterinRegencysalons,singingsadIrishsongstoherownharpaccompaniment.She
becameamemberofthehouseholdoftheDeputyLordLieutenant,1stMarquisofAbercorn(17561818),whosepersonaldoctor,SirCharlesMorgan(1783
1843),shemarriedin1812.ShewrotethreefurtherflamboyantIrishnovelsnotablyTheO'BriensandtheO'Flahertys(1827)whoseunderstandingofthe
problemsofthetimescontributedtotheCatholicEmancipationActof1829.ShelivedinLondonfrom1837,whenshewasawardedbythePrimeMinister,Lord
Melbourne(17791848),anannualpensionof300,thefirstwomantoreceivesuchanhonourforservicestoliterature.ShetravelledinIrelandandontheContinent,
andwrotehistoricalandcontemporarystudiesofFranceandItaly,aswellasabiographyofthe17thcenturyItalianpainter,SalvatorRosa(1840),andawell
researchedhistoricalandsociologicalsurvey,WomanandHerMaster(1824).SeeMaryCampbell,LadyMorgan:theLifeandTimesofSydneyOwenson,1988
JamesNewcomer,LadyMorgantheNovelist,1990.
Morris,Julian
seeWEST,MORRIS.
Morris,William(183496)
Britishpoet,prosewriter,bookdesigner,andcraftsman,wasbornintheLondonsuburbofWalthamstow,thesonofacitybusinessman,andwaseducatedat
MarlboroughCollegeandExeterCollege,Oxford.HegaveuptheideaoftheChurch,wasarticledtoanarchitect,andthenbecameaprofessionalpainteron

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theadviceofD.G.ROSSETTI,withwhomandothersheformedaninteriordecoratingfirm.In1859hemarriedJaneBurden(18401914),agroom'sdaughterwhowasa
muchpaintedPreRaphaelitemodel.Hisenthusiasmforthefreedomofthecraftsmanfromtheconstrictionsofcapitalismandthedangersofmassproductionwas
instrumentalinhisfoundingtheSocialistLeaguein1884in1890hesetuptheKelmscottPresstoproducefinebooks.TheDefenceofGuenevereandOther
Poems(1858)revealedaflairforromanticnarrativeverseineasyrhythmandrhyme,especiallyinthetitlepoem,astrikingtreatmentofscenesfromMALORY,and'The
HaystackintheFloods'.TheLifeandDeathofJason(1867)andTheStonyofSigurdtheVolsung(1877)areverseretellingsofclassicalandNorsemyth.InThe
EarthlyParadise(186870)heusedCHAUCER'SstorytellingframeworkeffectivelytocombineGreek,Germanic,Norse,andCelticfolklore.ADreamofJohnBall
(1888)andNewsfromNowhere(1890)areproseromancesinwhichhissocialistdoctrinesareinterwovenwithforwardandbackwardtimeslips.Healsowrote
historicalnovelsbasedonnorthEuropeanlegend,ofwhichATaleoftheHouseoftheWolfings(1889)isagoodexample.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.Peter
Faulkner,1992WilliamMorrisbyHimself:DesignsandWritings,ed.GillianNaylor,newedn1996FionaMacCarthy,WilliamMorris:aLifeforOurTime,
newedn1995PaulThompson,TheWorkofWilliamMorris,newedn1993(criticalbiography)PeterStansky,WilliamMorris,1983(introductiontohisideas).
Morrison,Toni(b.1931)
Americannovelist,wasbornChloeAnthonyWoffordinLorain,Ohio,andgraduatedasBAfromHowardUniversity(1953)andMAfromCornellUniversity(1955).
ShetaughtEnglishatTexasSouthernUniversityandthenatHoward,whereshemetHaroldMorrison,aJamaicanarchitect,whomshemarried.Theyseparatedin
1964,whenshebecameaneditorforaNewYorkpublishinghousewhilebringinguphertwosons.Herexplorationofblackconsciousnessinawhitesocietybegan
withTheBluestEye(1970),centringontherapebyherfatherofagirlwhopraysfor'theblueeyesofalittlewhitegirl'.Inherthirdnovel,SongofSolomon(1977),
thesearchforafamily'spastthrowslightonmysteriousandrepressedsituationsinthepresent.ThebasisofTarBaby(1981)isacultureclashbetweena
sophisticatedAfricanAmericanandherblackloverfromtheruralSouth.Inthemid19thcenturysettingofBeloved(1987),whichwonthePulitzerPrize,arunaway
slavehaskilledherchildrenratherthanreturnthemtothefatewhichshehadtriedtoescape.Thequalitiesofindividualityandunpredictabilityunderscoretheharsher
aspectsoftheblackexperienceofthe1920sinJazz(1992).MorrisonwasappointedtotheAlbertSchweitzerChairatNewYorkStateUniversityin1984,andto
theRobertEGoheenChairatPrincetonin1989.ShehasalsopublishedPlayingintheDark:WhitenessandtheLiteraryImagination(1992).Shewasawarded
theNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1993.SeeTrudierHarris,FictionandFolklore:theNovelsofToniMorrison,newedn1993LindenPeach,ToniMorrison,
1995(criticalstudy)JanFurman,ToniMorrison'sFiction,1996.
Morrow,Jacob
seeMANNING,OLIVIA.
Mortimer,John(b.1923)
Britishdramatistandnovelist,wasborninHampstead,London,andeducatedatHarrowandBrasenoseCollege,Oxford.Unfitforwarservice,heprogressedfrom
'fourthassistantdirector'toscriptwriterfortheCrownFilmUnit.HewascalledtotheBarin1948,andbecameQCin1966,andMasteroftheBench,InnerTemple,
in1975.'ThebestplaywrightevertohavedefendedamurdererattheCentralCriminalCourt',ashedescribeshimself,beganwith'TheDockBrief'andothershort
playsseeFivePlays(1970)inwhichthecomedyanddialogueareusuallymoreprominentthancharacterizationormessage.Ofhisfulllengthplays,TwoStars
forComfort(1962)hasunsympatheticaswellaslovablecharacters,andarealisticending.AVoyageRoundMyFather(1970)isaportraitofabarristerwho,like
hisownfather,wentblindbutcontinuedhiscareerandfamilyliferegardless.Hisfirstnovel,Charade(1957),waswrittenduringthewarandresuscitatedlater.
Latterly,hisnovelshavetendedtobeginas,orbedevelopedalongside,televisionserialsorseries,suchasParadisePostponed(1985),featuringamonstrouslyawful
politician,andSummer'sLease(1988),asatireontheEnglishabroadwithelementsofsuspenseandmystery.HoraceRumpole,theoutspokenlegalhackwhofirst
rosetocrossexamineinRumpoleoftheBailey(1978),hassubsequently,throughmanyvolumesofshortstories,becomeanationalinstitutionseealsoTheBestof
Rumpole(1993).AlibelcaseisafeatureofDunster(1992),inwhichthemysteryoftheultimateresponsibilityforatragedyinWorldWarIIisgraduallyresolved.
Mortimermarried,ashisfirstwife,PenelopeMortimer(b.1918),whosefranknovelsanalysingthelessattractiveaspectsofmarriage,notablyThePumpkinEater
(1963),influencedthegenreherautobiography,AboutTimeToo19401978(1993),recordstheslowbreakupoftheirmarriage.HewasmadeCBEin1986.
SeeClingingtotheWreckage:aPartofLife,newedn1995MurderersandOtherFriends:AnotherPartofLife,newedn1995(autobiography).
Mortimer,Penelope
seeMORTIMER.

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Moschus
seeTHEOCRITUS.
Motley,Willard(191265)
Americannovelist,wasbornintoamiddleclassblackfamilyinChicago,wherehewenttohighschool.Boredwiththeneighbourhoodinwhichhewasbroughtup,he
movedintotheslumsinsearchofanidentity,andthenworkedhiswaythroughouttheUSAbywhatevermeans,anddoingwhateverwork,cametohand,livingwhere
hecouldandwherehecouldnot,servinga30daysentenceforvagrancyinWyoming.Inthe1940sheworkedasaphotographer,radioscriptwriter,andinterviewer
fortheChicagoHousingAuthority,andthenasawriterfortheOfficeofCivilianDefense.Hewasconcernedwithsocialratherthanracialissues,hisfirstnovel,Knock
onAnyDoor(1947),exploringtheeffectofenvironmentonthesonofanItalianfamilyinChicago,throughjuveniledelinquencytohisexecutionformurderattheage
of21.WeFishedAllNight(1951)focusesontheconditionsintheChicagoslumswhichbredpoliticalracketeersaswellasgangsters.In1951hemovedtoMexico,
wherehefoundsimilardeprivationstoaccountforculturalandmoraldegeneration,whichhedescribedinLetNoonBeFair(1966).
Mphahlele,Ezekiel(orEs'kia)(b.1919)
SouthAfricannovelistandcritic,wasborninCapeLocation,Pretoria,andbroughtupinthevillageofMaupaneng,Transvaal,andtheninatworoomhouse(inwhich
therewereseveralchildrenandsomeeightadults)intheblacklocationofMarabastad,Pretoria.HewaseducatedatStPeter'sSchool,Johannesburg,andtrainedas
ateacheratAdamsCollege,Durban,afterwhichheworkedasaclerkandtypinginstructorataninstitutefortheblind.In1945hemarried,andwasappointed
EnglishandAfrikaansMasteratOrlandoHighSchool,Johannesburg,onlytobebannedfromteachingin1952becauseasSecretaryoftheTransvaalAfrican
Teachers'AssociationheopposedtheintroductionofBantueducation.HetaughtforayearinBasutoland,didoddjobs,andthenjoinedtheeditorialstaffofDrum.In
1957,havingstudiedattheUniversityofSouthAfricabycorrespondence,andgraduatedasMAinEnglishwithdistinction,hewentintoexileinNigeria,wherehe
lecturedforIbadanUniversity.HesurrenderedhispassportforaBritishonein1959.DuringthenextfifteenyearshewasDirectoroftheAfricanProgrammeofthe
CongressforCulturalFreedom,inParis,underwhoseauspiceshesetuptheChemchemiCreativeCentreinNairobi,andtaughtattheuniversitiesofDenver,Zambia,
andPennsylvania.
In1976heattendedaconferenceinSouthAfricaonatemporaryvisa,andappliedforhispassporttoberestored.Hereturnedpermanentlyin1977,whenhe
changedhisfirstnametoitsAfricanequivalent.HebecameaninspectorofeducationinTransvaalwhenhisapplicationforthechairofEnglishattheUniversityofthe
Northwasblocked.HewasappointedSeniorResearchFellowattheAfricanStudiesInstitute,WitwatersrandUniversity,in1979,subsequentlybecomingProfessor
ofAfricanLiterature.HisManMustLiveandOtherStorieswaspublishedinCapeTownin1947,andTheLivingandDeadandOtherStoriesinNigeriain1961,
bywhichtimehisghettosketcheshadbecomemorevitriolicintheirprotest.HereceivedthedegreeofPhDatDenverUniversityforthemanuscriptofhissemi
autobiographicalnovelofexile,TheWanderers(1972).Chirundu(1979)isaboutapoliticianinanewAfricanstate.Apermanentplaceinliteratureismorelikely,
however,forthefirstvolumeofhisautobiography(1959),andforhiscriticalstudyofAfricanwritingandwritingaboutAfricans,TheAfricanImage(1962),the1974
editionofwhichincorporatesparallelswithAfroAmericanliterature.SeeDownSecondAvenue,newedn1971(autobiography),AfrikaMyMusic:an
Autobiography19571983,newedn1995N.ChabaniManganyi,ExilesandHomecomings:aBiographyofEs'kiaMphahlele,1983.
Mtshali,Oswald(Mbuyiseni,formerlyJoseph)(b.1940)
SouthAfricanpoet,wasborninVryheid,Natal,andeducatedatInkamanaHighSchool.HisambitiontogotoWitwatersrandUniversityfounderedwhentheseparate
universities'legislationwasintroduced.Herefusedtoattenda'tribalcollege',andbecameadriveranddeliverymaninJohannesburg.Verseswhichappearedin
variousjournalswerecollectedasSoundsofaCowhideDrum,publishedinJohannesburg(1971),andalsoinLondon(1972)andNewYork(1972).Afurther
volume,Fireflames(1980),wasbannedinSouthAfrica.InapaperpresentedattheUniversityofIowain1975heexplains:'IwriteinEnglishformypresentstateof
realityorunrealityandIwriteinZulutoestablishmyidentitywhichwillbetranslatedbyposterity.'Criticsarenotunanimousaboutthepoeticqualityoflinessuchas
'Pneumaticdrills/roarlikegunsinabattlefield/astheytearthestreet./Puffingmachinesswallowtheredsoil/andspititoutlikeatuberculotic'ssputum.'buthewas
thefirstblackSouthAfricanfortwentyyearstopublishabookofverseinthatcountry,andthefirstwhowroteinthatcountrytohaveonepublishedabroad.He
obtainedadegreeincreativewritingatColumbiaUniversity,andafterhisreturnwasappointeddeputyheadmasterofaprivatelyfundedcommercialcollegein
Soweto.
Muggeridge,Malcolm(190390)
Britishprosewriter,journalist,andsage,wasborninCroydon,Surrey,thesonofalaw

Page386

yer'sclerkwholaterbecameaLabourMemberofParliament.HewaseducatedatSelhurstGrammarSchoolandSelwynCollege,Cambridge,wherehisstateschool
educationandsocialistupbringinggavehimasenseofisolation.AfterteachingattheUnionChristianCollege,Alwaye,insouthernIndia,hemarriedanieceofBEATRICE
WEBB,andsailedforEgypt,wherehelecturedatCairoUniversity.In1930,withtheencouragementofRANSOME,hejoinedtheeditorialstaffoftheManchester
Guardian,whoseMoscowcorrespondenthewasforninemonthsin193233.Theupshotoftheexperience,towhichtheattitudeofWesternvisitorstotheevils
perpetratedinthenameofCommunismcontributed,wasdisillusionmentwiththesystem,expressedinhisnovel,WinterinMoscow(1934).TheThirties:19301940
inGreatBritain(1940)isacynicalstudyofthedecade,reflectingthechaoswhichfollowsalossoffaith.DuringWorldWarII,inwhichhewasamemberofthe
IntelligenceCorpsandthenofMI5,hespentmuchofhistimeasanagentinMozambique.In1944,shortlyafteritsliberation,hewassenttoParis,whereinthe
courseofhisdutieshesecuredthereleaseofWODEHOUSEandhiswife,whohadbeenarrestedandinterrogatedbythepolice.AfterservingontheDailyTelegraphas
leaderwriter,WashingtonCorrespondent,andDeputyEditor,hewasEditorofPunchfrom1952to1957,whiledevelopingareputationasaskilled,ifsomewhat
anarchic,broadcasterandinterviewer.Duringhislatteryears,whichhespentinruralSussex,hewroteTheGreenStick(1972)andTheInfernalGrove(1973),two
volumesofsparklingmemoirs,intendedaspartofanunfinishedautobiographicalsequence,'ChroniclesofaWastedTime'.Whilehisattitudetoreligionchangedover
theyears(hebecameaCatholicinhislateseventies),hispreoccupationwithitisreflectedinmuchofhislaterwriting.SeeRichardIngrams,MalcolmMuggeridge:
theBiography,newedn1996GregoryWolfe,MalcolmMuggeridge:aBiography,newedn1996.
Muir,Edwin(18871959)
Scottishpoet,novelist,critic,andtranslator,wasborninDeerness,Orkney,theyoungestofsixchildrenofafarmer,andattendedKirkwallGrammarSchool
irregularly.Whenhewas14,thefamilywasevictedandmovedtoGlasgow:withinfiveyearsbothhisparentsandtwobrothersweredead.Afterworkingasaclerk,
hemarriedin1919aScottishacademic,WillaAnderson(18901970),wholaterwrotetwonovelsunderherownnameandpublishedtranslationsasAgnesN.Scott.
TheysettledinLondon.Anearbreakdownwasavertedbypsychoanalysis,andaEuropeantourwasmadepossiblebythepublicationintheUSAofWeModerns
(1918),acollectionofaphorismsunderthepseudonymofEdwardMore.OntheirreturnhepublishedFirstPoems(1925),andthreenovels.Hisincomeatthattime
camefromreviewsandcriticalarticlesseeP.H.Butter(ed.),TheTruthofImagination:aCollectionofReviewsandEssaysbyEdwinMuir(1988)andfrom
translatingEuropeanliterature(notablyKAFKA)withhiswife.HewasBritishCouncilDirectorinPrague194548andRome194950,andWardenofNewbattle
AbbeyCollege195055.In1946hewrote,'I'vebeentryingforsomeyearstowritepoetrythatwasbothsimpleandunexpected',andmuchofhisbestversewas
writtenafterhewas50.Unsensational,reflective,plainlystated,itoftenreachesbacktohischildhoodandbeyondintohistory,andforwardtoatimewhenconfusion
anddestructionwillhavebeenexorcized.HeadvocatedaScottishnationalliteratureinEnglish,whichcausedhimtofalloutwithhisfriendMACDIARMID.Hewasmade
CBEin1953.SeeTheCompletePoemsofEdwinMuir,ed.P.H.Butter,1992SelectedProse,ed.GeorgeMackayBrown,1989AnAutobiography,newedn
1993WillaAnderson,Belonging:aMemoir,1968EH.Butter,EdwinMuir:ManandPoet,newedn1977MargeryMcCulloch,EdwinMuir:Poet,Criticand
Novelist,1993(criticalstudy).
Mukherjee,Bharati(b.1940)
novelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninCalcuttaofaBengaliBrahminfamily(herfatherwasachemistandbusinessman),andwenttoschoolsinEnglandand
Switzerland,andthentoLoretoHouse,Calcutta,andtheuniversitiesofCalcutta,Baroda,andIowa.OnthecreativewritingcourseatIowain1961shemetthe
Canadiannovelistandacademic,ClarkBlaise(b.1940):'Ihadneverbeenaloneinaroomwithamanwhowasnotarelativeandnow,forthefirsttime,mybodywas
speakingandmakingdecisionsforme.Ibecamean''accidentalimmigrant".'Theymarriedin1963,andhadtwosons.ShetaughtEnglishatseveralCanadian
universitiesbetween1964and1978,becomingaCanadiancitizenin1971.TheTiger'sDaughter(1972)andWife(1975)reflectherownambivalentsituation,which
isfurtherexaminedinDaysandNightsinCalcutta(1977),comprisingseparateaccountsbyherandherhusbandofayearspentinIndiain1973.
TheyleftCanadabecauseof'thepersistenteffectsofracialprejudiceagainstpeopleofmynationalorigin',andin1980tookuppermanentresidenceintheUSA,
whereshebecameateacherattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.RegardingherselfnowasanAmericanwriterinthetraditionofthosewhosefamilieswere
immigrantswithinrecentmemory,shehasinthecollectionsDarkness(1985)andTheMiddlemanandOtherStories(1988)exploredtheattitudesofillegalaswell
asofrightfulincomersto'thetyrannyoftheAmericandream'.InJasmine(1989),ayoungwoman'shazardousodysseyfromthePunjab

Page387

toIowa,andfrombeingthedowerlesswidowJyotitoJaneRipplemeyer,alsorepresentstheworkingsoffate,theuniversalchallengesofsociety,andtheroleofthe
individual.TheHolderoftheWorld(1993)incorporatestimeslipsinaprogressionfromaPuritancolonyinMassachusettstoaMoghulcourt.ShebecameaUS
citizenin1988.'I'mnotinterestedinpreserving,inanartificialway,theIndiannessIarrivedwithin1961.Mydressreflectsmypersonalstyle.Myaccentreflectsall
theplacesinwhichIhavelived.Ihavearighttorefashionmyself,tothinkofmyselfasAmericaninmyown,specialBengaliway.'SeeAlamFakrul,Bharati
Mukherjee,1996(biographical/criticalstudy).
Muldoon,Paul(b.1951)
Irishpoet,wasborninCo.Armagh.HewaseducatedatStPatrick'sCollege,Armagh,andQueen'sUniversity,Belfast,andworkedinBelfastasaBBCTalks
Producer.Hisfirstbookofverse,apamphlet,waspublishedwhenhewas20,andhisfirstcollectionproper,NewWeather(1973),inwhichtheIrishclimateisa
mediumthroughwhichtheworldmaybeseeninanewlight,twoyearslater.HiscollectionssinceMules(1977)haveoftenbegunwithagroupofshortpoems
anticipatingaspectsofthelongerpoemorsequencewhichfollows.HenowlivesandteachesintheUSA,wherehehasentertaininglyrecreatedhimselfasan
Americanwriter,whileretaininghisIrishrelishforlinguisticexuberance.TheshortpoemsinQuoof(1983),somereflectinghischildhood,whichhesetsbesidethe
presentinthetitlepoem,areprefacedbyanextractfromEskimofolklore,andsucceededbyanAmericanextravaganza,'TheMoreaManHastheMoreaMan
Wants'.InMadoc:aMystery(1990)themainnarrativepoemisateasingexcursionintoAmericanfolkhistory,withreferencestothePantisocraticcommune
imaginedbySOUTHEYandCOLERIDGE,butneverrealized.ShiningBrow(1993)isalibrettoforanoperaaboutatraumaticdecadeinthelifeoftheAmericanarchitect,
FrankLloydWright(18691959).TheAnnalsofChile(1994),hisseventhcollection,celebrates,amongotherevents,thebirthofadaughter,andincludes'Yarrow',
alongpoemincorporatingawhirlofincidents,images,andpersonalrecollections,whichhasbeenreferredtoas'anewkindofelegy,anelegyfortheunbornandthe
deadalike'.SeeNewSelectedMuldoon,1996TimKendall,PaulMuldoon,1996(criticalstudy)ClairWills,PaulMuldoon,1996(criticalstudy).
Mulgan,John(191145)
NewZealandnovelist,wasborninChristchurch,thesonofthejournalistAlanMulgan(18811962),whowroteonenovel,SpurofMorning(1934),andan
autobiography,TheMakingofaNewZealander(1958).JohnMulganwaseducatedasaboarderatWellingtonCollege,andthenatAucklandGrammarSchool
andAucklandUniversityCollege,whereheexcelledatsport.HavingfailedtobenominatedasaRhodesScholaratOxford,hemadehisownwaythere,andgota
first.HethenworkedfortheClarendonPressinOxford,indulgedinjournalism,andcollaboratedwithDAVINonAnIntroductiontoEnglishLiterature(1947).In
1938hewroteanovel,ManAlone(1939),theexperiencesofanEnglishdrifterfromhisarrivalinNewZealandin1919,throughtheeconomictroublesandthe
Aucklandriotsin1932,tohisparticipationintheSpanishCivilWar.Mulganenlistedin1939beforethebeginningofWorldWarII.HeservedintheNorthAfrican
desert,andwasthenparachutedintooccupiedGreece,wherehefoughtasaguerrillauntiltheGermanwithdrawal,winningtheMilitaryCrossand,inthesamewayas
theheroofhisnovel,provinghimselftobeaman'youcan'tkill'.Asalieutenantcolonel,hereturnedtoGreecein1945incommandoftheforceestablishedtohelp
GreekswhohadsufferedintheAlliedcause.ThereasonsforhissuicideinCairohaveneveradequatelybeenexplained.HisautobiographicalReportonExperience,
'onlythedraftandoutlineofabookI'dliketowrite',waspublishedposthumously(ed.J.A.W.Bennett,1947),withaneweditionin1985.SeePaulDay,John
Mulgan,1977(criticalstudy)andinC.K.Stead,IntheGlassCase:EssaysonNewZealandLiterature,1981.
Mulock,DinahMaria
seeCRAIK.
Multatuli,PenNameofEduardDouwesDekker(182087)
Dutchnovelist,wasborninAmsterdam,thesonofaseacaptain,andat12enteredtheLatinSchooltostudyfortheministry.Heleftafterthreeyears,workedinthe
officeofatextilebusiness,andat18sailedinhisfather'sshipforIndonesia,wherehebecameaclerkintheAuditorGeneral'soffice.In1842hewasmadeadistrict
officerinSumatra,butwassuspendedayearlaterforanirregularityinthebooksandtransferredtoaseriesofsimilarposts.In1856,afterthreeyears'leavein
Holland,duringwhichhisinfalliblesystemforplayingroulettecompletelyfailedhim,hereturnedtoIndonesiabankrupt,andbecameAssistantResidentinLebak,Java.
Withinfourmonthshehadamassedsufficientevidenceofmalpracticeandoppressionofthepeopleonthepartofoneofthenativeprincestojustifyaformalcharge.
WhentheResidentaskedhimtowithdrawit,andtheGovernorGeneralrefusedtosupporthim,heresigned.Afterayearunemployed,hereturnedtoEurope,and
wroteMaxHavelaar,asemiautobiographicalindictmentoftheDutchcolonialsysteminJava,inwhichhisfirstwife,Everdine,BaronessvanWijnbergen,appears
asTina.Itwaspublishedin1860throughtheofficesofthewriterandlawyerJakobvan

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Lennep(180268),whothenfraudulentlyacquiredthecopyrightandindeferencetogovernmentsensibilitiesradicallychangedthetext.Evenso,accordingtoa
memberoftheDutchparliamentit'sentashiverthroughthecountry'.Dekker,however,wasneverreinstatedintheForeignService,oneofhisaimsinwritingthe
bookitwaspublishedinitsoriginalform,withnotes,in1875.SeeMaxHavelaar:or,TheCoffeeAuctionsoftheDutchTradingCompany,tr.RoyEdwards,
newedn1987.
Munday,Anthony(15531633)
Englishdramatist,balladwriter,andpamphleteer,wasborninLondonandin1576wasapprenticedtoastationer,fromwhomhebrokeawaytwoyearslatertogo
abroad.AftersomemonthsinRomehereturnedwithmessagesandholyrelicsforCatholicsinEngland.Hewroteballadsandalsopamphlets,includingASecondand
ThirdBlastofRetraitfromPlaysandTheatres(1580),the'firstblast'havingbeendeliveredbyStephenGosson(15541624)asTheSchoolofAbuse(1579).He
turnedhisItalianexperiencestoprofitasaninformeragainsttheJesuits(someofthemacquaintancesfromtheEnglishCollegeinRome),whowereexecutedandthen
horriblymutilatedin1582hewroteaneyewitnessaccount,AbreefeandTruereporteoftheExecutionsofcertaineTraytoursatTiborne(1582).Oneofthe
condemnedpriestsvolubly,butfruitlessly,protestedhisinnocenceonthescaffold,asaresultofwhichanunseemlyargumenttookplace,inwhichMundaywas
involved.Tojustifyhisstatusasanexpertonsuchmatters,hewroteTheEnglishRomayneLife(1582),avividaccountofhistimeinRomeandofthethingshesaw
there.Hisattitudetothetheatrechanged,orelsehisoppositiontoithadbeenanexampleofbrazenhackwork,andhewroteseveralsemihistoricalpieces,including
JohnaKentandJohnaCumber(c.1594)andTheDownfallofRobert,EarleofHuntingdon(1598),aversionoftheRobinHoodlegend.Healsowrote
pageantsfortheCityofLondon,andtranslatedpopularromances.HewasafriendoftheantiquaryJohnStow(15251605),aneweditionofwhoseSurveyof
Londonheeditedin1618.Heoutlivedallhismorefamousliterarycontemporaries.AmonumenterectedtohismemoryinStAndrewsChurchdescribedhimas
'CitizenandDraper'.
Munro,Alice(b.1931)
neLaidlaw,Canadianshortstorywriter,wasborninWingham,Ontario,theeldestchildofastrugglingsilverfoxandturkeyfarmer(adescendantofHOGG),whoin
Hisseventieswroteanovel(posthumouslypublished)onthebasis,'IfAlicecandoit,socanI.'Shewaseducatedlocally,readavidly,beingparticularlyimpressedby
MONTGOMERY'S'Emily'storiesand,at13,byEMILYBRONT'SWutheringHeights('nottheromanticismbutthethingsthatshedidaboutthefarm,thehouse,thefields').
Shebeganwritingshortstoriesseriouslywhenshewas18.ShestudiedEnglishfortwoyearsattheUniversityofWesternOntario,whichsheleftin1951tomarry
JamesMunro.TheywenttoVancouver,andthenin1963toVictoria,wheretheyopenedabookstore.ShehadastoryprintedinMayfairin1953,and'dribbles'in
magazinesandonradioduringtheensuingdecade,duringwhichshebroughtupthreedaughters.Herfirstcollection,DanceoftheHappyShades(1968),wonthe
GovernorGeneral'sAward.ShewashighlypraisedintheManchesterGuardiantheWinghamAdvanceTimescastigatedherforhavinga'warpedmind',drawing
attentiontosex,andusing'badlanguage'.
ThestoriesinLivesofGirlsandWomen(1971),heronlybookclassifiedasanovel,followthedevelopmentofDelJordanthroughchildhoodandadolescencetothe
pointatwhichshedecidestoleaveherruralsmalltown.AprotagonistalsolinksthestoriesinWhoDoYouThinkYouAre?(1978inUK1980,andUSA1982,as
TheBeggarMaid:StoriesofFloandRose).InaradiointerviewseeinGraemeGibson(ed.),ElevenCanadianNovelists(1972)shesaid:'I'mnotan
intellectualwriter.I'mvery,veryexcitedbywhatyoumightcallthesurfaceoflife...thingsaboutpeople,thewaytheylook,thewaytheysound,thewaythingssmell,
thewayeverythingisthatyougothrougheveryday.'AchroniclerofpeopleandsituationsinruralOntario(towhichshereturnedin1976withhersecondhusband,
GeraldFremlin),shehasbecomeincreasinglyconcernedwithpersonalrelationshipsofallkinds,andthemomentatwhichtheycanbreakapart,suchasshedescribes
inTheProgressofLove(1986),withwhichshewonherthirdGovernorGeneral'sAward.InFriendofMyYouth(1990),whichevokessocietyintheregionover
thepastfiftyyears,thedisintegratorisoftendeath,inanyofitsmanifoldguises.OpenSecrets(1994)wontheW.H.SmithLiteratureAwardintheUK.SeeSelected
Stories,1996JudithMiller(ed.),TheArtofAliceMunro:SayingtheUnsayable,1984(includesinterview)HallvardDahlie,AliceMunroandHerWorks,1984
CatherineSheldrickRoss,AliceMunro:aDoubleLife,1992(biographical/criticalstudy).
Munro,H.H.
seeSAKI.
Munro,Neil(18641930)
Scottishnovelist,shortstorywriter,andjournalist,wasborninInveraray,Argyllshire,ofadistantlineofthefamilyoftheMunrosofFoulissaidtohavedescended
fromasurvivorofthebattleofFloddenin1513.Hebeganworkinalawyer'sofficebutswitchedtojournalism,beingEditoroftheGlasgowEveningNews

Page389

from1918to1927.TheLostPibrochandOtherShielingStories(1896),thefirstofseveralcollections,ostensiblybelongstotheCelticTwilightschoolofwriting,
butheemploysatwinkling(andinlaterbookssometimestragic)irony,whichiswellillustratedin'TheSeaFairyofFrenchForeland'.JohnSplendid(1898),Doom
Castle(1901),andTheNewRoad(1914)arethoughtfullyconceived,colourfullyexecutedHighlandhistoricaladventures.Paradoxically,forhisinterestinCelticlore
andculturewasgenuineandhisqualificationsforrecreatingthemimpeccable,heisbestrememberedfortherichlycomicstoriesandsketchesabouttheClyde
'puffer'(tugboat)andhercrew,underskipperParaHandy,conceivedasjournalisticpieces.FirstpublishedinbookformasTheVitalSpark(1906)by'Hugh
Foulis'(hewouldnotusehisrealname),theywerecollectedinParaHandyandOtherTales(1931)ParaHandy:theCollectedStories...,ed.BrianOsborne
andRonaldArmstrong(1992),includes18previouslyunpublishedtales.Poetry(1931),editedbyBUCHAN,isacollectionofhisverse,muchofitofaspiritedromantic
nature.SeeTheBraveDays,1931(memoirs).
Murdoch,Iris(b.1919)
Britishnovelist,philosopher,anddramatist,wasborninDublinandeducatedatBadmintonSchool,Bristol,andSomervilleCollege,Oxford.Sheworkedasan
assistantprincipalintheTreasuryfrom1942to1944,andthenasanadministrativeofficerwiththeUNReliefandRehabilitationAdministrationuntil1946.Shewasa
FellowofStAnne'sCollege,Oxford,anduniversitylecturerinphilosophyfrom1948to1963.Herfirstnovel,UndertheNet(1954),establishedherasawriterwith
adistinctivestyleandpurpose,thephilosophicalimplicationsandsymbolismbeingsubmerged(exceptforthosewhowishtouncoverthem)inanentertainingand
comic,butoftencomplicatedandgrotesque,plotwithmanyincidents,inwhichthecharactersaremotivatedbychanceorcontingencyaswellasbytheirsearchfor
love,knowledge,andfreedom.Amonghersubsequentnovels,whichembraceawidevarietyofsettings,TheSandcastle(1957),TheBell(1958),andASevered
Head(1961)areparticularlynotableafteraslightfallingofftheveinofinventivenesswasrediscoveredinTheNiceandtheGood(1968),TheSea,theSea(1978),
whichwontheBookerprizeforfiction,andNunsandSoldiers(1980).Laterworks,suchasTheGreenKnight(1993)andJackson'sDilemma(1995),tend
towardsthemysticalandthephilosophical.TheThreeArrows,andTheServantsandtheSnow(1973)containsthetwoplaysshehaswrittenapartfrom
adaptationsofherownnovelsalsopublished,withTheBlackPrince,inThreePlays(1989).AmongherotherworksareSartre:RomanticRealist(1953)a
collectionofessays,TheSovereigntyofGood(1971)AYearoftheBird:Poems(1978)andAcastos:TwoPlatonicDialogues(newedn1987).PLATOprovides
thebackgroundtoherphilosophy,whichsheexpoundsinMetaphysicsasaGuidetoMorals(1992),amappingofassociatedsubjectsthroughwhichreadersare
encouragedtofindtheirownway.ShemarriedthescholarandcriticJohnBayley(b.1925)in1956.ShewascreatedDBEin1987.SeeRichardTodd,Iris
Murdoch,1984(criticalstudy)A.S.Byatt,DegreesofFreedom:theEarlyNovelsofIrisMurdoch,2ndrev.edn1994.
Murray,Charles(18641941)
Scottishpoet,wasborninAlford,Aberdeenshire,educatedatGallowhillSchool,andapprenticedin1881toafirmofcivilengineersinAberdeen.Heemigratedto
SouthAfricain1888,becamemanagerofagoldminein1899,andservedasalieutenantintheRailwayPioneerRegimentintheBoerWar.FromDeputyInspector
ofMinesforTransvaalin1901,herosethroughUnderSecretaryforPublicWorks,andthenChiefEngineerandSecretary,tobeSecretaryofPublicWorksforthe
UnionofSouthAfricain1910.HewasmadeCMGin1922,andonhisretirementreturnedtoScotland.AtadinnerinhishonourinAberdeenin1912,heexplained
thathispoemswerewrittenforhisfather,andthatitwas'simplyinevitable'that'theyshouldbewritteninthevernacular',i.e.thenortheasterndialectofScots.They
alsoportrayaswellasreflectawholewayoflife.TwelvecopiesonlyofAHandfulofHeather(1893)wereprintedinAberdeenforprivatecirculation.Thirteenof
the40poemshesavedandrevised,andthesewerereprinted,with21newones,inHamewith(1900),ofwhichanenlargededition,withanintroductionbyLANG,
waspublishedinLondonin1909.Amongthenewpoemsin1909were'TheWhistle'('Hecutasappysuckerfromthemuckleroddentree...'),andsevencouthie
translationsfromHORACE.Hisrange,andhisremarkablesenseofcharacterizationandfeeling,aswellasofirony,werefurtherdemonstratedinASougho'War
(1917),poemswhichhadtheirinspirationinsituationsofWorldWarIatthefront('FaeFrance')andathomeinBuchan('DockensaforeHisPeers').SeeHamewith:
theCompletePoemsofCharlesMurray,introducedbyNanShepherd,1979.
Murray,Les(lie)A(llan)(b.1938)
Australianpoet,wasbornandgrewuponthedairyfarmatBunyah,betweenForsterandGloucesteronthecoastofNewSouthWales,towhichhereturnedtolivein
1986.HewaseducatedatTareeHighSchoolandSydneyUniversity,towhichhewentbacklatertoobtainhisdegree,andwasatechnicaltranslatorattheAustralian
NationalUniversityfrom1963to1967.Hegaveupfulltimeemploymentforwritingin1971,andwascoEditorofPoetryAustralia197480.Hisfirst

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bookofverse,TheIlexTree(1965),wasajointpublicationwithGeoffreyLehmann(b.1940),aformerfellowstudent.Hisliteraryphilosophyisbasedonthe
distinctionbetweenthe'Athenian'socialsystem,centredontherulingcity(illustratedinAustraliantermsinhispoem'SydneyandtheBush'),andthe'Boeotian',in
whichurbanandruraltraditionsareinterdependent.ThusinTheWeatherboardCathedral(1969)andPoemsAgainstEconomics(1972)traditionalvalues
predominate,whileinLunchandCounterLunch(1974)anevenbroader,andmoreunusualrangeoftopics,includingthepolice,issubjectedtohisinventive
scrutiny.EthnicRadio(1977)includes'FiveGaelicPoems'(thevalidityoftheScottishoraltraditionisanotherofhispoeticpreoccupations)and'TheBuladelah
TareeHolidaySongCycle',basedonanAboriginalsongandcelebratingtheannualChristmasmigrationofmodernurbanfamiliesbacktotheirrootsinthecountry.
TheBoysWhoStoletheFuneral(1979)isa'novelsequence'inverseinwhichaviolentplotisusedtosymbolizethesearchfororreturntoruralvalues,and
conversationisuncannilyrenderedwithintherhythmoftheverse.
AtaroundthetimeofpublicationofTheDaylightMoon(1987)Murraysuggestedinaninterviewthat'whatreallydistinguishesAustralianpoetryisthelandof
Australiaitself,andthekindofendlessdetailedrehearsal...ofAustralianpeculiaritiesthatgoesintoit'.Thebookitselfembodiesnumerousillustrationsofthebreadth
ofthe'peculiarities',whileinDogFoxField(1991)therangeofformsiswiderstill,andthemesarerelatedtotheinternationalscene.ThepoemsinTranslations
fromtheNaturalWorld(1993)aredividedaccordingtotheirsubjects:travel,andalsodisplacementthepersonaeofanimals,fish,andplantsandhome.Collections
ofhisprosepiecesareThePeasantMandarin(1978),PersistenceinFolly(1984),andThePaperbarkTree:SelectedProse(1992).HeeditedTheNew
OxfordBookofAustralianVerse(1986).HewasmadeAOin1989.SeeCollectedPoems,newedn1992SubhumanRedneckPoems,1996(T.S.EliotPrize)
LawrenceBourke,AVividSteadyState:LesMurrayandAustralianPoetry,1992.
Murry,JohnMiddleton
seeMANSFIELD.
Musil,Robert(18801942)
Austriannovelist,wasborninKlagenfurtandeducatedatmilitarycadetschoolsuntil1898,afterwhichhestudiedengineeringinBrnoandphilosophyatBerlin
University,wherehewroteaPhDthesisonthephysicist/philosopherErnstMach(18381916).Exceptforthewaryears191418,whenheservedintheAustrian
army,employmenttooksecondplacetowriting,which,afteranovelofadolescenthomosexuality,DieVerwirrungendesZglingsTrless(1906tr.ErnstKaiser
andEithneWilkinasYoungTrless,1955),twovolumesofshortstories(1911and1924),andtwoplays(1921and1923),centredonDerMannohne
Eigenschaften,anovelsequencewhichheneverfinishedandofwhichthreevolumeswerepublished(1930,1933,and1942asTheManWithoutQualities,tr.
KaiserandWilkin,195360tr.SophieWilkinandBurtonPike,1995).Intellectuallywideranging,wittyandchallenging,itexploresthepredicamentoftheindividual
incontemporaryEuropeansociety.HisworkswerebannedinGermanyaftertheannexationofAustriain1938,whenheescapedtoSwitzerland,wherehecontinued
toworkonhisnoveluntilhisdeath.SeeSelectedWritings,ed.BurtonPike,1992PrecisionandSoul:EssaysandAddresses,tr.BurtonPikeandDavidS.Luft,
1990.
Musset,Alfredde(181057)
Frenchpoet,dramatist,andnovelist,wasborninParis,waseducatedatCollgeHenriIV,andpublishedatranslationofDEQUINCEY'SConfessionsofanEnglish
OpiumEaterwhenhewas18.AprecociouscollectionofversesinthemannerofBYRON,LesContesd'Espagneetd'Italie(1830),gavehimtheentretoHugo's
circleofliteraryacquaintances,whomhesoonabandonedinpursuitofalessrestrictivelyricphilosophy,demonstratedinPosiesCompltes(1840)andPosies
Nouvelles(1852).Thefailureofhisplay,LaNuitVnitienne(1830),puthimoffthetheatre,butnotdramaitself,whichhebegantopublishforreadersonlyinUn
SpectacledansunFauteuiI[ArmchairTheatre](183334)andcontinuedinComdiesetProverbes(1840),thoughseveraloftheseplayshavesincebecomestaple
repertorycomediesseeThreePlays,tr.DeclanDonnellanandPeterMeyer(1993),FivePlays:TheMoodsofMarianne,Fantasio,Lorenzaccio,Don'tPlay
withLove,Caprice,ed.ClaudeSchumacher,tr.DonaldWatsonandothers(1995),andComediesandProverbs,ed.andtr.DavidSices(1994).Herecreated
aspectsofanunfortunateliaisonwithSANDinanovel,LaConfessiond'unEnfantduSicle(1836tr.KendallWarrenasTheConfessionofaChildofthe
Century,1892):herversionoftheaffairisElleetLui(1859),towhichhisbrotherPaulrespondedwithLuietElle(1860).In1838MussetbecameLibrarianofthe
MinistryoftheInterior,andthoughhishealthbegantogivewayshortlyafterwards,hecontinuedtowriteandtoechohisvariedexperience.
Myers,L(eopold)H(amilton)(18811944)
Britishnovelist,wasborninCambridge,theeldersonofthewriterFredericMyers(18431901),whowasacofounderoftheSocietyforPsychicalResearch.Hewas
educatedatEtonandthenspentayearinGermany(wherehehadanenjoyableaffairwithaworkingclassgirl)beforegoing

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toTrinityCollege,Cambridge,whichheleftonhisfather'sdeathtolookafterhisdistraughtmother.TheywenttoAmerica,whereFrederichadpromisedtomeethis
wifeposthumously.Theencounterdidnotmaterialize,butMyershadsomekindofmysticalexperienceinaChicagohotelbedroom,andmethisfuturewifein
Coloradoshewasnineyearshisseniorandrefusedtomarryhimuntil1908.Helpedbyalegacy,hehadaleisurely,richlife,andwroteArvat(1908),aplayin
blankverseexpressingdiscontent.UnfitforserviceinWorldWarI,heworkedasaclerkintheForeignOffice.TheOrissers(1922),hisfirstnovel,atwhichhehad
workedsince1909,isaboutspiritualandmaterialconflictsoveracountryestate.Itsreceptionpropelledhimintoliterarysociety,thoughprivatelyhereactedagainst
whathesawastheselfregardoftheBloomsburyGroup(seeVIRGINIAWOOLF).AfterThe'Clio'(1925),lighterandsetinasteamyachtontheAmazon,hebeganhis
sequence,TheNearandtheFar(1929),PrinceJali(1931),andRajahAmar,publishedtogetherasTheRootandtheFlower(1935),towhichThePoolof
Vishnu(1940)isaconclusion.Historicalonlyinthesensethatthesettingis16thcenturyIndia,theyrepresentasearchintovaluesandresponsibilities.Latterlyhewas
disturbedthathisintellectualviewofCommunismcouldnotbereconciledwiththefacts.Hekilledhimselfwithanoverdoseofveronal.
MylesnaGcopaleen
seeO'BRIEN,FLANN.

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N
Nabokov,Vladimir(18991977)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,critic,andtranslator,wasborninStPetersburg,Russia,theeldestoffivechildrenofVladimirDmitrievichNabokov
(18701922),juristandstatesman,whodiedbyanassassin'sbulletonaplatforminBerlinwhileshieldingthelecturer,andofElenaIvanovnaRukavishnikov(1876
1939).AtfiveherecognizedhimselfinPOTTER'SSquirrelNutkin:bold,bad,andtricksy,whichhelargelyremainedallhislife.Atsevenhispassionforbutterfly
collectingbegan,inwhichheiscreditedwithseveraldiscoveries,includingNabokov'sPug.HewenttoTenishevSchool,andat17publishedabookofverse.After
theBolshevikcoupin1919,thefamilywenttotheCrimea,wherehisfatheractedasRegionalMinisterofJustice,andfromtheretovoluntaryexileinBerlin,towhich
Nabokovreturnedin1922aftertakinghisdegreeatTrinityCollege,Cambridge.HemarriedVraSlonim(190290)in1925ason,Dmitri,laterthecotranslatorof
someofhisRussiannovels,wasbornin1935.HavingmovedtoParisin1937,hetookhisfamilytotheUSAin1940,andbecameanAmericancitizenin1945.He
wasLecturerinRussianatWellesleyCollege,Massachusetts194148,concurrentlyholdingaresearchfellowshipattheMuseumofComparativeZoologyat
Harvard.HewasthenProfessorofRussianLiteratureatCornellUniversityuntil1959,whenthesuccessofLolitaenabledhimtoretiretoMontreux,Switzerland,to
devotehimselftowritingandtoafinalpursuitoflepidoptera.
Beginningin1926,hepublishedinRussian,asV.Sirin,ninenovels.Themostsignificantofthemare[TheDefence](1930tr.1964),reflectinghisinterestinchess
[InvitationtoaBeheading](1938tr.1959),adystopianreactiontothepoliticalstateofeasternEuropeand[TheGift](serialized193738,published1952tr.
withMichaelScammell,1963),thelongestandmostprofoundofthemafterfinishingit,hewasinsuchfinancialstraitsthathewrote,'ItisamysterytomehowIexist
atall.'Havingalreadytranslated[LaughterintheDark](1932tr.1938)himself,henowembarkedonhisfirstbookinEnglish,TheRealLifeofSebastianKnight
(1941),aquestnovelwithchessimagery,writteninwinterinanunheatedParisflatonasuitcaseproppedacrossthebidet.WritinginEnglishforanewaudiencewas,
hewrote,'exceedinglypainfullikelearninganewtohandlethingsafterlosingsevenoreightfingersinanexplosion',andheoftenmournedhisnativelanguage.Many
ofthestoriesinTheStoriesofVladimirNabokov,ed.DmitriNabokov(1995)wereoriginallywritteninRussianforanaudienceprimarilyofemigrsinBerlinand
Paris.
IntheUSAhefirstwroteacriticalbiographyofGOGOL(1944).BendSinister(1947),theworkofamindtroubledbynewsfromEurope,andNineStories(1947)
wereinadequateharbingersofthesensationalLolita(Paris1955inUSA1958),aseriocomic,oftentender,treatmentofanutterlytaboosubject,thesexualabuseof
acomplaisant12yearold'nymphet',whichisalsoastylisticandlinguistictriumph.TheprotagonistofPnin(1957)isaStPetersburgbornprofessorofRussianata
provincialcollegeinAmerica,anamiableacademicinaworldwhichistotallyalien.AmericanacademiaalsofeaturesobliquelyinPaleFire(1962),a999linepoem
byarecentlymurderedacademic,withforeword,notes,commentary,andindexbyanexiledEuropeanwhowashisneighbour.Nabokov'slastmajornovelwasAda,
orArdor:aFamilyChronicle(1969),inwhichlinguisticlegerdemainoffsetsapoliticalallegory.Inaninterviewin1967hecommented:'Ishallberememberedby
LolitaandmyworkonEugeneOnegin'hismonumentaleditionofPUSHKIN'Sversenovel(4vols,rev.edn1976).Headded,'Lolitaisfamous.NotI.Iaman
obscure,doublyobscure,novelistwithanunpronounceablename.'SpeakMemory:anAutobiographyRevisited(1966)isarevisedandexpandedversionof
ConclusiveEvidence:aMemoir(1951).SeeBrianBoyd,VladimirNabokov:theRussianYearsandVladimirNabokov:theAmericanYears,2volsnewedns
1993AndrewField,TheLifeandArtofVladimirNabokov,newedn1992TonySharpe,VladimirNabokov,1991(criticalstudy)MichaelWood,The
Magician'sDoubts:NabokovandtheRisksofFiction,newedn1996(criticalstudy).
Naidu,Sarojini(18791949)
neChattopadhyaya,Indianpoetandpolitician,wasborninHyderabadofatalentedBengaliBrahminfamily.At16,herparents,horrified

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atherattractiontoadoctorofalowercasteanddifferentregion,packedherofftoEnglandtostudyatKing'sCollege,London,andGirtonCollege,Cambridge.
WhilethereshewrotesomeromanticversewhichcaughttheattentionsofARTHURSYMONSandofGOSSE,whosuggestedthatsheshouldapplyherliteraryabilitytogiving
'somerevelationoftheheartofIndia'.Onherreturntherein1889sheimmediatelymarriedthedoctor,andinduecoursehadfourchildren,andpublishedTheGolden
Threshold(1905)andseveralfurthervolumesofsentimentalverses.Ameetingin1914withthestatesmanMohandas(Mahatma)Gandhi(18691948)ledtoaclose
associationwithhimandwiththecauseofwomen'seducationandrights(especiallywithregardtopurdah),andwithIndiannationalism,inpursuitofwhichshe
travelledinAfrica,theUSA,andCanada,andwasseveraltimesimprisonedinIndia.ShechairedtheIndianNationalCongressin1925(thefirstwomantodoso),
andonIndia'sindependencein1947wasappointedGovernorofUttarPradesh.
Naipaul,Shiva(dharSrinivasa)(194585)
Trinidadiannovelist,theyoungerbrotherofV.S.NAIPAUL,wasborninPortofSpainandeducatedatQueen'sRoyalCollegeandStMary'sCollege.Hewonanisland
scholarshiptoUniversityCollege,Oxford,whereheswitchedfrompsychology,philosophy,andphysiologytoChinese.Hisfirstnovel,theseriocomicFireflies
(1970),chartingthedeclineanddisintegrationoftwobranchesofaninfluentialIndianfamilyinPortofSpain,wonthreeBritishawards.TheChipChipGatherers
(1973)centresonafamilywhoserecentoriginsareinaprimitiveruraloutpoststuckinaseaofsugarcane,theunhealthyinfluenceofwhichcontinuestopervadethe
characters'lives.Duringthe1970shejourneyedfromhisLondonhometotheCaribbeantoIndiatoEastAfrica,aboutwhichhewroteanoutspokentravelogue,
NorthofSouth(1978)andtotheUSA,wherehewroteabackgroundstudyofthemasssuicideinGuyanaoftheAmericansect,thePeople'sTemple,Blackand
White(1980).Histhirdnovel,AHotCountry(1983),wasalsohislast.Hediedofaheartattack.ArticlesandstoriesareinBeyondtheDragon'sMouth(1984)
andAnUnfinishedJourney(1986).
Naipaul,(Sir)V(idiadhar)S(urajprasad)(b.1932)
Trinidadiannovelist,wasborninChaguanas,Trinidad,theeldestsonofaBrahminHindujournalist,SeepersadNaipaul(190653),whoseprivatelypublished
GurudevaandOtherIndianTales(1943inUK1976)wasinthevanguardoflocalEastIndianfiction.HewaseducatedatQueen'sRoyalCollege,where'inthe
fourthformIwroteavowontheendpaperofmyKennedy'sRevisedLatinPrimertoleave[Trinidad]withinfiveyears.Ileftaftersix.'Disturbedbythetension
betweenthoseofIndianandAfricandescentasmuchasbytheprevailingattitudetotalentinTrinidad,afterstudyingatUniversityCollege,Oxford,hesettledin
London,wherefortwoyearsheeditedtheBBCradioprogramme,'CaribbeanVoices'.InFindingtheCentre:TwoNarratives(1984)hedescribesthediscovery
ofavalidstartingpointforhisfirstbook(thethirdtobepublished),MiguelStreet(1959),inwhichsketchesofchildhoodareorganizedroundaplace.InTheMystic
Masseur(1957),thefocusisonaneccentricmisfitTheSuffrageofElvira(1958)centresonanevent,aweirdelectionin'thesmallest,mostisolatedandmost
neglectedoftheninecountiesofTrinidad',where'thingswerecrazilymixedup'.Intheircomedy,sharpsatire,andconvincingdetail,theypresageNaipaul'smaster
work,andthefinestnoveloftheCaribbeanexperience,AHouseforMrBiswas(1961).Coveringthreegenerations,andfeaturingtheconvergent(andmixed)
fortunesoftwofamilies,itlaysbare,withpathos,richhumour,andgentleirony,awholesocietycaughtwithinatenuoussocialstructure.Asecondphaseasanovelist
beganwithMrStoneandtheKnightsCompanion(1963),anEnglishstory,andcontinuedinagrimmermood.TheMimicMen(1967),setinEnglandandthe
Caribbean,isastudyofpoliticalpowerthetripartiteInaFreeState(1971),whichwontheBookerprizeforfiction,focusesonisolation,exile,andexpatriationin
theUSA,England,andEastAfricaGuerrillas(1975)dealswithdisillusionmentinthefaceofpostcolonialchaos.InABendintheRiver(1979)heexploresthe
reactionsofdifferenttraditionalandmodernsocietiestothepoliticalandsocialimplicationsofdictatorshipinacentralAfricanstate.
Naipaulconsidershisnonfictiontobeanintegralpartofhiswork,andinanotherpassageinFindingtheCentreexplainsthathetravels'todiscoverotherstatesof
mind...sowhile,whenItravel,IcanmoveonlyaccordingtowhatIfindIalsoliveasitwere,inanovelofmyownmaking,movingfromnotknowingtoknowing,
withpersoninterweavingwithpersonandincidentopeningintoincident'.ThisattitudegeneratedandshapedTheMiddlePassage:ImpressionsofFiveSocieties...
intheWestIndiesandSouthAmerica(1962),inwhichissomeofthebackgroundtoAHouseforMrBiswasandTheMimicMen,andinformedhistrilogy,An
AreaofDarkness:anExperienceofIndia(1965),India:aWoundedCivilization(1977),andIndia:aMillionMutiniesNow(1990),inwhichcountryhefound
cluestohisownTrinidadianbackground.
Guerrillascontainselementsofarealmurder,astudyofwhichisinTheReturnofEvaPern,withTheKillingsinTrinidad(1980),wherehestates:'An
autobiographycandistortfactscanberealigned.Butfictionneverlies:itrevealsthewritertotally.'Atthesame

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timehehasbeenconcernedabouttheformofthemodernnovel,ofwhichhesaidinaninterviewin1990:'[It]nolongerseemstobringbacktruth.Writersusedtoput
thosedisclaimersatthebeginningoftheirbooks,"allthesecharactersarefalse"andIsupposethatiswhatIfindwrongwithit.'TheEnigmaofArrival(1987),
publishedasanovelbutdescribedbyhimselfas'asynthesisoftheworldsandculturesthatmademe',isthemostcompletebutbynomeanstheonlyautobiographical
workofNaipaulthatwehave.Asimilarblendofmemoirs,fantasies,historicalreflections,andsocialandpoliticalcommentary,largelyinaTrinidadiancontext,
distinguishAWayinTheWorld:aSequence(1994).In1955hemarriedPatriciaAnnHale(193296)anOxfordcontemporary,whointhe1960sresignedfrom
beingahistoryteachertospendmoretimewithhimandtotravelwithhim.Theyhadnochildren.In1996hemarriedNadiraKhannum,a38yearoldPakistani
journalist,whomhehadmetinLahorefivemonthsbefore.Hewasknightedin1990.In1993hewastheinauguralwinnerofthe(30,000)DavidCohenPrizefor
BritishLiterature.SeePeterHughes,V.S.Naipaul,1988(criticalstudy)BruceKing,V.S.Naipaul,1993(criticalstudy)FawziaMustafa,V.S.Naipaul,1995
(criticalstudy).
Nairne,(Carolina),Baroness(17661845)
neOliphant,Scottishpoet,wasbornatGask,thefamilyestateinPerthshire.NamedafterCharlesEdwardStuart,shewasthedaughterofLaurenceOliphant(1724
92),aprominentJacobite,whoevenafterbeingallowedbacktoScotlandfromEuropein1763,stoutlyrefusedtorecognizetheHouseofHanover.In1806she
marriedhercousin,MajorWilliamNairne,whoin1824wasrestoredbyGeorgeIVtohishereditarytitleofBaronNairne,whichhadbeenforfeitedafterthe'45
Rebellion.Onhisdeathin1830,shemovedfromEdinburghtoBristolwithherson,whoseeducationshepersonallysupervisedandwithwhomshetravelledabroad
untilhisdeathfromfluinBrusselsin1837.In1843shereturnedtoGasktolivewithhernephewandhiswife.Knownforherlookswhenyoungasthe'Flowerof
Strathearn',shetookagreatinterestinBURNS'SreworkingofScottishsongs,andinabout1792began,insecret,composingherown,totraditionalairs.Theseincluded
thewellknownJacobitesongs,'TheHundredPipersanA",'CharlieisMyDarling',andthelamentforhisdeparture,'WillYeNo'ComeBackAgain',andalsothe
neatpoemofstreetcries,'CallerHerrin"andtheromantic'Lando'theLeal'.Notevenherhusbandknewofherliteraryefforts,whichshepublishedanonymouslyor
asMrsBoganofBogan.Onlyjustbeforeherdeathdidsheagreetothepublicationofananonymousvolumeofherpoems.ItappearedposthumouslyasLaysfrom
Strathearn'byCarolina,BaronessNairne',permissionforitscontentsfinallytobeattributedtoherhavingbeengivenbyhersister.
Narayan,R(usipuram)K(rishnaswami)(b.1907)
Indiannovelist,wasborninMadrasandbroughtupbyhisgrandmotherandanuncleinMysore,wherehewaseducatedattheCollegiateHighSchoolandMaharaja's
College,fromwhichheonlygraduatedafterspendinganextrayearthere.Hewasbrieflyateacher,andthenbecameareporteronaMadrasnewspaper,whilehoning
hisfictiontechniquebystudyingthestoriesofBENNETT,DOYLE,JACOBS,andWODEHOUSEinStrandMagazine.InthesemiautobiographicalSwamiandFriends:anovel
ofMalgudi(1935),towhichTheBachelorofArts(1937)andTheEnglishTeacher(1945)aresequels,heintroducedthemicrocosmic,middleclassmilieuwhich
isthealmostinvariablesettingofhisgentlyhumorous,universallyadmiredstudiesofanIndiansocietywhoseancienttraditionskeepclashing,butsometimesmerging,
withthoseintroducedbytheBritish.Heisoftenconcernedwithacycleoflifeinwhichthemomentoftruthfortheprotagonistisamysticalrevelation,culminatingina
returntothestatusquo,asinTheDarkRoom(1938),TheFinancialExpert(1952),andThePainterofSigns(1976),orinawithdrawalintoanalternativeworld,
asinTheGuide(1958),TheSweetVendor(1967),andTheManEaterofMalgudi(1961).TheprotagonistofATigerforMalgudi(1983)isthetigerhimself,
representing,throughtheHindudoctrineofreincarnation,theturbulentnatureofIndia.InWaitingfortheMahatma(1955)Narayaninvolveshisunworldlyhero,who
isinlovewithoneofGandhi'sfollowers,inthewiderissuesofthecampaignforindependence.TheGrandmother'sTale(1993)containsthreenovellas,ofwhichthe
titlestoryisanautobiographicalaccountofanaspectofhisfamilyroots.HehasalsopublishedAWriter'sNightmare:SelectedEssays19581988(1988),and
condensedversionsinmodernproseofTheRamayana(1972)andTheMahabharata(1978).SeeMyDays:aMemoir,newedn1989WilliamWalsh,R.K.
Narayan:aCriticalAppreciation,1983.
Nash,Ogden(190271)
Americanpoet,wasborninRye,NewYork,andeducatedatStGeorge'sSchool,Newport,and(forayear)atHarvard,fromwhichhedroppedoutafterhis69
yearoldfatherlosthisjobasanavalstoresexecutive.Hetriedteaching,thestockmarket(hesoldonebondineighteenmonths,tohisgodmother),selling,and
advertisementcopywriting,beforejoiningthepublisherDoubledayDoran,initiallyasanadvertisingassistant.TheNewYorkerprintedtwoofhispoemsin1930,of
which'HymntotheSunandMyself'reappearedalongside

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otherreflections(e.g.'Candy/Isdandy/Butliquor/Isquicker')inHardLines(1931),whichquicklyreprinted.In1931,afterthebriefestoftenuresasManaging
EditoroftheNewYorker,hejoinedFarrer&Rinehartasanassistanteditorandafteranextendedcourtship,duringwhichhewroteover350letters,married
FrancesLeonard.In1933,havingbeenofferedacontractbytheSaturdayEveningPostfor26versesayearat$100each,hewentfreelanceandsettledwithhis
wifeandtwodaughtersinBaltimore.Illhealthcutshortafinalattemptin1941tobecomeaHollywoodscreenwriter,butthemusicalshowwrittenwithPERELMAN,One
TouchofVenus(1943),wasasmashhitonBroadway.By1958,whenhehadthefirstofthreeoperationsforacomplaintthatwasneverfullydiagnosed,hehad
publishedadozenbooksofverse,includingThePrivateDiningRoomandOtherNewVerses(1952),withitsdevastatinglyobserved'Middleagedlifeismerryand
Ilovetoleadit,/Buttherecomesatimewhenyoureyesareallrightbutyourarmisn'tlongenoughtoholdthetelephonebookwhereyoucanreadit'.Heexplained
hisphilosophy:'ImadeupmymindalongtimeagothatIwouldratherbeagreatbadpoetthanabadgoodpoet.'SeeCandyIsDandy:theBestofOgdenNash,
ed.LinellSmithandIsabelEberstadt,introductionbyAnthonyBurgess,newedn1994.
Nashe,Thomas(15671601)
Englishprosewriter,wasborninLowestoft,Suffolk,andeducatedatStJohn'sCollege,Cambridge,asasizar.HewasinLondonin1588where,inspiredbythe
courageouslyprintedandamusinglywritten'Marprelate'pamphletsattackingtheAnglicanestablishment,heenteredtheliterarylistswithTheAnatomieofAbsurditie
(1589),along,illorganized,butwellphrasedandwittyattackonarangeoftopicsfromwomentoEuphuisticwriters.PiercePennilessehisSupplicationtothe
Devill(1592),analysingeachofthedeadlysinsintermsofLondonsocietytypes,isallthemoreeffectiveforbeingbetterconstructed,buthechosetoinsertafew
pagesofcolourfulinvectiveattheexpenseofGabrielHarvey(c.15491630),criticandfriendofSPENSER,andhisbrotherRichard(15601623),awriteronastrology.
ThisinitiatedaliteraryArmageddonwhich,onNashe'spart,continuedthroughStrangeNews...(1593),whichalsoincludesadefenceofhislatefriendROBERT
GREENE,andHavewithYoutoSaffronWalden(1596),inbothofwhichhedisplayedaviolentandoutrageoustechniqueofsatirewhichcontrastsstronglywiththat
lateremployedbyDRYDEN.Theform,andalsothesatire,ofTheUnfortunateTraveller:or,TheLifeofJackeWilton(1594)aredifferent.Thislooselyconstructed
chronicle,incorporatingpicaresqueelementsandliteraryparodies,isrecognizableasanovel,inwhichhistoricalfiguresareinvolvedinsensationalandsinisterfictional
events.Hehadahandinthelostplay,TheIsleofDogs,forwhichJONSONwasimprisonedin1597.Hislodgingsweresearchedandhethoughtitprudenttoretirefora
whiletoYarmouth,whosehospitalityandhistoryhecelebratedinNashesLentenStuff,withthePraiseoftheRedHerring(1599),whichincludesaburlesqueon
MARLOWE'S'HeroandLeander'.Inthesummerofthatyearanedictcalledforallhisbooks(andthoseof'DrHarvey')tobeseized,andbannedtheprintingofany
furtherworksbythem.Nashewasonly31.Twoyearslaterhewasdead.SeeTheWorksofThomasNashe,ed.R.B.McKerrow,rev.edn,ed.F.P.Wilson,5
vols1958CharlesNicholl,ACupofNews:theLifeofThomasNashe,1984G.R.Hibberd,Nashe:aCriticalIntroduction,1962.
Nathan,GeorgeJean
seeMENCKEN.
NatsumeSoseki(18671916)
Japanesenovelist,wasbornNatsumeKinnosukeinTokyo,theyoungest,unexpected,childofa53yearoldhereditarywardchiefwhosepositiondisappearedwith
theImperialRestorationin1868.Hewasadoptedbyachildlesscouple,butateightwasreturnedhomewhentheydivorced.Hehadthestatutorytraininginclassical
Chinese,andaftercompletingcollegein1890enteredthenewlyestablishedEnglishdepartmentofTokyoUniversity,fromwhichhegraduatedin1893andtooka
postatTokyoNormalCollege.In1895hesurprisinglyleftfortheprovinces,teachingfirstinthesmallcastletownofShikokoandthenatKumamoto,wherehemade
anarrangedmarriagewiththedaughterofthechiefsecretaryoftheHouseofPeers.In1900hewasoffered,andtoldhemustaccept,agovernmentscholarshipto
Englandtostudythelanguage,withoutanyinstructionsorguidanceastohowtogoaboutit.Hespentthetimereadingfuriously,aloneinasuccessionofincreasingly
cheaperlodgingsinLondon(including6FloddenRoad,Camberwell).Hereturnedtohiswifeandchildin1903,andtookuptheteachingpost(insuccessionto
HEARN)atTokyoImperialUniversitywhichwasaconditionofhisscholarshiphisautobiographicalnovel[GrassontheWayside](1915tr.1969)coversthis
period.In1904heproducedforamagazineeditorashortstory,whichwasrejected,rewritten,andpublishedas['IAmaCat'](1905).Theresponsewassuchthat
tenfurtherepisodeswereadded,comprisingeventuallyathreevolume,humorous,cat'seyeviewofuppermiddleclassmanners(190507tr.AikoItoandGraeme
Wilson,1972).Heresignedfromtheuniversityin1907attheearliestpossiblemoment,andbecameLiteraryEditorofAsahiShimbun,inwhichseveralofhisnovels
wereserialized.WithShimazakiToson(18721943)hecreatedthemodernJapanesenovel,

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inspiredbyWesternmodelsbutJapaneseinidentityandvision.Sanshiro(1909tr.JayRuben,1977),[AndThen](1909tr.NormaMooreField,1978),andMon
(1911tr.FrancisMathy,1972)constituteatrilogyinwhichdifferentrelationshipsareexploredinthecontextoftheperiodaftertheRussoJapaneseWarof190405.
Nellson,JohnShaw(18721942)
Australianpoet,wasborninPenola,SouthAustralia,theeldestchildofJohnNeilson(18441922),whohademigratedfromtheScottishHighlandswhenhewasnine,
andwhohadversepublishedinlocalandnationalAustralianjournals.TheboyhadspentayearatthestateschoolinPenolawhenhisimpoverishedfamilymoved,as
settlers,toMinimay,Victoria,wheretherewasnoschoolatthetime.Hereadathome(especiallyCOLERIDGE,BURNS,andTHOMASHOOD),andfoundconsolationinnature
forthebarrennessoftheland(see'ThePoor,PoorCountry').In1889thefamilymovedbywaggontoDowWell,nearNhill,wherebothheandhisfatherwere
forcedtobecontractlabourers.SomeofhisverseswereprintedintheNhillMailin1894,andhisworkbegantoappearintheBulletinin1896,theyearhe
branchedoutonhisownasanitinerantlabourer.Inhisthirtieshecontractedsevereeyetrouble,oftenhavingtodictatetohismateswhathehadcomposedduringthe
day'swork.Furtherpoemsappearedfrom1911intheresuscitatedBookfellow,whichhadprinted'OldGrannySullivan'in1907andissueditasaseparateleafletin
1916.TheBookfellowalsopublishedthreevolumesofhispoetry:HeartofSpring(1919),replacingGreenDaysandCherries,whichgotnofurtherthanproof
copystageBalladandLyricalPoems(1923)andNewPoems(1927).In1928hewasfoundaquietbilletasamessengerwiththeCountyRoadsBoardin
Melbourne.Thoughhewashappythere,citylifestifledhispoetry,thesurvivingbulkofwhichhadalreadybeenaffectedbytheravagesofmiceatChinkapook,during
themouseplagueof1917.Heretiredfromhispostin1941,stillunmarried.Hehasbeencalledamysticpastoralist.Heisafinelyricalpoet,thedepthofmeaningof
whose'TheOrangeTree'continuestooccupycriticshealsowrotesomeatmosphericballadsintheScottishaswellasAustraliantradition.SeeThePoemsofShaw
Neilson,ed.A.R.Chisholm,1965SelectedPoems,1992HughAndersonandL.J.Blake,JohnShawNeilson,1972(criticalbiography).
Neruda,Pablo(190473)
Chileanpoet,wasbornRicardoEliecerNeftalReyesdeBasoaltoinParralheassumedhispseudonymin1920andformallyadopteditashisnamein1946.His
motherdiedduringhisinfancy,andhisfather(atraindriver)tookhimtoTemuco,wherehewenttoschool.HethenattendedtheInstitutoPedaggico,Santiago.
Beforehewas20hehadpublishedtwobooksofverse,ofwhichVeintePoemasdeAmoryUnaCanconDesesperada(1924tr.W.S.MerwinasTwentyLove
PoemsandaSongofDespair,1969),'abookoflovesadness,oflovepain',whichwasregardedatthetimeaserotic,byhisownaccountsold'almosttwomillion
copies'worldwideby1970seealsoLosVersosdelCapitn:PoemasdeAmor(1952tr.BrianColeasTheCaptain'sVerses,1994).Hewasappointedtothe
DiplomaticServicein1927,servinginSoutheastAsia,Argentina,Spain,andMexico.HereturnedtoChilein1943,andwasin1945electedtotheSenateasa
Communisthewasexiledforhisviewsin1948.WhilehewasabroadhecompletedCantoGeneral(1950tr.JackSchmitt,1991),aMarxistorientatedepicof
Chile,withautobiographicalsections.HereturnedtoChilein1952,andpublishedOdasElementales...(3vols195457tr.MargaretSayersPedenasElemental
Odes,bilingualedn1991),inwhichheabandonedgloomypassionsandepicmodesforversewhichspoketothepeopleaboutmoreeverydaymatters.Hestoodfor
thepresidencyofChilein1969,but,toavoidapartysplit,withdrewafterfourmonthshardcampaigninginfavourofSalvadorAllende(190873),afterwhose
electionhewasappointedAmbassadortoFrance.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1971.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.NathanielTarn,tr.Anthony
Kerrigan,W.S.Merwin,AlastairReid,andNathanielTarn,newedn1993SelectedOdes,tr.MargaretSayersPeden,1990Memoirs,tr.H.StMartin,newedn
1994.
Nerval,Grardde(180855)
Frenchpoetandprosewriter,wasbornGerardLabrunieinParis,thesonofadoctorinNapoleon'sarmywhosewifediedin1810followinghimontheRussian
campaign.HewaseducatedatCollgeCharlemagne.At18hepublishedsixbooksofpoliticalandsatiricalverse,andat20atranslationofGOETHE'SFaustwhichwas
settomusicin1829byHectorBerlioz(180369).Hestudiedmedicine,butgaveitupin1834afterinheriting30,000francsfromhisgrandfather,withwhich,after
sometimetravelling,hefoundedthereviewLeMondeDramatique.Itsfailureayearlaterbankruptedhim,buthestillpursuedtheprecariouscallingoffreelance
journalist.Hewrotethelyricsfor,andcollaboratedwithHUGOtoproduce,themusicalplayPiquillo(1837),starringJennyColon(d.1842),whowasforhimthe
embodimentofperfectwomanhoodandofhisfascinationwiththestageshemarriedsomeoneelsein1838.HavingpublishedhisearlyworkasGrard,hebeganin
about1840toassume'deNerval',afamilypaddockinValoisandalsoananagramofhismother'smaidenname.Afteranattackofinsanityin1841,hesetouttore

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establishhiscareerbytakinganextendedtripthroughEgypt,Lebanon,andTurkeyhewroteuphisaccountsinvisionarystyleandfinallyshapedthemintovolume
formasVoyageenOrient(1851ed.andtr.NormanGlassasJourneytotheOrient,1972).LesFillesduFeu(1854tr.JamesWhitallasDaughtersofFire,
1923),aspiritualautobiographyintheformofprosenarratives,includingthelargelypastoralromance,'Sylvie',towhichwasappendedhismysticalsonnetsequence,
'LesChimres'(tr.PeterJayasTheChimeras,1984),appearedshortlybeforeheunderwenthisfifthcourseoftreatmentformentalinstability.Fivemonthslaterhe
wasfoundhangedfromalamppostinRuedelaVieilleLanterne.SeeSelectedWritings,ed.andtr.GeoffreyWagner,newedn1968.
Nesbit,E(dith)(18581924)
Britishpoet,novelist,andchildren'swriter,wasborninLondon,theyoungestdaughterofanagriculturalchemistwhodiedin1862.ShewaseducatedatanUrsuline
conventinFrance,andatboardingschoolsinGermanyandBrighton,fromwhichsheescapedintheholidaystoherownroominthefamilyhomeinKent,whereshe
dreamedofbeingagreatpoet.Theinsecurity,andsometimespoverty,thatsheexperiencedasachildcontinuedduringherunconventionallifewithHubertBland(d.
1914),apoliticaljournalist,whomshemarriedin1880.Sheacceptedhissocialistprinciples,andwithhimwasoneofthefoundersofwhatin1884becametheFabian
Society.Shealsoaccepted,andbroughtupwithherown,threechildrenofhisvariousliaisons,whileherselfhavingyounglovers.Toearnmoney,shewroteverse
LaysandLegends(1886,2ndseries1892)andmagazinestories,andtriedgivingpublicrecitalsandevencolouringChristmascardsbyhand.Itwasperhaps
Bland'slossofhiscapitalthroughanabscondingpartnerthatgaveherthethemeforherfirstchildren'snovel,TheStoryoftheTreasureSeekers(1899),inwhichMr
Bastablesuffersthesamefateandhischildrentryallkindsofstrategemstorevivethefamilyfinances,butthesuretouch,anddeftcharacterizationanddialogueare
entirelyherown.TheBastablesreappearintwomorestories,afterwhichsheembarkedonherdomesticfantasiesFiveChildrenandIt(1902),ThePhoenixand
theCarpet(1904),andTheStoryoftheAmulet(1906).TheRailwayChildren(1906)markedareturnentirelytotherealworldandisanexcursionintosentiment.
ShewasawardedaCivilListpensionin1915,andmarriedamarineengineerin1917.SeeJuliaBriggs,AWomanofPassion:theLifeofE.Nesbit,newedn1989
AntheaBell,E.Nesbit,1960(criticalstudy).
Newbolt,(Sir)Henry(18621938)
Britishpoet,wasborninBilston,Staffordshire,theeldersonoftheVicarofStMary'sbyhissecondmarriage,andwaseducatedatCliftonCollegeandCorpus
ChristiCollege,Oxford.HewascalledtotheBarin1887andpractisedfor12years,duringwhichhecontributedtotheLawDigestwhilealsoansweringthecallof
literature.HewroteaNapoleonictale,TakenfromtheEnemy(1892),andatragedyinblankverse,Mordred(1895).In1896LINGpublishedsixofhispoemsin
Longman'sMagazine,andtheStJames'sGazetteprinted'Drake'sDrum'(withitsrefrain,'Capten,arttha'sleepin'therebelow'),whichBRIDGESandYEATSadmired.
AdmiralsAll(1897),containing12similarlyspiritedpoems,wentthroughfourimpressionsinafortnight.ThetitlesaloneofTheIslandRace(1898)andDrake's
Drum,andSongsoftheSea(1914)reflectthewholesome,patrioticfervourofthetimesandoftheauthorofsuchpoemsas'HeFellamongThieves'and'Vita
Lampada'('There'sabreathlesshushintheClosetonight...').HewasappointedProfessorofPoetryoftheRoyalSocietyofLiteraturein1911,andservedinthe
AdmiraltyduringWorldWarI,afterwhichhewrotetheconcludingtwovolumesoftheofficialaccountofnavaloperations.Hewasknightedin1915,andmadeCHin
1922.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.PatricDickinson,1981.
Newby,P(ercy)H(oward)(b.1918)
Britishnovelist,wasborninCrowborough,Sussex,andeducatedatHanleyCastleGrammarSchool,Worcester,andStPaul's(TeacherTraining)College,
Cheltenham.HeservedintheRoyalArmyMedicalCorpsinFranceandEgyptfrom1939to1942,whenhebecameuntil1946alecturerinEnglishatFouadI
University,Cairo.In1949hejoinedtheBBC,beingControlleroftheThirdProgramme195871,DirectorofRadioProgrammes197175,andManagingDirectorof
Radio197578.HewasChairmanoftheEnglishStageCompany197884.Whatheterms'therelationshipbetweeninnocenceandknowledge'isparticularly
reflectedinhisMiddleEastandMediterraneannovelssuchasAgentsandWitnesses(1947),ThePicnicatSakkara(1955),RevolutionandRoses(1957),and
SomethingtoAnswerFor(1968),thefirstwinneroftheBookerPrizeforfiction.ThesearefarcesinwhichanEnglishtravellergenerallyendsaseriesofdisastrous
confrontationsinthesamestateofincomprehensionasatthebeginning.InhisnovelswithBritishsettingsheanalysesmiddleandlowermiddleclasslife,sometimes
balancingfarcewithseriousintrospectionintothepsychologicaldifferencesbetweencharacters,asinASeasonofEngland(1951),OneoftheFounders(1965),
andCominginwiththeTide(1990).TheRetreat(1953)reflectshisexperienceofteachertraining,andFeelingsHaveChanged(1981)ofworkingfortheBBC.
SomethingaboutWomen(1995),his28thbook,isprimarilyaparablethelinkingcharacterisanAngloCatholic

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clergymanwhosevisionofwomenchangesduringthecourseoftheeventsdescribed.HewasmadeCBEin1972.
Newman,JohnHenry(180190)
Britishtheologian,wasbornintheCityofLondon,theeldestchildofabanker,andwaseducatedataprivateschoolinEalingandatTrinityCollege,Oxford.Hewas
electedaFellowofOrielCollegein1822,wasordainedin1824,andwasVicaroftheuniversitychurchofStMary's182843seeNewman'sUniversitySermons
(1970).HisdisillusionmentwiththeChurchofEnglandischartedpreciselyandpersuasively(andwhendemolishinghisantagonist,ironically)inApologiaproVita
Sua(1864),whichbeganasaresponsetoKINGSLEY'Sanonymousattackinareview,andbecamealiteraryandspiritualproseclassic.HebecameaCatholicin1845,
andfoundedtheOratoryinBirminghamin1848.TheIdeaofaUniversityDefinedandIllustrated(1873),whichheregardedasoneofhismostartisticallyperfect
works,wasbasedonDiscoursesontheScopeandNatureofUniversityEducation(1852)andonhisexperienceasRectorfrom1854to1858ofthenew
CatholicUniversityinDublin.ThelastofhisnumeroustheologicalworkswasAnEssayinAidofaGrammarofAssent(1870),anexaminationofbelief.Intheearly
1830shecontributedoverahundredsacredpoems,including'PillaroftheCloud'(betterknownasthehymn'Lead,KindlyLight')totheBritishMagazine,which
werereprinted,withothersbymembersoftheOxfordMovement,asLyraApostolica(1834).Hereturnedtopoetrylater,whenillandenvisagingdeath,towriteThe
DreamofGerontius(1866),ajourneyofthesoul,latermadeintoanoratoriobyEdwardElgar(18571934).Healsowrotetwoanonymousnovels,Lossand
Gain:theStoryofaConvert(1848)andCallista:aSketchoftheThirdCentury(1856).HewascreatedCardinalofSanGiorgioinVelabroin1879.SeeIan
Ker,JohnHenryNewman:aBiography,newedn1990SheridanGilley,NewmanandHisAge,1994OwenChadwick,Newman,1983(introductiontohis
thought).
Newton,(Sir)Isaac(16421727)
philosopher,mathematician,andphysicist,wasbornatWoolsthorpe,Lincolnshire,theposthumoussonofaminorlandowner,andwaseducatedatGrantham
GrammarSchooland,asasizar,atTrinityCollege,Cambridge.HewaselectedaFellowofthecollegein1667,LucasianProfessorofMathematicsin1671,andin
1672aFellowoftheRoyalSociety,ofwhichhewasPresidentfrom1703untilhisdeath.Hepropoundedthelawsofgravity,onwhichhehadbeenworkingsince
1665,inaseriesofuniversitylecturesin1684underthetitleof'DeMotuCorporum'[OntheMovementofBodies],whichformedthefirstpartofhisgreattreatise,
PhilosophiaeNaturalisPrincipiaMathematica(1687),translatedintoEnglishbyAndrewMottein1729.Newton'sothermajorscientificworksareOpticks
(1704)andArithmeticaUniversalis(1707).Healsopublishedseveralwritingsontheologicalsubjects.HetwicerepresentedOxfordUniversityinParliament,and
wasMasteroftheMintfrom1699.Hewasknightedin1705.Attimesasickandfrequentlyabitterandquarrelsomeman,hiscontributiontoEnglishliteratureliesless
inthemannerinwhichhewrote(whichwasfrequentlyinLatin),thaninhisabilitytoreconcileadvancedscientificdiscoverieswithChristianbeliefs,andinhis
expositionofhis'Newtonian'philosophy,whichhadaprofoundinfluenceontheEnlightenment,andisreflectedintheworkofsuchpoetsasPOPEandJAMESTHOMSON
(170048).WORDSWORTH,whofirstreadOptickswhenhewasatschool,rearrangedhisCambridgeroomsothat,fromhisbed,hecouldseethetopofthechapel
windowofTrinityCollegeunderwhichstoodthestatue'OfNewtonwithhisprismandsilentface,/Themarbleindexofamindforever/Voyagingthroughstrange
seasofThought,alone'(PreludeIII,6163).SeeRichardWestfall,TheLifeofIsaacNewton,newabridgededn1994ofNeveratRest:aBiographyofIsaac
Newton,newedn1983JohnFauvel,andothers(eds),LetNewtonBe!:aNewPerspectiveonHisLifeandWorks,newedn1989.
Ngugi*waThiong'o(b.1938)
Kenyannovelist,dramatist,andcritic,wasbornJamesNgugiinKamirithu,Limuru,tooneofthewivesofapeasantfarmer.HewaseducatedataGikuyuindependent
school,andthenatAllianceHighSchoolandMakerereUniversityCollege,wherehereadEnglish.Inhissecondyearhestopped,onimpulse,afinalyearstudentwho
wasinvolvedinthecreativeactivitiesofthecampus,andaskedifhecouldsendhimastorytoread.Whenwritten,andlaterretitled,itbecame'Mugumo'seeSecret
LivesandOtherStories(1975),whichhereferstoashis'creativeautobiographyoverthepasttwelveyears'.Healsowroteatthistimeaplay,TheBlackHermit
(performedbytheUgandaNationalTheatre1962,published1968),andtwonovels.WeepNotChild(1964),thefirstpublishednovelinEnglishbyanEastAfrican,
explorestheeffectonordinaryvillagersoftheMauMauwarforindependence.TheRiverBetween(1965),whichwaswrittenfirst,goesbacktothequarrelswiththe
missionariesinthe1930s,andestablishesthetraditionalrightoftheGikuyupeopletotheirland.AfterayearasareporterontheNairobiDailyNation,hestudiedon
aBritishCouncilscholarshipatLeedsUniversity.DuringthistimehewroteAGrainofWheat(1967),whichcentresonthecloseofthecolonialerawhilequestioning
themotivesandactionsofthenewindependentregime.
Onhisreturnin1967hechangedhisname

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toitstraditionalform,andtookupateachingpostatNairobiUniversityCollege.Hewasin1972appointedChairmanoftheDepartmentofLiterature,Nairobi
University,whereheconsolidated'asyllabuswhichwouldhaveoralliteratureatthecentre,thenwrittenAfricanliteraturefromEastAfrica,fromAfricaandfromthe
Caribbean,fromAfroAmericaandsoon,andthentheliteratureofEurope...'.InPetalsofBlood(1977),theinvolvementinatriplemurderoffoursuspectsisthe
linkingthemeofastudyofthebackgroundtothecontinuedunrestamongthesectionsofsocietytowhomindependencehadnotbroughtfreedom.Respondingtoa
demandfromthecommunity,andwithcommunalcooperation,hewrote(withNgugiwaMirii)NgaahikaNdeenda,aplayinGikuyu(translatedasIWillMarry
WhenIWant,1982).ItwasproducedintheopenasavillagedramawithactorsfromthecommunityatKamirithuinOctober1977,butamonthlaterthelicenceto
performitwaswithdrawnbytheauthorities.InDecemberNgugi*wasarrestedathishomeandheldwithoutchargeortrialforayearinthemaximumsecurityprison
ofKamitiseeDetained:aWriter'sPrisonDiary(1981)
InDevilontheCross(1982),translatedbyhimselffromtheGikuyuversionwhichhewroteinprisononcarefullysecretedleavesoflavatorypaper,heemploysthe
biblicallanguagewithwhichhisoriginalreaderswerefamilaraswellasoraltraditioninafurtherstudyofpoliticalandeconomicexploitation.Hewentintoexilein
Europein1982,andthentotheUSA,havingdecidedtouseGikuyuforallsubsequentcreativeworks.Thesehaveincludedasymbolicnovel,tr.WanguiwaGoroas
Matigari(1989),andaseriesofchildren'sadventurestoriesaboutthefightforKenyanindependence,seenthroughtheeyesofhischaracterNjambaNene.After
teachingatYaleandotheruniversities,hewasappointedProfessorofComparativeLiteratureandPerformanceStudiesatNewYorkUniversity.Hiscriticalworks
includeHomecoming:EssaysonAfricaandCaribbeanLiterature,CultureandPolitics(1972)andDecolonisingtheMind:thePoliticsofLanguagein
AfricanLiterature(1986),theideasinwhicharedevelopedinthecollectionofessays,MovingtheCentre:theStruggleforCulturalFreedoms(1993)seealso
WritersinPolitics(1996).SeeG.D.Killam,AnIntroductiontotheWritingsofNgugi,1980DavidCookandMichaelOkenimpke,NgugiwaThiong'o:an
ExplorationofHisWritings,2ndedn1996andinJaneWilkinson(ed.),TalkingwithAfricanWriters,1992.
Nichol,bp
seeONDAATJE.
Nichols,Grace(b.1950)
Guyanesepoetandnovelist,wasborninacoastalvillageandmovedwithherfamilytoGeorgetownwhenshewaseight.Shelefthighschoolat16toearnherown
living,latertakingadiplomaincommunications.Afterteachinginprimaryschoolfrom1967to1970,shebecameajournalist,andin1977emigratedtoBritain.She
worksinbothEnglishandCreole,tending'towanttofusethetwotonguesbecauseIcomefromabackgroundwherethetwowerecontinuallyinteracting'.IIsaLong
MemoriedWoman(1983),whichwontheCommonwealthPoetryPrize,isapoemcyclereflectingwomen'saspectsofthesearchforanAfroCaribbeanidentity.In
TheFatBlackWoman'sPoems(1984)andLazyThoughtsofaLazyWoman(1989),somestrikingandsomeironicpoemscompensateforsomeoverambitious
femininemetaphorsseealsoSunrise:NewPoems(1996)ShehasalsowrittenasemiautobiographicalnovelofyouthinGuyana,AWholeofaMorningSky
(1986),andstoriesandpoemsforchildren.
Nicholson,Norman(191487)
Britishpoetanddramatist,thesonofashopkeeper,wasbornintheterracehouseinMillom,Cumbria,inwhichhelivedallhislife.HewaseducatedatMillom
GrammarSchool,butin1930wasdiagnosedashavingtuberculosis.Hereturnedhomeafter15monthsinbedinaHampshiresanitorium,unfitforajoborfor
university,andbecameawriter.Healso,havingbeenbroughtupasaMethodist,returnedtotheAnglicanfaithinwhichhehadbeenbaptized,andwhichpervades
muchofhispoetryanddrama.Inhisearlierwork,collectedinFiveRivers(1944),RockFace(1948),andThePotGeranium(1954),heisconcernedwith
expressinguniversalissuesintermsofhisenvironmentandofthechangingcircumstancesofMillom.Itsinhabitants,withmembersofhisownfamily,featureinALocal
Habitation(1972),fromwhichamorecolloquialtoneemergesInSeatotheWest(1981),bywhichtimeMillomhadceasedtobeanindustrialtown,hisconcernis
withtheelementalworldfromwhichitoriginallysprang.HisverseplaysincludeTheOldManoftheMountains(rev.edn1950)andBirthbyDrowning(1960),in
whichherelocatesOldTestamentprophetsinmodernCumbria.Healsowrotetwonovels,TheFireoftheLord(1944)andTheGreenShore(1947),Cumbrian
topographicalworks,andstudiesofCOWPER(1951,1960)andWELLS(1950).In1956hemarriedateacher,YvonneGardner(d.1982).In1965hewasfinally
pronouncedfreeoftuberculosis.HewasmadeOBEin1981.SeeSelectedPoems19401982,1982CollectedPoems,ed.NeilCurry,1994WednesdayEarly
Closing,1975(autobiography).
Nicolson,(Sir)Harold(18861968)
Britishcriticandbiographer,wasborninTehran,thesonoftheBritishChargd'Affaires,ArthurNicolson(18491928),laterLordCarnock,andspenthischildhood
followinghisparentsaroundtheirpostings

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abroadorwithrelativesinIreland.HewaseducatedatWellingtonCollegeandBalliolCollege,Oxford,whereheonlyobtainedapassdegree,thoughin1909he
passedbrilliantlyintotheDiplomaticService.In1913hemarriedSACKVILLEWESTseeVitaandHarold:theLettersofVitaSackvilleWestandHaroldNicolson,
ed.NigelNicolson(1992).HeworkedinLondonondiplomaticdutiesduringWorldWarI,afterwhichhewasamemberoftheBritishdelegationwhichcoman
agedtheTreatyofVersailles.HebeganhisliterarycareerwithPaulVerlaine(1921),thefirstofseveralcriticalbiographiesofliteraryfigures,amongwhomwere
TENNYSON(1923),BYRON(1924),andSWINBURNE(1926).HeservedinTehranin192527,hisrecalltoLondonanddemotionfollowing,butnotnecessarilybeing
connectedwith,thepublicationofSomePeople(1927),aseriesofwittysemiautobiographicalessaysthestudiesofhisancestors,Helen'sTower(1937)andThe
DesiretoPlease(1943),arealsoindirectlyautobiographical.Heresignedfromtheservicein1929afterspendingtwoyearsinBerlin.HewasNationalLabour
MemberofParliamentforWestLeicester193545.HisofficialbiographyofGeorgeVwaspublishedin1952.Othersignificanthistoricalworksinclude
Peacemaking,1919(1933)andTheCongressofVienna(1946).MarginalComment(1939)andTheEnglishSenseofHumour(1944)demonstratehisskillas
awriterofessaysconstructedonclassicallycircularlines.In1956hestoodforelectionasProfessorofPoetryatOxford,andlosttoAUDENbyonly24votes.Hewas
knightedin1953.SeeDiariesandLetters19301962,ed.NigelNicolson,3volsnewedn196971Diaries,ed.NigelNicolson,1996.
Nietzsche,FriedrichWilhelm(18441900)
Germanphilosopherandcritic,wasborninRocken,thesonofaLutheranpastor.HiscareerattheuniversitiesofBonnandLeipzigwassospectacularthatat25he
wasappointedProfessorofClassicalPhilologyatBasel,whereheremaineduntil1879.DieGeburtderTragdie(1872asTheBirthofTragedy,tr.WmA.
Haussmann,1909tr.ShaunWhiteside,ed.MichaelTanner,1993)wasdedicatedtoRichardWagner(181383),theprotagonistofwhoseoperaSiegfriedhesaw
asembodyinghissuperman,butwithwhomhefelloutforwhathetermedthecomposer's'histrionicselfdeception'.InAlsosprachZarathustra(188385tr.R.J.
HollingdaleasThusSpokeZarathustra,1961)hefurtherdevelopedhisvisionofmaneitherdecliningintothe'lastman',or'overcoming'himselfandgivingbirthtothe
'overman'.YEATS,whowasfirstintroducedtohisworkin1902andreturnedtoitinthe1930s,referredtohimas'thatstrongenchanter'andciteshimbynameinhis
didacticpoem,'ThePhasesoftheMoon'(1918).Nietzschewentmadin1889andspenttherestofhislifeinhismother'shouseinWeimar.Hisevilgeniuswashis
sister,ElisabethFrsterNietzsche(18461935),whoin1886foundedwithherhusbandNuevaGermania,anAryanhomelandinParaguay,andwhoobtained
Nietzsche'spapersafterhisdeathandmisrepresentedhisviewsasNazipropaganda.SeeRonaldHayman,Nietzsche:aCriticalLife,newedn1995RobertC.
Holub,FriedrichNietzsche,1995(biographical/criticalstudy)MichaelTannerNietzsche,1997(criticalstudy)MichaelTanner,Nietzsche,1994(introduction).
Nin,Anas(190377)
Americannovelistanddiarist,wasborninNeuilly,France,theeldestofthreechildrenofaconcertpianistofSpanishorigin,andofasingerofFrenchDanish
parentageeightyearsolderthanherhusband,bothofwhomwereborninCuba.Afterherhusband'sfinaldesertion,motherandchildrenmovedtoBarcelonain1914.
FromtheretheysailedforNewYorkenrouteNinbeganherdiary,intheformofletterstoherfather,withwhomshewasreunitedinanincestuousrelationshipin
1933(hediedin1949).AfterdroppingoutofWadleighHighSchool(shelatertookafewcoursesatColumbiaUniversity),sheworkedasanartist'smodel,andin
1923married,inCuba,HughGuiler,laterknownasIanHugo,engraverandfilmmaker.By1931shewasinstalledinahouseinLouveciennes,asuburbofParis,
writingD.H.Lawrence:anUnprofessionalStudy(1932),whichhadamarkofclass,andwasembarkingonanaffairwithHENRYMILLERshealsosupportedhim
financiallyandtheygaveeachothercreativeencouragement.In1932shebeganpsychoanalysis,whichshepractisedasalayanalystinNewYork.
In1936sheboughtahouseboatontheSeine,andpublishedTheHouseofIncest,asurrealist,introspectiveprosepoem,throughherownpress,Siana(Anas
reversed).ShereturnedtoNewYorkin1939,andin1942established,inGreenwichVillage,GemorPresstoprintarevisedversionofTheWinterofArtifice
(1939),threelinkednovellasdevelopingthethemeofafather/daughterrelationshipThisHunger(1945)andUnderaGlassBell(1944),shortstories.Subsequent
novelswerepublishedcommerciallybutuneconomically.Shemadeherdebutasafilmactressin1946,andherreputationasawriterandliteraryfigurefinallyin1966,
withthepublicationofTheDiaryofAnasNin:19311934.Ninevolumescoveringtheyears191474,threeofthempublishedposthumously,representonlyabouta
quarterofhertotalautobiographicaltext,whichsherevisedregularly.Itincludesfragmentsoftwoposthumouslypublishedvolumesoferotica,DeltaofVenus(1977)
andLittleBirds(1979),originallywritteninthe1940sforaprivatecollector,

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whoseothersuppliersincludedMillerandBARKER.UnexpurgatedsectionsofthediarieshaveappearedasHenryandJune(1986)andIncest(1993).Attheageof
52Ninbigamouslymarriedamanof36,withwhomshelivedinCalifornia,whilejettingbackandforthalsotostaywithGuilerinNewYork,bothhusbandsbeing
unawareofeachother'sexistenceuntilshewasdying.SeeDeirdreBair,AnasNin:aBiography,newedn1996RecollectionofAnasNin:ByHer
Contemporaries,ed.BenjaminFranklin,1997NancyScholar,AnasNin,1984(criticalstudy).
Niven,Frederick(18781944)
Canadiannovelist,wasborninValparaiso,Chile,ofScottishparents,whobroughthimbacktoGlasgowwhenhewasfive.HewaseducatedatHutchesons'
GrammarSchoolandGlasgowSchoolofArt.Heworkedintheclothtrade,andasanassistantincirculatinglibraries,andthen,inBritishColumbia,inconstruction
camps,returningfromthereonacattleboat,anexperiencewhichhelaterrecreatedinhisnovel,S.S.Glory(1915).Hisfirstnovel,TheLostCabinMine(1908),is
anadventurestoryoftheCanadianWest.HereturnedtoCanadaasafreelancejournalistin191213,and,withhiswife,asanimmigrantin1920,havingbecauseofa
heartconditionspentWorldWarIasacivilservantinLondon.Aswellasfiction,hepublishedtwovolumesofpoetry,severaldescriptiveworksonCanada,andan
autobiographicalsketch,ColouredSpectacles(1938).Histhirtynovelsinclude,fromhisearlyperiod,severalpotboilers,writtentokeephimselfandhiswifeinfunds.
TheresthaveScottish(oftenGlasgow)orCanadiansettingsandthemesamongtheformerarethesignificantexamplesofScottishrealisticfiction,Justiceofthe
Peace(1914)andTheStaffatSimson's(1937).HismostnotablecontributiontoCanadianliteratureisthetrilogy,MineInheritance(1940),TheFlyingYears
(1935),andTheTransplanted(1944),whosebasicthemeissettlementandScottishimmigrationinBritishColumbiafromthebeginningofthe19thintothe20th
century.
Nkosi,Lewis(b.1936)
SouthAfricancriticanddramatist,wasborninDurbanandeducatedthereattheZuluLutheranHighSchool,beingbroughtupasanorphanbyhisgrandmother.He
becameajournalist,firstonaDurbanZulunewspaper,andthenasachiefreporterforDruminJohannesburg,wherehelivedintheSophiatownghetto.Onhis
acceptanceofayear'sfellowshipinjournalismatHarvard,hewasissuedwithaonewayexitpermitandbannedfromreturning.Hisplayaboutracism,TheRhythm
ofViolence(1964),wasreportedlythefirstplaybyablackSouthAfricantohavebeenpublishedfornearlyfortyyears.GORDIMERhasdescribedhisvolumeofcritical
essays,HomeandExile(1965),as'uniqueinSouthAfricanliterature'inthat'simultaneouslyheisayoungblackwhohasafootinthewhiteliberalworld,while
holdinghisplaceintheblackproletariatofthe''township"'.HelivedinLondonforsomeyears,andtravelledasajournalist,subsequentlyreturningtoAfricaasa
seniorlecturerinEnglishattheUniversityofZambia.LaterworksincludetheessaysTheTransplantedHeart(1975)andTasksandMasks:ThemesandStylesof
AfricanLiterature(1981).
Noonan,Robert
seeTRESSELL.
Norris,(Benjamin)Frank(lin)(18701902)
Americannovelist,wasborninChicago,andstudiedartinParis,EnglishliteratureattheUniversityofCalifornia,andthencreativewritingatHarvardforayear,during
whichhewrotepartsoftwonovels,McTeagueandVandoverandtheBrute.TravellinginSouthAfricain1895,heranupagainsttheUitlanderinsurrectionagainst
theBoers,whichhereportedfortheSanFranciscoChronicle.HavingbeencapturedbytheBoersanddeported,hejoinedtheeditorialstaffoftheWave,which
serializedhisnovel,MoranoftheLadyLetty(1898),anadventurestorywithafemaleprotagonist.In1898hewenttoCubatoreporttheSpanishAmericanWar
forMcClure'sMagazine.HethenbecameareaderforDoubledayMcClure,whichpublishedhisBlix(1899),thelovestoryofastrugglingnewspaperreporter,and
McTeague:aStoryofSanFrancisco(1899).Whilethelatter,astudyofabruteman'sdegeneration,owesmuchtotheinfluenceofZOLA,anditsendingispure
sensation,itwasagenuinecontributiontotheAmericannaturalisticnovel.Norrisdiedafteranappendicectomy,havingwrittentwonovelsofaprojectedtrilogy,'The
EpicofWheat':TheOctopus:aStoryofCalifornia(1901)andThePit:aStoryofChicago(1903).VandoverandtheBrute,thefinaldegradationofwhose
protagonististheconditionofwerewolf,wasthoughttoostrongforpublicationatthetime,butitfinallyappearedin1914,afterthemanuscripthadbeenlostintheSan
Franciscoearthquakeof1906,andrediscovered.Norris'stheoriesaboutnaturalisticwritingareinTheResponsibilitiesoftheNovelistandOtherEssays(1903).
SeeFranklinWalker,FrankNorris:aBiography,1963DonaidPizer,TheNovelsofFrankNorris,1966.
North,Christopher
seeWILSON,JOHN.
North,Thomas
seePLUTARCH.
Nortje,Arthur(194270)
SouthAfricanpoet,wasborninOudtshoorn,CapeProvince.AsachildhewasbroughtbyhismothertoPortElizabeth,wherehewaseducatedatGovernmentHigh
School,beingtaughtbyBRUTUS,whowasagreatinfluence

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onhisearlywritingofpoetry.HethenattendedthesegregatedWesternCapeUniversity,wherehereadEnglishandpsychology,andgotateachingqualification.He
wenttoOxfordonascholarshipin1965,andchosenottoreturntoSouthAfricaaftertakinghisdegree.HetaughtfortwoyearsatHopeHighSchoolinColumbia,
Canada,beforereturningtoOxfordin1970asapostgraduate.HediedofanoverdoseofdrugsshortlybeforehewasduetobedeportedtoSouthAfrica.The
severalhundredofhispublishedandunpublishedpoemsreflecthisdedicationtotraditionalEnglishpoeticformsandthechangingcircumstancesanddisturbedpattern
ofhislife.SeeDeadRoots,1973(poems)andinChristopherHeywood(ed.),AspectsofSouthAfricanLiterature,1976.
Norton,Thomas
seeSACKVILLE.
Nostradamus(MicheldeNotredameorNostredame)(150366)
Frenchastrologer,wasbornofJewishdescentinStRemy,andstudiedphilosophyatAvignonandmedicineatMontpellier.HepractisedasaphysicianinAgen,
Salon,andLyons,beingespeciallycommendedforhisserviceduringoutbreaksoftheplague.Hebeganmakingpropheciesinabout1547,andpublishedabookof
theminrhymingquatrains,Centuries(1555enlargededn1558).HewasnowreceivedbythenobilityandappointedphysiciantoCharlesIX.Hisfame,andthe
controversiesinherentintheinterpretationofhisenigmaticpredictions,haveoutlivedhimbycenturies.TheTruePropheciesorPrognosticationsofM.
Nostradamus,tr.T.deGarenire,waspublishedinLondonin1672.SeeFrancisKing,Nostradamus,1993(biography).
Noyes,Alfred(18801958)
Britishpoet,novelist,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninWolverhampton,sonofagrocerwholaterbecameateacher,andhadagoodgroundinginclassicsatschools
inAberystwyth.HewenttoExeterCollege,Oxford,forwhichhewasaformidableoarsman,butfailedtotakehisdegreebecausehewastoopreoccupiedwith
arrangingthepublicationofhisfirstbookofverse,TheLoomofYears(1902).Hispredilectionfortraditionalformsandmetres,andamelodiousgift,wonhimawide
audienceandapermanentnicheinschoolanthologies.Poemssuchas'TheBarrelOrgan'(1904),withitsrefrain,'GodowntoKewinlilactime...',and'The
Highwayman'(1907)areworthyofcriticalattention,buthisepicpoem,Drake(2vols190608),andotherimitations,haveanartificialring.FortySingingSeamen
appearedin1907.In1913,havingmarriedanAmerican,hegaveaseriesoflecturesattheLowellInstituteinBostonon'TheSeainEnglishPoetry'.Heoccupiedthe
visitingchairofModernEnglishLiteratureatPrincetonfrom1914to1923.AvisittoMountWilsonObservatoryinspiredathreevolume,10,000lineepic,The
TorchBearers(192230),inwhichhesoughttoreconciletheworkofscientistswithChristianthought.Controversialaswellasantimodernist,hestoppedthepublic
auctionofaprivatelyownedcopyofJOYCE'SUlysses,andorderedHUGHWALPOLEfromhishouseforrecommendingthebooktohisyoungdaughter.Havingbecomea
RomanCatholicin1927,heoffendedtheclergywithhisstudyofVOLTAIRE(1938).Hisfailingsightmovedhimtowriteseveralespeciallypoignantpoems,including
'Lookdownonusgentlywhojourneybynight'and'Spring,andtheBlindChildren'.HewasmadeCBEin1918.SeeCollectedPoems,newedn,1963Two
WorldsforMemory,1953(autobiography).

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O
Oakley,Barry(b.1931)
Australiandramatistandnovelist,wasborninMelbourneandeducatedattheChristianBrothersCollege,StKilda,andMelbourneUniversity,afterwhichhewasa
secondaryschoolteacheruntil1962.Hewasthenuntil1973successivelyalecturerattheRoyalMelbourneInstituteofTechnology,anadvertisingcopywriter,anda
journalistwiththefederalDepartmentofTradeandIndustry,livinginMelbournewithhiswifeandsixchildren.In1955hebegantocontributestoriestomagazines
andnewspapers,someofwhicharereprintedinWalkingThroughTigerland(1977).Hisfirstnovel,AWildAssofaMan(1967),inwhichafanaticmeetsan
improbableandironicend,waspublishedinthesameyearthathisfirstplay,FromtheDeskofEugeneFlockhart,wasreadattheEmeraldHillTheatre.Intwo
furtherpicaresquenovels,ASalutetotheGreatMcCarthy(1970),aboutanAustralianRulesfootballstar,andLet'sHearItforPrendergast,about'thetallest
poetintheworld',society,evenatitsmostabsurd,provestoomuchforinnocentambition.WitzenhausenWhereAreYou?(1968)andALessoninEnglish(1969)
wereamongthefirstexperimentalplaysperformedattheLaMamaTheatre,Carlton.Hehaswrittenmanyotherplays:satirical,suchasTheFeetofDanielMannix
(1971)farcical,suchasthestudyofHORNE,TheShip'sWhistle(1979)andcomicbutsympathetic,suchasScanlan(1978),whosesubjectisKENDALL.Themost
oftenperformed,andpossiblythemostAustralian,isBedfellows(1975),whosethemeofmarital,andextramarital,relationshipsisexploredwithbroadhumour,but
alsowithpenetratingandsometimespainfulrealism.SeeTheGreatGodMogadonandOtherPlays,1980ScribblingintheDark,newedn1993(reminiscences).
Oates,JoyceCarol(b.1938)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,andcritic,wasborninMillersport,NewYork,grewuponhergrandparents'farminErieCounty,andwenttohighschool
nearBuffalo.ShegraduatedwithconsiderabledistinctioninEnglishandphilosophyfromSyracuseUniversityin1960,havingduringthecourseofhercreativewriting
studiesproducedanoveleachsemester.WhiledoingfurtherstudyattheUniversityofWisconsin,shemetRaymondJ.Smith,anEnglishprofessor,whomshemarried
in1961.ProgresstowardsthedegreeofPhDwasabandonedwhenshediscoveredthatastoryofherswasincludedinBestAmericanStories(1961),afterwhich
shewentontocombineteachingattheuniversitiesofDetroit(196167)andWindsor(196778),andasWriterinResidenceatPrincetonfrom1978withco
editing(withherhusband)theOntarioReview,andwritingaformidableamountoffiction,poetry,andcriticism.Ofthesizeofheroutputshehassaid:'Productivityis
arelativematter.Andit'sreallyinsignificant:whatisultimatelyimportantisawriter'sstrongestbooks.'Thoughfromearlyoncriticizedfora'highdosageofviolence',
shehasrespondedthatinthecontextof'thenumberofpagesIhavewritten,andthe"violent"incidentsdispersedthroughthem,IratherdoubtthatIamaviolentwriter
inanymeaningfulsenseoftheword'andthatfromKAFKAshelearned'tomakeajestofhorror'.
Avolumeofshortstories,BytheNorthGate(1963),andanovel,WithShudderingFall(1964),openedacanoninwhichshehasofferedinsightsintotheAmerican
psychethrougharangeoffictionalforms.TheseincludeGothicromanceBellefleur(1980)satireUnholyLoves(1979)fantasyChildwold(1976)political
parableBlackWater(1992)andsheerbutbrutalrealismthem(1969),whichwontheNationalBookAward,YouMustRememberThis(1987),inwhichshe
demonstratesherunderstandingofthesportofboxing,andFoxfire:ConfessionsofaGirlGang(1993),afurthernovelaboutthe1950s.WhatILivedFor
(1994),her24thnovel,isastudyofaroughhewnmanofcontradictionshauntedultimatelybyasenseofadestinyforwhichheisnotentirelyresponsible.Shehas
writtenseveralthrillersasRosamondSmith.SubsequentvolumesofshortstoriesincludeTheWheelofLove(1970),ASentimentalEducation(1981),andLast
Days(1984).Forherpoetry,whichbeganinvolumeformwithWomeninLoveandOtherPoems(1968),seeInvisibleWoman:NewandSelectedPoems1970
1982(1982)andTheTimeTraveler:Poems19831989(1990).CriticalandotheressaysareinTheEdgeoftheImpossibility:TragicFormsinLiterature
(1972),Contraries(1981),ThePro

Page406

faneArt(1983),andWomanWriter:OccasionsandOpportunities(1988).ShecompiledandcontributedcriticalnotestoTheOxfordBookofAmericanShort
Stories(1993).SeeEileenTeperBender,JoyceCarolOates:ArtistinResidence,1987(criticalstudy)GregJohnson,UnderstandingJoyceCarolOates,1989.
O'Brien,ConorCruise(b.1917)
Irishcriticandhistorian,wasborninDublinandeducatedatSandfordParkSchoolandTrinityCollege,Dublin,hisPhDstudybeingpublishedasParnellandHis
Party18801890(1957).HeenteredtheDepartmentofExternalAffairsin1944,atwhichtimehewasalsocontributing(asDonatO'Donnell)articlestoliterary
magazineswhichwerecollectedasMariaCross:ImaginativePatternsinaGroupofModernCatholicWriters(1952).HewasamemberoftheIrishdelegation
totheUnitedNationsfrom1956to1960,andwasappointedUNRepresentativeinKatangain1968.ToKatangaandBack(1962)describeshisdramatic
interventioninlocalaffairsandsubsequentresignationfromtheUNTheUnitedNations:SacredDrama(1967)rehearseshisviewsontheorganizationitself.His
experiencesinAfricaalsoinspiredhisplay,MurderousAngels(1968).HewasViceChancellor,UniversityofGhana196265,andAlbertSchweitzerProfessorof
Humanities,NewYorkUniversity196569.HewaselectedaLabourMemberoftheIrishParliamentin1969,andwasMinisterforPostsandTelegraphs197377,
intherulingcoalitionwithFineGael.HerepresentedDublinUniversityintheSenate197779.HewasEditorinChiefoftheObserver197881,afterwhichhe
returnedtoteachingintheUSA.VolumesofessaysincludeHerod:ReflectionsonPoliticalViolence(1978),comprisingstudiesinvariousformsofviolencein
UlsterWritersandPolitics(1965)andPassionandCunningandOtherEssays(1988),whoseleadpieceis'AnEssayonthePoliticsofW.B.Yeats'(1965),the
argumentofwhichhascontinuedtobeasubjectofcontroversy.RecentstudiesareAncestralVoices:ReligionandNationalisminIreland(1994),asynthesisof
historyandautobiography,OntheEveoftheMillenium:theFutureofDemocracythroughanAgeofUnreason(1996),andthecontroversialTheLongAffair:
ThomasJeffersonandtheFrenchRevolution(1996).HehasalsowrittenbooksonCAMUS(1969)andonBURKE(1992).KateCruiseO'Brien(b.1948),short
storywriterandnovelist,ishisdaughter.SeeDonaldHarmanAkenson,Conor:aBiographyofConorCruiseO'BrienVolumeOne:Narrative,VolumeTwo:
Anthology,1994.
O'Brien,Edna(b.1932)
Irishnovelist,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninruralTuamgraney,Co.Clare,theyoungestoffourchildreninahomewithoutbooks.'Mymotherwas
extremelysuspiciousofliteraturebecauseshethoughtitwasbadandcouldleadtosin.Myfatherwasn'tinterestedinbooks.HisreadingwasconfinedtotheIrish
Fieldandbloodstockmanuals.'ShewaseducatedattheNationalSchool,Scariff('abitshambolical')and,muchmorestrictly,attheConventofMercy,Loughrea,
goingontothePharmaceuticalCollegeofIreland,andqualifyingasapharmacist.Shemarriedawriter,fromwhomshewasdivorcedin1967.Since1959shehas
livedinLondon,withfrequentvisitstoIreland.Hertrilogy,TheCountryGirls(1960),TheLonelyGirl(1962,reissued1964asGirlwithGreenEyes),andGirls
inTheirMarriedBliss(1964),whichtellsofgirlsmaturing,beinginitiatedintolove,andbeingdisappointed,hasstrongautobiographicalechoes.Loveinitsinfinite
varietyisthemainspringofherwork,whetheritisloveforanoldermanorayoungermanor(frequently)thewrongman,orforawomanorone'smotherorone's
son,andhersettingsareusuallyLondonandCo.Clare.
HouseofSplendidIsolation(1994),her14thnovel,representsherimaginativeviewoftheTroubles,attheheartofwhichistheunusualrelationshipbetweenan
elderlywidowinamoulderingmansionandanIRAterroristinsearchofasafehouse.ThemodelforthelatterwasDominic'MadDog'McGlinchy,whomO'Brien
interviewedatlengthduringhistenyearprisonsentencehewasshotdeadbytheINLAin1994.EvenmoretopicalisDownbytheRiver(1996),inspiredbythe
notoriousIrishcaseofa14yearoldrepeatedlyabusedandmadepregnantbyafamilyfriend.O'Brienhasbeenpraisedbothforherlyricismandherfrankness,
thoughtosomecriticsherstrongerworkisinhershortstories,ofwhichLanternSlides(1990)isthesixthcollection.(Shehasdescribedtheshortstoryas'aquick,
shortshaftofprose,[which]musthavetheeffectandtheaftereffectofaflashoflightning'.)Shehasadaptedseveralofhernovelsforthestage,forwhichshehasalso
writtenVirginia(rev.edn1985),fromVIRGINIAWOOLF'Sdiaries,andMadameBovary(1987).MotherIreland(1976)placesherwritinginthecontextofher
upbringingandofIreland.
O'Brien,Flann,oneofthemanypseudonymsofBrianO'Nolan(191166)
Irishnovelistandjournalist,wasborninStrabane,Co.Tyrone,thethirdof12childrenofanIrishspeakingofficeroftheCustomsandExcise.Hewaseducatedat
BlackrockCollegeandUniversityCollege,Dublin,wherehestudiedEnglish,Irish,andGermanliterature,andwroteathesisonIrishpoetry.HeworkedfortheIrish
CivilServicefrom1935untilheretiredin1953.Hisfirstnovel,AtSwimTwoBirds(1939),isexperimentalinformandgailysatiricalofattitudestoGaelicculturein
intent.Asecond,TheThirdPoliceman,darkerandratherdisturbing,wasre

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jected,andonlypublishedin1967afterhisdeath.Hethenwrote,inIrish,AnBalBocht(1941tr.PatrickPowerasThePoorMouth,1973),partparodyofand
partdevastatingattackontheIrishspeakingestablishment.Hisnext,andlasttwo,novels,TheHardLife:ExegesisofSqualor(1961)andTheDalkeyArchive
(1964),followedthereissuebyaLondonpublisherin1960ofAtSwimTwoBirds.From1940to1966heentertainedthepublicthreetimesaweekwithhiscolumn,
inIrishandEnglish,intheIrishTimes,'CruiskeenLawn'[fulllittlejug]underthebylineof'MylesnagCopaleen'[MylesofthePonies],acharacterfromGRIFFIN.Inthe
wordsofA.NormanJeffaresinAngloIrishLiterature(1982),it'providedasuitablemtierforhisidiosyncraticcastigationofculturalconfusionorpretension,and
throughitrunsanirresistiblesenseofhumour,rangingfromthedeadpantothefreeplayofanexceptionallysharpassociativemind'.SeeAnthonyCronin,No
LaughingMatter:theLifeandTimesofFlannO'Brien,newedn1990SueAsbee,FlannO'Brien,1991(criticalstudy).
O'Brien,Kate(18971974)
Irishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninLimerickandeducatedatLaurelHillConvent,Limerick,andUniversityCollege,Dublin.Shebegantowritewhileagoverness
inSpain,andafterabriefmarriagetoaDutchjournalist(itlastedayear),shesettledinEnglandandwasforatimeonthestaffoftheManchesterGuardian.Herfirst
workswereplays,DistinguishedVilla(1926)andTheBridge(1927)sheturnedtothenovelasaformofindividualexpressionwhichdidnotinvolvecontributions
byothers.WithoutMyCloak(1931),aportraitofthreegenerationsofanIrishfamily,wonboththeHawthorndenandJamesTaitBlackMemorialprizes.Whileshe
wrotefrom,andof,aCatholicbackground,theconflictswhichensuewhentheheroinebreaksawayfromtraditionalconstrictionstorealizeherselfresultedinboth
MaryLavelle(1936)andTheLandofSpices(1941)fallingfouloftheIrishcensors.AsimilaractofliberationinformsAsMusicandSplendour(1958),whichhasa
lesbiantheme.ThatLady(1946),amoreromanticpiece,issetinthechargedatmosphereofthecourtofPhilipIIofSpain.Shealsowrotetwobeautifullyobserved
topographical,social,andculturalstudies,FarewellSpain(1937)andMyIreland(1962),andabiography,TeresaofAvila(1951).AfterlivinginEnglandfor
twentyyears,shereturnedtoIreland,beforefinallycomingbacktoEnglandin1965.SeePresentationParlour,newedn1994(reminiscences)LornaReynolds,
KateO'Brien:aLiteraryPortrait,1987.
O'Casey,Sean(18801964)
Irishdramatist,wasbornJohnCaseyinDublin,theyoungestof13childrenofpoorProtestantparentsofwhomfivesurvived.Becauseofadiseaseoftheeyes,hehad
littleschooling,andappearstohavetaughthimselftoread,whilelivingwithhismotherandremainingbrotherinatenementafterhisfather'sdeathwhenhewassix.He
workedasacasuallabourerfromtheageof14,educatinghimselffrombookshebought,borrowed,andsometimesstole,andrevellingparticularlyinthelanguageand
stagecraftofSHAKESPEAREandotherElizabethandramatists.Inabout1910hewascaughtupintheIrishpoliticalscene,andatvarioustimesjoinedtheGaelicLeague,
theIrishSocialistParty,therecentlyformedIrishTransportandGeneralWorkersUnion,andtheIrishCitizenArmy,thoughhedidnotparticipateinthe1916Rising.
Bythistimehewaswritingplays.Afterfourrejections,TheShadowofaGunmanwasputonattheAbbeyTheatrein1923(O'Caseywasworkingasacement
mixeratthetime)thefollowingyearJunoandthePaycockranfortwoweeks,thefirstAbbeyplayevertodoso.Thepoliticalturbulenceandviolenceofthetimes
andthelanguageandatmosphereofthetenementshadbeenbroughtresoundinglytothestage,andfemalecharactersrepresentedasmoreheroicthanthemen.With
25royaltiesinhispocket,O'Caseybecameafulltimewriter.Enragedpatriotsriotedinresponsetohistreatmentofthe1916EasterRisinginThePloughandthe
Stars(1926),andwhensixweekslaterhewasinvitedtoLondontoreceivetheHawthorndenPrizeforJunoandthePaycock,hedecidedtoremainpermanentlyin
England.Hisselfimposedexilebecamecompletewhenin1928hisantiwarplayaboutadisabledfootballer,TheSilverTassie,withitssymbolicsecondact,was
rejectedfortheAbbeybyYEATS,thoughitwasproducedinLondonin1929andhassincereceivedcriticalacceptance.
From1938O'CaseylivedinDevon,andcontinuedtoexperimentwithexpressionism.PurpleDust,publishedin1940butnotperformedinEnglanduntil1945,isan
Irishfantasy,playedoutbetweentwoEnglishplutocrats,StokeandPoges,theirmistresses,andsundrybuilders'mates.ThesemiautobiographicalRedRosesforMe,
producedin1946,hasastylizedDublinsetting.AtthistimehewasalsowritingthesixautobiographieswhichbeginwithIKnockattheDoor(1939)andconclude
withSunsetandEveningStar(1954)reissuedtogetherasAutobiographies(1963intwovolumes,newedn1992).Theearlyvolumesatleast,beforethe
querulousnessobtrudes,areoutstandingworksofproseaswellasgraphicreconstructionsofthelifeofanextraordinaryman.Hewasaplaywrightwithagiftofrich
language,whomJ.C.TrewindescribesinhisintroductiontoThreeMorePlays(1965)as'anElizabethanoutoftime'.In1927hemarriedtheactressEileen
Reynolds,whodiedin1995attheageof95seeherbiographyofhim,Sean(1971).SeeGaryO'Connor,SeanO'Casey:a

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Life,newedn1989JamesSimmons,SeanO'Casey,newedn1984(criticalstudy)andinRaymondWilliams,DramafromIbsentoBrecht,rev.edn1987.
O'Connor,Flannery(192564)
Americanshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasborninSavannah,Georgia,intoadevoutlyCatholicfamily.Atfive,shetrainedachickentowalkbackwards(afeat
recordedbyPathNews),whichledherultimatelytoacquireanunusualmenagerieofdomesticbirds(includingpeacocks),andinspiredsomeofthefreakish
creatureswhichinhabitherfiction.In1938thefamilymovedtoMilledgeville,whereherfatherdiedthreeyearslaterofdisseminatedlupusattheageof45.Shewas
educatedatPeabodyHighSchoolandGeorgiaStateCollegeforWomen,afterwhichsheattendedtheWriter'sWorkshop,UniversityofIowa,graduatingasMaster
ofFineArtsin1947.'TheGeranium',oneofthestorieswhichwasapartofherthesis,waspublishedinAccentin1946.Shehadherfirstmajorattackoflupusin
1950,afterwhichshelivedwithhermotheronafarmnearMilledgeville,from1955abletogetaroundonlyoncrutches.Hertwonovels,WiseBlood(1952)andThe
ViolentBearItAway(1960),arebothtragicodysseysofcountrypreachersoneofthemfindsaformofrevelationinselfdestruction,andtheother,a14yearold
boy,isboundbyreligiousforcesfromwhichhehasunsuccessfullytriedtoextricatehimself.AGoodManisHardtoFindandOtherStories(1955)andthe
posthumousEverythingThatRisesMustConverge(1965)contain19ofthe31storieswhichcomprisehermainoeuvre.Areligiousintensitymotivatesthestrange
visionswhichunderliehertragicomicsituationsandinvestswithdarkhumourthegrotesqueelementsinherSoutherncharacters.SeeTheCompleteStories,newedn
1991MilesOrvell,FlanneryO'Connor:anIntroduction,1991.
O'Connor,Frank,pseudonymofMichaelO'Donovan(190366)
Irishshortstorywriter,critic,andpoet,wasborninCorkofapoorfamilyandleftschoolat12.HewasimprisonedduringtheCivilWar(192223)forhis
Republicanactivities,whicharereflectedinhisfirstvolumeofstories,GuestsoftheNation(1931).ForthenexttwentyyearshewasprominentinIrishliterarylife,
contributingreviewsandarticlestotheIrishStatesmanandTheBell,andbeingadirectoroftheAbbeyTheatrefrom1935to1939.Healsopublishedshortstories
twonovelsThreeOldBrothers,andOtherPoems(1936)TheBigFellow(1937),abiographyofMichaelCollins,thepoliticianandSinnFeinleaderandThe
FountainofMagic(1939),acollectionoftranslationsfromIrishpoetry.HelivedintheUSAduringthe1950s.Hisstories,ofwhichthereareseveralcollections,are
fineexamplesofthenarrativeart,inwhichhumanexperience,especiallythatofyoungpeople,isexplicitlyrevealed.Hisliterarycriticismisincisiveand
straightforwardlyexpressed,andincludesTheLonelyVoice:aStudyoftheShortStory(1963)andTheBackwardLook:aSurveyofIrishLiterature(1967).
Hiscontributiontotherediscovery,throughtranslation,oftraditionalIrishliteraturecanbeseeninhisKings,LordsandCommons:anAnthologyfromtheIrish
(1959).SeeShortStories,2vols1990AnOnlyChild,newedn1996,andMyFather'sSon,newedn1994(autobiography)JamesMatthews,Voices:aLifeof
FrankO'Connor,1983MauriceWohlgelernter,FrankO'Connor:anIntroduction,1977.
Odets,Clifford(190663)
Americandramatist,wasborninPhiladelphiaofahardworkingJewishAmericanfamilywhichprosperedwithhisfather'selevationfrommachinefeedertoownerof
aprintingbusinessinNewYorkCity,towhichtheymovedin1912.HedroppedoutofMorrisHighSchoolaftertwoyearsas'awasteoftime',triedprinting,but
couldnotresistthecallofthestage.Afterplayingminorrolesintravellingrepertory,hesettledinNewYork,wherein1929heunderstudiedSpencerTracy(1900
67)onBroadway.In1930hebecameafoundermemberoftheGroupTheatre,acollectiveenterprise.HewasamemberoftheCommunistPartyforeightmonthsin
1934,duringthedepthsoftheDepression.WaitingforLefty(1935),aproletarianprotestdramawhichreflectedtheGroup'sphilosophyofputtingsocialcontent
beforedramaticstructure,broughtthehousesdownwithitsfinalrallyingcallof'STRIKE,STRIKE,STRIKE!!!'bythemiddleoftheyearithadbeenplayed
throughouttheUSAby32TheatreLeaguegroups,andbeenbannedinsevencities.AwakeandSing!(1935),astudyofconflictswithinaJewishfamily,andTillthe
DayIDie(1935),ofthethreatofNazismfromaGermanCommunistangle,increasedhispotentialvalueasaHollywoodscreenwriterbuthavingturneddown$4000
aweek,hehadtosettlefor$2500afterthefailureofParadiseLost(1935).GoldenBoy(1937),amelodramaaboutaviolinistturnedboxerwhichwashisbiggest
commercialsuccess,haselementsofthecinemainit,ashasTheCountryGirl(1950),inwhichcharacterizationandsocialrelationshipsreplacehisearlierpolitical
idealism.SeeGeraldWeales,Odets:thePlaywright,1985(criticalstudy).
O'Donovan,Gerald(18711942)
Irishnovelist,wasbornJeremiahO'DonovaninCo.Down,thesonofabuilderfromCorkwhotravelledroundtoworkontheerectionofpiers.Hewaseducatedfor
thepriesthood,enteringStPatrick'sCollege,Maynooth,in1889,andbeingordainedin1895.AsacurateandthenadministratorinLoughrea,hewas

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abletoexpresshisliberalandprogressiveviews,andin1901heeveninvitedatheatricalcompanytocomefromDublintoperform.HejoinedtheIrishAgricultural
OrganizationSociety,towhosecommitteehewaselectedasarepresentativeforConnaughtin1901.HewasalsoprominentintheGaelicLeague.In1904,after
difficultieswithhisnewbishop,forwhosepostitappearshemayhavebeenchosenlocally,butrejectedbytheVatican,heleftthepriesthoodandwenttoDublin,and
fromtheretoLondon,nowcallinghimselfGerald.Hemarriedin1910,andin1913publishedthefirstofhissixnovels,FatherRalph(1913),whichreflectshisown
experiencesasamodernistinthepriesthood.Waiting(1914)treatsthedelicatebutpotentiallyexplosivesubjectofintermarriagebetweenfaiths.Heworkedinthe
DepartmentofPropagandainWorldWarI,duringthecourseofwhichhemet,andestablishedalongstandingrelationshipwith,ROSEMACAULAY,whoappearsas
GraceinTheHolyTree(1922).Itwashislastnovel.Whathedidforalivingthereafterisapparentlynotcleareventohischildren.Hefracturedhisskullinan
accidentin1939whileonholidayintheLakeDistrictwithRoseMacaulay,thoughhisdeaththreeyearslaterwasfromcancer.
O'Donovan,Michael
seeO'CONNOR,FRANK.
O'Faolain,Sean(190091)
Irishshortstorywriter,novelist,critic,andbiographer,wasbornJohnWhelaninCork,thesonofaconstableintheRoyalIrishConstabulary,andwaseducatedat
theChristianBrotherssecondaryschoolandUniversityCollege,Cork,changinghisnametoitsIrishequivalentinsympathywithhispoliticalconvictions.Afterserving
withtheIrishRepublicanArmy,andbeinganeducationalpublisher'srepresentative,hecontinuedhiseducationonaCommonwealthFellowship(sponsoredbyGEORGE
RUSSELL)atHarvard,andwasthenalecturerinEnglishatStrawberryHillTeachers'TrainingCollege,Middlesex.HereturnedtoDublinin1933,havingpublishedhis
firstbookandbeenpromised200ayearforthreeyearsbythepublishertowritemore.MidsummerNightMadnessandOtherStories(1932)waslargely
experimentalinformandstyle,andelusivelyromantic.Subsequentcollectionscontainmorecompassionandhumour,whileevokingexactlyanatmosphereofplaceor
setting,andcoveringabroadcanvasofsituationsinherentinthecontemporaryclimateofIreland.Histhreenovels,ANestofSimpleFolk(1933),BirdAlone
(1936),andComeBacktoErin(1940),enabledhimtodevelopineachcaseasinglecharacterinrevoltagainstacentralorthodoxy.
AmonghisbiographiesareDeValera(1939)andNewman'sWay:theOdysseyofJohnHenryNewman(1952).HismosteffectivecriticismisinTheShortStory
(1948)andTheVanishingHero:StudiesintheNovelistsoftheTwenties(1956).AsfounderEditorofTheBell194046,heencouragedyoung,andolder,Irish
writerstoexpressthemselvesfreely,andgavethem,andcontemporaryIrishletters,afirmersteppingstoneinthemainstreamofmodernliterarythoughtandvalues.In
1928hemarriedEileenGould(190088),writerofchildren'sbooksandfolktales.TheirdaughteristhenovelistandshortstorywriterJuliaO'Faolain(b.1932).He
hadthreefairlymomentousaffairs:withBOWEN,withaBritishjournalistwhocametoDublinasassistanteditorofTheBellin1945,andwithanAmericansocialite
whomhehadoriginallymetatHarvard.SeeCollectedStories,3vols198082(Vol.1asMidsummerNightMadness,1989)ViveMoi!,revisededn1994,
forewordbyJuliaO'Faolain,ofhis1964autobiographyMauriceHarmon,SeanO'Faolain:aLife,1994MauriceHarmon,SeanO'Faolain:aCritical
Introduction,1984.
O'Flaherty,Liam(18961984)
Irishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninInishmoreintheAranIslands,andwaseducatedatBlackrockCollegeand,forayear,atUniversityCollege,Dublin,
afterwhichhejoinedtheIrishGuardsin1915andservedatthefront.In1921,attheheadofagroupofdockers,heseizedtheRotundainDublinforthe
Communists,andhewasanactiveRepublicanduringtheCivilWar.Hisfirsttwopublishednovels,ThyNeighbour'sWife(1923)andTheBlackSoul(1924),have
backgroundsofAranandtheculturalcontraststhatexistevenwithinasmallcommunity.HereturnedtherewithSkerrett(1932),whichchartstheprogressofa
reformingschoolmastertorevolutionaryandultimatelytoselfdestruction,andFamine(1937),inwhichheusesfolkoreandhistoryvividlytorecreatethedispersalof
thecommunityinthe1840s.From1927almostuntilhisdeathhewasconstantlyonthemovehisownrestlessnessisreflectedinthepursuitofselfdiscoveryonthe
partofthemaincharactersinhisnovels,andinhisautobiographicalworks,TwoYears(1930),IWenttoRussia(1931),andShametheDevil(1934).Thebestof
hismanyshortstoriesarethoseinwhichherecordswithpity,butalsowithhumour,theharshrealitiesofthevanishedAranwayoflifeanddeath.Inthesestoriesin
particular,butalsoinhisworkasawhole,thespeechpatternsandoraltraditionsoftheGaeliccivilizationarenearthesurface.SeeShortStories,newedn1996
LettersofLiamO'Flaherty,ed.A.A.Kelly,1996A.A.Kelly,LiamO'FlahertytheStoryteller,1976.
Ogot,Grace(b.1930)
neAkinyi,Kenyannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninButere,CentralNyanzaDistrict,andeducatedatNg'iyaGirls'SchoolandButereHighSchool,after
whichshetrainedasanursein

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UgandaandstudiedmidwiferyatStThomas'sHospital,London.ShewasanursingsisterandtutorinmidwiferyatMasenoHospitalin195859,andthenfor15
monthsascriptwriterandbroadcasterfortheBBCOverseasService.Shemarriedahistorianin1959.SincethenshehashadfourchildrenhasbeenCommunity
DevelopmentOfficeratKisumuandengagedwiththeStudentHealthServiceatMakerereUniversityCollegeandhasworkedasanairlinepublicrelationsofficer.
ShewasadelegatetotheUnitedNationsin1975,andtoUnescoin1976,andwassubsequentlyelectedtoParliament.ShewasafoundermemberoftheWriters'
AssociationofKenya,anditsPresident197580.ThoughherfirstexperiencewiththeEastAfricanLiteratureBureauwasdiscouraging('Theyreallycouldn't
understandhowaChristianwomancouldwritesuchstories...'),shebecamethefirstwomantohavefictionpublishedbytheEastAfricanPublishingHouse.Her
novel,ThePromisedLand(1966),exploresthetraditionalroleofthewomaninmarriage.Thedutyofwomenandattitudestomedicinefeaturestronglyinhershort
stories,ofwhichthefirstofseveralvolumeswasLandWithoutThunder(1968).Afurthernovel,TheGraduate,appearedin1980.Sheisalsoconcernedwiththe
continuationofthecultureandlanguageofLuo,inwhichshehaswrittentwonovelsandabookofshortstories.
O'Grady,Standish(James)(18461928)
Irishfolklorist,novelist,andhistorian,wasborninCastletownBerehaven,Co.Cork,andeducatedatTrinityCollege,Dublin,afterwhichhepractisedlawinDublin.A
readingofIrishhistorybySylvesterO'Halloran(17281807)andEugeneO'Curry(17961862)stimulatedhimtoproducehistwovolumestudy,HistonyofIreland:
theHeroicPeriod(1878)andHistoryofIreland:CuculainandHisContemporaries(1880),towhichthecomplementaryHistoryofIreland:Criticaland
Philosophical(1881)wasintendedasacorrectiveonfactualmatters.InFinnandHisCompanions(1892)andatrilogyaboutCuchulain(1894,1901,1920)he
attemptedtorewritelegendintheformofhistoricaladventure,whichisneithereasynoroftensuccessful.Betterasadventurestoriesaresomehistoricalnovels,notably
RedHugh'sCaptivity(1889)andTheFlightoftheEagle(1897).HesupportedtheUnionistcause,andinToryismandtheTonyDemocracy(1886)advanceda
theoryofcooperationbetweenlandlordandruraltenant.InpursuitofhisidealshefoundedandeditedtheAllIrelandReview,whichlastedfrom1900to1907.He
leftIrelandin1918,anddiedintheIsleofWight.Forthegenuineexcitementheinspiredincontemporarywriterssimplybyhisdiscoveryofgenuinematerial,rather
thanforthewayhepresentedit,heisregardedbymanyasthefounderoftheIrishLiteraryRevival,andthereareechoesofhisphraseologyinthepoetryofYEATS.His
cousin,StandishHayesO'Grady(18321915),whospentthirtyyearsasanengineerintheUSA,wasalsointerestedinIrishoralliterature,fromwhichhetranslated
SilvaGadelica(1892).
O'Hara,Frank(192666)
Americanpoet,dramatist,andartcritic,wasborninBaltimore,andgrewupinWorcester,Massachusetts.HewaseducatedattheNewEnglandConservatoryof
Musicand,afternavalserviceintheSouthPacific,atHarvardandtheUniversityofMichigan.HejoinedthestaffoftheMuseumofModernArt,NewYork,in1951,
and,afterresigningtogivemoretimetowriting,rejoineditin1955.CityWinterandOtherPoems(1952)andOranges(1953)werepublishedbytheTiborde
Nagyartgallery.Hewasatthecentreofthe'NewYorkPoets',whoincludedKennethKoch(b.1925)andJamesSchuyler(192391),andusedthecityasa
backdropforpersonal,oftenpersonalized,expressionswhichreflecttheimmediacyofamoment,sensation,ortrainofthought.HewasaneditorandreviewerforArt
News,andwroteplaysofanavantgardenature.HediedfrominjuriesafterbeingstruckatnightbyabeachbuggyonFireIsland.SeeTheCollectedPoems,ed.
DonaldAllen,introductionbyJohnAshbery,1995SelectedPoems,ed.DonaldAllen,newedn1993.
O'Hara,John(190570)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninPottsville,Pennsylvania,theeldestofeightchildrenofaleadinglocaldoctor,whosehorsesleightheboyusedto
driveonemergencycalls.HewasexpelledfromKeystoneStateNormalSchoolandFordhamPreparatorySchoolforbreakingrules,andfinallygraduatedfrom
NiagaraPreparatorySchoolin1924.AcceptedbyYale,hewithdrewwhenhisfatherdied,andworkedasareporteronthePottsvilleJournalandTamaqua
Courier.In1927hewenttoNewYork,andbetweenthenand1933,whenhewentfreelance,heldvariousjournalisticandeditorialposts,oftenbriefly,on
newspapersandmagazines,includingtheHeraldTribuneandTime,andhadafirstmarriage,whichlastedtwoyears.Hissketchesandstoriesbegantoappearinthe
NewYorkerandothermagazinesin1928.AppointmentinSamarra(1934),hisfirstnovel,establishedhimasastorytellerwithafeelforthedevelopmentof
character.Butterfield8(1935)wasbasedontherevelationsofthescandalouspastofasocietygirlwhosebodywaswasheduponLongIslandin1931.Hopeof
Heaven(1938)andTheBigLaugh(1962)arenovelsofHollywood.InTenNorthFrederick(1955)andFromtheTerrace(1958)disillusionmentisthepriceof
ambition.Ashortfictionwriterwhoserangevariedbetweentheone

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pagemonologueandthenovella,hepublishedsomefifteenvolumesfrom1935onwards.PalJoey(1940),asequenceof'letters'fromanirrepressible,secondrate
nightclubperformer,wasturnedintoarealisticmusicalcomedy(1940).SeeFrankMacShane,TheLifeofJohnO'Hara,newedn1987MatthewJ.Bruccoli,The
O'HaraConcern:aBiographyofJohnO'Hara,newedn1996.
Okara,Gabriel(b.1921)
Nigerianpoetandnovelist,wasborninBumoundiintheNigerdelta,thesonofanIjawchief,andwaseducatedatGovernmentCollege,Umuahia,andYabaHigher
College,Lagos.Hetrainedasabookbinder,movedontopublishingand,afterstudyingjournalismatNorthwesternUniversity,Illinois,becamePrincipalInformation
Officer,EasternRegionalGovernment,Enugu.Duringthecivilwarof196769hewasDirectoroftheCulturalAffairsDivision,BiafranMinistryofInformation.He
becameDirectoroftheRiversStatePublishingHouse,PortHarcourt,in1972Asawriter,hislinguisticcredoisunusual:'Theonlywaytouse[Africanideas,
philosophy,folklore,andimagery]effectivelyistotranslatethemalmostliterallyfromtheAfricanlanguagenativetothewriter.'Hispoemsbegantoappearinliterary
journalsinthe1950s,andwereanthologized,especially'TheCalloftheRiverNun'and'TheSnowFlakesSailGentlyDown'(ofawinterintheUSA),andalso
translated.InTheVoice(1964),asymbolicquestnovel,heweavesIjawsyntaxandexpressionsintoEnglishpoeticprose.TheFisherman'sInvocation(1978),a
slimcollectionofhisverse,wasjointwinnerofthe1979CommonwealthPoetryPrize.
O'Keeffe,John(17471833)
Irishdramatist,wasborninDublinandeducatedthereinSaul'sCourtandthenatanartschoolHewasmoredrawntothetheatre,andfrom1762to1774wasa
memberoftheSmockAlleycompanyHisTonyLumpkininTown,asequeltoGOLDSMITH'SSheStoopstoConquer,wasperformedinDublinin1773,andwasa
resoundingsuccessinLondonin1778Afterasimilarreceptionforacomicopera,TheSoninLaw(1779),andthecollapseofhismarriagetoaProtestantactress,
hemovedtoLondon,hopingtofindregularworkasanactorInsteadhebecameaprolificwriteroffarceswithsongs('AmoAmasILoveaLass','IamaFriarof
OrdersGrey')andofcomicoperasandplays,ofwhichThePrisoneratLarge(1788)andTheWicklowMountains(1796)haveseriousIrishthemes,andThe
AgreeableSurprise(1781)andWildOats(1791)somelastingmeritthelatter,apacytragicomedyofblundersinsituationandcharacter,writteninahurryto
replaceadramatizationofthefalloftheBastillewhichwascancelledbecauseofantiFrenchsentiment,wassuccessfullyrevivedinLondonin1976and1995.In1797
theblindnesswithwhichhehadbeenafflictedsincehewas23becametotalandhefellintofinancialstraits,towhichtheoutrightsaleofmanyofhiscopyrightshad
contributed.AtaCoventGardencharityperformanceforhimofhisLieofaDay(1796),attendedbythePrinceofWales,hewasledonstagetodeliverapoetical
addresshehadwritten.Inabout1815hemovedtoHampshire,wherehecomposedhis'Recollections'(1826).From1788hewasdevotedlyattendedbyhisonly
daughter,AdelaideO'Keeffe(17761855),aversatilewriterinherownright,whosefirstnovel,Llewellin,aningenioushistoricaltale,waswrittenin1795and
publishedanonymouslyin1799.Shewrotechildren'sverses,ofwhich'TheKite'appearedinOriginalPoems:CalculatedtoImprovetheMindofYouth(1808),
oneofseveralvolumesofherpoems.HerDudley(1819)isanepistolarynovel.
Okigbo,Christopher(193267)
Nigerianpoet,wasborninOjoto,avillagenearOnitsha,thesonofaCatholicschoolteacher,andwaseducatedatGovernmentCollege,Umuahia,andUniversity
College,Ibadan,wherehereadclassics,andwrotemusicandperformedasanaccompanist.HewasPrivateSecretarytotheFederalMinisterofResearchand
Information195658,afterwhichhetaughtLatinatFiditiGrammarSchoolfortwoyears,andwasthenauniversitylibrarianatNsukkaandEnugu.In1962he
becameWestAfricanrepresentativeoftheCambridgeUniversityPress.HewasalsoWestAfricaneditoroftheliteraryjournalTransition,Kampala,which'publishes
anybodywhocarestowritefor[it],blackorwhite.Wedonotdiscriminate'(areferencetoBlackOrpheus,Ibadan).Neverhavingfiredevenanairrifleinhislife,he
joinedtheBiafranarmyatthebeginningofthecivilwarin1967,andwentasamajortothefront,wherehelearnedtouseagun.Hewaskilledinactionthreemonths
later.Hebeganseriouslytowritepoetry,insteadofmusic,in1957.Hepublishedtwocollections,Heavensgate(1962),'anEastersequence[which]latergrewinto..
.anofferingtoIdoto,thevillagestreamofwhichIdrank...',andLimits(1964),inwhichthepoetisalsoprophetLabyrinths,withPathofThunder(1971),
publishedposthumouslybutplannedandwithanintroductionbyOkigbo,containsthedefinitiveversionsofbothbooks,withnotableadditions,suchas'Lamentofthe
SilentSisters'(1962)and'LamentoftheDrums'(1964),choralpoemsinwhosemessage,hesaidinaninterviewin1965,'theremightbesomepoliticaltinge'.His
voiceispersonal,anddistinctive,anddedicatedtohisconvictionthat'thereisnosuchthingasNegroart'(herefusedtoacceptthepoetryprizeoftheDakarFestival
ofNegroArts1966),oreven'Africanliterature'.

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Thushefeltfree,inoneofhislastpoems,'LamentoftheMasks'(1965),fortheYEATScentenary,toeulogizetheIrishpoetinlinesadaptedfromaYorubaroyalpraise
song,andelsewhereconsciouslytoechoT.S.ELIOT,HOPKINS,POUND,andeven'LittleBoPeep'.
Oldham,John(165383)
Englishpoet,wasborninShiptonMagna,Gloucestershire,thesonofaNonconformistclergymanwho,afterbeingejectedfromhispostin1662,wasabletomakea
comfortablelivingfromhisestateandbykeepingaschool.Theboywaseducatedathome,atthegrammarschoolatTetbury,andatStEdmundHall,Oxford,where
hisprovisionaldegreewaswithdrawnwhenhefailedtocomplywithitsconditions.Hereturnedhome,taughtforhisfather,andcomposedoccasionalverses,with
whichhehopedtoimpressthelocalgentry,andaPindaricelegyonhiscollegefriend,CharlesMorwent,whodiedin1675.In1676hebecameanassistantmasterat
WhitgiftSchool,Croydon,whereinJulyofthatyearhewroteasatiricalpoem(latercalled'ASatyrAgainstVertue'),whichearnedhimacongratulatoryvisitfrom
ROCHESTER.HefirstappearedinprintwiththeodeUpontheMarriageofthePrinceofOrangewithLadyMary(1677).In1679hebecametutoratReigatetothe
grandsonofSirEdwardThurland(160683),formerSolicitorGeneraltotheKing.FurtherpublicrecognitioncamewithSatyrsUpontheJesuits(1681),thesuccess
ofwhichencouragedhimtogiveuphisjob,butayearlaterhewasatutoragaininEssex.HewasrescuedbyanofferfromWilliamPierrepont(d.1690),later4th
EarlofKingston,toliveathismansionnearNottingham.Oldham'stalentsnowblossomedwithastringofsatiresinheroiccoupletssuchas'...DissuadingtheAuthor
fromtheStudyofPoetry'andimitationsofJUVENALandBOILEAU,whichmovedDRYDENtobegin'TotheMemoryofMrOldham':'Farewell,toolittleandtoolately
known,/WhomIbegantothinkandcallmyown'.Hediedofsmallpox.SeeThePoemsofJohnOldham,ed.HaroldEBrooks,1987PaulHammond,John
OldhamandtheRenewalofClassicalCulture,1983.
Oliphant,Carolina
seeNAIRNE.
Oliphant,Margaret(182897)
neWilson,Scottishnovelist,biographer,historian,andjournalist,wasborninWallyford,Midlothian,theyoungestchildofanexciseclerk,who,aftermovesto
LasswadeandGlasgow,settledwithhisfamilyinLiverpoolin1838.At16shetooktowritingfiction,asanalternativetoneedlework,whileattendinghersick
motherherdisreputablebrotherWillie(d.1885)purloinedherfirsteffortandpublisheditlaterunderhisownnameasChristianMelville(1856).Williedid,
however,takePassagesintheLifeofMrsMargaretMaitlandofSunnyside(1849)toaLondonpublisher,whosentheracontract,andpublisheditandtwo
historicalromances.AnditwasatWillie's,whereshewasactingashousekeeper,thatshemethercousin,FrancisWilsonOliphant(181859),astainedglasswindow
designer,whomshemarriedin1852.ShecontinuedtowritenovelsandbecamearegularcontributortoBlackwood'sEdinburghMagazine,whichpaidthebills.In
1859thefamilywenttoItalyinthehopeofimprovingFrancis'stuberculosis.HediedinRome,leavingherwiththetwosurvivingoftheirfivechildren,andpregnant
withanother.
Therestofthelifeofthisremarkablewoman('Idon'tthinkIhaveeverhadtwohoursundisturbed...duringmywholeliterarylife')wasacatalogueofperiodicmisery
andofunrelentingtoilshehadnotonlytoeducateherownchildren(allofwhomdiedbeforeher)andthoseofherbrotherFrank(d.1875),butalsotosupporttwo
brothers.Shespenttheterriblewinterof186061inEdinburgh,whereBlackwood'stactfullydiscouragedher('myselfallblacknessandwhitenessinmywidow's
dress')fromwritingafurthernovelforserialpublication.Nettledratherthanrattled,thatnight,whenshehadputthechildrentobed,shebeganthe'CarlingfordSeries'
ofdomesticnovels,theearliestofwhichwereserializedandpublishedbyBlackwood'sinvolumeform.TheyrunfromTheRectorandtheDoctor'sFamily(1863)
andSalemChapel(1863)toPhoebe,Junior:aLastChronicleofCarlingford(1876).Inallshewrotealmostahundrednovels,fiftyshortstoriesseeespecially
SelectedStoriesoftheSupernatural,ed.MargaretK.Gray,1985innumerablearticlesandreviews,travelbooks,historicalandtopographicalworks,and
biographies(includingthatofCHALMERS).ShealsowrotetheofficialhistoryofBlackwood's(1897).SeeAutobiography,ed.ElisabethJay,1990ElisabethJay,Mrs
Oliphant:'AFictiontoHerself':aLiteraryLife,1995MerrynWilliams,MargaretOliphant:aCriticalBiography,1986JenniCalder,MargaretOliphant,
1992(biographical/criticalstudy).
Olson,Charles(191070)
Americanpoetandcritic,wasborninWorcester,Massachusetts,andwhileyoungmovedwithhisparentstoDogtown,Gloucester,acommunityoftwentypeople.
HewenttoWesleyanUniversity,andthentoYaleandtoHarvard,wherehedidresearchinAmericanstudies.Inthemeantime,andsubsequently,hehadvarious
jobs,includingfisherman,mailman,teacher(atClarkUniversityandHarvard),andpoliticalworker.Inthelate1940shewasinvitedtoreplacehisfriendDAHLBERGas
aninstructoratBlackMountainCollege,nearAsheville,NorthCarolina,anexperimentalteachinginstitutefoundedin1933,ofwhichhewasRectorfrom1951untilit
closedin1956.Hisfirstbook,CallMeIshmael(1947),a

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criticalstudyofMELVILLE,wasasunorthodoxinitsexpositionasitwasinfluentialinitsdiscussionofwhathetermed'MYTH...SPACE...TRAGEDY'inMoby
Dick.Inafurthersignificantcriticalwork,theessay'ProjectiveVerse'(inPoetryNewYork,3.1950)asProjectiveVerseVstheNonProjective(1959),he
postulated:'Versenow,1950,ifitistogoahead,ifitistobeofessentialuse,must,Itakeit,catchupandputintoitselfcertainlawsandpossibilitiesofthebreath,of
thebreathingofthemanwhowritesaswellasofhislistenings.'TheBlackMountainPoetswerenotsomuchapoeticmovementasagroupoflikemindedindividuals
whoincludedCREELEY,LEVERTOV,PaulBlackburn(192671),andJoelOppenheimer(b.1930).
Olson,6'9''tall,wasalsoanamateurarchaeologist,who'huntedamongstones'fortheoriginalinspirationsofart,especiallyamongtheMayas,inthesamewayashe
lookedforthe'kinetics'wherebya'poemisenergytransferredfromwherethepoetgotit',aconceptheexploredfurtherinthepoem'TheKingfishers'(1949).Hislife
workwastheMaximuspoems,agranddesignfirstconceivedin1945.TheMaximusPoems110werepublishedin1953,withsubsequentcontinuationsthewhole,
ed.GeorgeEButterick,appearedposthumouslyin1983.InspiredpartlybyW.C.WILLIAMS'SPaterson,andmodelledinformatontheCantosofPOUND,itishis
responsetohisowncriteriaintheformofasequenceofthreehundredvariedpoemsinwhichhedistils,throughthepersonaofthe2ndcenturyPlatonicphilosopher
MaximusofTyre(aprojectionofhimself),thehistory,geology,andsocialenvironmentofthetownofGloucester.SeeTheCollectedPoems,ed.GeorgeF.
Butterick,1992SelectedWritingsofCharlesOlson,ed.RobertCreeley,newedn1971SelectedPoems,ed.RobertCreeley,newedn1993PaulChristensen,
CharlesOlson:CallHimIshmael,1979(criticalstudy).
OmarKhayym,MoreProperlyUmarIKhayym[Umar,SonoftheTentMaker](10481131)
Persianmathematician,astronomer,philosopher,andpoet,wasborninNishapur.Hewroteatreatiseonalgebrainhistwentiesand,havingbeenamongthose
summonedbytheSultanin1074tobuildanewobservatory,wasinstrumentalalsointherevisionoftheMuslimcalendar.Amanuscriptofhissecularrubiyt
(rhymingquatrains),privatethoughtsforprivatecirculationonly,wasacquiredeighthundredyearslaterinCalcuttabytheIpswichbornorientalscholar,Edward
Cowell(18261903),andsenttoEDWARDFITZGERALD,whomhehadoriginallyencouragedtolearnPersian.FitzGeraldarranged75ofOmar'sversesintoasequence
(1859),expressingtheirspiritinametricalpatternnotdissimilartothatofthemedievalLatinhymn,'DiesIrae',andpublishedvariousrevisededitionsduringhis
lifetime.SubsequentversetranslationsincludethosebyGRAVESandOmarAllShah(1967)(unrhymed),andbyPeterAveryandHEATHSTUBBS(1979).
Ondaatje,Michael(b.1943)
Canadianpoetandnovelist,wasborninColombo,Ceylon(SriLanka),thefourthchildofacharmingandeccentricalcoholicandofabeautifuldramateacher.After
hisparents'divorcehejoinedhismotherinEngland,wherehewaseducatedatDulwichCollege.HewenttoCanadain1962,studiedthereatBishop's,Toronto,and
Queen'suniversities,andwroteathesisonMUIR.HejoinedtheEnglishdepartmentatYorkUniversity,Toronto,in1971.Hiseyeforthebizarrewasdemonstratedin
hisfirstbookofverse,TheDaintyMonsters(1967).Histhird,TheCollectedWorksofBillytheKid:LeftHandedPoems(1970),whichwontheGovernor
General'sAward,isanevocativeamalgamofsketchesofthelife,andviolentdeath,oftheoutlaw,WilliamBonney(185981),employingavarietyofgraphic
techniques.Itwasproducedonthestagein1973.HissecondGovernorGeneral'sAwardwasforThere'saTrickwithaKnifeI'mLearningtoDo:Poems1963
1978(1979inUKasRatJellyandOtherPoems19631978,1980).ComingThroughSlaughter(1976)isanimpressionisticnovelaboutthelife,anddeathina
statementalhospital,ofthejazzmusicianBuddyBolden(18761931).
HisfictionalphilosophyisenshrinedinIntheSkinofaLion(1987),abrutalfoundationmythofthebuildingofToronto:'Thefirstsentenceofeverynovelshouldbe:
"Trustme,thiswilltaketime,butthereisorderhere,veryfaint,veryhuman."'TheEnglishPatient(1992),astudyofthemindsandmotivesofanintriguingfoursome
inTuscanyin1945inabatteredvillawhichissurroundedbyunexplodedmines,tooksixyearstocompleteandwentthroughtenseparatedrafts(withafountainpen,
'becauseit'smorepersonal').ItwasjointwinneroftheBookerprizeforfictionwithSacredHunger(1992)byBarryUnsworth(b.1930),andwontheGovernor
General'sAwardinCanada.Ondaatjehasdirectedfilms,includingSonsofCaptainPoetry(1971),ontheCanadianconcretepoet,bpNichol(b.1944).Onreturn
visitstoSriLankain1978and1980heinvestigatedhiscolourfulfamilybackground,evokedinRunningintheFamily(1982),aprosestudyinsketchesand
conversations,withaverseinterlude.SeeTheCinnamonPeeler:SelectedPoems,newedn1992EdJewinski,MichaelOndaatje:ExpressYourselfBeautifully,
1994(criticalintroduction)NellWaldman,MichaelOndaatjeandHisWorks,1992.
O'Neill,Eugene(18881953)
Americandramatist,wasborninahotelroominNewYorkCity,theyoungersonofanIrish

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bornactorwhobelievedhehadruinedhiscareerbytouringforyearsonendinthetitleroleinadramatizationofDUMAS'STheCountofMonteCristo.Hismother,
whocamefromarespectablebusinessbackground,couldneverreconcileherselftofollowingherhusbandaround,orforgiveherselfforthedeathofasecondson
frommeasles,andbecameamorphineaddict.AfterattendingCatholicandnonsectarianboardingschools,theboywenttoBettsAcademy,Stamford,fromwhichhe
graduatedin1906.HiscareeratPrincetonwasterminatedattheendofoneyearafterhethrewarockthroughthestationmaster'swindow.Hedrifted,andin1909
secretlymarriedagirlwhomhehadgotpregnantheimmediatelyleftonagoldprospectingexpeditiontoHonduras,fromwhichhereturnedemptyhanded.(The
marriagewasterminatedin1912:thechild,EugeneO'NeillJr,killedhimselfin1950.)
WhennotlivinginaNewYorkwaterfrontbarcalled'JimmythePriest's',hesuccumbedtothelureofthesea,sailingasaseamanfromBostontoBuenosAires,to
Durbanandbackinacattlesteamer,andthentoNewYork,fromwherehedidaroundtriptoEngland.TheposthumouslyperformedLongDay'sJourneyInto
Nightpicksuphisownsituation(hecallshimselfEdmund,thenameofhisdeadbrother)andthatofhisparentsandelderbrotherin'August1912',beingtheactual
monthinwhichhewasdiagnosedastubercular.Whenhewas'dischargedasarrested'fromasanitorium,hehaddeterminedtobecomeadramatist:'Ireadabout
everythingIcouldlayhandson:theGreeks,theElizabethanspracticallyalltheclassicsandofcourseallthemoderns.IbsenandStrindberg,especiallyStrindberg.
..'.HehadalreadybeguntowriteplayswhenheenrolledforayearonHarvard'splaywritingcourse,runbyGeorgePierceBaker(18661935).BoundEastfor
Cardiff,setintheholdofaBritishtrampsteamerinmidAtlantic,andThirst(published1914)werestagedbytheProvincetownPlayersintheirwharfsideconverted
fishhouseinCapeCodin1916BeforeBreakfastwasproducedintheirwinterheadquartersinGreenwichVillage,NewYork,thesameyear.Threefurtheroneact
playsinvolvingthecrewofthesteamer,MoonoftheCaribees,TheLongVoyageHome,andIntheZone,wereperformedin19178thefour,whichare
regardedasthebestofthetwentyoneactplayshewroteatthistime,wererevivedandperformedintheUSAasachronologicalsequencein1993.In1918he
marriedAgnesBoulton,fromwhomheseparatedin1927.HelaterdisownedboththeirchildrenShane(b.1919)forhisaimlessdissolutelife(hefinallycommitted
suicide),andOona(192591)formarrying,at18,thefilmstar/director(Sir)CharlesChaplin(18891977).
BeyondtheHorizon(1920),hisfirstsignificantfulllengthplay,arealisticrepresentationofthemixedfortunesandtroubledaspirationsofafarmingfamily,was
producedonBroadway.TheEmperorJones(1920)isanexperimentinexpressionism,whichheextendedinTheHairyApe:aComedyofAncientandModern
(1922).ThesymbolisminAnnaChristie(1921),whichwasoriginallystagedinanunsatisfactoryformin1920asChrisChristopherson,servestostrengthenthe
illusion,asthefatherandanadmirereachfindsandthenlosesthegirl,whoisnotwhatsheseems.InDesireUndertheElms(1924),setinaNewEnglandfarmin
1850,heusedhisstudyofFREUDtoinvestigateconflictsandearthyrelationshipsinanunstablefamily.StrangeInterlude(1928)isamoderntragedy,theactionof
whichcovers25yearsandispresentedintwoparts.Attheendofthefirstpartthepatternisestablishedduringtheseconditbreaksintopieces.Inthetrilogy
MourningBecomesElectra(1931)Homecoming,TireHunted,andTheHauntedherelocatestheOresteiaofAESCHYLUSin19thcenturyNewEngland.Tire
IcemanCometh(producedin1946,butwrittenin1939)developsdramaticallyfromaconversationpiecepeopledbyhabitusofabarresembling'Jimmythe
Priest's',andmoveseasilyalongthecomicsideofthelinebetweenthatandtragedy.
AtthesametimeO'Neillwasworkingontwocycles,oneaboutanIrishfamilyinAmericafrom1755,andtheotherofoneactdramasonlyoneplayfromeach
survived.Hewasalsoplanningandwritinganautobiographicalsequence,ofwhichhecompletedthreeworksoutofthenine.Thefirsttobefinished,in1940,was
LongDay'sJourneyIntoNight,whichheinstructedshouldnotbepublishedfor25yearsafterhisdeathhechangedhismindafterthesuicideofEugeneJr.He
describeditasanattempttofacethedeadandtowrite'withdeeppityandunderstandingforallthefourhauntedTyrones'(ashecalledhisfamilyintheplay).Itwas
producedin1956,afterhisdeathin1953ofbronchialpneumoniahadbroughttoanendadecadeduringwhichhishandshadbecomesoparalysedfroma
neurologicaldisorderthathecouldnotwrite.Thisstudyofafamily'sexcoriationofeachoftheotherthreemembersinturn,movesfrombreakfasttimecalmto
midnight'spainfulrealizationthatlifewillneverbethesameforanyofthem.ItgainedhimhisfourthPulitzerPrize.HewontheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1936,the
onlywritersolelyadramatistevertohavedoneso.SeeCompletePlays,2vols1988SelectedLettersofEugeneO'Neill,ed.TravisBogardandJacksonR.
Bryer,newedn1994ArthurandBarbaraGelb,O'Neill,newedn1995ofrev.edn1973(biography)TravisBogard,ContourinTime:thePlaysofEugene
O'Neill,rev.edn1988.

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Onetti,JuanCarlos(19091994)
Uruguayannovelist,wasborninMontevideo.Hedidnotfinishhissecondaryeducation,butaftergoingtoArgentinabecameasuccessfuljournalist.In1939he
publishedhisfirstnovel,ElPozo,agrimlookatUruguay,towhichhereturnedtoworkbrieflyin1942,andpermanentlyin1955,becomingamunicipallibrarianin
1957.TierradeNadie(1941tr.PeterBushasNoMan'sLand,1994),hissecondnovel,isastudyofBuenosAiressocietyintheearly1940s,afterthesigningof
theNaziSovietpact.Mostofhissubsequentnovels,existentialistinapproach,experimentalinstyle,anddisillusionedintone,aresetinArgentina.ForLaVidaBreve
(1950tr.HortenseCarpentierasABriefLife,1976)andElAstillero(1961tr.RachelCaffynasTheShipyard,1968)hecreatedhisfictionalcityofSantaMara.
Intheearly1980shefellfoulofthearmyregimeandemigratedtoSpain.HetookafinallookatSantaMariainhislastbook,PastCaring?(1993tr.Bush,1994).
StoriesareinGoodbyeandStories,tr.DanielBalderston(1990)andOnetti'sShortStories,tr.PeterTurton(bilingualedition1994).
O'Nolan,Brian
seeO'BRIEN,FLANN.
Opie,Amelia(17691853)
neAlderson,Englishnovelistandpoet,wasborninNorwich,theonlychildofadoctorofUnitarianprinciples,whosehousekeepershebecamewhenhermother
diedin1784.ShelearnedFrenchandmusic,sangherownballads,hadanovel,TheDangersofCoquetry,publishedanonymouslyin1790,andactedlocallyinher
owntragedy,Adelaide.SocietyvisitstoLondonbeganin1794,andin1798shemarriedtheselftaughtpainter,JohnOpie(17611807),whowasrecentlydivorced.
Heencouragedherliterarycareer,andshehelpedhimtowritethelectureshegavein1807asProfessorofPaintingattheRoyalAcademy.TheFatherand
Daughter(1801),towhichwasappendedaselectionofherverses,istypicalofher'tales',which,thoughtheyoftenhaveasbackgroundeventsandissuesoftheday,
centreonafamilyseparationculminatinginreconciliationordeathAdelineMowbray(1805)issubtitled'TheMotherandDaughter'.Poems(1802)contained
severalpoeticalvariationsonthesametheme.Afterherhusband'sdeathshereturnedtoNorwich,butmadeforaystoLondon,whereshemixedwiththeliteraryset
(includingBYRON,WALTERSCOTT,SHERIDAN,andSTAL)andevadedoffersofmarriage.In1825,justbeforeherfather'sdeath,shebecameaQuaker.Shehadalready,
afterthepublicationofMadeline(1822),renouncedfiction,andwasfuriouswithherpublisherforannouncing(andobtainingordersfor)anovelwhichshehadbegun
andirrevocablyabandoned.Shenowdevotedherselftogoodworks,tracts,andpoemsofamorbidnature,withsocialinterludesinParisandLondon.Sheattended
theGreatExhibitionof1851inawheelchair,andchallengedan88yearoldinasimilarvehicletoarace.
O'Rane,Patricia
seeDARK.
Orczy,(EmmaMagdalenaRosaliaMarieJosephaBarbara),Baroness(18651947)
novelist,wasbornatTarnars,Hungary,thedaughterofBaronFelixOrczy,whotookuphisfirstloveofmusicwhenhispeasants,suspiciousofhismodernfarming
methods,burnedtheplacedown.SheattendedconventschoolsinBrusselsandParis,and,afterthefamilysettledinLondon,studiedpaintingattheHeatherleySchool
ofArt,whereshemetMontagueBarstow(d.1943).Theyweremarriedin1894.ThoughsheknewnoEnglishuntilshewas15,shewrotefictionformagazines,of
whichthebestreceivedwereaseriesofarmchairdetectivestories,laterpublishedinvolumeformasTheOldManintheCorner(1909).TheScarletPimpernel,
featuringthedandy,SirPercyBlakeney,asthedaringorganizerofescapesfromtheterrorsoftheFrenchRevolution,waswrittenin1902andrejectedbymorethana
dozenpublishers.Itwasfinallypublishedin1905tocoincidewiththeLondonproductionofastageversionwhichshehadwrittenwithherhusband.Shewrotemany
morehistoricalromances,includingseveral'Pimpernel'sequels,amongwhichareIWillRepay(1906)andTheElusivePimpernel(1908).SheinheritedTarnarsin
1906,butneverlivedthere.AttheendofWorldWarIsheandherhusbandsettledinMonteCarlo,whichtheywerepreventedfromleavingattheoutsetofWorld
WarII.SeeLinksintheChainofLife,1947(autobiography).
OrtegaYGasset,Jos(18831955)
Spanishphilosopherandcritic,wasborninMadridandeducatedataJesuitschoolinMalaga,DeustoUniversity,andMadridUniversity,wherehestudiedphilosophy
andreceivedhisdoctoratein1904.AfterfurtherstudyinGermany,andsomepublishingventures,hewasin1910,attheageof27,appointedProfessorof
MetaphysicsatMadridUniversity.Hisfirstbook,MeditacionesdelQuijote[MeditationsonQuixote](1914)looksatthedestinyofSpainintermsofwhathe
regardedasitsgreatestspiritualwork.InEspaaInvertebrada(1921tr.MildredAdamsinInvertebrateSpain...,1937)heinvestigatedthenatureofSpainand
itspeopleinElTemadeNuestroTiempo(1922tr.JamesCleughasTheModernTheme,1931)hereaffirmedhismetaphysicalstance.HavingfoundedEl
Espectados,ajournalofarticlesandessayswrittenentirelybyhimself,eight

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issuesofwhichappearedbetween1916and1934,heestablishedRevistadeOccidente(1923),amonthlyliterary,political,scientific,andphilosophicalreview.In
LaRebelindelaMasas(1929tr.asTheRevoltoftheMasses,1932)headvocatedaunitedEuropeancivilizationasananswertothecontrolanddevelopmentof
theaspirationsof'massman'.HeleftSpainin1936attheoutsetoftheCivilWar.Hereturnedin1948,whenhewasrefusedpermissiontorestartpublishingRevista
deOccidente,butallowedtosetupandmanagetheInstitutodeHumanidades,onlyforittobeshutdownbythegovernmentin1950.
Ortiz,SimonJ.(b.1941)
Americanpoet,wasborninAlbuquerque,NewMexico,thesonofastonemason/woodcarver,andwaseducatedontheAcomaReservationinBureauofIndian
Affairsschools.AfterserviceintheUSArmyhewenttotheuniversitiesofNewMexicoand(asInternationalWritingFellow)Iowa.Hehasbeenapublicrelations
consultanttoculturalorganizationsandhastaughtatseveraluniversities.Apoetwhocansay,in'ADesignatedNationalPark','Thismorning/Ihavetobuyapermitto
getbackhome',hewrites'becauseIndiansalwaystellastory....Theonlywaytocontinueistotellastory'.HisfirstbookofversewasNakedintheWind(1970)
AGoodJourney(1977)isaparticularlysignificantcollection.SubsequentvolumesareWovenStone(1992)andAfterandBeforetheLightning(1994).Short
fictionisinFightin':NewandCollectedStories(1983).
Orton,Joe(193367)
Britishdramatist,wasborninLeicester,theeldestchildofagardener.Afterfailinghiselevenplusexaminationfromprimaryschool,hetookasecretarialcourse.An
interestinamateurdramaticsledtohiswinningascholarshiptotheRoyalAcademyofDramaticArtin1951.Herehemetandbeganahomosexualrelationshipwith
KennethHalliwell(b.1926),whosuggestedheshouldwrite,ratherthanact,whichOrtonhadfoundtoorestrictinganactivity.Livinginbedsitters,doingtemporary
jobstokeepthemselves,theywroteseveralunpublishednovelstogetherin1962theywereimprisonedforsixmonthsfordefacing(artisticallyandamusingly)book
jacketsinpubliclibraries.Aftersixyearsofnothingbutrejectionsofhisownnovelsandplays,theBBCacceptedOrton'sradioplay,TheRuffianontheStair.Itwas
broadcastin1964,threemonthsafterthestagepremiereofEntertainingMrSloane(published1964).Duringthenextthreeyearsheadaptedhisradioplayforthe
stage(1966),andwrotethreefurtheroneactplaysandtwomorefulllengthplays,Loot(1965),whichwontheEveningStandardawardforthebestplayofthe
year,andWhattheButlerSaw(produced1969).Inthesehemadesickcomedy,oftenblackfarce,outofhithertotaboosituations,andreinventedtheartofthestage
epigram.InAugust1967Halliwell,whoresentedOrton'ssuccess,batteredhimtodeathwithahammerintheirIslingtonflat,andthenkilledhimselfwithsleeping
tablets.SeeCompletePlays,1990JohnLahr,PrickUpYourEars:theBiographyofJoeOrton,newedn1987MauriceCharney,JoeOrton,1984(critical
study).
Orwell,George,PseudonymofEricBlair(190350)
Britishnovelist,essayist,andcritic,wasborninBihar,India,thesonofaperipateticagentintheopiumdepartmentoftheIndiangovernment.In1904hismother
broughthimandhiseldersisterbacktoEngland,wheretheysettledinHenleyonThames.AteighthewassentawaytoaboardingschoolontheSussexcoast,ashe
recordedinanautobiographicalsketch,'Such,SuchWeretheJoys'(aquotationfromBLAKE),probablywrittenin1940,butforreasonsoflibelnotpublisheduntil
1968.Theoutbreakofwarin1914inspiredhisfirstpublishedwork,apoem'Awake!YoungMenofEngland',intheHenleyandSouthOxfordshireStandard.In
1917hetookupthescholarshiphehadwonatEton,andafterfiveyearsthere,insteadoffollowinghiscontemporariestoOxford,forwhichhewouldhaveneededa
furtherscholarship,hejoinedtheIndianImperialPoliceandservedinBurma.In1927,onhisfirsthomeleave,heresigned.Itwasnotjustthathewantedtowriteand
hadgrowntohatetheideaoftheEmpire,butheobjectedtodoingtheworkthatimperialisminvolved.Henowfelthemustestablishanewidentityaswellasseeka
differentsocialenvironment.HespentsometimevisitingthepoorinLondon'sEastEnd,andthentookaroominaworkingclassdistrictofParis,wherehedidmenial
jobs,gaveEnglishlessons,andtriedtogethisworkpublished.Finally,havinghadpneumonia,hehadtoreturnhometohisparentsinSuffolkwhenhismoneyranout.
Henowcompletedanaccountofhisrecentexperienceswhich,aftertworejections,wasacceptedbyVictorGollancz(18931967)andpublishedasDownandOut
inParisandLondon(1933)by'GeorgeOrwell'thesurnameisariverinSuffolk.Duringthenextfewyearshedidsometeachingandreviewing,workedina
bookshop,andpublishedthreenovels,ofwhichthefirst,BurmeseDays(1934),basedonhismilitaryexperiences,cameoutinitiallyinNewYorkbecauseoflibel
fearsinBritain.
Earlyin1936GollanczcommissionedhimtowriteabookabouttheconditionsoftheunemployedinthenorthofEngland.Hespentseveralmonthsresearchingit,then
movedintoaHertfordshirecottage,whichhereopenedasthevillagestore.Theaccountofhisinvestigations,TheRoadtoWiganPier,appearedin1937.Inthe
secondhalfofthebook

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hetookarevolutionarysocialiststancewhichopposedMarxismandembarrassedmembersoftheLeftBookClub,ofwhichitwasachoice.Whenitwaspublished,
however,hewasinSpain,fightingontheRepublicansideintheCivilWar.FromthisexperienceandhisanalysisofthepoliticohistoricalbackgroundcameHomage
toCatalonia(1938).Afteranillness,hewrote(inMorocco)afurthernovel,ComingUpforAir(1939),inwhichnostalgiafortheHenleyofhischildhoodismixed
withsocialphilosophypresentedthroughthepersonaofaninsurancesalesman.UnfitforserviceinWorldWarII,heearnedmoneyfromjournalism,workedforthe
BBC,andwasLiteraryEditorofTribune194345.Hisantirevolutionistpoliticalsatire,AnimalFarm,whichintimedidmuchtodiscredittheSovietsystem,was
finishedearlyin1944,butbecauseofdoubtsinthemindsofpublisherswasnotpublisheduntilAugust1945.Fourmonthsearlierhiswife,EileenO'Shaughnessy,had
diedfromheartfailureduringaroutineoperation,worryingaboutmoneytothelast.Withtheirtwoyearoldadoptedson,hesettledinJura,offthewestcoastof
Scotland,in1946,andbetweenboutsoftuberculosiswrotehislastnovel,thefrighteningforecastoftotalitarianism,NineteenEightyFour(1949).In1949hewas
movedfromasanatoriumintheCotswoldstoUniversityCollegeHospital,London,whereinOctoberhemarriedSoniaBrownell(191880)fromhisbed.Hedied
threemonthslater.
HiscriticalessaysincludestudiesofDICKENS,KIPLING,WELLS,YEATS,andSWIFT('PoliticsandLiterature:anExaminationofGulliver'sTravels'),aswellasofboys'
comics,pornography,andobscenity.In'WhyIWrite'(1946)heexpoundshispersonalhistoryandphilosophyasanauthor.Thepenetratingessay,TheLionandthe
Unicorn:SocialismandtheEnglishGenius,wasoriginallypublishedasaslimhardbackin1941.Intheendhewasnonearerresolvingthediscrepancieswithinthe
variousbranchesandshadesofsocialismthanhehadbeenatthebeginning,buthesucceededinilluminatingtheenigmasforthosewhowantedtoperceivethemandto
accompanyhimonhisjourneystowardsarevelation.SeeCollectedEssays,JournalismandLettersofGeorgeOrwell,ed.SoniaOrwellandIanAngus,4vols
newedn1970BernardCrick,GeorgeOrwell:aLife,rev.edn1992MichaelShelden,Orwell:theAuthorisedBiography,newedn1992ValerieMeyers,
GeorgeOrwell,1991(criticalstudy)RaymondWilliams,Orwell,newrev.edn1991(introductiontohisworkandthought).
Osborne,Dorothy(162795)
Englishletterwriter,wasbornatthefamilyseatofChicksands,Bedfordshire,thedaughterofSirPeterOsborne(15841653),GovernorofGuernsey.Herfather
hastilyretreatedtoGuernseyattheoutsetoftheCivilWartoholdthegarrisonfortheKing,andremainedthere,besieged,forfouryears.HethenlivedinexileinSt
Malountil1649,whenonpaymentofavastfinehereturnedtoChicksands.Onavisittohimin1648DorothyhadmetTEMPLE,whodelayedhisonwardjourneyto
Parisuntilangrymessagesfromhisfatherforcedhimtoproceed.Herfamily,probablyforfinancialreasons,wereequallyopposedtoanymatchbetweenthem.The
lovelettersthatshewrotefromMarch1652toOctober1654areelegantlybutcolloquiallyexpressed,andfullofnewsandgoodsenseaswellasoflonging.They
alsochartthecourseoftheirromance,duringwhichtheirinfrequentmeetingsoftenservedtoincreasehersenseofinsecurityandhopelessness,sothatinOctober
1653sheendsabriefnoteexplainingherbehaviour,'Tellmewhatyouwillhavemedo.'HerfatherdiedinMarch1654.InJunesheinsistedthattheyannouncetheir
engagement,andinOctobershecametoLondontoprepareforherwedding.Aweekbeforeit,shewentdownwithsmallpox.Templewasconstantlywithher,and
sherecovered,butwiththelossofherlooks.TheyweremarriedonChristmasDay.Therestofherlifewasboundupwithherhusband's.Theyhadsixchildren,of
whomjustonereachedadulthood,onlytodrownhimselfin1689inafitofinsanity.SeeLetterstoSirWilliamTemple,ed.KennethParker,1987andinDavid
Cecil,TwoQuietLives,newedn1989(withTHOMASGRAY).
Osborne,John(192994)
Britishdramatist,wasborninFulham,London,intoafamilywhich,accordingtohim,sufferedfromasenseofhaving'ComeDownintheWorld'.Hisparents,having
separatedafterhisbirth,cametogetheragainin1936,andlivedinSurrey.Osbornewenttolocalschoolsand,afterhisfather'sdeath,toBelmontCollege,Devon.
Afterworkingontrademagazines,notablyGasWorld,hebecameastagemanagerandactorinrepertory,beforehimselfwritingplays.LookBackinAnger(1956,
published1957),broughttopublicnoticebyareviewbyKENNETHTYNAN,revolutionizedattitudestothetheatreinthatitshero,JimmyPorter,spokeforandwasofan
educatedworkingclassgenerationwhichhadbecomedisaffected,likemanyotheryoungpeople,bymiddleclassvaluesandineffectivegovernment.Osbornebecame
thefocusofaliterarymovementknownastheAngryYoungMen(AMISwasanother),andtheterm'kitchensinkdrama'wasappliedtothestyleofrealisticworking
classfamilyconflicttypifiedbyLookBackinAnger,andreflectedalsointheplaysofShelaghDelaney(b.1939)andsomeofthoseofWESKER.TheEntertainer
(1957)starredLaurenceOlivier(190789)asapatheticrelicoftheoldmusichall.Luther(1961)presentsthefounderofProtestantism,withfairhistoricalaccuracy
andwithdra

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maticintensity,asyetanotherarticulateopponentofestablishedorder.InadmissibleEvidence(1964)isanexperimentinstyleandform,andinlaterplays,including
TheHotelinAmsterdam(1968)andASenseofDetachment(1972),Osborneemployedavarietyofstagetechniquestoenforcehischaracters'controversial
statements,whichareoftendeliveredasthoughtheyweremonologues.DjVu(1991stagedasDjvu,1992)resuscitatesJimmyPorter,36yearson,asan
unappealingwhiner,whospeakswiththevoiceofhiscreator.DamnYou,England:CollectedProse(1994),containingsomeofhismostlivelyaswellas
vituperativewriting,was,accordingtohim,puttogetherbyhisfifthwifeandapublisher'seditor,withouthiseverseeingit.Hislastworktobeperformedwas
England,MyEngland(ChristmasDay1995),atelevisionmusicaldramaofthelifeofthecomposerHenryPurcell(165995),forwhichhewrotethescreenplaywith
CharlesWood(b.1933).SeePlays,One,newedn1996ABetterClassofPerson:anAutobiography19291956,newedn1991AlmostaGentleman:an
Autobiography,Vol.H19551966,newedn1992RonaldHayman,JohnOsborne,3rdedn1976(criticalstudy).
O'Sullivan,Vincent(b.1937)
NewZealandpoet,shortstorywriter,andcritic,wasborninAucklandandeducatedatAucklandUniversity,afterwhichhestudiedatLincolnCollege,Oxford.He
taughtattheuniversitiesofVictoriaandWaikato,andwasthenafreelancewriter,returninglatertoVictoriaUniversityasProfessorofEnglish.Inhisintroductionto
AnAnthologyofNewZealandPoetry(1970)heargued,'EuropeistheclosestthataNewZealanderhastoanextensivebirthright....Andwhatatfirstappearsto
beaculturalpenaltymayinfactbeconstruedasrigorousliberty.'Inhisownverse,thefirstcollectionofwhichwasOurBurningTime(1965),hetendstorework,
oftenintricately,themesfromclassicalandothermythologies,ortopresentaspectsofpersonaldaytodayexperienceorautobiographicalrecollectionsseeSelected
Poems(1992).Thesamepreoccupationwithreverieinformsmanyofhisshortstories,collectedinTheBoy,TheBridge,TheRiver(1978),DandyEdisonfor
LunchandOtherStories(1981),SurvivalsandOtherStories(1985),andTheSnowinSpain(1990).Hehaseditedthepoems(1988)and,withMargaretScott,
thecollectedletters(1984)ofMANSFIELD.Latterlyhehasturnedtodrama,ofwhichShuriken(1985)signalledanotabledebut.
Otway,Thomas(165285)
Englishdramatistandpoet,wasborninTrotton,Sussex,thesonofthecurateoftheparish,andwaseducatedatWinchesterCollegeandChristChurch,Oxford,
whichheabandonedforLondonin1671,totrytoscroungealivingasapoetandactor.AdisastrousattackofstagefrightwhileappearinginBEHN'STheForc'd
Marriagefinallyconvincedhimtogiveupacting.InsteadhewroteAlcibiades(1675),aheroicdramainheroiccouplets.Itwasnotasuccess,butinitscastwas
ElizabethBarry(16581713),mistressofROCHESTER,onherwaytobecomingthefinesttragicactressofhergeneration.ThestoryofOtway'sunrequitedpassionfor
herhasbeencurrenteversincesixloveletters,purportedlyfromhimtoher,wereincludedinthe1712editionofhisWorks.Whateverthetruth,afterthewell
deservedreceptionofthetragedyDonCarlos,PrinceofSpain(1676),RochesterappearsasthededicateeandBarryasoneoftwoactressesinOtway'sdouble
bill,TitusandBerenice(1677),fromRACINE,andTheCheatsofScapin(1677),fromMOLIRE.Stillunabletomakeendsmeet,hevolunteeredasanofficerin
Flandersin1678,butwasbackinLondoninJune1679,whenhechallengedJohnChurchill(16501722),laterDukeofMarlborough,toaduelintheDuke'sTheatre
'forbeatinganorangewench',andgotthebetterofhim.ForBarryhenowcreatedthenamepartofMonimiainTheOrphan(1680),adomesticdramaofextreme
pathos.ShealsostarredasBelvedirainVenicePreserv'd,or,ThePlotDiscover'd(1682),adeeptragedyoftornloyalties,theplottingandcounterplottingofwhich
recalledthecurrentsituationatCharlesII'scourt.OtwaydiedinextremepovertyinahouseonTowerHill.SeeTheWorksofThomasOtway,ed.J.C.Ghosh,2
volsnewedn1968.
Ouida,pennameofMarieLouisedelaRame(18391908)
Britishnovelist,wasborninBuryStEdmunds,Suffolk,thedaughterofLouisRam,abrilliantteacherofFrenchwhogaveheranexcellenteducationathome.In
1859,inLondon,shewasintroducedtoAINSWORTH,whopromptlyprinted17ofherstoriesofsocietyandmilitarylifeinBentley'sMiscellany,inwhichalsoappeared
herfirstnovel,'GranvilledeVigne'.ThiswaspublishedinvolumeformasHeldInBondage(1863),forwhichsheadoptedthestyleofOuida,achildishpronunciation
ofhersecondname,Louise.UnderTwoFlags(1867)isregardedasthebestofhernovelsinheroriginalvein,butshealsowrotesomewittysocialfantasies,notably
PrincessNapraxine(1884)andOthmar(1885),andacutelyobservedandsympathetictalesofItalianpeasantlife,includingAVillageCommune(1881).
Impracticalinfinancialmattersaswellasextravagant,from1874shelivedpermanentlyinItaly,latterlyinastateofpenuryonlypartiallyrelievedbyaCivilList
pension,whichshefirstrefusedbutwasfinallypersuadedtoacceptin1906.ShehadthroughtheyearsbeenalternatelyresentedandpatronizedbyCORELLI,whonow
publiclyproposedtheestablishmentforherofarelieffund,towhich

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shecontributedanopening25.AhumiliatedOuida,whosepermissionhadnotbeensought,sentatelegramforbiddinganyuseofhername.Shediedinuttersqualor
inViareggio.ShewasanintellectualandcleverwriterwitharefreshinglyEuropeanratherthansimplyaBritishoutlook.Heressaysforvariousjournalswerecollected
inViewsandOpinions(1895)andCriticalStudies(1900).
Ovid(PubliusOvidiusNaso)(43BCAD18)
Romanelegiacpoet,wasborninSulmo,ofanancientandhighrankingfamily,andstudiedrhetoricandlawinRome.Heheldminorofficialposts,butneverpractised
law,preferringthelifeofaliteraryphilanderer.Heroides[Heroines],aseriesofimaginaryletterstofaithlessloversinmythology,waswrittenbetweenAmores[Love
Poems]andArsAmatoria[TheArtofLove].Thesewerenotsomucheroticasirresponsibleinthattheyappearedtocondoneadultery,acriminaloffence,onwhich
theemperorAugustuswasrathertouchy:hehadbanishedhisdaughter,Julia,forjustthat.InAD8,Julia'sdaughterwent,too,forthesameoffence,andOvid,nowin
hisfifties,wasbanishedtoTomi,onthebleakcoastoftheBlackSea,forwhathecalls'apoem'and'anerror'.Hewasneverallowedback,evenafterthedeathof
Augustus,thoughhekeptwritingpleadinglettersandpoetry.Whereashisearlierworkshadbeendeftlyandwittilycomposedinelegiaccouplets,heturnedto
hexametersforMetamorphoses,abroadlybasedcollectionofmythsandlegendswithacommonthemeoftransformation,whichwaswidelydrawnuponbylater
writers,includingCHAUCERandCOWER.Ovidwasmarriedearlyandtwicedivorced,histhirdwiferemainingdevotedtohimtothelast.SeeMetamorphoses,newedn
1987,andTheLovePoems,newedn1990,SorrowsofanExile(Tristia),tr.A.D.Melville,ed.E.J.Kenney,newedn1995ThePoemsofExile,tr.Peter
Green,1994Heroides,tr.HaroldIsbell,1990.
Owen,Wilfred(18931918)
Britishpoet,wasborninOswestry,Shropshire,ontheborderwithWales(bothhisparentswereprobablyofWelshorigin),andwaseducatedinBirkenhead,where
hisfatherwasastationmaster,andatShrewsburyTechnicalCollege.Afterfailingtogetintouniversity,herespondedtothetrainingofhisdeeplyreligiousmother,and
workedunpaidintheparishofDunsden,nearReading.In1913hebecameanEnglishteacherinBordeaux,wherehebegantowriteverse.Heenlistedin1915,and
wascommissionedintheManchesterRegimentinJanuary1917andpostedtoFrance.InJunehewassenthomewithshellshocktoCraiglockhartHospital,
Edinburgh,wherehemetandwasencouragedbySASSOON.HereturnedtothefrontinSeptember1918,wontheMilitaryCross,andwaskillednearOrson4
November,aweekbeforetheendofhostilities.HeisregardedasthefinestpoetofWorldWarI,butheisawarpoetonlyinthatallhisbestversewaswrittenunder
itsinfluence.Hisdistinctionisinhischoiceoflanguageandthewayheusesitindifferentmetricalforms,withassonanceandalliteration,aswellasrhyme,pararhyme,
andhalfrhyme,toheightenthehorrorandcompassionofhisview,asinthelastverseof'Exposure'(completedSeptember1918):'Tonight,thisfrostwillfastenonthe
mudandus,/Shrivellingmanyhands,puckeringforeheadscrisp./Theburyingparty,picksandshovelsinshakinggrasp,/Pauseoverhalfknownfaces.Alltheireyes
areice,/Butnothinghappens.'OnlyfourofOwen'spoemswerepublishedduringhislifetime,allinperiodicals.SevenmorewereprintedbyEDITHSITWELLinWheels
(1919),andcollectionsofhisversewereeditedbySassoon(1920)and(withamemoir)BLUNDEN(1931).SeeThePoemsofWilfredOwen,ed.JonStallworthy,new
edn1990SelectedLetters,ed.JohnBell,1986JonStallworthy,WilfredOwen:aBiography,newedn1988DominicHibberd,WilfredOwen:theLastYear
19171918,newedn1993.
Ozick,Cynthia(b.1928)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,critic,andessayist,wasborninNewYorkCity.Herparents,whohademigratedfromRussiaandwereofLithuanian
Jewishtradition,ranadrugstorehermaternalunclewastheHebrewpoetAbrahamRegelson.Tohergrandmother,whoinsistedonherbeingacceptedatreligion
school(normallyaboys'prerogative)attheageof5,sheowesherintroductiontofeminismandtoYiddish.AfterunhappyexperiencesataBronxprimaryschool('I
amstillhurt....Ihadteacherswho...mademebelieveIwasstupidandinferior'),shehadafruitfulacademiccareeratHunterCollegeHighSchool,Manhattan,and
NewYorkUniversity,andthenwroteathesisonHENRYJAMESatOhioStateUniversity.ShemarriedBernardHallote,alawyer,in1952theyhadadaughterin
1965.Afulltimecareerwriter,withabriefexperienceasateachingassistantonastipendandasadepartmentstoreadvertisingcopywriter,shebeganandafter
severalyearsabandonedaphilosophicalnovel,andwrotepoetry('Apocalypse'waspublishedinCommentaryin1959)andarticles.Inherfirstpublishednovel,
Trust(1966),onwhichshespent6years(itisover600pageslongandsherefusedtoaccepthereditor'ssuggestionsforcuts),shesetslustagainstlaw,and
paganismagainstreligion,between1930and1957,inAmericanandEuropeansettingsandsituationsthatvariouslyrecallJames,SHAKESPEARE,andotherwriters.By
herownadmission,whileresearchingandwritingit,shechangedfrombeinganAmericanwritertoaJewishwriter,havingbeenparticularlyinfluencedbyread

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ingtheGermanscholarandJewishleader,RabbiLeoBaeck(18731956).In196465shehadseveralpoemspublishedinthejournalJudaism.
ThePaganRabbiandOtherStories(1971),inwhichthetitlestoryhasasupernaturalelement,included'Envy:orYiddishinAmerica',whoseunderlyingthemeisthe
conflictbetweentraditionalandmoderncultureandwhichcausedsomecontroversyinJewishcircles.BloodshedandThreeNovellas(1976)contained'An
Education',herfirststory,writtenin1964,aboutayoungwoman,abrilliantclassicalscholar,whoultimatelyexchangesheryouthfullostillusionsforamindofherown.
Afterathirdcollection,Levitations:FiveFictions(1982),Ozickpublishedhersecondnovel,TheCannibalGalaxy(1983),inwhichsheusestraditionalJewish
narrativetechniquesandaJewishdayschooltoexplorethenatureofgenius.InTheMessiahofStockholm(1987)shereturnedtooneofhermorepredominant
themes,redemptionthroughliterature.TheShawl(1989)istwostoriescentredontheHolocaust.
Though,assheasserts,'Istoppedwritingmyownpoetryataroundage36,'shehasrecreatedherselfasatranslatorofYiddishpoetry,notablyinIrvingHoweand
EliezerGreenberg(eds),ATreasuryofYiddishPoetry(1969)andIrvingHowe,RuthWisse,andKhoneShmeruk(eds),ThePenguinBookofYiddishVerse
(1987).HighlyregardedasafictionwriterwhodrawsonJewishtextualtradition,sheseesawriteras'someonebornwithagift.Anathletecanrun.Apaintercan
paint.Awriterhasafacilitywithwords.Agoodwritercanalsothink.'Toher,'Jewishhistoryisintellectualhistoryand...canbecomethecontentofawriter'smind
butitisn'tequaltoawriter'smind.'Literary,sociological,andpoliticalessaysareinArt&Ardor(1983),MetaphorandMyth(1989),andPortraitoftheArtistas
aBadCharacter:andOtherEssaysonWriting(1994).FameandFollycomprises17essaysonwritersandtheirworks,andonthewarbetweenlifeandart.See
ACynthiaOzickReader,ed.ElaineM.Kauvar,1996(poems,fiction,essays)JosephLowin,CynthiaOzick,1988(biographical/criticalstudy)SanfordPinsker,
TheUncompromisingFictionofCynthiaOzick,1987(criticalstudy).

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P
Page,P(atricia)K(athleen)(b.1916)
Canadianpoetandpainter,wasborninEnglandinSwanage,Dorset,andemigratedtoCanadawithherparentsin1919.ShewaseducatedatStHilda'sSchool,
Calgary,afterwhichsheworkedinStJohn,NewBrunswick,asasalesassistantandradioactress,andwroteashortsymbolicnovelitwaspublishedseveralyears
laterasTheSunandtheMoon(1944)by'JudithCape',andreissuedunderherownnameinTheSunandtheMoon,andOtherFictions(1973).Duringthe1940s
sheworkedinMontrealasafilingclerkandhistoricalresearcher,andtheninOttawaasawriterfortheNationalFilmBoard.HerfirstbookofversewasAsTenas
Twenty(1946).ShemarriedWilliamArthurIrwinin1950,andfrom1953to1964accompaniedhimonhispostingsasHighCommissionerinAustralia,and
AmbassadortoBrazilandthenMexico.TheMetalandtheFlower(1954)wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward.ThoughwhileshewasawayfromCanadashe
concentratedondrawingandpainting(asEK.Irwin),tothisperiodbelongsomeparticularlyevocativepoemsoftemporaryexile,suchas'Cook'sMountains',
'BrazilianHome',and'StorminMexico'.EveningDanceoftheGreyFlies(1981)isheronlysubsequentcollectionofnewpoems.TheGlassAir:SelectedPoems
(1985)includesnineatmosphericdrawingsandtwoessays:ontherelationshipbetweenwritingandpainting,andontheeffectofvisualimagesseealsoTheGlass
Air:PoemsSelectedandNew(1991).BrazilianJournal(1987)isanaccountofhertimeinthatcountry.ShewasmadeOfficer,OrderofCanada,in1977.See
JohnOrange,P.K.PageandHerWorks,1994.
Paine,Thomas(17371809)
Britishradicaljournalist,wasborninThetford,Norfolk,thesonofaQuakercorsetmaker,andwaseducatedatThetfordGrammarSchool.Hehadavarietyof
jobscorsetmaker,seamaninaprivateer,tobacconist,schoolmaster,andexciseman.Hewasdismissedfromthelastofthesein1774afterbeingcommissionedto
writeapamphletagitatingforbetterpayandconditionsforexcisemen.HewenttoAmericaandtherepublishedCommonSense(1776),advocatingindependence
fromBritain,andaseriesofpamphletsunderthegeneraltitleofTheCrisis.Afterbeingrewardedwithanumberofpostsofstate,hereturnedtoEnglandin1787,and
wroteRightsofMan:BeinganAnswertoMrBurke'sAttackontheFrenchRevolution(179192)intwoparts:inthesecondhetookabroaderviewand
proposedseveralfarreachingreforms.Hewasforced,however,totakerefugeinFrance,wherehewasfirstelectedtotheNationalAssembly,andthenimprisoned
for11monthsforproposingthatLouisXVIshouldbegivenasyluminAmerica.Eventually,disgruntledwithFrenchpolitics,hereturnedtoAmericain1802,havingin
themeantimepublishedTheAgeofReason(179495),atreatiseondeism,theantiChristianaspectsofwhichoffendedevenhismostferventAmericansupporters.
HediedinNewYork.IncontrasttoBURKE'Seasyeloquenceandcloseargument,Paine'sstyleisratherthatofacrusadingjournalist,plainerandmoreresounding.See
ThomasPaineReader,ed.MichaelFootandIsaacKramnick,1987CollectedWritings,ed.EricFoner,1995JackFruchtman,Jr,ThomasPaine:Apostleof
Freedom,newedn1996(biography)JohnKeane,ThomasPaine:aPoliticalLife,newedn1996GregoryClaeys,ThomasPaine:SocialandPolitical
Thought,1989.
Paley,Grace(b.1922)
neGoodside,Americanshortstorywriter,wasborninNewYorkCityofJewishimmigrantparentsfromRussia,andgrewupintheBronxinahomeinwhich
RussianandYiddishwerespoken.ShewaseducatedatEvanderChildsHighSchoolandforayearatHunterCollegeshemarriedJessPaleywhenshewas19,and
hadtwochildren.ShehastaughtEnglishatSarahLawrenceCollegeandCityCollege,NewYork.A'politicalperson',whohaslivedinChileandvisitedVietnam,
Nicaragua,andChinatoobserveconditions,andhasbeencloselyinvolvedintheWomen'sPentagonActionandothermovements,sheadmitsto'writingabout
ordinarypoliticalpeople:Ithinkthey'vebeenabandonedinmanyways,asthoughtheydon'texist'.TheLittleDisturbancesofMan:StoriesofMenandWomenat
Love(1959)introducestwo(formuchoftheirtime)singleparentnarrators,FaithandVirginia,whosereappearancesaddastructuraldimensiontoheroeuvre,which
sheextendedwithEnormousChangesattheLastMinute

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(1974)andLatertheSameDay(1985).Ofthenovelasaform,shehassaid:'Ican'twritelongerthingsItrytowriteeverythingtherightsize,lengthandwidth
anddepth,forwhatitis.''Whatitis'alwaysdemonstratesanunderstandingofchildrenandadultsofallagesandkinds,GentileaswellasJew,anearfordialogue,and
asenseofcomedy.PoetryisinBeginAgain:NewandCollectedPoems(1992).ShemarriedRobertNicholsin1972.SeeTheCollectedStories,newedn1995.
Palmer,Vance(18851959)
Australiannovelist,shortstorywriter,andcritic,wasborninBundaberg,Queensland,andeducatedatIpswichBoys'GrammarSchool,afterwhichhebecamea
journalist.HefreelancedfortwoyearsinLondon,returningtoAustraliaviaFinland,Siberia,andJapan,andthenresortedtoavarietyofjobsinhishomestate.He
wentagaintoLondon,fromwhichhereturnedin1915havingmarriedJanetHiggins,whoasNettiePalmer(18851964)becamenotonlyahelpmeetandsometimes
thefamilybreadwinner,butalsoaconsiderableliterarycriticinherownright.Palmer'sphilosophy,firstpubliclystatedinanarticlein1905,wasthedevelopmentofa
nationalliteraturewhichwouldexpressthe'spirit'ofAustralia,andthisheassiduouslyfosteredthrougharticles,reviews,andbroadcasts.Hewasinstrumental,with
ESSON,intheestablishmentofthePioneerPlayersinMelbournein192122,andhimselfwroteseveralnotableoneactplaysseeTheBlackHorseandOtherPlays
(1924)aswellasfulllengthcomedies.HisfirstpublishedbookswereTheForerunners(1915),verse,andTheWorldofMen(1915),shortstories,amediumin
whichheexcelledparticularlywhenevokingtheencroachmentoftheadultworldontheconsciousnessofyouth.Hisearlynovels,beginningwithTheShantykeeper's
Daughter(1920),wereromancesofstationlifeor(asRannDaly)oftheSouthSeas.Latterly,withThePassage(1930),TheSwayneFamily(1934),andthe
'Golconda'trilogy,culminatinginTheBigFellow(1960),hesucceededinilluminatingtheAustraliancharacterinthecontextofitsenvironment.SeeVivianSmith,
VanceandNettiePalmer,1975HarryHeseltine,VancePalmer,1970(criticalstudy)andinDavidWalker,DreamandDisillusion:aSearchforAustralian
CulturalIdentity,1976.
Parker,Dorothy(18931967)
neRothschild,Americanshortstorywriter,poet,andjournalist,wasborninWestEnd,NewJersey,ofanAmericanJewishgarmentmanufacturerandhisScottish
wife,whodiedwhenshewasininfancy.ShewaseducatedataprivateschoolinNewJerseyandattheBlessedSacramentConvent,NewYorkCity.Shestartedby
composingcaptionsforfashionpictures,andgraduatedtowritingdramacriticismforVanityFair,whichsackedherforbeingtoocausticinherreviews.Shemarried
astockbroker,EdwinPondParkerII,in1917:theyseparatedin1919anddivorcedin1928.As'ConstantReader'intheNewYorker,shefoundaregularoutletfor
hercriticalsenseandoutrageouswitfrom1925to1927,whenshewentcompletelyfreelance.EnoughRope(1926)wasthefirstofthreecollectionsoftartverses
aboutbrittlesituationsunderlyingthehumoroussideisanessenceofdespairsheherselftwiceattemptedsuicide.Intwovolumesofshortstories,Lamentsforthe
Living(1930)andAfterSuchPleasures(1933),shemadeespeciallyeffectiveuseofthedramaticmonologue.In1933shemarriedafailedfilmactor,Alan
Campbell(190563):theydivorcedin1947,andremarriedin1950.Duringthe1930stheywrotetogether15successfulHollywoodfilms,fromwhichitisestimated
theyearned$500,000.HeralignmentwithCommunism,inwhosenamesheopposedFascismandNaziGermany,reboundedwhensheandherhusbandwere
blacklistedinthe1950sforunAmericanactivities.Shediedasshehadoftenbeeninherlife,aloneandinfinancialdificulties.Herputdownsarelegendaryand,many
ofthem,timelessintheirwit:'GototheMartinBeckTheatreandwatchKatharineHepburn[inNormanMacowan'sTheLake]runthegamutofemotionfromAto
B'(1933).SeeTheCollectedDorothyParker,introductionbyBrendanGill,newedn1989MarionMeade,DorothyParker:WhatFreshHellIsThis?,newedn
1991(biography).
Pascal,Blaise(162362)
Frenchscientistandphilosopher,wasborninClermont,losthismotherwhenhewasthree,andwaseducatedbyhisfather,alawyerandcivilservant,inParisand
Rouen.Heissaidtohaveworkedoutforhimselfattheageof12severalofthegeometricalpropositionsofEuclid(fl.c.300BC).At16hepublishedatreatiseon
conicsectionsat19heinventedacalculatingmachineat24hebecamethefirsttodescribethepropertiesofthevacuum.InNovember1654hehadareligious
revelation,detailsofwhichheinscribedonparchmentandworeroundhisneckfortherestofhislife.HenowbeganregularretreatsattheJansenistmonastery,Port
Royal,whosedifferencesofopinionwiththeJesuitshesupportedinaseriesof18anonymouspamphlets,LettresProvinciales(165657tr.1657).Hediedaftera
periodofintensepain,probablycausedbyacongenitalmalformationoftheskull.NotesforadefenceoftheChristianreligionwerecollectedandpublishedbyhis
friendsasPenses[Thoughts](1669tr.J.Walker,1688tr.A.J.Krailsheimer,1966),whichsubsequenteditorshavearrangedaccordingtovariousplansseealso
PensesandOtherWritings,tr.HonorLevi,ed.AnthonyLevi(1995).

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Pasternak,Boris(Leonidovich)(18901960)
Russianpoet,novelist,critic,andtranslator,wasborninMoscowofJewishparents,hisfatherbeingapainter(andillustratorofTOLSTOY)andhismotheramusician.
AftergymnasiumhereadlawatMoscowUniversity,fromwhichhetookayearofftostudyphilosophyatMarburgUniversity.InitiallyaFuturistpoet,hepublisheda
collection,[TwinintheClouds],in1914,andanother,[AbovetheBarriers],in1917,when,unfitforarmyservicebecauseofalegbrokeninchildhood,hewas
workinginachemicalfactoryintheUrals.Hewasthenanapoliticalpoet,whosefirstsignificantcollection,[MySisterLife](1922tr.MarkRudmanwithBohdan
Boychuck,1983),includedpoemsofloveandofnaturecomposedin1917and1918whilethenationwasatitsmostdisorderlylongpoemsofrevolutionary
awarenesswrittenduringthe1920sarefarlesspoeticallyinspired.Hepublishedavolumeofstoriesin1925,andin1931anautobiographicalsketch,[SafeConduct]
(tr.BeatriceScottinProseandPoems,ed.StefanSchimanski,rev.edn1959),whichconcludeswiththedeathofMAYAKOVSKY.Hisfifthcollectionofverse,[Second
Birth](1932),inwhichhecelebratedhismeetinghissecondwife,washislastneworiginalworktoappearfortenyears,duringwhichheconductedwhathetermed
his'longsilentduel'withStalin,andearnedhislivingbytranslation,includingsomedistinguishedversionsofplaysofSHAKESPEARE.
Latterlyheputallhisliteraryeffortintohispoeticnovel,[DrZhivago],anexpressionofresurrectionafterdestruction,evenofaman'sbeliefinhimself,whichcovers
theperiodbefore,during,andaftertheRevolutionof1917itendswiththepoemsofhisprotagonist,reflectinghisownpersonalviewoftheevents.Itwaspublishedin
Italyin1957,andinEnglish(tr.ManyaHarariandMaxHayward)in1958,whenhewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiterature.Inthepoliticaluproarandcampaign
ofpersonalvilificationwhichfollowed,includinghisexpulsionfromtheWriters'Union,hedeclinedtheaward.SeeSelectedPoems,tr.JonStallworthyandPeter
France,newedn1991AnEssayinAutobiography,tr.ManyaHarari,withPoems19551959,1990PeterLevi,Pasternak,newedn1991(biography)Evgeny
Pasternak,BorisPasternak:theTragicYears19301960,tr.MichaelDuncan,poetrytr.AnnPasternakSlaterandCraigRaine,newedn1991.
Paston,John(142166)
Englishgentlemanandletterwriter,thesonofajudge,wasprobablybornonthefamilyestateinNorfolk,andwaseducatedatTrinityHallandPeterhouse,
Cambridge.Hethenstudiedlaw,whichheusedtogoodeffectinmanypropertydealsandotherlegalploys,includingtheadministrationoftheestateofthewealthySir
JohnFastolf(c.13781459),towhichhealsoclaimedtobetheheir.HewastwiceelectedMemberofParliamentforNorfolk,andthreetimescommittedtotheFleet
prisoninLondon.HemarriedtheheiressMargaretMautly(d.1484)theirtwoeldestsonswere(Sir)John(14421479),courtier,and(Sir)John(14441503),
soldier.Thecollectionoflettersbetweenthefourofthemespecially,butalsotoandfromothermembersofthefamily,friends,businessacquaintances,estate
managers,clerks,andtheirwomenfolk,wasbegunbyJohnPaston,whokeptfilesofthemforbusinesspurposes.Afterthedeathin1732ofWilliamPaston,2ndEarl
ofYarmouthandlastoftheline,thecorrespondencepassedthroughvarioushandsuntilitwasacquiredbytheantiquarySirJohnFenn(173994),whopublisheda
selectionin1787.Mostoftheletterswerewrittenbetween1460and1480theyrevealnotonlythelivelinessandclarityofexpressionwithwhichbothmenand
womenofthetimecorresponded,butalsothehazardsofkeepingholdofone'spropertyinthefaceoflawlessusurpers,thedetailsofthedaytodaymanagementof
estates,thecomplexitiesandstrainsoffamilylife,andtheprotractednegotiationsrequiredtosecureafavourablemarriageoravertanunfavourableone.SeeNorman
Davis(ed.),ThePastonLetters,1983(selectioninmodernspelling)H.S.Bennett,ThePastonsandTheirEngland,newedn1990.
Pater,Walter(183994)
Britishcriticandnovelist,wasborninShadwell,eastLondon,thesonofadoctor,whodiedwhentheboywasfive.HismotherdiedsoonafterheenteredKing's
School,Canterbury,andthefourchildrenwereputinthechargeofanaunt'TheChildintheHouse'(1878),hisfirstpublishedshortstory,mayreflecthisown
homesicknesswhenyoung.HewenttoTheQueen'sCollege,Oxford,intendingtobecomeaclergyman,andwaspersistingwiththeideaevenafteralossoffaith,
whenafrienddenouncedhimtotheBishopofLondon.Hereadclassics,andstudiedGermanphilosophyonhisownaccount,afterwhich,thoughhisdegreewasonly
secondclass,hewasin1864electedaFellowofBrasenoseCollege.From1869,whenhewasnotinOxford(andsometimeswhenhewasmeanttobe)ortravelling
abroad,helivedwithhistwosistersinLondon.TheendofananonymousarticleonMORRISintheWestminsterReview,includingtheinjunction,'Toburnalways
withthishardgemlikeflame,tomaintainthisecstasy,issuccessinlife',appearedasthe'Conclusion'tohisStudiesintheHistoryoftheRenaissance(1873),and
causedquiteastir.Therewaslesscontroversyabout,andmuchtoadmirein,therestofthework,inwhichoccursthememorabledescriptionofthe'MonaLisa'of
LeonardodaVinci(14521519),whichYEATSprintedaspoetryasthe

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openingiteminTheOxfordBookofModernVerse(1936).MariustheEpicurean(1885),anoveltracingthespiritualprogressofayoungRoman,wastobethe
firstofthreephilosophicalromances,butonlypartofasecond,'GastonDeLatour',waswritten.ImaginaryPortraits(1887)comprisesfourfictionalizedprojections
ofhisideas.Appreciations(1889)isacollectionofhiscriticalarticlesinliteraryperiodicals.Asteacheraswellascritic,hewasareluctantbutrespectedleaderofthe
artistictasteofhistimes.SeeEssaysinLiteratureandArt,ed.JenniferUglow,newedn1990DenisDonoghue,WalterPater:LoverofStrangeSouls,1995
(criticalbiography)LaurelBrake,WalterPater,1995(criticalintroduction).
Paterson,A(ndrew)B(arton),'Banjo'(18641941)
Australianpoet,wasbornonNarrambastation,nearMolong,NewSouthWales.HewaseducatedatSydneyGrammarSchool,andqualifiedasasolicitorofthe
SupremeCourtofNewSouthWales.Hehadalreadypublished,as'TheBanjo',somepopularbushballadsofhisowncomposition,including'Clancyofthe
Overflow'and'TheManfromSnowyRiver',whenin1892LAWSON,whotookamorerealisticviewoftheoutback,challengedhimtoaversecontestinthe
Bulletin.TheManfromSnowyRiverandOtherVerses(1895)extendedhisreputation(thefirstimpressionsoldoutwithinaweek),fromwhichpointthefabulous
ethosofhisversewasreflectedinhispersonallife.Hewenthunting,shooting,andpearldiving.Aswarcorrespondentin1901hecoveredtheopeningshotsofthe
BoerWarinSouthAfrica,thentravelledtoChinatowriteuptheBoxerRebellion.HeeditedtheSydneyEveningNewsfrom1904to1906,andtheTownand
CountryJournalin190708.Whenhewasunable(nowbeinginhisfifties)togettothefrontasacorrespondentinWorldWarI,hereturnedtoAustraliaandthen
servedinEgypt,withtherankofmajor,asremountofficertotheAustralianLightHorse.HisSaltbushBill,J.P.(1917),whichincluded'WaltzingMatilda',an
Australiannationalsong,wasissuedtoAustraliansoldiersasrecreationalreading.AfterthewarheeditedtheSydneySportsman,andpursuedhissportingpassions,
notablyfortheturf,aboutwhichhewroteauthoritativelyandwell.Healsopublishedtwonovels,AnOutbackMarriage(1906)andTheShearer'sColt(1936),as
wellasThreeElephantPower,andOtherStories(1917).Hiscompilation,TheOldBushSongs,ComposedandSungintheBushranging,Diggingand
OverlandingDays(1905rev.edn1930),testifiestotheresearchwhichinformshisownverse.HewasmadeOBEin1939.SeeSingeroftheBushandSongof
thePen,ed.RosamundCampbellandPhilippaHarvie,1983(completeworks)ThePenguinBanjoPaterson,ed.ClementSemmler,1993ClementSemmler,The
BanjooftheBush:theWork,LifeandTimesofA.B.Paterson,2ndedn1984ColinRoderick,BanjoPaterson:PoetbyAccident,1993(biography).
Patmore,Coventry(182396)
Britishpoetandcritic,wasborninWoodford,Essex,andeducatedprivatelywithoutanythoughttoacareer,thoughhisjournalistfatherwasunabletosupporthimat
university.Poems(1844)containedseveralnarrativeworkswhichimpressedmembersofthePreRaphaelites.In1846hisfather'sspeculationsfailed,andheobtained
apostintheprintedbookdepartmentoftheBritishMuseum,feelingsufficientlycomfortablein1847tomarry.Theunioninspiredtwosequencesofnarrativepoems
extollingmarriedloveinaVictorianuppermiddleclassmilieu:TheBetrothal(1854)andTheEspousals(1856),publishedtogetherasTheAngelintheHouse.
Someofthemaincharactersreappearintwofurtherversenovels,FaithfulforEver(1860)anditssequel,TheVictoriesofLove(1863).Hiswifediedin1862,
afterhavinghadsixchildren,andin1864hemarriedagainandbecameaCatholic.Afterthedeathofhissecondwife,hemarriedhischildren'sgoverness.InThe
UnknownEros,andOtherOdes(1877),atendencytowardsmysticaleroticismbecomesreligiouseroticism.Thereareanumberofhispoems,notably'Departure'
and'TheToys',inwhichherecords,withoutsymbolism,normalhumanreactionstodomesticcrises,theemotionsbeingenhancedbythemetricalformhedevisedfor
hisodes,inwhichlongerandveryshortlinesaresupportedbyanirregularrhymescheme.ThoughheadmiredtheworkofTENNYSON,andROBERTBROWNINGandRUSKIN
wereclosefriends,hiscriticismandreviews,collectedinPrincipleinArt(1889)andReligioPoetae(1893),sufferfromaninabilitytoappreciatefullyanyone'swork
buthisownseealsoBowintheCloud:SelectedEssays,ed.AntonyMatthew,(1996).
Paton,Alan(190388)
SouthAfricannovelist,wasborninPietermaritzburg,theeldestchildofaScottishChristadelphianshorthandwritertotheSupremeCourtandofateacherofEnglish
descent.HewaseducatedatMaritzburgCollegeandNatalUniversityCollege,afterwhichhetaughtatIxopoHighSchoolandthenatMaritzburgCollege.In1935,
afternearlydyingofsalmonellapoisoning,hebecamePrincipalofDiepkloofReformatory,Johannesburg,whereheremaineduntilheresignedin1948towritefull
time.In1946,onamissiontoexamineprisonconditionsinSweden,hetooktimeofftoseethecountryofHAMSUN,whereachancevisittoTrondheimCathedral
inspiredCry,theBelovedCountry(1948),thefirstchapterofwhichhewrotebeforedinnerthatevening.Thislyricalandpowerfulnovel,suggestingaChristian
resolutionoftheproblem

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ofrace,wasasinfluentialwithinSouthAfricaasitwasinpromotinganawarenessabroadofthecountry'spoliticalpolicies.TooLatethePhalarope(1953)explores
theessenceoftheAfrikanerupbringingandthetragicconsequencesofoneman'snaturalproclivities.In1953heresignedasHonoraryCommissionerinSouthAfrica
forTocH,towhichhehaddevotedmuchoftheprevious25years,foritsrefusaltogiveupitscolourbar.InthesameyearhehelpedtofoundthenonracialLiberal
Party,ofwhichhewasPresidentfrom1958untilitwasbannedin1968.Hecontinuedtoadvocateindividualfreedomandracialequality.Hepublishedabookof
shortstories,DebbieGoHome(1961).AmonghisnonfictionworksareKontakionforYouDeparted(1969),amovingexaminationofhisrelationshipwithhisfirst
wife,whodiedin1967,andofthestructureofmarriageInstrumentofThyPeace:MeditationsPromptedbythePrayerofStFrancis(1968),aseriesofreligious
reflectionsandsubstantialbiographiesofJanHofmeyer(1964)andArchbishopClayton(1973).SeeKnockingontheDoor:ShorterWritings,ed.ColinGardner,
1975TowardstheMountain,newedn1986,andJourneyContinued,newedn1989(autobiography)PeterEAlexander,AlanPaton:aBiography,newedn
1996.
Patten,Brian
seeMCGOUGH.
Patterson,Orlando(b.1940)
Jamaicanbornnovelistandsociologist,wasborninWestmoreland,Jamaica,andeducatedatKingstonCollegeandtheUniversityoftheWestIndies,afterwhichhe
studiedsociologyattheLondonSchoolofEconomics.HewasappointedaprofessorofsociologyatHarvardUniversityin1971,andisnowanAmericancitizen.In
hisfirst,andmostsignificant,novel,TheChildrenofSisyphus(1964),theplightoftheinhabitantsofaKingstonslumandthesearchforaviableexistenceareseen
alongsideRastafarianidealism.ThereisanexistentialthemealsotoAnAbsenceofRuins(1967).TheSociologyofSlavery:anAnalysisoftheOrigins,
Development,andStructureofNegroSlaveSocietyinJamaica(1967),astudyoftheforcesbehindthesocietywhichevolved,canbereadasbackgroundtohis
andotherJamaicannovels.Freedom,VolumeOne:FreedomintheMakingofWesternCulture(1991)wontheUSNationalBookAward:thesecondvolume,
FreedomintheModernWorld,waspublishedin1992.
Pausanias
seeDOBSONLEVIFRAZER.
Pavese,Cesare(190850)
Italiannovelist,poet,critic,andtranslator,wasborninSantoStefanoBelbroandeducatedattheLiceoMassimod'Azeglio,Turin,andTurinUniversity,wherehe
wroteathesisonWHITMAN.HispreoccupationwithAmericanliteraturecontinuedwithtranslationsofSINCLAIRLEWIS,MELVILLE,ANDERSON,DOSPASSOS,andSTEIN,andis
reflectedintheconversationalstyleofhisfirstbookofverse(1936),publishedwhilehewasconfinedbytheFascistsinCalabriaforhavingagirlfriendwhowasa
Communist.AttheendofWorldWarII,duringwhichheworkedforthepublisherEinaudiinTurin,hejoinedtheCommunistParty,withoutbeingabletoreconcilehis
commitmentwithhiscreativeinstincts.ThelatterprevailedinthesocialrealismofthenovelsIlCompagno(1947tr.W.J.StrachanasTheComrade,1959)andLa
CasainCollina(1949tr.StrachanasTheHouseontheHill,1956),andinshortstoriessetinandaroundcontemporaryTurinseeTheLeatherJacket:Stories,
ed.MargaretCrosland,tr.AlmaMurch(1980).Hismostcompletestatementoftheconflictbetweentraditionalinnocenceandmodernvalues,LaLunaeiFal
(1950tr.LouiseSinclairasTheMoonandtheBonfire,1952),setinaPiedmontesecountryenvironmentwhichhassurvivedthewarunchanged,wasalsohislast.
Hewascaughtupinyetanotherdisastrousloveaffair,thistimewithanAmericanactress,forwhomhewrotesomefineverseseeSelectedPoems,tr.Crosland
(1971).Whenotherthingswentwrong,too,hekilledhimselfinahotelroomnearTurinstation.
Paz,Octavio(b.1914)
Mexicanpoetandcritic,wasborninMexicoCity,thesonofalawyer,fromwhomheinheritedhisinterestinsocialandpoliticalcauses.EducatedbyFrenchMarist
fathers,hehadhisfirstpoempublishedwhenhewas17,andhisfirstbookofverse,inaneditionof65copies,in1933.In1936hegaveuphisstudiesatthe
UniversityofMexicoandwenttoYucatan,wherehesetupaschoolinapoorruralarea.Thefollowingyear,attheinvitationofNERUDA,hevisitedSpain,wherewhat
hewitnessedoftheCivilWarledhimtoquestionhisviewsonMarxism.BackinMexicoin1938hefoundedtheliteraryreviewTaller,ofwhosegroupofpoetshe
wasthemostprominent,andeditedthejournalElHijoPrdigofrom1943to1945.HethenjoinedtheDiplomaticService,hisfirstpostingbeingasculturalattach
inParis,wherehebecameassociatedwiththeSurrealistmovement.HesubsequentlyservedasChargd'AffairesinJapan,andasAmbassadortoIndiafrom1962to
1968,whenheresignedinprotestathisgovernment'ssuppressionofthestudentdemonstrationbeforetheOlympicGamesinMexico.Hethenheldvisiting
professorshipsatCambridgeandHarvard.
HisfirstbookstoappearinEnglishwerePiedradeSol(1957tr.MurielRukeyserasSunStone,1963),anelaboratelystructuredexplorationofcosmological,
personal,andsocialphilosophies,andSelectedPoems,tr.Rukeyser(1963).HewasawardedtheNobelPrizefor

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Literaturein1990,for'hisimpassionedwritingwithwidehorizons,characterizedbysensuousintelligenceandhumanisticenergy',notonlyinverse,butalsoinprose
mentionwasmadeofElLaberintodelaSoledad(1950tr.LysanderKempinTheLabyrinthofSolitudeandOtherEssays,1962),inwhichheexploreshis
identityasaMexican'andinabroadermeaningasaLatinAmerican'.FurthercriticalessaysareinOnPoetsandOthers,tr.MichaelSchmidt(1987),andTheOther
Voice,tr.HelenLane(1992).TheDoubleFlame:EssaysonLoveandEroticism,tr.Lane(1996)began,heexplains,in1965asalittlevolumeonlove,whenhe
hadfallenintotheconditioninIndia.Itwasfinallycompletedin1993asastudyofthecontextofhumanloveandthesoul('eroticism').SelectedPoems(1979)
containstranslationsbyBISHOIandTOMLINSON.SeeCollectedPoems19571987,ed.EliotWeinberger,newedn1994(bilingualedn).
p'Bitek,Okot(193182)
Ugandanpoetandcritic,wasborninGulu,Acoli,thesonofaschoolmaster,andwaseducatedatGuluHighSchool,King'sCollege,Budo(wherehecomposedand
producedafulllengthopera),andGovernmentTeacherTrainingCollege,Mbarara.At22hepublishedanovelintheLuolanguageofAcoli,andbegan'Werpa
Lawino'[SongofLawino],aprotestpoeminthepersonaofanAcoliwifeabandonedfora'modern'woman.Anathleteaswellasascholar,hetouredBritainwiththe
Ugandannationalsoccerteamin1956,andstayedontotakeacertificateofeducationatBristolUniversityandadegreeinlawattheUniversityofWaleshethen
obtainedthedegreeofBLittatOxfordwithathesis,'OralLiteratureandItsBackgroundamongtheAcoliandLango'(1963).BackinUgandahelecturedin
sociologyatMakerereUniversityCollege,publishedanEnglishversionofSongofLawino(1966),completedtheLuoversion(published1969),andbecame
DirectoroftheUgandaNationalTheatreandCulturalCentre,Kampala.Dismissedfromhispost(apparentlyforpoliticalimplicationsinSongofLawino),hewentto
Kenya,wherehetaughtattheUniversityCollegeofNairobiandin1968foundedtheKisumuArtsFestival.HediedshortlyaftertakingupthepostofProfessorof
CreativeWritingatMakerereUniversity.ForSongofLawino,whichisbothpungentandwitty,heinventedaformofversebasedontheoraltradition.Itwas
reissued(1984)withSongofOcol(1970),amaleresponse.TwoSongs:SongofaPrisoner,SongofMalaya(1971)aremoreovertlypolitical.Hiscriticalworks
includethetrenchantAfricanReligionsinWesternScholarship(1970),andacollectionofequallyoutspokenessays,Africa'sCulturalRevolution,introductionby
NgugiWaThiong'o(1973).SeeG.A.Heron,ThePoetryofOkotp'Bitek,1976.
Peabody,Elizabeth
seeHAWTHORNETHOREAU
Peacock,ThomasLove(17851866)
Britishnovelistandpoet,wasborninWeymouth,Dorset,thesonofaLondonglassmerchant,whodiedin1788.TheboyandhismotherwenttoliveinSurreywith
herfather,CaptainLove.Hewaseducatedprivatelyuntilhewas13,afterwhichhefollowedhisowndisposition.Hehadpublishedfourbooksofversewhenin1812
hemetP.B.SHELLEYandbecameaclosefriendandmemberofhiscircle,handlingShelley'saffairswhenheleftEnglandin1818,andbeingjointexecutorwithBYRON
onhisdeath.1818wastheyear,too,inwhichNightmareAbbeyappeared,thethirdafterHeadlongHall(1816,anonymously)andMelincourt(1817)ofhis
strainofsatiricalconversationpieceslightlyveiledasnovels.Alsoin1818heatlastfoundacongenialjob,withtheEastIndiaCompany,wherehebecameAssistant
totheExaminerofCorrespondence,andultimatelyChiefExaminerinsuccessiontoMILL'Sfather.In1829heoutlinedaproposalforsendingtheIndiamailby
steamshiptoSyria,overlandtotheUpperEuphrates,bypaddlesteamertoBasra,andthenbysteamshipagain.Heretiredin1856,havinginformedaHouseof
CommonsSelectCommitteeonSteamNavigationthathewas'notawarethatitwouldbeanybenefittothepeopleofIndiatosendEuropeansamongstthem'because
ofthepotentiallydestructiveeffectonIndianmoralsanddomestichabits.Hewrotetwofurthersatiricalnovels,CrotchetCastle(1831)andGryllGrange(1861),
andtwoamusinghistoricalromances.Hewasonlyaminorpoet,butafineversifier.TheFourAgesofPoetry(1820),anironicaldetractionoftheRomantics,
promptedShelley'sDefenceofPoetry.Peacock'sMemoirsofPercyByssheShelley(185862)containsavividrecreationofthepoet.In1819,rememberinga
youngwomanhehadmetonatriptoWalesin1811buthadhadnocontactwithsince,hewrotetoherproposingmarriage.Sheaccepted,andhebecameindue
courseMEREDITH'Sfatherinlaw.SeeTheCompletePeacock,ed.DavidGarnett,newedn(withforewordbyLordBlake)1989MarilynButler,Peacock
Displayed:aSatiristinHisContext,1979.
Peake,Mervyn(191168)
Britishnovelist,poet,andartist,wasborninKuling,China,thesonofaCongregationalistmedicalmissionary,andwaseducatedatTientsinGrammarSchool,andthen
ElthamCollege,Kent,andtheRoyalAcademySchools.HetaughtlifedrawingattheWestminsterSchoolofArtfrom1935to1939,andin1937marriedtheartist,
MaeveGilmore,whosubsequentlywroteabiographyofhim(1970)andeditedcollectionsofhiswritingsanddrawings.Anervousbreakdownduring

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WorldWarIIledtohisbeinginvalidedoutoftheArmyandappointedawarartist.In1949,afterthreeyearsinSark,whichisthesettingofhisnovel,MrPye(1953),
hereturnedtoEnglandwithhisfamily,whomhesupportedprecariouslybyteachingparttimeandbywriting,painting,andillustrating,untilhebecameincapacitatedby
theonsetofParkinson'sdiseaseattheageof46.ThefirstofseveralvolumesofhispoetrywasShapesandSounds(1941).Hismajorliteraryworkisthetrilogy,
TitusGroan(1946),Gormenghast(1950),andTitusAlone(1959),inwhichheprojectsafantastical,grotesque,andsymbolicworld,fulloffearsandhorrors,
whosepeoplerespondindifferentwaystotheancientritualswhichdominatethem.Partoftheexperiencewhichledtothecreationofsuchasettingandsituationwas
thevisithewascommissionedtomaketoBelsenconcentrationcampshortlyafteritsliberation.AmonghismostmemorableillustrationsarethoseforCARROLL'SThe
HuntingoftheSnarkandCOLERIDGE'STheRimeoftheAncientMariner.
Pearse,Patrick(18791916)
Irishpoetandpatriot,wasborninDublinandeducatedbytheChristianBrothersinWestlandRow,andatUniversityCollege,Dublin,qualifyingalsoasBLin1901.
HewasEditoroftheGaelicLeague'sweeklyjournalfrom1903to1909,whenhegaveuptheposttoconcentrateonStEnda'sSchool,whichhehadfoundedin
1908.Hecontinued,asajournalistandpublicspeaker,tocampaignforIrishtobemorewidelyusedandforthedevelopmentofGaelicasamediumofmodern
literature.Tothisendhealsowroteplays(mainlyforperformancebyStEnda's),shortstories,andpoetry.TheGaeliclyricsinSuantraidheagusGoltraidhe[Songs
ofSleepandSorrow](1914)areregardedassuperiortohisEnglishpoems,ofwhich'TheRebel'and'TheFool'inparticularhavearelevancetotheforthcoming
explosionofviolence,justas'Renunciation'referstotheinevitabilityofitsoutcomeforhim.HesawforceastheonlymeansbywhichIrelandcouldbecomeseparate,
andasPresidentoftheRepublic'sprovisionalgovernmentreadoutitsproclamationonthestepsoftheGeneralPostOfficeinDublinatthetimeoftheEasterRisingin
1916.HewasexecutedbyaBritishfiringsquad,aswerealsotwootherpromisingpoets,ThomasMacDonagh(18781916)andJosephMaryPlunkett(1887
1916).SeeThe1916Poets:theCollectedPoetryofPadraicH.Pearse,ThomasMacDonaghandJosephM.Plunkett,ed.DesmondRyan,newedn1995
RuthDudleyEdwards,PatrickPearse:theTriumphofFailure,newedn1990.
Pearson,Bill[WilliamHarrison](b.1922)
NewZealandnovelistandcritic,wasborninGreymouthandeducatedatGreymouthTechnicalHighSchool,CanterburyUniversityCollege,andOtagoUniversity.
AfterservingwiththeNewZealandforcesintheFarandMiddleEastandinEuropeduringandimmediatelyafterWorldWarII,andbeginningacareerasateacher,
hewenttoLondon,wherehestudiedforaPhDdegreeatKing'sCollegeandtaughtforayearinLondonCountyCouncilschools.Whilehewasthere,hewrotefor
Landfall(September1952)atrenchantpiece,'FretfulSleepers:aSketchofNewZealandBehaviouranditsImplicationsfortheArtist'reprintedinhiscollection,
FretfulSleepersandOtherEssays(1974).InthecourseofithecitesMEYNELL'ScondescensiontocolonialsinanarticleinMerryEngland(October1891),and
concludes:'Thesolutionforusistolooktothehereandnow...,toconcentrateontheverythingsshemighthavecalledvulgar,anddevelopthemtothepointwhere
theymeansomethingtopeopleoutsideNewZealand,tomakeameaningoutofthedrivesandbehaviourofcommonpeople.'Inhisonlyworkoffiction,CoalFiat
(1963rev.edn1970),hedidpreciselythat.Setin1947inaWestCoastminingtownwhoseactivitiescentreontheschool,thepub,themine,andthedancehall,itis
ableak,pessimistic,butenthrallingstudyofaselfcontainedsociety.SeealsoSixStories(1991).PearsonwasLecturerinEnglish,AucklandUniversity195466,and
AssociateProfessorfrom1970tohisretirement,havinginthemeantimebeenSeniorResearchFellow,AustralianNationalUniversity.OtherproseworksareHenry
LawsonamongMaoris(1968)andRifledSanctuaries:SomeViewsofthePacificIslandsinWesternLiteratureto1900(1984).SeearticlebyCURNOW,'Coal
FlatRevisited'(1975),inCherryHankin(ed.),CriticalEssaysontheNewZealandNovel,1982.
Peele,George(155696)
Englishdramatistandpoet,wasborninLondon,thesonofJamesPeele,ClerkofChrist'sHospital,whowrotebooksonaccountancyandcitypageants.Afterbeinga
freescholaratChrist'sHospital,hewaseducatedatBroadgatesHallandChristChurch,Oxford,graduatingasMAin1579.AnOxfordfriendcommented(inLatin)
onhispropensityformixingseriousmatterswithlivelyjokesorjapes,whichwouldappeartobejustifiedbythepublicationin1607ofMerrieConceitedJestsof
GeorgePeele,inthemannerofsuchbooksofthetime,whichshouldnotberegardedasautobiographical.In1579thegovernorsofChrist'sHospitalorderedPeele
seniorto'dischargehishouseofhissonGeorge'.Furtherdetailsabouthislifearemainlyspeculative,buthewasclearlyoneoftheuniversitywitswhobroughtasense
ofform,aswellaspoetryandpassion,toElizabethandrama,andwhateverhispersonalcharacteristics,Peelewasaboldandversatiledramatist.The

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AraygnementofParis(printed1584)isaGreekpastoralwithasurprising,andtopical,climax.TheBattellofAlcazar(performedc.1589)isahistoricallyinspired
romantictragedy.TheFamousChronicleofKingEdwardetheFirst(printed1593)wasinthenewtraditionoftheEnglishchronicleplay.TheLoveofKing
DavidandFairBethsabe(performedc.1593)hasbeentermed'akindofmysteryplay'.TheOldWivesTale(printed1595)hasrecentlyemergedfromits
designationasamangledfragmenttobeseenasathoroughlyingeniouspieceoflyricalstagecraft.Outsidehisplays,muchofPeele'sversewaswrittentoorder,for
pageantsandotheroccasions.Heisbelievedtohavedieddestitute.SeeTheLifeandWorksofGeorgePeele,ed.D.H.Horne,ES.Hook,andJohnYoklavich,3
vols195270.
Pennant,Thomas
seeWHITE,GILBERT.
Pepys,Samuel(16331703)
Englishdiarist,wasbornintheCityofLondon,thesonofatailor,andwaseducatedatStPaul'sSchoolandMagdaleneCollege,Cambridge.Hecameofmodest
immediatefamily(hisfatherwasthethirdsonofathirdsonandhadmarriedaLondonwashmaid),buthisfather'sfirstcousin,EdwardMontagu(16251672),later
LordSandwich,gavehimapostinhishousehold.Throughthis,andbyhisownabilities,herosetopositionsofgreatinfluenceinthecountry,includingTreasurerto
Tangier166579,SecretarytotheAdmiralty167379,MemberofParliamentforHarwich168589,King'sSecretaryforNavalAffairs168489,andPresidentof
theRoyalSociety168486.Hisdiaryrunsfrom1January1660(theyearoftheRestorationoftheMonarchy)to31May1669,whenhediscontinueditbecauseof
eyestrain,fromwhichherecovered.Writtenlargelyinshorthand,itwasfirstdecipheredin1825,butwasnotpublishedinfulluntileditedbyRobertLathamand
WilliamMatthews(11vols197083).ItcomplementsEVELYN'Sdiaryinthatitisaverypersonal(andfrank)narrative,writtenupfromroughnotes(butalwayswithina
fewdaysoftheevents),andnotrevised.Racyandcolloquial,itistherichestpossiblerecordnotjustofatumultuousage,anexcitingsociety,andtheminutiaeof
privateandpubliclife,butofabrilliantandlikableman'sactivitiesandinterestsandhishugeenjoymentofthem.HislivelybutlongsufferingwifeElizabeth,the
daughterofaHuguenotrefugee,whomhehadmarriedin1655whenshewas15,diedin1669.Theyhadnochildren,andheneverremarried.SeeRichardOllard,
Pepys:aBiography,newedn1993ofrev.edn1991.
Percy,Thomas(17291811)
Britishantiquary,poet,andcleric,wasborninBridgnorth,Shropshire,thesonofagrocerand,accordingtoBOSWELL,wasindubitablyofdirectdescentfromthefamily
ofPercy,earlsofNorthumberland.HewaseducatedatBridgnorthGrammarSchoolandChristChurch,Oxford,andwasin1753presentedwiththecollegelivingof
EastonMaudit,Northumberland,whereheremainedfor29years,collectingalsothepostsofchaplaintotheDukeofNorthumberlandandtotheKing,andin1778
becomingDeanofCarlisle.Hisliteraryinterestsandenquiringmindledhimtopublishin1761,as'acuriousspecimenofChineseliterature',HauKiouChoaan:or,
ThePleasingHistory,thefirstappearanceinaEuropeanlanguageofaChinesenovel.Donefromtranslations,ithadvoluminousapparatuses,compiledbyhimself.
FivePiecesofRunicPoetryTranslatedfromtheIslandicLanguage(1763)wasdonesocarefullyandexactlythatheavoidedthesuspicionswhichwerenow
beingattachedtoMACPHERSON'S'Ossian'.Inabout1758hereceivedfromafriendapricelessfoliomanuscriptvolumeofballads.Withtheencouragementandadviceof
authoritiessuchasWARTON,heusedthisasthebasisofReliquesofAncientEnglishPoetry(1765),whichreflectshisjudgmentandliteraryflairandexercised
considerableinfluenceoncontemporarytaste,aswellaspopularizingtheballadform.In1782hewasappointedBishopofDromore,Ireland,wherehedidhisjob
vigorouslyandspenttherestofhislonglife.Ofhim,JOHNSONwrotein1778,inanopenletterofapologyforanunintentionalaffront:'Heisamanverywillingtolearn,
andveryabletoteachamanoutofwhosecompanyInevergowithouthavinglearnedsomething.'
Perelman,S(idney)J(oseph)(190479)
Americanhumorist,journalist,anddramatist,wasborninBrooklynofRussianJewishimmigrantparents.HewasbroughtupinProvidence,RhodeIsland,wherehis
fatherbecameapoultryfarmerafterseveralbusinessfailures,oneofwhichhadbeentobackaYiddishmusicalversionofWALTERSCOTT'STheHeartofMidlothian.
HewonfirstprizeinanationalessaycontestsponsoredbyAmericanBoyin1917,theyearheenteredtheClassicalHighSchool,Providence.AtBrownUniversity
hemetNATHANAELWEST,whosesisterLaura(d.1970)hemarriedin1929.DawnGinsbergh'sRevenge(1929),acollectionofproseandcartoons,carriedaquote
fromGrouchoMarx(18901977):'FromthemomentIpickedupyourbookuntilIlaiditdown,Iwasconvulsedwithlaughter.SomedayIintendreadingit.'Strictly
fromHunger(1937)wasthefirstofseveralcollectionsofpiecesfromtheNewYorker,towhichhebegancontributingin1931.Incommonwithmanywriters,he
rentedhistalentstoHollywood,initiallyascoauthoroftheMarxbrothers'film,MonkeyBusiness(1931),thefirst(subsequentlyrejected)scriptofwhichhewas
calledupontoreadtothefourbroth

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ers,theirwivesandappendages(alljustarrivedinLosAngelesafterfourdaysinatrain),sundryhangerson,andfivedogs.Thestartingpointsofhisessaysaremost
frequentlydailylifeandthehazardsofhouseownershipthetheatreandfilmworldstravel,ofwhichhebecameaninveterateandveteranexponentandotherpeople's
commercialorliterarywritingsoneofhismostsubtlepieces,'AnnaTriviaPluralized',inBaby,It'sColdOutside(1970),isaparodyofJOYCEandJoycean
scholarship.SeeTheMostofS.J.Perelman,introductionbyDorothyParker,newedn1991TheLastLaugh,1981(unfinishedautobiographyandsketches).
PrezGalds,Benito(18431920)
Spanishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninLasPalmas,CanaryIslands,andwenttoColegioSanAgustin.Whenhewas19,hismothersenthimtostudylawat
MadridUniversitytokeephimapartfromtheillegitimatedaughterofherbrother'sAmericanexmistress,withwhomhehadfalleninlove.Fromuniversity,hejoined
theeditorialstaffofLaNacin,whichin1868printedhistranslationsofDICKENS'SPickwickPapers.Hepublishedhisfirstnovelin1870,thereafterclassifyinghis
extensivefictionaloeuvreunder'EpisodiosNacionales'fivesequencesofhistoricalnovelsfromthebattleofTrafalgar(1815)totherestorationoftheBourbon
dynastyinSpain(1874)and'NovelasEspaolContemporneas'sociallyorientatedexplorationsofaspectsof19thcenturySpaincomprisingidealistic,
psychological,andnaturalisticnovels.InthenaturalisticveinisFortunatayJacinta(188687tr.AgnesMoncyGullnasFortunataandJacinta,1973),astudyof
sexualmoresandclassdistinctions,whichisregardedashisgreatestwork.Someofhismostsuccessfulplayswereadaptationsofhisownnovels.Thepetty
antagonismthatheevokedinhisowncountryculminatedinhisnominationfortheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1912beingsetasidebythecommittee.Theaward,
whichhehadearned,wouldhaveresolvedsomeofhispersonalfinancialdifficulties(heabjuredmarriageasanincitementtoinfidelity,andinsteadpreached,and
practised,freelove),andalleviatedtheblindnessfromwhichhesufferedforthelasteightyearsofhislife.
Perkins,Maxwell
seeROTH,HENRYWOLFE,THOMAS.
Pessoa,Fernando(18881935)
Portuguesepoet,wasborninLisbonand(hisfatherhavingdied)wasbroughtupinSouthAfrica,wherehisstepfatherwasaPortugueseconsulandwherehewentto
DurbanHighSchool.AfterreturningtoLisbonwhenhewas17andstudyingforayearatLisbonUniversity,hecontinuedforatimetowriteinEnglish,inwhichhe
publishedAntinous,35Sonnets(1918).HeearnedamodestlivingbywritinglettersinEnglishandFrenchforLisbonbusinesses,involvedhimselfinliteraryaffairs,
andwrotepoetry.Hisinspirationalbreakthroughcamein1914,whenheinventedthreealternativepersonae,RicardoReis,AlbertoCueiro,andAlvarodeCampos,
undereachofwhich,andhisownname,hefreelycomposedPortugueseversesofadifferentnature.Inspiteofacooperativeoutputofseveralhundredcomplete
poems,theonlybookofverseinhisnativelanguagetobepublishedinhislifetimewasMensagem[Message](1934),44patrioticpieces.Hediedofcirrhosis.SeeA
CentenaryPessoa,ed.EugnioLisboaandL.C.Taylor,tr.KeithBosleyandothers,1995SelectedPoems,tr.JonathanGriffin,newedn1996.
Petrarch(FrancescoPetrarca)(130474)
Italianpoetandscholar,wasborninArezzo,wherehisfather,anotary,hadsettledafterbeingexiledfromFlorencein1302,afewmonthsafterDANTE.Fromthere
hemovedtoCarpentrasinFrance,nearthepapalcourtatAvignon,whichwaseffectivelythefocusofthemedievalworldand,until1353,thepointfromwhich
Petrarchbeganhismanyjourneys.HestudiedlawatMontpellierUniversityfromtheageof12,andatBolognafrom1320to1326,whenhereturnedtoAvignon,
tookminororders,andembarkedonaliterarycareer,subsidizedbypatronsandbytheincomefrombenefices.OneofhisearliesttaskswastoreconstructLIVY'S
historyofRome,ofwhichhisisthefirstcriticaledition.In1337hemadehisowncontributiontoRomanhistory,DeVirisIllustribus[OnFamousMen],and,after
discoveringCICERO'SlettersinVerona,embarkedonanequivalentcorpusofcorrespondenceinLatin.In1333heconceivedanepicpoemafterthestyleofVIRGIL,
Africa,celebratingtheexploitsofScipioAfricanus(234183BC),whichhelaterabandoned.Hewas,however,stillatthebeginningofhiscareer,andhadwrittenonly
afewpoemsinItalian(atthattimenotconsideredasuitablevehicleforliterature),whenin1341hewasformallycrownedinRome(withalaurelwreath)aspoet
laureate.HisLatinworks,whichincludephilosophicaltreatisesanddialogues,broughthiminternationalrenown,especiallyafterthedevelopmentofprintinginthe
1460s.
Petrarch'slocalfameandconfirmedpositioninliteraryposterityspringfromhissighting,inthechurchofStClareinAvignonon6April1327,theladyhe
appropriatelycallsLaura,whodied,byhisownaccount,atpreciselythesametimeonthesamedayofthesamemonth,21yearslater.Whethersheexistedornot,
andshehasbeenidentifiedwithLaure,wifeofHugodeSade(aremoteancestorofSADE),whodiedoftheplaguein1348,havinghad11children,sheisthesub

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jectofthe366lyricsofCanzoniere,originallyknownasRerumVulgariumFragmenta[VernacularFragments](tr.R.M.DurlingasPetrarch'sLyricPoems,
1976tr.MarkMusa,1996),andthefurtherinspirationforthesixlongerpoemscomprisingTrionfi(tr.ErnestH.WilkinsasTheTriumphsofPetrarch,1962)all
firstprintedtogetherin1470.ThemetricalsequencewithinCanzoniereisthesourceoftheEnglishsonnetformintroducedbyWYATT,andElizabethanpoetry
aboundsinthekindofconceitwhichPetrarchusedinproclaimingthevirtuesandbeautiesofhislove.LatterlyheabandonedAvignonandhisestateatVauclusefor
Milan.After1361helivedinVenice,Pavia,andPadua,channellinghisliteraryenergiesintothecompositionoffurtherletters,inwhich(asinallhiswork)thepersonal
andtheuniversalarelinked,andhecomplainsvariouslyabouthisprivateconditionandthestateoftheworld.Fromtheseheselected128forposterity,toaddto
thosehehadwrittenearlier.HediedinahousehehadbuiltinArqua,havingmadeprovisioninhiswilltobeburiedinthesevendifferentplacesinwhichhereckoned
hemightdie.SeeSelectionsfromtheCanzoniereandOtherWorks,tr.MarkMusa,1985NicholasMann,Petrarch,1984(introductiontothemanandhis
works).
Petronius,Gaius(d.66)
Romannovelist,wasproconsulofBithyniaandthenconsulinRome(62),beforebecomingorganizerofNero'spersonalrevels,inwhichcapacityhewasalsoknown
asPetroniusArbiter,fromhisjobtitleofElegantiaeArbiter[JudgeofTaste].Satyriconistheoriginalpicaresquenovel,abisexualodysseyoftwomenandtheirboy
roundthetownsofsouthernItaly.Onlyfragmentssurvive,including'Trimalchio'sDinnerParty',whichsplendidlyexhibitsthemannersofthenouveauxriches.
Petronius,victimofoneofNero'speriodicpurges,diedinstyle.AccordingtoTACITUShebledhimselfslowlytodeath,whilemakingconversation,eating,andsleeping,
havingwrittendown'aclassifiedlistofNero'smostdisgracefulactswithmaleaswellasfemalepartners,andtheirnames,whichhesenttotheemperorunderseal'.T.
s.ELIOT'STheWasteLandhasasitsepigraphaquotationfromtheSatyriconabouttheSibylofCumae.SeeSatyrica,tr.R.BrachtBranhamandDanielKinney,
1996TheSatyricon,tr.P.G.Walsh,1996.
Philips,Ambrose(16741749)
Britishpoet,wasborninShropshireandeducatedatShrewsburySchooland,asasizar,atStJohn'sCollege,Cambridge,ofwhichhewasaFellowfrom1699to
1708.HewasthenemployedforatimeinDenmark,fromwhichheaddressed'EpistletotheEarlofDorset'(1709).BackinLondonhebecameamemberof
ADDISON'SsetwhichmetatButton'sCoffeeHouse.BeforethefirstperformanceofhisadaptationofRACINE'SAndromaque,TheDistrestMother(1712),awholeissue
oftheSpectatorwasdevotedtohypingit.InaseriesofarticlesinSTEELE'SGuardian,hisPastorals(1710)cameinforhighpraise,whichsonettledPOPEthathe
submittedanironicarticle(Guardian,40)comparingPhilipswithhimself,whichappeared,butonlyonthesurface,tofavourtheformer.JOHNSONobserves(Livesof
thePoets)that'fromthattimePopeandPhilipslivedinaperpetualreciprocationofmalevolence'.OntheaccessionofGeorgeIin1714Philipswasmadeajusticeof
thepeaceforWestminster,andin1717acommissionerforthelottery.Hepublished,andlargelywrote,thetwiceweeklyjournal,theFreethinker,from1718to
1721.In1724hewenttoIrelandassecretarytohisfriendHughBoulter(16721742),thenewArchbishopofAllIreland.HewaselectedtotheIrishParliamentin
1727,andbecameajudgeofthePrerogativeCourtin1734.HereturnedtoLondonin1748.Theterm'nambypamby'wascoinedtodescribehispoemstochildren,
ofwhich'ToMissMargaretPulteney'(1727)begins:'Dimplydamsel,sweetlysmiling,/Allcaressing,nonebeguiling....
Philips,Katherine(163164)
neFowler,Englishpoet,knownas'thematchlessOrinda',wasborninLondon,thedaughterofawealthymerchant,whodiedin1642.Shewaseducatedata
boardingschoolinHackney,andaccordingtoAUBREYwasveryreligiousasachild,prayingforanhouratatimeandtakingdownsermonsverbatim.In1647she
marriedthe54yearoldJamesPhilipsMPofCardigan,whohadpreviouslybeenmarriedtoadaughterofhermother'snewhusband.Shedividedhertimebetween
Cardigan,wheresheknewVAUGHAN,whowaspractisinginthenextcounty,andLondon,wheresheadoptedthepseudonym'Orinda'andgaveotherfancifulnamesto
hercircleoffriends,whichincludedTAYLOR.Someofherverseswereprefixedtothe1651editionofVaughan,sometothecollectedplays(1651)ofWilliam
Cartwright(161143),andotherswerecirculatedinmanuscript.In1662shewenttoDublinonbusinessconnectedwithherhusband'sIrishproperties.Whileshewas
thereshewrotePompey(1663),translatedfromCORNEILLE,whichwasperformedwithgreatsuccessinDublinandpublishedthereandinLondon.ALondon
booksellerbroughtoutanunauthorizedvolumeofherPoems(1664),whichsheforcedhimtowithdraw.ShediedinLondonofsmallpoxshortlyafterwards.An
authorizededitionwaspublishedin1667.Herreputation,ratherthanthequalityofherverse,giveshertheclaimtobethefirstgenuineEnglishpoetess,thoughtobe
fairherworkwasmuchadmiredbyKEATS,whoinaletter(1817)quotesthewholeofapoemtoher

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bosomfriend'Rosannia',andcomparesanothertoJOHNFLETCHER.SeePatrickThomas,KatherinePhilips,1988(criticalstudy).
Pilkington,Letitia
seeSWIFT.
Pindar(c.520c.440BC)
classicalGreeklyricpoet,wasbornofanobleSpartanfamilyinCynoscephalae,avillagenearThebes.Hisearliestpoemcelebratesthewininarunningraceofa
memberofadistinguishedThessalianfamilyatthePythiangamesin498.Praiseforavictoryatathleticsisthekeynoteofmostofhispoemsandfragmentswhichhave
survived.Theyaretemperedwithpsychologicalandphilosophicalsensibility,illuminatedwithdeftmythologicalparallels,andwrittenwithtechnicalassuranceina
varietyofcomplexmetres.Hisreputationintheancientworldwassuchthat,accordingtoPLUTARCH,AlexandertheGreat,whenhedestroyedThebesin335BC,killed
orsoldintoslaverythewholepopulation,exceptthosewhohadopenlysupportedtheMacedoniansanddescendantsofthefamilyofPindar.Andthoughhisworks
wereintendedtobesunganddancedinchorus,COWLEY'Suseoftheterm'Pindarique'todescribesomeofhisownversesbeganatrendwhich,JOHNSONcomments,
'immediatelyoverspreadourbooksofpoetryalltheboysandgirlscaughtthepleasingfashion,andtheythatcoulddonothingelsecouldwritelikePindar'.SeeOdes,
tr.RichmondLattimore,2ndrev.edn1976.
Pinero,(Sir)ArthurWing(18551934)
dramatist,wasborninIslington,thesonofasolicitor.Aftersomeeducationinprivateschoolsheworkedinhisfather'sofficewhilestillveryyoung,andwasthen
employedbyanothersolicitorinLincoln'sInnFields.At15,heenrolledintheelocutionclassatBirkbeckScientificandLiteraryInstitution(nowBirkbeckCollege),
whichfiredhisinterestinthestage.In1874hegothimselftakenonas'utilityman'attheTheatreRoyal,Edinburgh.Whenthattheatreburneddown,hewentto
Liverpool,andthentoLondon,wherehebecameamemberoftheLyceumCompanyin1876,andoftheHaymarketTheatrein1881.WhenhelefttheHaymarketin
1844(hisfinalstagerolewasSirAnthonyAbsoluteinSHERIDAN'STheRivals),hewasanemergingdramatist,havingwritten16plays,mainlyfarces,ofwhichthefirst
was200aYear(1877).Thelightcomedies,TheMagistrate(1885),TheSchoolmistress(1866),andDandyDick(1887),gavenoticeofanindependentand
unusualtalent,whichwasconfirmedwithTheProfligate(1889),adramasoseriousthathewascompelledtosupplyanalternative,happy,ending.Itwastheprelude
tohisdevelopmentinthemiddleyearsofhiscareerofthe'problemplay',ofwhichhewasapioneer.InparticularhedepictedthepredicamentofwomeninVictorian
society,aswithTheSecondMrsTanqueray(1893),whichstartleditsfirstnightaudience,andthepowerfulMidChannel(1909).Duringthesameperiodhewrote
Trelawnyofthe'Wells'(1898),aromanticpieceaboutthedecayofSadler'sWellsTheatre.Hewasasticklerforadherencetohistext,evenwhenaplaywasbeing
performedinAmerica.Hewasknightedin1909.SeePlaysbyA.W.Pinero,ed.RussellJackson,1986Trelawnyofthe'Wells'andOtherPlays(The
Magistrate,TheSchoolmistress,TheSecondMrsTanqueray),ed.JackyBratton,1995JohnDawick,Pinero:aTheatricalLife,1993.
Pinter,Harold(b.1930)
Britishdramatistandpoet,wasborninLondon,thesonofaJewishtailor,andwaseducatedatHackneyDownsGrammarSchool,beforebecominganactor.Ofhis
firstplay,theoneactTheRoom,producedatBristolUniversityin1957,hesays:'Iwentintoaroomonedayandsawacoupleofpeopleinit....Istartedoffwith
thepictureandletthemcarryonfromthere.'Hisfirstfulllengthplaytobeperformed,TheBirthdayParty(1958),establishedhisidiosyncraticstyle,wherebyhe
developsaninitialsituationinachargedatmospherethroughdialoguewhoseinconsequenceandapparentillogicalityarenearertorealcolloquialconversationthanhad
beenusualinthemoderntheatreexceptintheplaysofBECKETTandBRECHT.Pinter'ssettings,though,arerealistic.TheCaretaker(1960),alsoinspiredbyareal
situation,issetinabrokendownfiat:threeshorterplays,TheCollection(1962),TheDwarfs(1963),andTheLover(1963),allfirstperformedontelevision,have
multiplesetsrepresentingmiddleclasshomes.InTheHomecoming(1965)abizarrehouseholdplaysoutitssexualandgeneralfrustrationsandfantasies.Landscape
andSilence,firststagedasadoublebillin1969,areevenmoreexperimental,andstatic.InOldTimes(1971)andNoMan'sLand(1975)inwhichPinterhimself
playedtheleadinthe1992revivaltheactionaswellasthedialoguearediscontinuous.MountainLanguage(1989)isa20minuteplayexpressingtheagonyof
politicalimprisonment.Itwaspresentedin1992inadoublebillwithPartyTime(1991),thetworepresentingrespectivelyPinter'simagesof'base'and
'superstructure'(avacuoussocialworldwhichignorestheexistenceofpoliticalprisoners).InTheNewWorldOrder(1991),anotherbriefandmenacingdrama,two
interrogatorsdiscussaprisoner,inhispresence.ThefamiliarPinteresquemixtureoflunaticformalityandmenaceoverliesastudyofadyingmaninMoonlight(1993),
hisfirstfulllength(80minutes)playfor15years.Hisnextplay,AshestoAshes(1996),a40minuteconfrontationbetweenamaleandafemalecharacter,confirmed
hiscontinueddedica

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tiontothelanguageanddramaticworldwhichhefirstexploitedinthe1950s.
Pinter'sonlynovel,TheDwarfs(1990),wasoriginallywrittenbetween1952and1956partsofitweresubsequentlyusedforthestageplay.In1995hewasthe
secondrecipientoftheDavidCohenPrizeforBritishLiteratureof30,000.HemarriedthebiographerandnovelistLadyAntoniaFraser(b.1932),nePakenham,in
1980.SeePlays,4volsnewedns1996CollectedPoemsandProse,1995MichaelBillington,TheLifeandWorkofHaroldPinter,1996MartinEsslin,Pinter
thePlaywright,5thedn1992SusanHollisMerritt,PinterinPlay:CriticalStrategiesandthePlaysofHaroldPinter,newedn1995RonaldKnowles,
UnderstandingHaroldPinter,1995(criticalstudy)RonaldKnowles,HaroldPinter,1993(criticalintroduction).
Pirandello,Luigi(18671936)
Italiandramatistandnovelist,wasborninAgrigento,Sicily,thesecondofsixchildrenofasulphurmineproprietor,andwenttoschoolinPalermoatSant'Agata
Militello.HestudiedliteratureandlawforayearatPalermoUniversity,transferringtoRome,andthentoBonn,wherehegraduatedin1891,havingsubmitteda
doctoralthesisonthephoneticdevelopmentoftheAgrigentodialect.HeembarkedonacareerasawriterinRome,andthoughhehadhadabookofverseprintedin
Palermoin1889,in1893helistedinaletter21unpublishedstories,novels,plays,andbooksofpoetry.In1894hemadeanarrangedmarriagewith22yearold
AntoniettaPortulano,thedaughterofabusinessassociateofhisfatherhemanagedtoraisethreechildrenonfeesforshortstories,avolumeofwhichwaspublishedin
1894,asalaryasateacherinatrainingcollege,anallowancefromhisfather,andtheincomefromhiswife'sdowry.In1903hisfatherlosthisownmoneyandthe
dowryinthefailureofamineexploitation.Onhearingthis,Antoniettahadaphysicalandnervousbreakdown,fromwhichsheneverrecovered.Pirandellotookin
privatepupilsandsteppeduphisliteraryoutput,oneprofitableoutcomeofwhichwasthenovelIlFuMattiaPascal(1904tr.ArthurLivingstonasTheLateMattia
Pascal,1923).In1915,withtheencouragementoftheSicilianNationalTheatre,hebecameaseriousdramatist:Liol(1916),atraditionaldramaoriginallywrittenin
Sicilian,isalandmarkinItaliantheatricalhistory.InCos(seViPare)(1917tr.LivingstonasAndThat'stheTruth,1925tr.FrederickMayasRightYouAre!
(IfYouThinkSo),1947)hefirstconsciouslyexploredthenatureofpersonalityandtherelationshipbetweenrealityandillusion.In1919Antoniettawasinveigledinto
amentalclinic,fromwhichsherefusedevertoreturnhomeshesurviveduntilafterWorldWarII.SeiPersonnagiinCercad'Autore(1921tr.MayasSix
CharactersinSearchofanAuthor,1954),aningeniousinversionofstageconventionsinwhichthecharactersinsistonbeingthearbitersoftheirownfates,whichis
thefirstofatrilogy,achievedaninternationalreputation.Delusion,andtheninsanitywhichhasanappallinglogic,thethemeofEnricoIV(1922tr.EdwardStoreras
HenryIV,1925),stemfromaman'sfallfromhishorseduringanhistoricalpageant.WiththeseplaysPirandellointroducedanewkindoftheatre.
In1924,having,ashelaterclaimed,'beenafascistfor30years',heformallyjoinedtheFascistparty,buthisattitudetopoliticsbecamecontradictoryandhisnominal
allegianceendedin1935withhispublicpraiseofMussoliniforassentingtotheestablishmentoftheStateTheatre.LatterlyheenjoyedthefriendshipofMartaAbba,a
youngMilaneseactresswhojoinedhisArtsTheatrecompanyin1924andtowhomheleftthecopyrightinalltheplayshewroteaftermeetingherseePirandello's
LoveLetterstoMartaAbba,ed.andtr.BenitoOrtolani(1994).SeeCollectedPlays,tr.RobertRiettyandothers,4vols198796SixCharactersinSearchof
anAuthorandOtherPlays,tr.MarkMusa,newedn1995A.RichardSogliuzzo,LuigiPirandello,Director:thePlaywrightintheTheatre,1982.
Pitter,Ruth(18971992)
Britishpoet,wasborninIlford,Essex,ofparentswhowerebothteachersandwho,shewrites,'lovedpoetryandweredeterminedtoimpartittotheirchildren'one
oftheirmethodswastobribehertolearnitbyheart,atratesofbetween1dand6d(accordingtolength)foreachpoeminF.TPalgrave'sTheGoldenTreasury.She
waseducatedatCobornSchoolforGirls,eastLondon,andwasaclerkintheWarOfficeduringWorldWarI.Shecommented:'Iamnotevenaprofessionalwriter,
justapoettheoccupationsofmylifeotherthanthishavebeensimplytogainasubsistence,andIhaveusuallyworkedwithmyhands.'Thisshedidfirstbypainting
potteryinSuffolk,andthenfrom1930asapartnerinaChelseacraftworkshop.FirstPoemswaspublishedin1920,butshediscountedtheworthofanyofher
versebeforeAMadLady'sGarland(1934).Herworkhasamusicalsimplicity,withwhichshe'triedtobefaithfultodelight,tobeatitude,beingunabletoseewhat
elsecanbeabsolutelysignificant.ForwhatelsecanGodbesupposedtoexist?'.Shealsohadalivelysenseofhumour,especiallywhenwritingaboutcatsOnCats
(1947)orgardeningTheRudePotato(1941).Thedeathintheearly1970softhefriendwithwhomshelivedinBuckinghamshireturnedherintoarecluse,from
whichstateshewasrescuedin1984byanewneighbour.Shenevermarried,observing,'Onemightbeveryfondof[men],butitwouldhavebeencrueltytoanimals
tomarrythem.'In1955shewasthefirstwomantoreceivetheQueen'sGoldMedal

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forPoetry,andshewasmadeCBEin1979.SeeCollectedPoems,newedn1996.
Plaatje,Sol(omon)T(shekisho)(18761932)
SouthAfricannovelist,wasborninBoshof,OrangeFreeState,andeducatedatPnielLutheranMissionSchool.HewasinterpretertotheCourtofSummary
JurisdictionduringthesiegeofMafekingin18991900,andthenservedasawarcorrespondentseeMafekingDiary:aBlackMan'sViewofaWhiteMan's
War,ed.JohnComaroff(1990).Hewasafoundermemberin1912andthefirstGeneralSecretaryoftheAfricanNationalCongress.NativeLifeinSouthAfrica
(1916)isapoliticalandsocialstudyparticularlyopposingtheNativesLandsActof1913.Tocelebratehis50thbirthday,agroupofBantu,coloured,andIndian
supportersstartedafundthroughwhichhishousewasboughtandpresentedtohiminappreciationofhisunpaidworkfornonEuropeans.Mhudi:anEpicofSouth
AfricanNativeLifeaHundredYearsAgo,writteninabout1918andfirstpublishedin1930(ed.T.J.Couzens,1975),isthefirstAfricannovelwritteninAfricaby
ablackAfrican.Itisalsoasignificantpoliticalnovelinthathistoricaleventsprovideamodelforthesituationinhisowntimes,andhepresentsthecomingoftheBoers
inthecontextoftheinteractionbetweentheblackpeopleswhowerealreadythere.SechuanaProverbswithLiteralTranslationsandtheirEuropeanEquivalents
(1916)highlightslinksbetweenthelanguageusageofpastoralnations.HealsotranslatedSHAKESPEAREintoSechuana.SeeSelectedWritings,ed.BrianWillan,1997
BrianWillan,SolPlaatje:SouthAfricanNationalist18761932,1988.
Plath,Sylvia(193263)
Americanpoet,wasbornandbroughtupinBoston,Massachusetts,theelderchildofadistinguishedGermanentomologistandhisAmericanAustrianwife.Her
father'sdeathofgangrenewhenshewaseight,theresultofhisfailingtogettreatmentforadiabeticcondition,leftherwithfeelingsofguiltand,ultimately,ofhostility.
Tenaciousinherfixationtosucceedasawriter('IwillslaveandslaveuntilIbreakintothoseslicks'),shewasalreadypublishingstoriesandpoemsinmagazineswhen
sheenteredSmithCollegein1950.Afterabreakdownin1953sheattemptedsuicide'Buttheypulledmeoutofthesack,/Andtheystuckmetogetherwith
glue'('Daddy',1962).Aftergraduatingsummacumlaudein1955,shewentasaFulbrightscholartoNewnhamCollege,Cambridgewhileshewasthereshemet
TEDHVGHES,whomshemarriedin1956.TheyspenttwoyearsintheUSA,whereshetaughtatSmithandattendedROBERTLOWELL'SpoetryseminarsatBoston
University.TheythensettledinasmallflatinLondon,whereshewrote,asVictoriaLucas,TheBellJar(1963),anautobiographicalnovelinwhichtherecreationof
herownmentalstateatcollegereflectstheconfusionabouttheroleofwomenwhichprevailedinthe1960s.
TheColossus:PoemswaspublishedintheUKin1960,andin1961thecoupleboughtanoldcountryhouseinDevon.TheyseparatedinDecember1962,when,
aftermakingabonfireofmanuscriptsofbothofthem,shetooktheirtwosmallchildrentoLondon.There,inableakandfreezingflat,shewrote,inanastonishingburst
ofcreativeenergy,thestark,angrypoemswhichbecameAriel(1965).Andthere,shegassedherselfaftertakingsleepingpills.Thoughherworkcontainssome
appealingpoemsaboutherchildrenandthenaturalworld,muchofitreflectsthedarkersideofdailydomesticlife,infusedwitharomanticviewofdeath.Posthumous
collectionsofverseareCrossingtheWater(1971)andWinterTrees(1971),andofstoriesandprose,JohnnyPanicandtheBibleofDreams:andOtherProse
Writings(1977).CollectedPoems,ed.TedHughes(1981)wonthePulitzerPrize.A130pagemanuscriptofanunfinishednovel,'DoubleExposure',disappeared
afterherdeath.TheItDoesn'tMatterSuit(1996)isachildren'sfantasyrecentlydiscoveredbyherfamily.LettersHome:Correspondence19501963(1975)was
editedbyhermother,AureliaSchoberPlath.Biographicalstudieshavepromptedbittercontroversy.SeeCharlesNewman(ed.),TheArtofSylviaPlath:a
Symposium,1970LindaWagner(ed.)CriticalEssaysonSylviaPlath,1984.
Plato(c.427c.347BC)
philosopherandclassicalGreekprosewriter,wasborninAthensofanaristocraticfamily.Atabouttwentyhebecameadiscipleofthephilosopher,Socrates(469
399),onwhoseexecution(bydrinkinghemlock)forsubversiveteaching,heretiredwithotherSocraticstoMegara.Hethentravelled,andin39088paidthefirstof
threeextendedvisitstoSyracuse,duringwhich,attheinstigationoftheculturedDion(d.353),hetriedunsuccessfullytointroducesomeideasofrationalgovernment.
In388hefoundednearAthens,inanolivegrovesacredtoAcademus,his'Academy',effectivelythefirstuniversity,towhichheadmittedwomenasequals.Whereas
Socratesdeploredthewrittenwordasamediumofexposition,Platocircumventeditsdisadvantagesbypresentingphilosophicalargumentthroughadialogue,inwhich
heneverspeaksinhisownperson.BythismeansSocrateslivesasapersonality,andparticipatesinthediscussionsformingsomeofPlato'smostinfluentialand
sublimeworks:Protagoras,onthescienceoflifePhaedo,onthenatureofdeathandtheimmortalityofthesoulRepublic,onthenatureoftheidealstateand
Symposium(whichmeansadrinkingpartyorbanquet,thevenueofthisdiscussion),inwhichisex

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pressedtheconceptofPlatoniclove.His'TheoryofIdeas',whichisoneofhisprincipalcontributionstophilosophicalthought,derivesfromthenotionoftheGood,
towardswhichthephilosopherascendsthroughdefinitionscollectedfromparticulars.SeeDavidJ.Melling,UnderstandingPlato,1987.
Plautus,TitusMaccus(254184BC)
Romandramatist,wasborninSarsina,asmallvillageinUmbria,andlefthomeearlytocometoRome.Heworkedasastagepropmanand,withthemoneyhe
earned,sethimselfupinthesamekindofbusiness.Whenitfailed,hetookajobturningabaker'shandmill,whichhewasabletogiveupafterwritinghisfirstthree
plays.Of130attributedtohim,abouttwentyhavesurvived,asuremeasureoftheirpopularity.ThoughbasedonGreekmodels,theyhavearawfreshnessoftheir
own.Thereislittlecharacterization,buthewasadeptatvaryinghisplotsandsettings,andatverbalfireworks.Hisstockdevicesarethegenerationgap,twinheroes/
heroines,andpertslaves.ThechiefcharacterinMilesGloriosus[TheBraggartSoldier]istheprototypeoftheElizabethanstageboaster,whosemanifestationin
RalphRoisterDoister(c.1553)byNicolasUdall(150556)marksthefirstEnglishcomedywrittenforpublicperformance.SHAKESPEARE'SComedyofErrorsistaken
fromPlautus'sMenaechmi.SeeTheComedies,4vols,ed.DavidR.SlavittandPalmerBovie,tr.ConstanceCarrierandothers,1995FourComedies,tr.Erich
Segal,1996.
Pliny'theElder'(GaiusPliniusSecundus)(2379)
Romanscientistandhistorian,wasbornatComoofawealthyandinfluentialfamily,practisedattheBarinRome,hadseveralmilitarypostings(duringoneofwhich,in
Germany,hebegana22bookhistoryoftheGermanwars),andprobablywenttogroundduringthereignofNero.Hereturnedtopubliclifeontheaccessionof
Vespasianin70,andbetweenthenandhisdeathheldseniorgovernmentposts,includingthatofdeputygovernorofSpain,whilewritingthirtymoreworksofRoman
historyandthe37booksofhis'NaturalHistory'.This,hisonlysurvivingwork,coversmanysubjects,includingphysics,geography,ethnology,physiology,zoology,
botany,medicine,andmetallurgy,withdigressionsintoanythingelsewhichinterestedhim.Hedrewhismaterialfromwrittensources(whenhewasnotreadinghimself
orwritingordictating,hehadsomeonereadaloud),andfromhisownobservations.HewasincommandofthenavalstationatMisenumwhenVesuviuserupted.He
wentashoreonthebeach,takingnotesallthetime,andwasasphyxiatedbythefumesorburiedunderfallingrocks.Pliny'theYounger',GaiusPliniusCaecilius
Secundus(61c.113),publicservant,philanthropist,andwriterofletters,washisnephewandadoptiveson.
Plomer,William(190373)
Britishnovelistandpoet,wasborninPietersburg,Transvaal,ofEnglishparents(hisfatherwasintheBritishadministration),andwaseducatedatRugbySchooluntil
hewaswithdrawnbecauseofpooreyesightwhenhewas15.Forthisreason,insteadofgoingtouniversity,hewasapprenticedtoafarmerintheStormberg
Mountains,andthenjoinedhisparentsinatradingventureinZululand.HeusedtheseexperiencesinTurbottWolfe,writtenwhenhewas19butnotpublisheduntil
1925,whenitcausedastormofprotestforitstreatmentofmiscegenation.(InthemeantimehehadworkedwithROYCAMPBELLandVANDERPOSTontheshortlived
journal,Voorslag.)HenowwenttoJapan,andafterthreeyearsthere,toLondon.HereturnedtoSouthAfricaonlyonce,in1956.Hewrotepoetry,furthernovels,
andshortstories,andwasformanyyearsliteraryconsultanttothefirmofJonathanCape,towhichhebroughtKILVERTandIANFLEMING.Whileasapoetheisbest
knownforhissometimeshorrificandfarcicalmodernballadsandhissarcasticcharactersketches,mostcriticspreferhisstraight,descriptive,Africanpoems.Healso
wrotelibrettosforthecomposerBenjamin(laterLord)Britten(191376).WhilereadersespeciallyofhisnovelSado(1931)canhardlybeunawareofhis
homosexuality,ashewroteinalettertoafriend:'Ithinkblatanthomosexuality,likeotherformsofblatancy,canbetiresomeanduncivilized.'From1953heliveda
reticentexistenceonaSussexhousingestate,firstinRustingtonandtheninHassocks.HewasawardedtheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1968,andwasmade
CBEin1968.SeeCollectedPoems,rev.edn1973Autobiography,withapostscriptbySimonNowellSmith,1975PeterEAlexander,WilliamPlomer:a
Biography,newedn1990.
Plunkett,James,pseudonymofJamesPlunkettKelly(b.1920)
Irishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninDublin,ofwhichhehaswritten,'Despiteitstensionsanditstragedies,[it]wasagoodcitytogrowupin.'Hewas
educatedattheChristianBrothersschoolinSyngeStreet,andalsostudiedtheviolinandviolaatDublinCollegeofMusic.Heleftschoolat17andworkedforseven
yearsasaclerkintheGasCompany,afterwhichhewasabranchsecretaryoftheWorkers'UnionofIrelandfrom1946to1955.Hisfirststorieshadappearedin
TheBell,undertheeditorshipandguidanceofO'FAOLAIN,in1942.TheTrustingandtheMaimed,andOtherIrishStories(1955)wassignificantforitstechnical
brillianceanditsbalanceofvision,fromchildhoodtooldageseealsoCollectedShortStories(1977).Hewasalsowritingradioplays,ofwhichhesubse

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quentlyadaptedBigJim(1954)forthestageasTheRisenPeople(performedinLondon1959,published1978).AfterworkingforRadioEireannfrom1955to
1960,hejoinedIrishTelevisionasaproducerdirector,beingaseniorproducerfrom1974untilhisretirementin1985.HisnovelStrumpetCity(1969),apanorama
ofDublinbetween1907and1914,rangesoverawidesocialspectrum,butisaparticularlyvividrealizationofworkingclasslife.ThesemiautobiographicalFarewell
Companions(1977)takesupthestoryinthe1920s,andcoverstheperioduntilthemid1940s.Heusestechniquesofmultiplenarrationandmovementsbackand
forthintimeagaininTheCircusAnimals(1990),inwhichheconfrontsIrishpoliticalandreligiousissuesofthe1950s.TheGemsSheWore:aBookofIrishPlaces
(1972)isanimaginativeandpersonalguide.HewasPresident,IrishAcademyofLetters198082.
Plunkett,JosephMary
seePEARSE.
Plutarch(c.46c.120)
GraecoRomanphilosopherandbiographer,wasborninChaeronea,Boeotia,whereheheldvariousmunicipaloffices.Hewasaninfluentialmemberofthecollegeof
priestsatneighbouringDelphi,andtaughtthelocalsPlatonistphilosophy,whichhehadstudiedinAthensinhistwenties.HealsolecturedinRome,wherehefound
favourwiththeemperor,Domitian,bywhosesuccessors,TrajanandHadrian,hewasrewardedwithanhonoraryconsulshipandapostasaprocuratorofGreece.
Hissurvivingworks,whichareconsiderableinvolume,areoftwokinds.Moraliaisacollectionofethical,antiquarian,andmiscellaneousessays,whosegeneral
approachprovidedamodelforwriterssuchasBACON,MONTAIGNE,andTAYLORseeEssays,ed.IanKidd,tr.RobinWaterfield(1992).Forhis'ParallelLives',he
matchedabiographicalsketchofthecareerofanotablepoliticalfigureinGreekhistorywiththatofasimilarRomanpersonage,forexampleDEMOSTHENESandCICERO.
Hehadagiftfornarrativeandforthetellingdetailoranecdote,anditwaslargelythroughhiseyesthatRenaissancewritersviewedclassicalhistory.TheLiveswere
translatedintoFrenchbyJacquesAmyot(151393),andfromFrenchintoEnglishin1579bySirThomasNorth(1535c.1601),inwhichformitwasthesourceof
SHAKESPEARE'SJuliusCaesar,AntonyandCleopatra,andCoriolanus.
Poe,EdgarAllan(180949)
Americanpoet,shortfictionwriter,andcritic,wasbornEdgarPoeinBoston.HewasthesecondofthreechildrenofDavidPoe,actorsonofaBaltimorefamilyfrom
Ireland,andofElizabethArnold(17871811),anactressofEnglishparentagewhomarriedhimin1806afterthedeathofherfirsthusband,anotheractorinthe
company.In1810DavidPoeapparentlydesertedhiswifeafterherdeathinRichmond,Virginia,EdgarwasfosteredbyJohnAllan(17801834),aScottishborn
localtobaccomerchant,andbecameEdgarAllanPoe.In1815theAllanstookhimtoEngland,whereheboardedatManorHouseSchool,StokeNewington.In
1820theyreturnedtoRichmond,wherehewenttoprivateschools,andfellforaschoolfriend'smother,whomhelaterimmortalizedin'ToHelen'(1831),inwhich
occurs'...theglorythatwasGreece,/AndthegrandeurthatwasRome'.Afterherdeathin1824headdressedhisattentionstothe15yearolddaughterofa
neighbour,ElmiraRoyston,towhomhebecamesecretlyengaged.LettershewrotetoherfromtheUniversityofVirginiawereinterceptedbyherfather,andbythe
timehisuniversitycareerhadendedin1826aftereightmonths,Allanhavingrefusedtopayhisgamblingdebtsof$2000,shewasengagedtosomeoneelse.Heleft
homeinahuffforBoston,whereheprivatelyprintedTamerlane,andOtherPoems(1827),'ByaBostonian',andenlistedinthearmyunderthenameofEdgarA.
Perry.AfterMrsAllandiedin1829hewasreconciledtohisfosterfather,whoenabledthenowSergeantMajorPerrytoobtainanhonourabledischarge,and
supportedhisapplicationtoenterWestPointasanofficercadet.AllanwasnotsokeenonPoe'spoetry,however,andtheyfelloutagainafterthepublicationofAl
Aaraaf,Tamerlane,andMinorPoems(1829),andAllan'sremarriagein1830.Withoutanymeansofsupport,PoeengineeredhisdismissalfromWestPoint,having
securedenoughsubscriptionsfromhisfellowcadetstofinancethepublicationofPoems(1831),inwhichwere'ToHelen','Israfel',and'TheDoomedCity'(later'The
CityintheSea').
HenowwenttoliveinBaltimorewithhiswidowedaunt,MariaPoeClemm,andherfamily,whichincludedherdaughterVirginia,thenagedseven.Hewaswriting
stories,ofwhich'Mezengerstein'andothersappearedanonymouslyinthePhiladelphiaSaturdayCourierin1832,and'MSFoundinaBottle'wona$50prize
offeredbytheBaltimoreSaturdayVisiter.HereturnedtoRichmondin1835asassistanteditortotheowneroftheSouthernLiteraryMessenger.In1836he
marriedVirginia,now13,whosemothercametolivewiththem.Helefthisjobin1837,oneofthereasonsbeinghisdrinking,thoughitisprobablethathiscontinuing
drinkproblemwasduenotsomuchtotheamounthedrankastohishavingaweakheadforit.In1838thetriowenttoPhiladelphia,wheretheysubsistedonthe
breadlinewhilehewrotefurtherstories,didmiscellaneousjournalism,andwassuccessively,untilheresignedorwasfired,LiteraryEditorofBurton'sGentleman's
MagazineandGraham's

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Magazine,forwhichhewrotethefamousreviewofTwiceToldTaleswhichenhancedthereputationofHAWTHORNE.TalesoftheGrotesqueandArabesque(1840)
earnednothing.In1842theunfortunateVirginiabrokeabloodvesselwhilesinging,andwasneverthesameagain.BythetimethefamilyarrivedinNewYorkin
1844,however,Poehadwrittenseveralofthestorieswhichestablishedhimasamasterofthemacabreandofterror,andtheprincipalprogenitorofthedetective
storyandthetaleofdeduction'TheTellTaleHeart'(1843),'TheBlackCat'(1843),'ThePrematureBurial'(1844),'TheMurdersintheRueMorgue'(1841),'The
PurloinedLetter'(1841),and'TheGoldBug'(1843).Hewasnowalsothemostfamous,andfeared,literarycriticinthecountry.
AfterworkingfortheEveningMirror,hejoinedtheBroadwayJournal,ofwhichhebecameownerin1845.'TheRaven',firstpublishedintheEveningMirror,
whichhadpirateditfromtheAmericanReview,becamethetitlepieceofTheRavenandOtherPoems(1845).TheJournalfailedin1846Virginiadiedin1847.
Hisfinaltwoyearsweremarkedbyviolentswingsofmood.Hedeliveredlectures:Eureka,aprosepoemontheuniverse,waspublishedin1848,and'ThePoetic
Principle'fromhismanuscriptin1850.HewasbrieflyengagedtothewidowedpoetfromProvidence,SarahHelenWhitman(180378),thesubjectofasecond'To
Helen'hewasatthesametimepassionatelypouringouthishearttoAnnieRichmond,the28yearoldwifeofawrappingpapermanufacturer.InRichmondinthe
summerof1849hecalledonElmira,nowarichwidow,anditseemsthattheybecameengagedagain.HismovementsbetweenleavingRichmondon27September
andbeingadmittedunconsciouson3OctobertoaBaltimorehospital,wherehediedfourdayslaterinadelirium,haveneversatisfactorilybeenexplained.SeeThe
CompleteTalesandPoems,newedn1987PoemsandEssaysonPoetry,ed.C.H.Sisson,1995SelectedPoemsandEssays,ed.RichardGray,newedn
1993KennethSilverman,EdgarA.Poe:MournfulandNeverEndingRemembrance,newedn1993(biography)JulianSymons,TheTellTaleHeart:theLife
andWorksofEdgarAllanPoe,1978JeffreyMeyers,EdgarAllanPoe:HisLifeandLegacy,1992.
Polybius(c.202c.120BC)
Greekhistorian,wasborninMegalopolis,Arcadia,andfollowedhisfatherintoaprominentpoliticalandmilitarypositionintheAchaeanLeague.AfterthefinalRoman
defeatofMacedoniain168,thevictors,suspiciousoftheneutralityoftheLeagueduringtheconflict,deportedtoRomeathousandofitsmembers,includingPolybius.
Hebecamethetutor,andultimatelytheclosefriend,oftheRomangeneral,ScipioAemilianus(c.185129),whomheaccompaniedtothesiegeofCarthagein146.
AfterthedestructionofCorinththatsameyear,hewasinvolvedinthereorganizationandadministrationofthenewRomansettlement.Hethushadfirsthand
knowledgeoftheRomancharacter,andofRomanmethodsofmakingwarandextendingandmaintaininganempire,whichheusedinwritinghispoliticalandmilitary
'History'ofthegrowingdecadenceofGreeceandtheemergenceoftheunifyinginfluenceofRome.WithLIVYheisthemainsourceofinformationabouttheperiod.
SeeTheRiseoftheRomanEmpire,tr.IanScottKilvert,1979.
Pope,Alexander(16881744)
Britishpoet,critic,andtranslator,wasborninLondon,thesonofalinenmerchantwhosoonafterwards,respectingthenewlawforbiddingCatholicstolivewithinten
milesofLondon,rentedahouseinHammersmithandin1700boughtWhitehallHouse,Binfield,byWindsorForest.Theboyhadalittleschoolingathome,in
Hampshire(fromwherehewasremovedafterlampooningthehead),andinLondon,butwaspreventedbyhisfaithfromgoingtouniversity.At15,hewentto
LondonathisownrequesttolearnFrenchandItalian.These,withhisLatinandGreek,enabledhimtoreadevenmorewidely,thoughbythistimePott'sdiseasehad
setin,permanentlystuntinghisgrowthandgivinghimseverecurvatureofthespine.InhisteenshefrequentedWill'sCoffeeHouse,RussellStreet,thehauntofthe
Londonliteraryset.In1707JacobTonson(c.16561736)offeredtopublishsomeofhispoetry,andthefour'Pastorals'appearedinPoeticalMiscellanies,PartVI
(1709).InAnEssayonCriticism(1711)Popeputintosparklingheroiccoupletsthegeneralviewsofthetimeoncriticaltasteandmethodology.WindsorForest
(1713)startsoutasatraditionalpastoral,thoughallthemoreeffectiveinthatPopeknewandlovedthesetting,butpraiseoftheretiredlifeisextendedtoincorporate
asplendidvisionofuniversalpeacefollowingtheTreatyofUtrechtin1713.In1712afirstversionappearedofTheRapeoftheLockinspiredbyanupperclass
prankinwhichArabellaFermorlosttoanadmireroneofthedelectablecurlsatthebackofherneck.Asecondversionwaspublishedin1714,enlargedfromtwo
cantostofivebytheadditionofsupernatural'machinery',notablytheguardiansylphs,oneofwhomgetstoocloseatthecriticalmoment:'Fateurg'dthesheers,andcut
theSylphintwain/(Butairysubstancesoonunitesagain)...'(III,15051).Thismockheroicmasterpiecealsosucceededincalmingtempersfrayedbytheoriginal
incident.
PopenowannouncedhisplantotranslateHOMER'SIliad,forwhichhereliedheavilyonearliertranslations.Thefirstfourbookswerepublishedin1715,twodays
beforearivalversionbyThomasTickell(16861740).Therestfollowedatintervalsuntil1720.The

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WorksofMrAlexanderPopeappearedin1717.ForthenexttenyearsheconcentratedonHomer,withtheofficialassistanceoftwofriendsinthetranslationofthe
Odyssey(172526),andonhiseditionofSHAKESPEARE'SWorks(1725).Hispainstakingbutoccasionallymisplacedlabourtorestorethetextsoftheplaysmakeshim
thefirstgenuineShakespearianscholar,buthisfailingswerepilloriedbyLewisTheobald(16881744),amoreseriousandpedanticeditor,whowaspreparinghis
ownedition.PopewasnowlivinginTwickenhamwithhiswidowedmother(shedied,muchtohisgrief,in1733).HerehisfriendSWIFTencouragedhimtowritethe
satiricalpoemwhichappearedanonymouslyasTheDunciad(1728),withTheobaldasthechiefbutt.TheDunciadVariorum(1729)issuppliedwithspoof
footnotesandothercriticalapparatus,whileinthefinalversion(1743)CIBBERappearsas'hero'.Popepublishedhisphilosophicalpoem,AnEssayonMan(173334),
anonymously,hopingthustoavoidmaliciouscriticismthedevicesucceededandhewassoongladtoacknowledgetheworkashisown.ImitationsofHorace
appearedfrom1734to1739,andwhenpublishedtogetherinthecompleteworksof1751,editedbyWilliamWarburton(16981779),wereprefacedwithEpistle
toDrArbuthnot(1734),alivelyapologiafortheprofessionofsatirist.Bydeviousmeans,becauseitwasnotetiquettetodoso,hesucceededin1735inpublishing
editedversionsofsomeofhisprivatecorrespondence,whichthoughselective,areneverthelessrevealingabouthismentalprocess.
Asaman,thisdiminutive(4'6'')twistedcreaturewaslovedbysomeandhatedandfearedbymanyherevengedhimselfonthenotoriouspublisherEdmundCurll
(16751747)bydosinghiswinewithaparticularlyviolentemetic.HiswomenfriendsincludedMONTAGUMarthaBlount(16901762),towhomheaddressed'Epistle
II,toaLady:OftheCharactersofWomen'andthepoetAnneFinch(16611720),CountessofWinchilseaseeinBarbaraMcGovern,AnneFinchandHer
Poetry(1992).Hecouldbeabitterversifier,buthewasalsoagreatpoet,whosecorrectnessofstylewasamodelforsucceedinggenerations,andofwhomCOWPER
couldwritein1781,'ThenPope,asharmonyitselfexact,/Inversewelldisciplin'd,complete,compact,/Gavevirtueandmoralityagrace...'(TableTalk,64649).
InhisdealingswithhispublishersPopewasaninnovatorinbookdesignseeDavidFoxon,PopeandtheEarlyEighteenthCenturyBookTrade,rev.anded.
JamesMcLaverty(1991).See[Works],ed.PatRogers,1993(chronologicalselection,includingprose)[SelectedVerse],ed.PatRogers,1994MaynardMack,
AlexanderPope:aLife,newedn1988BonamyDobre,AlexanderPope,1951(criticalbiography)GeoffreyTillotson,OnthePoetryofPope,2ndedn1950
IanGordon,APrefacetoPope,2ndedn1994.
Porter,Hal(191184)
Australiannovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,anddramatist,wasbornintheMelbournesuburbofAlbertPark,theeldestofsixchildrenofaprivatelyeducatedsporting
enthusiastwhoworkedasanenginedriver.HewaseducatedatBairnsdaleHighSchool,andat13wonaliterarycompetitionsponsoredbytheBairnsdale
Advertiser,whichhejoinedasacubreporteronleavingschoolat16.Afterayearhewentintoteaching,whichheenjoyedandtowhichhereturnedseveraltimes.
Shortlyafterhismarriagein1939hewasknockeddownbyacarandsobadlyinjuredthatwarservicewasoutofthequestion,makinghimfortherestofhislife
consciousofnothavingsharedthatexperiencewithothersofhisgeneration.Hisdecisiontogiveallhisavailabletimetotheessentiallyisolatedpursuitofwritingwas
instrumentalinhisdivorcein1943,afterwhichheremainedabachelor.Thoughhehadhadverseandstoriespublishedinjournalsduringthe1930s,hisonlybook
duringthisperiodwasShortStories(1942),printedforprivatecirculation.Hetaughtatprivateschoolsduringthewar,andafterwardswasvariouslycook,hotel
manager,andhospitalorderlyinbetweenfurtherperiodsofteaching,thelastofwhichwasattheschoolforchildrenofAustralianandAmericanservicemeninKure,
Japan,in194950.OnhisreturnhewasDirectoroftheNationalTheatre,Hobart195153,andthenChiefLibrarian,BairnsdaleandSheppartonuntil1961,whenhe
finallyfeltconfidentenoughtobecomeafulltimewriter.
HisfirstcommerciallypublishedbookwasTheHexagon(1956),poemsintraditionalformsbutwithintricatewordplay,suchaswerealsocollectedintwo
subsequentvolumes(1968and1973).Hisfirstnovel,AHandfulofPennies(1958),waswrittenonagrantfromtheCommonwealthLiteraryFundtorecreatehis
Japaneseexperiences.Hewrotejusttwomore:TheTiltedCross(1961),ataleofdarkromanceandconflictingsocietiesincolonialVanDiemen'sLand,basedon
sounddocumentationandTheRightThing(1971),astudyoffamilyrelationships.Hisvolumeofshortstories,ABachelor'sChildren(1962),included'Revenge',
writtenwhenhewas20andalreadyproclaiminghimasacraftsman,thedevelopmentofwhosevision,varietyofmoodandstyle,andmasteryofcharacterandsetting,
placeshimalongsidethosewhohaveachievedworldwiderecognitioninthisfield.SelectedStories,ed.LeonieKramer(1971)containsstoriesfromthatcollection
andfromtwolaterones.Hewroteplaysmuchasrelaxationbutwithsoundtheatricalunderstanding,TheProfessor(published1966)beinganeffectivetragedyofthe
clashbetweenAustralianandJapanese

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cultures.Hisliteraryreputationhasbeenenhancedbyhisautobiographies,TheWatcherontheCastIronBalcony(1963),ThePaperChase(1966),andThe
Extra(1975).HewasmadeAMin1982.
Porter,KatharineAnne(18901980)
Americanshortstorywriter,wasbornCallieRussellPorterinalogcabininIndianCreek,Texas.Afterthedeathoftheirmotherin1892,thefourchildrenwerecared
forbytheirpaternalgrandmotherinKyle.Whenshediedin1901,theirfathertookthemtoSanAntonio,wherePorterattendedtheThomasSchoolforayear,and
thenwithhersisteropeneda'studioofmusic,physicalcultureanddramaticreading'.At16shemadethefirstoffourunhappymarriages,thelastthreetomen
considerablyyoungerthanherself.In1917,aftertwoyearsinhospitalwithtuberculosis,shebecameareporterontheFortWorthCritic,ownedbyafellowpatient.
AfteraspellontheRockyMountainNews,Denver,andabrushwithdeathduringthe1918fluepidemic,shemovedtoNewYork.Between1920and1930she
madeseveralvisitstoMexico,thesettingofherfirstsignificantstory,'MaraConcepcin'(1922),andofotherstories,notably'FloweringJudas'(1929)thesetwo
wereamongthesixpublishedasFloweringJudas(1930enlargededn1935).ShelivedinBerlinin193132,andParis193336.PaleHorse,PaleRider:Three
ShortNovels(1939)contained'OldMortality',oneofseveralstorieswhoseheroine,thechildMirandaGay,isclearlyareflectionofherself.AfterTheLeaning
TowerandOtherStories(1944),shetookupagainherselfimposedtaskofwritinganenormousallegoricalnovel,whichhadstartedsimplyasaloggedrecordof
herseavoyagetoEuropein1931.AsShipofFools(1962),adenselypackedartificeoflinkedincidentsandcharacterstudies,itbecameapopularsuccess.The
CollectedStoriesofKatharineAnnePorter(1965)wonthePulitzerPrize.SeeJanisEStout,KatharineAnnePorter:aSenseofOurTimes,1995(critical
biography)WilleneHendrickandGeorgeHendrick,KatharineAnnePorter,revedn1988(criticalstudy).
Porter,Peter(b.1929)
Australianpoet,wasborninBrisbaneandeducatedattheChurchofEnglandGrammarSchoolandToowoombaGrammarSchool,beingdeeplyaffectedbythe
traumasofboardingschoolandbytheearlydeathofhismother.Afterhavingsometraininginjournalism,hewenttoEnglandin1951,andsettledinLondon,working
asaclerk,abookseller,andanadvertisingcopywriteruntil1968,whenhebecameafreelancewriter,reviewer,andbroadcaster.Hisfirstpoemwaspublishedwhen
hewas28,andthefirstofhismanybooksofpoetry,OnceBitten,TwiceBitten(1961),whenhewas32.AnexpatriatewhowroteofAustraliainTheTimes
LiterarySupplement(1971)that'nobodyhasanynaturaltalentandtheGreatSupervisorfailsmeoverawholerangeofAngloSaxonvirtues',heremainedawayfor
23yearsbeforereturningfortheAdelaideFestival,thoughhehassinceheldvisitingpostsatseveraluniversities,includingMelbourne,ofwhichheisDLitt.Anoften
satiricalpoetwithapenchantforreflectingontheworkofEuropeanwritersasdiverseasAUDEN,CHAPMAN,DOSTOEVSKY,JOYCE,MARSTON,DOROTHYOSBORNE,SimonRaven
(b.1927),andMARTIALseeespeciallyAfterMartial(1972)heexcelsattheexpressionofthedaytodaydoings,andageing,ofthemoderncosmopolitan
European,andattheepigrammaticline,andhasfoundinspirationespeciallyinthelandandpeopleofItaly.InthecollectionsTheChairofBabel(1992)and
MillenialFables(1994)hetakesanadmonitoryandsatiricallookatwhatheseesasthecorporatemadnessofthefinalyearsofthemillenium.SeeCollectedPoems,
1984APorterSelected,1989BruceBennett,SpiritinExile:PeterPorterandHisPoetry,1991PeterSteel,PeterPorter,1993(criticalstudy).
Porter,WilliamSidney
seeHENRY.
Potter,Beatrix(18661943)
children'swriterandillustrator,wasborninSouthKensington,London,ofwealthyandoverprotectiveparents.Shewaseducatedbygovernessesathome,whereshe
secretlyintroducedintoherthirdfloornurseryamenagerieofsmallmammaliaandamphibia,whichshestudiedanddrew.Thiscontinuedasamerepastimeuntilshe
was27,whenshewroteandillustratedstoriesaboutheranimals,initiallytoamuseasickchild.Unabletofindapublisherforthem,shehadfinallyresortedtoprinting
privatelyTheTaleofPeterRabbit(1900)andTheTailorofGloucester(1902),beforethefirmofFrederickWarneundertookcommercialpublicationofherwork.
In1905,inthefaceofstrongparentalopposition,shebecameengagedtoNormanWarne,thesonofthefirm'sfounder,aneventofwhichshelaterwroteinaletter,'I
thoughtmystoryhadcomeright,withpatienceandwaiting,likeAnneElliot'sdid[inAUSTEN'SPersuasion]'.Withinafewmonths,Normanwasdead.Herresilience
wassuchthatshetooktheopportunityofescapingfromhomebybuyingwithherearningsasmallmixedfarmatSawrey,intheLakeDistrict,whereshelearnedthe
craftoffarmingandcontinuedtoproduceheruniquelyimaginedlittlebooks.Attheageof47,againagainstthewishesofherparents,shemarriedWilliamHeelis,a
localsolicitorwhohadadvisedheronlandpurchases.Theywereveryhappy,andshebecameanexpertbreederofhillsheepandanactiveconservationist.Her
successasbothwriterandillustratorisduenot

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justtoherstorytellingability,butalsotohershrewdcharacterizationandecologicalaccuracyshewasalsoanotedbotanicalartist.SeeLeslieLinder,AHistoryof
theWritingsofBeatrixPotterincludingUnpublishedWork,newedn1987RuthK.MacDonald,BeatrixPotter,1986(criticalstudy).
Pound,Ezra(18851972)
Americanpoet,translator,andcritic,wasborninHailey,Idaho,thesonofaLandOfficeregistrarwhotookupapostasassistantassayerattheUSMintin
Philadelphiain1887.HewaseducatedatCheltenhamMilitaryAcademy,CheltenhamTownshipHighSchool,andtheUniversityofPennsylvania,bywhichtimehe
hadresolvedthatatthirtyhewouldknowmoreaboutpoetrythananymanalive'InthissearchIlearnedmoreorlessofnineforeignlanguages,IreadOrientalstuffin
translations,Ifoughteveryuniversityregulationandeveryprofessorwhotriedtomakemelearnanythingexceptthis....In1903hetransferredtoHamiltonCollege,
returningtoPennsylvaniain1905totakethedegreeofMAandtodopostgraduatestudies.HispostasheadofFrench,Spanish,andItalianatWabashCollege,
Indiana,wasterminatedprobablyforavarietyofreasonsbesideshis'Continental'ways,culminatinginhisgivinghospitalityinhisroomstoa'ladygentimpersonator'.
In1908helefttheUSAforEurope,privatelyprintinginVeniceonehundredcopiesofa72pagebookofverse,ALumeSpento(1908),beforesettlinginLondon.
Therehepublishedinquicksuccessionseveralfurthervolumesofpoetryandacriticalstudy,TheSpiritofRomance(1910).Hedidsometeachingandreviewing,
andwithouthimselfmakinganimpressiononthegeneralpublic,exceptforhiscolourfulappearance,wasgenerousinhishelptoothers:notablyYEATS,towhomhe
gavethesamekindofeditorialinspirationwhichT.S.ELIOTreceivedfromhimafewyearslater,andJOYCE,onwhosebehalfhesuccessfullypetitionedpublishersand
potentialbenefactors.
In1914hemarriedDorothyShakespear(18861972),thedaughterofaclosefriend,OliviaShakespear,theperiodicmistressandfrequentcorrespondentofYeats.
Duringthisperiodhebeganworkonhis'Cantos',ofwhichtherewereultimately116,writtenoverfiftyyearsandpublishedseriallyindraftandinfinishedversions,
beginninginPoetry:aMagazineofVersein1917,andcontinuingthroughsuccessivevolumesuntil1969.Collectededitionsappearedin1948,1964,1970,and
1976.Theintentionwastoofferatotal,coherentexpressionofhisthoughtandreading,incorporatingreflectionsonthecircumstancesofhislife.Beforeleaving
EnglandfortheContinent,wherehesettledinRapalloasaneighbour(andtennispartner)ofBEERBOHM,hepublishedHughSelwynMauberley(1920),withitsironic
subtitle,'LifeandContacts',alyricalaffirmationofdisillusionment.In1923hemet,inParis,OlgaRudge(18951996),atalentedviolinistandmusicologist.Theyhada
daughterin1925.SubsequentlyhelivedalternatelywithOlgaandhiswife,whohadasonin1926.ThethreecohabiteduneasilyinItalyduringtheexigenciesofWorld
WarII.
In1941hebroadcastinEnglishonItalianradioaseriesoftalkswhichweregenerallyproFascistandexplicitlyantiSemitic.FailingtogetbacktotheUSAafter
Americaenteredthewar,heresumedhisbroadcasts,wasindictedinhisabsencefortreason,andwasarrestedinItalyinMay1945.Forsixmonthshewasheldinthe
AmericanDisciplinaryTrainingCentreatPisa,initiallyinabarbedwirecageintheopen.Aftersufferingamentalbreakdownhewasmovedintoatent,wherehe
composedthefirstdraftofthe'PisanCantos'(LXXIVLXXXIV).FlownbacktotheUSAinhandcuffs,hewasadjudged'insaneandmentallyunfitfortrial,andin
needofcareinamentalhospital'.HewascommittedtoStElizabeth'sHospital,aFederalasylumfortheinsane,whereheremainedforovertwelveyears.ThePisan
Cantos(1948)receivedtheLibraryofCongressinauguralBollingenPrizeforpoetry,sparkingoffamoralaswellasaliterarypubliccontroversy.Hisreleasein1958
withoutbeingtriedwasfinallyengineeredwiththehelpofT.S.ELIOT,FROST,HEMINGWAY,andMACLEISH.HereturnedtoItaly,livingwithDorothyuntil1962,andthenwith
OlgainVenice,wherehedied.SeeTheCantos,newedn1996CollectedShorterPoems,newedn1984TheTranslationsofEzraPound,ed.HughKenner,
enlargededn1970LiteraryEssays,ed.T.S.Eliot,newedn1954HumphreyCarpenter,ASeriousCharacter:theLifeofEzraPound,1988HughKenner,The
PoetryofEzraPound,newedn1986(criticalstudy)PeterWilson,APrefacetoEzraPound,1997.
Powell,Anthony(b.1905)
Britishnovelistandcritic,wasborninLondonandeducatedatEtonandBalliolCollege,Oxford.Hisfirstnovel,AfternoonMen(1931),hoversbetweensatireand
sheercomedy,andintroducesthesocialmilieu(uppermiddleandupperclass/artisticandprofessional)whichhecontinuedtodissectfortherestofhiswritinglife.
Hisfifth,What'sBecomeofWaring(1939),whichfollowsahuntforthepersonofamysteriousauthor,isthemosttimelessofhisprewarnovels.AfterWorldWarII,
inwhichheservedwithdistinctionintheIntelligenceCorps,herechargedhiscreativeimpulsewithastudyoftheantiquary,JohnAubreyandHisFriends(1948).He
thenembarkedconsciouslyonasequenceofnovels(atfirstsixbutthen12)inwhichideascouldbeconnectedandcharactersthoroughlydeveloped,beginningwithA
QuestionofUpbringing(1951)andendingwithHearingSecretHar

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monies(1975),andhavingachronologicalframeworkcorrespondingtoPowell'sownexperienceandtimes.TheseoriginallyappearedundertheoveralltitleofThe
MusicofTime,areferencetothepainting'ADancetotheMusicofTime',byNicolasPoussin(15941665),whichsubsequentlybecamethetitleoftheseries.
Comparedwithhisprewarnovels,thestyleismorerelaxed,andthedialogue,thoughstillsharp,islesselusive.Thecharactersandtheinterplaybetweenthem
contributethebasisoftheblendofthecomicandtragicwhichisPowell'shallmark.OutsidethecanononceagainareO,HowtheWheelBecomesIt!(1983),astudy
oftheselfrealizationofasecondrateauthor,andTheFisherKing(1986).MiscellaneousVerdicts:WritingsonWriters19461989(1990)wasfollowedby
UnderReview:FurtherWritingsonWriters19461989(1992).HewasmadeCBEin1956,andCHin1988.SeeADancetotheMusicofTime,4volsnew
edns1995Journals19821986,newedn1996Journals19871989,newedn1997ToKeeptheBallRolling,5vols197682,onevol.(abridged)1983
(memoirs)NeilMcEwan,AnthonyPowell,1991(criticalstudy)HilarySpurling,InvitationtotheDance:HandbooktoAnthonyPowell's'DancetotheMusic
ofTime',newedn1992IsabelleJoyau,InvestigatingPowell's'ADancetotheMusicofTime',1994(criticalstudy).
Powers,J(ames)F(arl)(b.1917)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninJacksonville,Illinois,ofaprofessionalandartisticCatholicfamilyseehisautobiographicalstory
'Jamesie'(1947)forsomeearlyexperiences.AfteranundistinguishedcareeratQuincyAcademy,hedidnotconsiderbecomingapriest,butfoundwhatworkhe
couldinChicago:asadepartmentstoreassistant,insurancesalesman,andchauffeur.In1938hebecameaneditoroftheChicagoHistoricalRecordsSurveyand
enrolledfornightclassesontheChicagocampusofNorthwesternUniversity.Hehadtogiveuptheclasseswhenthesurveyfinishedin1941.Hethenworkedfor
Brentano'sbookshop,fromwhichhewasdismissedfordecliningtopurchasewarbonds.Atthistimehewrotehisfirstshortstory,'HeDon'tPlantCotton'(1943),
aboutNegrohumiliation.Earlyin1943heattendedapriests'seminarinMinnesota,andexperiencedanintensificationofhisfaith.Hewentintopersonalretreatinan
orphanagenearPittsburgh,afterwhichhewrotehisfirststoryonaCatholictheme,'Lions,Harts,LeapingDoes'(1943).Havingrefusedtoreportformilitaryservice,
hewasinSeptember1943sentencedtothreeyearsinprison,fromwhichhewasparoledinNovember1944,andworkedasahospitalorderly.In1946hemarried
BettyWahl,astudentatStBenedict's,Minnesota,whomhehadmetfivemonthsearlierwhenhewaspersuadedbyoneofherteacherstoreadthemanuscriptofher
novelsomeofhershortstorieswerepublishedintheNewYorkerfrom1947.Hisownfirstbook,PrinceofDarknessandOtherStories(1947),contained11
storieshisnextcollection,ThePresenceofGrace,onlynine.InbetweentimeshetaughtatMarquetteUniversity,Milwaukee,fortwoyears('Whenthingsgetreally
toughItakeajob,usuallyteaching'),andwithhisfamilylivedfortwoyearsinCountyWicklow,Ireland.During195761('Iseldomdomorethanonepageaday'),
heworkedinDublinandStCloud,Minnesota,onhissatiricalnoveloftheCatholicclergy,Mortd'Urban(1962),chaptersofwhichhadalreadyappearedasshort
stories.ItwontheNationalBookAward.
Shortlyafterwardshestatedthatatthecarefulpaceheworked,hewouldprobablynotpublishmorethantwoorthreemorenovelsinhislifetime.LookHowtheFish
Live,shortstories,waspublishedin1975,andhissecondnovel,WheatthatSpringethGreen,amorecomicviewofthepriesthood,in1988.Powersisawriterof
themoresoftheMidwestwhocametocombinethesatireofWAUGH(hehasalsocitedALDOUSHUXLEY,TROLLOPE,BEERBOHM,andLARDNERinthiscategory)withthe
craftsmanshipsuchashefoundinF.S.FITZGERALD,JOYCE,andK.A.PORTER(overwhoseShipofFoolshewontheNationalBookAward).Heregardshimselfasa
CatholicwriteronlyinthesensethatMAURIACorGRAHAMGREENEareCatholicwritersheisprimarilyawriter.SeeJohnV.Hagopian,J.F.Powers,1968
(biographical/criticalstudy).
Powys,JohnCowper(18721963)
Britishnovelistandprosewriter,wasofWelshoriginbyhisfather,andwascollaterallydescendedfromDONNEandCOWPERonhismother'sside.Theeldestof11
children,hewasbornathisfather'svicarageinShirley,Derbyshire,andfrom1879wasbroughtupintheWestCountry.HewaseducatedatSherborneSchooland
CorpusChristiCollege,Cambridge,afterwhichhegotajobasaperipateticlectureratseveralgirls'schoolsontheSussexcoast.Hehadsomepoemspublished
(1896and1899),andin1896,withsomemisgivingsduetoaneurosisaboutsex,marriedMargaretLyon(d.1947),fromwhomhewaslaterseparated.From1898
to1909hetravelledthecountrylecturingfortheOxfordUniversityExtensionDelegacy,andin1911,underthemanagementofG.ArnoldShaw(d.1937),he
undertookthefirstofmanywintertoursoftheUSA.Thelastofthesewasin1934,afterwhichheandPhyllisPlayter(d.1982),anAmericanhehadmetandfallenin
lovewithin1921,setuphousetogetherinWales,firstinCorwenandtheninBlaenauFfestiniog.Hisfirstnovel,WoodandStone:aRomance,waspublishedinthe
USAin1915,butheonlyachievedrecognitionwithhisfourth,WolfSolent(1929),thefirstoffour

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WestCountrystories,ofwhichAGlastonburyRomance(1933)bestillustrateshiscentralthemeofselffulfilment.OwenGlendower:anHistoricalNovel(1940)
andPorius:aRomanceoftheDarkAges(1951)haveWelshbackgroundsthelatter,cutattheinsistenceofitsoriginalpublisherfrom1589pagesoftypescriptto
999,andthenrejected,wasreissuedinfullin1994,ed.WilburT.Albrecht.
Healsopublishedseveralcollectionsofphilosophicalessays,andstudiesofDOROTHYRICHARDSON(1931),DOSTOEVSKY(1947),andRABELAIS(1948).Confessionsof
TwoBrothers(1916),writtenwithLlewellynPowys(18841939),novelist,travelwriter,andobsessivelover,wasoriginallyintendedtobe'ConfessionsbytheSix
BrothersPowys',buttheothersdidnotcompletetheassignmentor,inthecaseofT.F.POWYS,didnotdosointime.SeeAutobiography,newedn1994Petrushka
andtheDance:theDiariesofJohnCowperPowys19291939,ed.MorineKrissdttir,1995RichardPercevalGraves,TheBrothersPowys,newedn1984
(jointbiographyofJ.C.,T.F,andLlewellyn)GlenCavaliero,JohnCowperPowys:Novelist,1973(criticalstudy).
Powys,Llewellyn
seePOWYS,JOHNCOOPER.
Powys,T(heodore)F(rancis)(18751953)
Britishnovelistandshortstorywriter,brotherofJ.C.POWYS,wasborninShirley.HewasatSherborne'Prep'from1885to1889,butinsteadofgoingontothesenior
schoolhewassenttoaprivateboardingschoolinAldeburgh,Suffolk,andwasat15apprenticedtoafarmer.Twoyearslaterhisfathersethimupinanisolatedfarm
atSweffling,Suffolk,whichhetriedhardtomakepay,whenhewasnotburiedinabook.In1901,havingsufferedfitsofdepression,hegaveupthefarmandsettled
intoaneremiticexistenceinDorset,fromwhichnovelsandstorieseventuallybegantoemerge.In1905hemarriedVioletDodds(d.1966),an18yearold'girlofthe
earth'.TheSoliloquyofaHermit(1916)wasgladlyacceptedbyanAmericanpublishinghousewhichhadalreadyrejectedhistwobrothers''Confessions',whichit
wasoriginallyintendedtocomplement.Hisnovelsandcollectionsofstories,beginningwithTheLeftLeg(1923),arerootedinthesoilandinthecharacteristicsof
thosewhoworkordependonit,andareusually20thcenturyfablesinwhichsinsareexposedanddifferenttraitscontrasted.HisstoriesseeMock'sCurse:
NineteenStories(1995)aremorehighlyregardedthanhisnovels,ofwhichMrTasker'sGods(1925)hasasavagetheme.MrWeston'sGoodWine(1927),his
mostpopularwork,isaparableofwickednessandvirtueinaruralsetting,toldwithironichumour.SeeWilliamHunter,TheNovelsandStoriesofT.F.Powys,
newedn1976.
Praed,Rosa(18511935)
neMurrayPrior,Australiannovelist,wasbornonacountrystationinQueensland,theeldestdaughterofagrazierwholaterbecameapoliticianandPostmaster
Generalofthestate.Shewaslargelyselfeducated,andwithherbrothersandsisterswrote,andprinted,afamilymagazine.Shehadexperiencedthesocialand
politicallifeofBrisbanewhenshemarriedArthurCampbellPraed,thesonofaLondonbanker,in1872.Forthreeyearstheylivedinthegreatestdiscomfortonhis
stationonPortCurtisIsland,beforethankfullyfindingabuyerandgoingtoEngland.Herfirstnovel,AnAustralianHeroine(1880),recreatestheconditionsand
stationlifeingeneral,whichalsorecurasbackgroundinTheHeadStation(1885)andTheRomanceofaStation(1889).Ofherfortynovels,halfdealwhollyorin
partwithAustralia,andforalltheircolonialleaningsrevealanunderstandingofthepoliticsandlocalsnobberiesofthetimeherEnglishheroes,suchasHardress
BarringtoninPohcyandPassion(1881),areoftenbounders.Shealsowrotenovelswiththemesdrawnfromastudyofpsychology,beginningwithNadine(1882),
and,withJustinMacCarthy(18601936),threeEnglishpoliticalnovels.In1899shemetNancyHarward(c.18651927),withwhomshelivedafterseparatingfrom
herhusband.ShebelievedNancytobethereincarnationofaRomanslavegirl,whosestorysherecountedinNyria(1904).Herdaughterwasborndeafand
consignedtoalunaticasylumofherthreesons,onewaskilledinacarcrash,onewasgoredtodeathbyarhinoceros,andtheother,acancersufferer,committed
suicide.SeeMyAustralianGirlhood,1902(autobiography)ColinRoderick,InMortalBondage:theStrangeLifeofRosaPraed,1948.
Pratt,E(dwin)J(ohn)(18821964)
Canadianpoet,wasborninWesternBay,Newfoundland,thesonofaMethodistminister.AfterattendingStJohn'sMethodistCollege,hewasforfouryearsa
teacherandstudentministerinremotecommunities,andwasinduecourseordained.AfterextensivestudiesatVictoriaCollege,TorontoUniversity,wherehebecame
PhDintheologywhilealsolecturinginpsychologyatUniversityCollege,heacceptedaposttoteachEnglishatVictoriaCollege,whereheremaineduntil1953,when
hewasappointedEmeritusProfessor.HissternNewfoundlandbackgroundorthecrisisoffaithwhichledhimtoabandontheministry,andsometimesboth,are
reflectedinmuchofhisverse,whichhedidnotbegintopublishuntilhewas35.NewfoundlandVerse(1923),thefirstofseveralcollectionsofshorterpoemsof
whichTheFableoftheGoatsandOtherPoems(1937)wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward,includedacontinuationofRachel:aSeaStoryofNewfoundland
(privatelyprinted1917).TheWitches'Brew

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(1925)isamockheroiconanexperimenttoassesstheeffectofalcoholonfish.'TheCachelot'and'TheGreatFeud:aDreamofaPlioceneArmageddon',which
makeupTitans:TwoPoems(1926),useprimevalcreaturesasprotagonistsintremendousencounterswhichforeshadownarrativepoemsinwhichhumansbattle
withtheelementsandwithobstaclesimposedbyauthoritarianismorignorance.SuchinparticularareTheTitanic(1935),BrbeufandHisBrethren(1940),a
recreationofthemartyrdomoftheJesuitsinHuroniainthe17thcentury,andTowardstheLastSpike:aVersePanoramaoftheStruggletoBuildtheFirst
CanadianTranscontinental...(1952),anepicaccount,whichgainedhimathirdGovernorGeneral'sAwardforpoetry,oftheepicfightagainstnature,time,and
imminentbackruptcytocompletethe2500mileCanadianPacificRailwayin187175.SeeTheCompletePoems,ed.SandraDjwaandR.G.Moyles,2vols1989
DavidG.Pitt,E.J.Pratt:theTruantYears18821927,1984,andE.J.Pratt:theMasterYears19271964,1987.
Praz,Mario(18961982)
Italiancriticandessayist,wasborninRome,andafterhisfather'sdeathwhenhewasfourwasbroughtupinFlorence,whereheattendedtheGinnasioLiceaoGalileo.
HewentontotheuniversitiesofBologna,Rome,andFlorence,wherehebecamePhDinEnglish,havingarrivedatthatsubjectafterswitchingfromlawtoclassics,
andthenquarrellingwithhisprofessor.HepursuedhisstudyoftheMetaphysicalpoetsintheBritishMuseum,qualifyingasliberodocenteinEnglishliterature,and
thentaughtItalianstudiesattheuniversitiesofLiverpool(192432)andManchester(193234),beforereturningtoRomeasProfessorofEnglishLanguageand
Literature(Emeritusfrom1966).Hismarriagein1934toanEnglishwomanbrokeupin1945because,hehasconfessed,ofhis'passionforEmpirefurniture'.Best
knowninItalyasanessayist,itisasacriticofEnglishandcomparativeliteraturethathemadehisinternationalreputation,beginningwithhisstudyof'decadent'writers
andartists,LaCarne,laMorteeilDiavolonellaLetteraturaRomantic(1930tr.AngusDavidsonasTheRomanticAgony,1933reissueof2ndedn,with
introductionbyFrankKermode,1970).AnotherseminalworkisTheFlamingHeart:EssaysonCrashaw,Machiavelli,andOtherStudiesoftheRelations
betweenItalianandEnglishLiteraturefromChaucertoT.S.Eliot(1958).LaCasadellaVita(1958tr.DavidsonasTheHouseofLife,1964)comprises
autobiographicalessays.HewasmadeHonoraryKBEin1962.
Prvost,(AntoineFranois),Abb(16971763)
Frenchnovelistandtranslator,wasborninHesdin,andwaseducatedinParisandLaFlechefortheJesuitpriesthood,whichheabandonedtojointhearmy.In1720
hebeganasecondnovitiate,withtheBenedictines,takinghisvowsattheabbeyofJumiegesin1721.HeworkedasamonkinNormandyandParis,sublimatinghis
naturalproclivitiesintowritingromanticnovelsanonymously.Thescandalbrokewiththepublicationin1728ofvolumesIIIandIVofLesMemoiresetAventures
d'unHommedeQualit.HetookrefugeinEngland,wherehewastutortothesonoftheLordMayorofLondon,gatheredmaterialforafifthvolumeof'Manof
Quality',andpossiblyhadtheexperienceswhichwentintoafinalvolume(1731).HealsobeganLePhilosopheAnglais:ou,HistoiredeM.Cleveland,Fils
NatureldeCromwell,criteparluimme(1731tr.asTheLifeandEntertainingAdventuresofMrCleveland,naturalsonofOliverCromwell,writtenby
himself,173435).AfteraperiodinHolland,andafurthervisittoEngland,wherehewasimplicatedinachargeofforgery,hewasreconciledwiththeChurchin
France,onlytobeexiledagain.Hefinallyreturnedtospendthelasttwentyyearsofahecticlifeassecularpriestandfreelancewriter,inwhichcapacityhetranslated
SAMUELRICHARDSON'SClarissa(1751)andSirCharlesGrandison(175558).Healsopreparedadefinitiveedition(1753)ofHistoireduChevalierDesGrieuxet
deManonLescaut(asManonLescauttr.1738tr.L.W.Tancock,1950).Originallythelastvolumeof'ManofQuality',itistheclassicstoryofayoungman's
obsessive,andfaithful,loveforateenageadventuress.
Price,(Edward)Reynolds(b.1933)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,translator,andcritic,wasborninMacon,NorthCarolina,intoaclosefamilywhoseconversationshapedhisdialogue,and
whoserealorimaginedsufferingatthetimeofhischildhoodduringtheDepressionunderliesmuchofhisfiction.'Hopelessinsports'andmiserableasanadolescent,he
wentfromhighschoolinRaleightoDukeUniversity,wherehegraduatedsummacurelaude,havingalreadyexperimentedinthewritingoffiction.AsaRhodes
ScholaratMertonCollege,Oxford195558,hestudiedundertheliteraryscholarsLordDavidCecil(190286)andHelenGardner(190886),didaBLittthesison
MILTON,andwroteseveralshortstories,ofwhich'AChainofLove'(introducingtheMustianfamily)waspublishedinEncounter(seeSPENDER)in1958.Hebecamea
memberofthefacultyofDukein1958,beingelectedJamesB.DukeProfessorin1977.Awriterwhoalsoteaches,hehasaimedtoachieveinhislifetheChristian
solitudewhosedialoguewithloveiscentraltohisliteraryendeavours.Hisfirstnovel,ALongandHappyLife(1962),wasalsopublishedinitsentiretyinHarper's
Magazinehisdramatizedversionwas,asEarlyDark,publishedin1977andperformedinNewYorkin1978.Likehissecondnovel,AGener

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ousMan(1966),andGoodHearts(1988),itdealswithincidentsinthelivesandmetaphoricalquestsoftheMustianfamily.TheSurfaceoftheEarth(1975)and
TheSourceofLight(1981)compriseafamilysagainwhichtheprotagonist,asthenormalcirclesoflifeareplayedout,seekshisownidentityandassuagementofthe
guilthefeelsabouthisdeadfatheritconcludeswithThePromiseofRest(1996).ShortstoriesareinTheNamesandFacesofHeroes(1963)andPermanent
Errors(1970)seealsoTheCollectedStories(1993).
Muchofhisverse,ofwhichVitalProvisions(1982)andTheLawsofIce(1986)arecollections,furtherreflectshisChristiancommitment,asdohistranslationsfrom
theBible:APalpableGod(1978)containsversionsfromboththeOldandNewTestaments,undertakenaspartofaprocesstowardsthe'purification'ofhis
language,withanessay,'TheOriginsandLifeofNarrative'.CriticalessaysareinThingsThemselves:EssaysandScenes(1972)andACommonRoom:Essays
19541987(1989).ClearPictures:FirstLoves,FirstGuides(1989)isamemoir.SeeJeffersonHumphries(ed.),ConversationswithReynoldsPrice,1991
ConstanceRooke,ReynoldsPrice,1983(biographical/criticalstudy).
Prichard,KatharineSusannah(18831969)
Australiannovelistandjournalist,wasborninFiji,thedaughteroftheEditoroftheFijiTimes.ShewasbroughtasachildtoTasmaniaseeherautobiographical
children'sstory,TheWildOatsofHan(1928rev.edn1968)andthentoMelbourne.ShewenttoSouthMelbourneCollege,whosefounderandheadmaster,J.B.
O'Hara(18621927),himselfapoet,encouragedhertowrite.Becauseofreversesinthefamilyfortunes(herfathersubsequentlycommittedsuicide),shegaveupthe
ideaofuniversity,andwasagovernessinGippsland,andateacherandthenajournalistinMelbourne.In1908shewenttoLondonasafreelancejournalistforthe
MelbourneHerald,whose'Women'sWork'columnshethenediteduntil1912,whenshereturnedtoLondon.Whatshesawasajournalistofwarconditionsin
FranceappalledherasmuchashadthelivingconditionsofthepoorinLondon.Herfirstnovel,ThePioneers(1915),aperiodtale,wontheAustraliansectionofthe
HodderandStoughtonAllEmpirecompetition,andwiththeprizeof250shewentbacktoMelbourne.In1919shemarriedCaptainHugoThrossellVC,andwent
toliveinGreenmount,WesternAustralia.ShewasafoundermemberoftheCommunistPartyofAustralia,andwrotesomepoliticalstudies,includingMarx:theMan
andHisWork(1922).WithTheBlackOpal(1921),aboutanopalminingoperation,sheenteredthepoliticalanddocumentaryphaseofhercareerasanovelist.She
livedamongtheworkersinthekarriforestsforWorkingBullocks(1926),andspenttimeonacattlestationforCoonardoo:theWellintheShadow(1929),thefirst
novelrealisticallytoportrayanAboriginal(andawoman,too)inaleadingrole.ShetouredwithacircusforHaxby'sCircus:theLightest,BrightestLittleShowon
Earth(1930).
In1933sheembarkedonatourintheUSSR,onthewaybackfromwhichshehadnewsthatherhusbandhadkilledhimself.Thereasonwasalmostcertainlyfinancial
problems,butshefearedthathehadreadthemanuscriptofhernextnovel,IntimateStrangers,inwhichthefinanciallyembarrassedhusbandcommitssuicide,leaving
hiswifetoherlover.Shedidnotpublishituntil1937,withthedenouementaltered,thesuicideaverted,andthecouplereconciled.Hertrilogy,TheRoaringNineties:
aStoryoftheGoldfieldsofWesternAustralia(1946),GoldenMiles(1948),andWingedSeeds(1950),traces(throughthelifeofSallyGough)industrialgrowth,
depression,andunrestuptothe1940s,whilereflectingherviewsonfemaleindependenceandherpoliticalawareness.Shealsopublishedtwovolumesofpoetry
(1913and1932),andseveralofshortstories,andwroteanumberofplays.Ofthese,BrumbyInnes,arawcattlestationdrama,wontheTriadmagazineawardin
1927,butwasnotproduceduntil1972,whenitwasgreetedwithcriticalacclaim.SeeChildoftheHurricane:anAutobiography,1963RicThrossell,WildWeeds
andWindFlowers,2ndrev.edn1990(biography)RichardNile,TheMakingofaReallyModernWitch:KatharineSusannahPrichard19191969,1990
JackBeasley,AGallopofFire:theWorkofKatharineSusannahPrichard,newedn1993ofTheRageforLife,1964.
Priestley,J(ohn)B(oynton)(18941984)
Britishnovelist,dramatist,essayist,andliteraryandsocialcritic,wasborninBradford,Yorkshire,thesonofaschoolmaster,andwaseducatedatBelleVueGrammar
School,Bradford,whichheleftat16ofhisownchoicetoworkforawoolmerchantwhilepreparingtobeanauthor.Hewasblownupduringserviceinthetrenches
inWorldWarI,afterwhichhewenttoTrinityHall,Cambridge,beforesettlinginLondonwithwifeandchild,and50capital.Afterseveralbooksofessaysand
literarycriticism,hepublishedin1927twoapprenticenovels,AdaminMoonshineandBenighted.TheGoodCompanions(1929),theadventuresofatouring
theatrecompany,establishedhisreputationasanovelist,whichwasconfirmedwithAngelPavement(1930),asagaoflowerlifeinLondon.Laternovelshave
similarlyvariedsettings,andincludeFestivalatFarbridge(1951)andTheImageMen(1968).Hisequallylongcareerasasuccessfuldramatistbeganwith
DangerousCorner(1932)alsoinThreeTimePlays(1947)andincludedAnInspectorCalls(1947),andTheLindenTree(1948),anun

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derstandingassessmentofpostwarmoodsofyoungandold.LiteratureandWesternMan(1960)islessanhistoricalsurveythanacritiqueofthecurrentsituation.
Ofhiscollectionsofessays,ThoughtsintheWilderness(1957)hasprovedmostinfluential.HisenlighteningSundaybroadcastsafterthenineo'clocknewsduringthe
firstsummerofWorldWarIIwerepublishedasPostcripts(1940).Hisfirstwifediedin1925.In1953,afteradivorcefromhissecondwife,hemarriedJacquetta
Hawkes(19101996),neHopkins,thearchaeologistandmythologist,withwhomhewrotetwoplays.HewasawardedtheOMin1977.SeeMarginReleased,
1962(literaryreminiscences)VincentBrome,J.B.Priestley,1988(biography).
Pringle,Thomas(17891834)
ScottishpoetofSouthAfrica,wasborninTeviotdale,Roxburghshire,thesonofafarmer.Anaccidentasachildlefthimoncrutchesallhislife.Hewaseducatedat
KelsoGrammarSchoolandEdinburghUniversity,andenteredtheRegisterOffice,Edinburgh,in1811asacopyist.In1817heandJamesCleghorn(17781838)
becameeditorsofthenewEdinburghMonthlyMagazine,publishedbyWilliamBlackwood(17761834).Afterthreeissuestheyweregivennotice,having,inthe
wordsofacontemporary,'failedintheirengagementsandotherwisetreated[Blackwood]unhandsomely',andweresucceededbyHOGGandJOHNWILSON.Aftertwo
moreeditorialdisasters,WALTERSCOTT,whohadbeenimpressedbyhispoems,TheAutumnalExcursion,orSketchesinTeviotdale(1817),recommendedagrant
oflandforhimandapartyofsettlersintheNeutralTerritoryofCapeColonyfromwhichtheXhosahadbeenexpelled.TherePringleadaptedhispastoralexpression
toAfricansituations:'FirstthebrownHerderwithhisflock/Comeswindingroundmyhermitrock/Hismienandgaitandvesturetell,/NoshepherdhefromScottish
fell'.HisBorderupbringingenabledhimtounderstand,ratherthandeprecate,thecattleraidinghabitsoftheXhosa.'Pringlewritesaboutthenonwhitewith
humanitarianfeeling,'saysMPHAHLELE.TowhichGORDIMERhasadded:'Heanticipated,astonishingly,themesthatwerenottobetakenupagainbyanywriterinSouth
Africaforahundredyears,andlonger'(amongthemmiscegenation).HemovedtoCapeTown,whereheworkedinthepubliclibrary,andpublishedajournalwhose
WhigpoliticsandoutspokennessoncontroversialmatterscausedittobesuppressedbytheGovernorandtohisleavingthecountryin1826.In1827hewas
appointedSecretaryoftheAntiSlaverySociety,inwhichcapacityhesignedin1834,shortlybeforehisdeath,adocumentannouncingtheabolitionofslaveryin
Britishcolonies.AfricanSketches,NarrativeofaResidenceinSouthAfrica(1834)containshismostsignificantverse.SeeJuneMeiring,ThomasPringle:His
LifeandTimes,1968.
Prior,Matthew(16641721)
Britishpoet,wasborninDorset,ofNonconformistparents(see'AnEpistletoFleetwoodShephardEsq'),andwenttoWestminsterSchool,fromwhichhewas
removedonhisfather'sdeathtoworkforhisuncle,theproprietoroftheRhenishWineHouseintheCityofLondon.TheEarlofDorset(16381706),findingtheboy
readingHORACEinthebar,invitedhimtotranslateapiece.Thisbecameacustomarydiversionfortheclientele,andDorsetarrangedforhisreturntoWestminster,
fromwhichhewentontoStJohn'sCollege,Cambridge.Whilethere,hewrotewithCharlesMontagu(16611715),laterEarlofHalifax,TheHindandthePanther
Transvers'dtotheStoryofTheCountryMouseandtheCityMouse(1687),aburlesqueonDRYDEN.HebecamesecretarytotheAmbassadorinTheHague,
takingpartinthenegotiationsleadingtotheTreatyofRyswick(1697),forwhichhereceivedabonusof200guineas.Healsofoundtimeforrelaxation(see'Writtenin
theYear1696',alsoknownas'TheSecretary').AfterservinginParis,hebecameanundersecretaryofstatein1700hesucceededLOCKEasCommissionerfor
Trade.Thevolumeof17ofhispoemspublishedin1707wasunauthorized.PoemsonSeveralOccasions(dated1709)contained51.
DuringthereignofQueenAnnePriorchangedhispoliticalallegiancefromtheWhigstotheTories,onwhosebehalfhesecretlyinstigatednegotiationsinParisleading
totheTreatyofUtrecht(1713),whichbecamejocularlyknownas'Matt'sPeace'.WiththeWhigsbackinpowerin1715,hesufferedayear'shousearrestinthe
homeofaParliamentaryofficial.Onhisrelease,RobertHarley(16611724),EarlofOxford,formerlyToryleaderoftheGovernment(seealsoDEFOE),initiatedthe
publicationbysubscriptionofthe1818editionofPoemsonSeveralOccasions(111poems,ofwhichPriorspentayearproducingdefinitiveversions).Healsopaid
halfthepurchasepriceofDownHall,Essex,wherethepoetspenttherestofhislife.Priorwasamasteroflightandcolloquialverse,thebestofwhichembracesthe
bawdydenouementsof'HansCarvel'and'TheLadle',theonlymarginallyindelicate'AnEnglishPadlock'and'ToaYoungGentlemaninLove',thetributetohis
maidservant/mistress'JinnytheJust',andthesongs,especially'ToPhillis'and'ChloeBeautyhasandWit'.Ofhislongerworks,'SolomonontheVanityoftheWorld'
isofgreaterintellectualthanliteraryinterest'Alma:or,theProgressoftheMind',draftedwhilehewasunderarrest,illustratesaswellasridiculesthevarioussystems
ofphilosophy.SeeTheLiteraryWorksofMatthewPrior,ed.H.BunkerWrightandMunroeK.Spears,2ndedn1971.

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Pritchett,(Sir)V(ictor)S(awdon)(190097)
Britishshortstorywriter,novelist,travelwriter,andcritic,wasborninIpswich,Suffolk,andeducatedatAlleyn'sSchool,Dulwich,whichhewasforcedtoleaveat16
toworkintheleathertrade.AfterfouryearshewenttoParis,wherehebecameaphotographer'sassistant.HewascorrespondentoftheChristianScienceMonitor
inIrelandandSpainfrom1923to1926,whenhebecameafreelancereviewerinLondon,especiallyfortheNewStatesman,ofwhichhewasappointedadirectorin
1946.Hisfirstbook,MarchingSpain(1928),recordshistravelsinthatcountry,whichremainedachiefinterest.ThebestofhisfivenovelsisheldtobeMrBeluncle
(1951),acomedyofcharacterizationinwhichaman'scompulsivefantasytakesoverhislife.Hisfinestworkisinhisshortstories,thefirstcollectionofwhichwasThe
SpanishVirginandOtherStories(1930).Inaninterviewin1988,Pritchettdescribedhimselfasacraftsman,notanaesthete,preferring'theplotlessstorywhere
there'splentyofaction,plentyofdrama,butmuchofitinternal'.HiscriticalworksincludeTheLivingNovel(1946),GeorgeMeredithandEnglishComedy
(1970),thesubjectofhisClarkLecturesatCambridgethepreviousyear,andLastingImpressions(1990),essaysonotherwriters,whenwritingaboutwhomhis
tonewasalwaysgenerous,butfirm.HealsowrotebiographiesofBALZAC(1973),TURGENEV(1977),andCHEKHOV(1988).HewasmadeCBEin1968,knightedin
1975,andappointedCHin1993.SeeTheCompleteCollectedStories,newedn1992TheCompleteEssays,1991ACabattheDoor:ChildhoodandYouth
19001920,1968,andMidnightOil,1971(autobiography,publishedtogethernewedn1994).
Propertius,Sextus(c.50c.15BC)
Romanelegiacpoet,wasbornnearAssisi.Hisfatherdiedwhenhewasyoung,andthefamilywasdispossessedintheproscriptionsfollowingthedeathofCAESAR,but
hismothersenthimtoRometobeeducatedforthelaw.Insteadheturnedtopoetry,andpublishedinabout26BCabookofelegies,whichbroughthimfameandan
introductiontoliterarycircles.Resistingpersuasiontowritepatrioticverse,hepublishedthreemorebooksinthesameveinbeforehisearlydeathfromanunknown
cause.MostofhispoemsdescribehisloveforCynthia,whoinreallifewascalledHostiaandwasafreedwomanoracourtesan.Theyarepepperedwithacademic
allusionsandpervadedwithmelancholy,buttheemotionsreadasthoughtheyaresincerelyexpressedandthepoetryisrichinsound.SeeThePoems,tr.GuyLee,
introductionbyOliverLyne,newedn1996.
Proust,Marcel(18711922)
Frenchnovelistandcritic,wasborninParisofaCatholicfather,whowasadoctor,andaJewishmother.Whenhewasninehehadhisfirstsevereattackofasthma,
whichplayedhavocwiththerestofhislife.HewaseducatedattheLyceCondorcetand,aftermilitaryservice,atthecoledesSciencesPolitiques,afterwhichhe
infiltratedhighsociety.Hebegancontributingtoreviewsin1892,foughtaduelin1897withanauthorwhoseworkhehadcriticized,andworkedonanovel,Jean
Santeuil,notpublisheduntil1952(tr.GerardHopkins,1955),whichisapreliminarysketchforlaRechercheduTempsPerdu.Hispreoccupationwiththework
ofRUSKINledtocriticalarticlesonthatauthorin1900,andtocopiouslyannotatedtranslationsofTheBibleofAmiens(1904),aspiritualaswellasanarchitectural
guidebook,andofSesameandLilies(1906).In1909hevirtuallyabandonedhissociallifeandretiredtohiscorklinedbedroomtodevotehimselftola
Recherchehepublishedthefirstvolume,DuCtdechezSwann[Swann'sWay](1913),extractsfromwhichhadappearedinLeFigaro,athisownexpenseafter
severalpublishershadturneditdown.In1914hisadoredchauffeur/secretary,AlfredAgostinelli,diedwhenhecrashedhisplaneintotheseaonhisfirstsoloflight:to
betransformedintoAlbertine,theficklemistressinsubsequentvolumesofthesequence,ofwhichthesecond,l'OmbredesJeunesFillesenFleurs[Withina
BuddingGrove](1918)wonthePrixGONCOURT.Thesevenvolumesconstituteadeeplysignificant,quasiautobiographicalstudyofpeopleandasociety,inwhichthe
protagonist,Marcel,assumesavarietyofrolesbeforeultimatelyregaininghislostvocationasawriter.ThesequencehasbeenreissuedasInSearchofLostTime
(1992)inarevisedtranslationinfivevolumes,tr.C.K.ScottMoncrieffandTerenceKilmartin,vol.5rev.D.J.Enright,withasixthvolume,TimeRegained:a
GuidetoProust,compiledbyTerenceKilmartin,rev.JoannaKilmartin.SeeAgainstSainteBeuveandOtherEssays,tr.JohnSturrock,newedn1994:OnArt
andLiterature18961919,tr.SylviaTownsendWarner,next,edn1996GeorgeD.Painter,MarcelProust:aBiography,newedn1996oftwovols1956,1965
DerwentMay,Proust,1984(introductiontohisthought).
Prout,Father
pennameofFrancesSylvesterMahony(180466)Irishjournalist,wasborninCork,thesecondsonofawoollenmanufacturer,andwaseducatedatClongowes
Wood,Co.Kildare,bytheJesuits,whoseorderhedecidedtoenter.HestudiedinFrance,wherehedemonstratedafinefacilityinLatinandGreek,andin1830he
returnedtoClongowesWoodasPrefectofStudies.Adrunkenoutingwithstudentsledtohisresignation,andtohissubsequentdismissalfromtheOrder,butafter
furtherstudieshewasordainedapriest,andassignedtoCork,wherehegaveselflessserviceduringthecholeraepidemic.In1834,presumably

Page446

havingbeenrelievedofhisduties,heturnedupinLondon,whereheestablishedhimselfasajournalist.FortwoyearsheregaledthereadersofFraser'sMagazine
withmonthlyinstalmentsoftheposthumouswritingsof'FatherProut',whomheintroducedasthesonofSWIFTandStella.Scholarly,entertaining,andoften
interspersedwithhisownlyrics(notably'TheShandonBells')andverseparodies,theywerecollectedasTheReliquesofFatherProut(1836).Hismostglorious
spoofwastoaccuseTHOMASMOOREofhavingplagiarizedsomeofhissongs,inproofofwhichheofferedthe'originals'inGreek,Latin,andOldFrench.Hecontributed
alsotoDICKENS'SBentley'sMiscellanyandDailyNews,ofwhichhewasRomecorrespondentin184647.HeendedhisdaysinParis,fromwhichhesentan
inauguralodeforTHACKERAY'SCornhillMagazinein1860.
Prunier,Joseph
seeMAUPASSANT
Pulci,Luigi
seeBYRONARIOSTO
Purchas,Samuel
seeHAKLUYT
Purdy,Al(fredWellington)(b.1918)
Canadianpoet,wasborninWooller,Ontario,twomonthsafterthemunitions'explosionatTrenton,wherehewasbroughtupbyhisstrictlyreligiousmotherafterhis
father'sdeathin1920.HeleftAlbertCollege,Belleville,withoutcompletinggrade10,andhadavarietyofoccasionaljobsbeforeservingintheRoyalCanadianAir
ForceinnorthernBritishColumbiaduringWorldWarII.In1944hepaidaVancouverprinter$200toproduce500copiesofabookofverse,TheEnchanted
Echo.Whileworkinginamattressfactoryintheearly1950shewaspersuadedbyafriendtoreadmodernpoetry,whichfiredhimtobecomeafulltimepoet.He
builtahouseonRoblinLake,PrinceEdwardCounty,wherehewrotewhilehiswifeearnedtheirkeep.Inhisfourthandfifthvolumes,theaptlynamedTheCrafteSo
LongetoLerne(1959)andPoemsforAlltheAnnettes(1962),amaturewriteremergedwithavoiceofhisownandapenchantformakingpoetryoutofeveryday
activitiesandobservations.TheCaribooHorses(1965)wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward,aslaterdidhiscollectedpoems.Hisfirstnovel,ASplinterintheHeart
(1990),coversa16yearold'ssummerinTrentonin1918,theyearoftheTrentonDisaster.HeeditedI'veTastedMyBlood:Poems19561968(1969)byMilton
Acorn(192385),whomhisTorontocontemporariesnamed'thepeople'spoet'.PurdywasmadeMember,OrderofCanada,in1982.SeeCollectedPoems,ed.
RussellBrown,withanafterwordbyDennisLee,1986LouisMacKendrick,AlPurdyandHisWorks,1994.
Pushkin,Alexander(Sergeevich)(17991837)
Russianpoet,novelist,anddramatist,wasborninMoscowofaformerboyarfamilyhismotherwasdescendedfromaslave,anEthiopianaristocratacquiredby
PetertheGreatasachild,wholaterbecameamilitaryengineer.HebeganwritingpoetryatthelyceatTsarskoeSelo,nearStPetersburg,andcontinuedtodoso
whileworkingunenthusiasticallyinthecityasacivilservant,oneofhismoredelightfuleffortsbeingthemockheroic['RuslanandLyudmilla'](tr.NancyDargelas
RuslanandLudmilla:aNovelinVerse,1994).Hewasalsogenerallylivingitupandparticipatingintheactivitiesofapoliticallyorientatedliterarydebatingclub,
someofthemembersofwhichwereassociatedwiththeDecembrists,whoserevoltin1825againstthenewTsar,NicholasI,ledtotheexecutionoffiveofthem.
Pushkin'scontributiontoclubproceedingswaspurelyliterary,buthisliberalmindedversescametothenoticeoftheauthorities.In1820hewascompulsorily
'transferred'tothesouth,wherehewasinspiredbytheenvironmenttowritetheromanticnarrativepoems['ThePrisoneroftheCaucasus']and['TheFountainof
Bakchisarai']andtobegin['TheGypsies'],amorethoughtfulexampleofthegenre,andhiscelebrated'novelinverse',EugeneOnegin.
In1824hewasdismissedaltogetherfromthecivilserviceandorderedtoliveunderpolicesupervisiononhismother'sestateatMikhailovskoyeinthenorthwest.His
parents,furiousathisirresponsibility,departedtoStPetersburg,leavingPushkinonhisown.Itwasanopportunityofcreativesolitudewhichhecelebratedbywriting
BorisGodunov(1831tr.AlfredHayes,1918),hisnotableversetragedyafterthestyleofSHAKESPEARE.NicholasIwasmorefavourablyinclinedtohimthanhis
predecessorhadbeen,andPushkinwasgivenhisfreedom.In1831,aftervisitinghisbrotherintheCaucasusinanattempttojointhearmythere,hemarriedNatalia
Goncharova,a20yearoldbeautywhomhehadbeenpursuingforthreeyears.Thearrivaloftwochildrendidnothingtoeasethefamilybudget.Pushkin's
appointmentasagentlemanofthechamberatcourtwasirksometohiminthelightofthefactthattheTsarclearlyfanciedhiswifeso,unfortunately,didBaron
D'Anths,theFrenchbornadoptedsonoftheDutchambassador.Goadedbyanonymouslettersandthewellmeantcommentsofhisfriends,Pushkinwrotea
provocativelettertotheambassador,andwaschallengedbyD'Anthstoaduel,inwhichhewasmortallywounded.Hediedtwodayslater.Nataliareceiveda
pensionfromtheTsarandlaterremarried.D'AnthswasinvitedtoleavethecountryandeventuallyreturnedtoFrance,whereheliveduntil1895,apparently
unrepentanttothelastathavingkilledRussia'sgreatestpoet.ApartfromBorisGodunov,EugeneOnegin(1833tr.CharlesJohnston,revedn,introductionby

Page447

JohnBayley,1979tr.JamesE.Falen,1995),andthestory['TheQueenofSpades']seeinCompleteProseTales,tr.GillonR.Aitken(1978)andComplete
ProseFiction,tr.PaulDebreczeny(1983)hewrotesomeofthefinestlyricsintheRussianlanguage,while['TheBronzeHorseman']isanarrativepoemof
extraordinaryimaginativepowerandhistoricalunderstandingseeTheBronzeHorsemanandOtherPoems,tr.D.M.Thomas(1982).SeeAlexanderPushkin,
ed.A.D.P.Briggs,1997(selection)RobinEdmonds,Pushkin:theManandHisAge,1995.
Pym,Barbara(191380)
Britishnovelist,wasborninOswestry,Shropshire,thedaughterofasolicitor,andwaseducatedatLiverpoolCollege,Huyton,aboardingschool,andatStHilda's
College,Oxford,whereshegotasecondinEnglishandhadnumerousromanticadventures.Shethenlivedathome,writing,doinghousework,andfendingoff
propositionsofmarriage.DuringWorldWarIIsheworkedasapostalcensorinBristol(andhadanunhappyloveaffair),andfrom1943servedintheWomen's
RoyalNavalService,becomingathirdofficerandbeingpostedtoNaples.AfterthewarshejoinedtheInternationalAfricanInstitute,forwhichsheworkeduntilher
retirementin1974.Shehadwrittenanunpublishednovelwhenshewas16.Afurthernovel,begunin1934,finallyappearedasSomeTameGazelle(1950),under
theimprintofthepublishingfirmwhichhadrejectedit14yearsearlier.Between1952and1961shepublishedfivemoredomesticnovelsdistinguishedbytheirgentle
irony.Thenext,andseveralideasforfurthernovels,wereconsistentlyrejectedovertheensuing16years,untilshewasnominatedbyLARKINandLordDavidCecil
(190286)inasurveyinTheTimesLiterarySupplementasthemostunderratedwriterofthecentury.Thisnudgedthefirmtowhichitwasonoffertopublish
QuartetinAutumn(1977).Forthreeyearsshewasabletoenjoyhernewfoundcultstatus,butshediedofcancerjustbeforethepublicationofthelastbookshe
wrote,AFewGreenLeaves(1980).LatterlyshelivedwithhersisterinthetinyOxfordshirevillageofFinstock.SeeAVeryPrivateEye:anAutobiographyin
LettersandDiaries,newedn1994HazelHolt,ALottoAsk:aLifeofBarbaraPym,newedn1992MichaelCotsell,BarbaraPym,1989(criticalstudy).
Pynchon,Thomas(b.1937)
Americannovelist,wasborninGlenCove,NewYork.AtCornellUniversityhefirstreadengineeringphysics,butafterserviceintheUSNavy,hereturnedto
graduateinEnglish,ofwhichoneofhisteacherswasNABOKOV.WhiletherehepublishedhisfirststoryintheCornellWriter.HewasaneditorialwriterfortheBoeing
CorporationinSeattle,subsequentlylivinginMexicobeforesettlinginCalifornia.Thatisaboutallthathasbeendiscoveredaboutawritertheonlyknownphotograph
ofwhomwastakenin1955.V(1963),TheCryingofLot49(1966),andGravity'sRainbow(1973)areacknowledgedasbrilliantlyevoked,surreal,often
parabolicalorparodicalmanifestationsofanexuberantmindeachhasatenuousthreadofinterestfromwhicharegenerouslydispensedcluestotheauthor'sgeneral
meaning.SituationsincludeasecretsocietyforthesubversionoftheUSpostalsystem,aninternationalcartelcontrollingthesupplyoflightbulbs,alligatorsbreedingin
thesewersofNewYork,andthesymbolicallyphallicflightofaV2rocket.Gravity'sRainbowsharedtheNationalBookAwardwithabookofstoriesbySINGER
wasselectedforthePulitzerPrizebutthrownoutbytheadvisoryboardasbeing'obscene'and'unreadable'andwontheHowellsMedal,whichtheauthorrefused.
Aftera17yearsilence,brokenonlybyacollectionofearlyshortstories,SlowLearner(1984),Vineland(1990)provedacriticaldisappointment.SeeMollyHite,
IdeasofOrderintheNovelsofThomasPynchon,1983.

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Q
Quarles,Francis(15921644)
Englishpoetandprosewriter,wasbornatthefamilymanorinRomford,Essex,thesonofElizabethI'sSurveyorGeneralofnavalvictualling,whodiedsoonafterthe
boy'sbirth.HewaseducatedatChrist'sCollege,Cambridge,andthenstudiedlaw,afterwhichhewentabroadascupbearertothePrincessElizabethonhermarriage
totheElectorPalatine(fromwhomthepresentBritishRoyalFamilyisdescended).OnhisreturnhewasforatimesecretarytoJamesUssher(15811656),
ArchbishopofArmagh,inIreland.HealsowroteAFeastforWorms,SetForthinaPoemoftheHistoryofJonah(1620)andseveralotherequallygloomy
biblicalnarrativepoems.In1635,nowretiredtoEssex,heproducedEmblems,infivevolumes,eachofwhichcontained15symbolicpictures(many,accordingtothe
customofthetime,copiedfromotherbooks),towhichheappendedpiousverses.Itissaidtohavebeenthemostpopularbookofverseinthe17thcentury.Hewas
appointedChronologeroftheCityofLondonin1640,inwhichyearhewroteTheVirginWidow(published1649),acomicallegoricaldramaticpiece.Henow
confinedhisliteraryactivitiestoprose,ofwhichEnchyridion(1640enlargededn1641),acollectionofreligiousandmoralaphorisms,wasespeciallyadmiredand
oftenreprinted.Hediedapauper,leavingawidowandtheninesurvivingoftheir18children,theeldestofwhom,JohnQuarles(162465),becameanimpecunious
poetanddiedinLondonoftheplague.
Queneau,Raymond(190376)
Frenchnovelistandpoet,wasbornandwenttoschoolinLeHavre,thenstudiedphilosophyatParisUniversity.AftermilitaryservicehegotajobwiththeComptoire
Nationald'Escompte,mixedwithbutdidnotseeeyetoeyewiththeSurrealistpoets,andembarkedonastudyoffouslittraires.Hisfirstnovel,LeChiendent
(1933tr.BarbaraWrightasTheBarkTree,1968),reflectedhispreoccupationwithspokenlanguageandexperimentalnarrativeforms.HislongpoemChineet
Chien[OakandDog](1937)isapersonalexplorationofthelinebetweenunhappinessandhappinessforwhichhedrewonhisexperienceofpsychoanalysis.Depths
andpatternsofmeaningunderliethenovelsUnRudeHiver(1939tr.BettyAskwithasAHardWinter,1948)andPierrotMonAmi(1942tr.J.MaclarenRossas
Pierrot,1950),thelatterpublishedduringtheOccupationofFrance.ThezanyheroineletlooseonParisinZaziedansleMetro(1959tr.WrightasZazieinthe
Metro,1960)wasmoretothepublictaste.InExercisesdeStyle(1947tr.WrightasExercisesinStyle,1958)thesameincidentisrelatedin99differentstyles.
Unlimited,iffinite,possibilitiesattendCentMilleMilliardsdePomes(1961tr.JohnCrombieasOneHundredMillionMillionPoems,1983),thepagesofthe
bookbeingcutintohorizontalstripssothateachlineoftensonnetscanbecombinedwithlinesfromanyoftheothers.Thiswasapracticaldemonstrationofthe
philosophyofOuvroirdeLittraturePotentielle(Oulipo),aliterarysubgroup(formedbyhimself)oftheCollbgedePataphysique,anorganizationdevotedto
pataphysics,asciencecreatedbytheFrenchwriteranddramatist,AlfredJarry(18731907),whichinitspursuitofimaginarysolutionscanalsoberegardedasthe
scienceoftheabsurdseeOulipoLaboratory:TextsfromtheBibliothequeOulipienne,tr.HarryMatthews,IainWhite,andWarrenMotte(1995).
Quevedo,Franciscode
seeGONGORA
QuillerCouch,(Sir)Arthur(18631944)
Britishnovelist,poet,andcritic,usuallyknownas'Q',wasborninBodmin,Cornwall.HewaseducatedatCliftonCollegeandTrinityCollege,Oxford,aboutwhichhe
composedhisbestknownpoem,'AlmaMater'(1896),andwherehewrotehisfirstnovel,DeadMan'sRock(1887).Havingstayedonforoneyearasalecturerin
classics,hespentthenextfiveinLondon,workingasafreelancejournalistandalsoforapublisher,towhoseLiberalweekly,TheSpeaker,hecontributedastorya
weekfrom1890,aswellasarticlesandreviews.Duringthistimehewassupportinghiswidowedmother,twobrothers,awife(from1889),andason(from1890),
whilealsotrying,gallantlyandultimatelysuccessfully,towipeofffamilydebtswhichhewasundernoobligationtopay.In1892hishealthbrokedownandonmedical
advice

Page450

hewenttolivebythesea,atFowey,Cornwall,the'TroyTown'ofhisnovels.Hecontinuedtosupporthimselfandfamilybyhispen,producingonaveragetwobooks
ayear.Aswellasfiction,hewroteseriousverse,lightverse,suchasthehilariousmishmashofsportingterms,'TheFamousBalladoftheJubileeCup'(1897),and
parodies,suchas'ANewBalladofSirPatrickSpens'(1898),andcompiledanthologies,mostnotablyTheOxfordBookofEnglishVerse(1900rev.edn1939).In
1912,tohissurprise,hewasappointedKingEdwardVIIProfessorofEnglishLiteratureatCambridge,inwhichcapacityhegaveseveralseriesofmemorable
lectures,collectedasOntheArtofWriting(1916),StudiesinLiterature(1918,1922,1929),andOntheArtofReading(1920).Asanovelist,histalentslayin
historicaladventureandCornishromanticismhewascommissionedtocompleteSTEVENSON'SStIves(1897),andanotherCornishnovelist,DAPHNEDUMAURIER,didthe
sameforhisCastleDor(1962).Hewasknightedin1910.SeeMemoriesandOpinions:anUnfinishedAutobiography,ed.S.C.Roberts,1944.

Page451

R
Rabelais,Franois(c.14901553)
Frenchprosewriter,wasborninChinon,waseducatedprobablyattheBenedictinemonasteryofSeuillyandattheUniversityofAngers,andbecameaFranciscan
friarin1520.Thwartedbyhissuperiors'oppositiontohisreadingtheNewTestamentinGreek,hejoinedtheBenedictines,andtheninabout1528becameasecular
priest.In1530heenrolledintheFacultyofMedicineatMontpellierUniversity,becomingBMafteronlythreemonths.HesetupinpracticeinLyons,published
translationsoftheGreekphysiciansHippocrates(c.460c.357BC)andGalen(c.130c.199),andenteredintocorrespondencewithleadinghumanists,including
ERASMUS.Thepopularsuccessofachapbookchroniclingthedeedsofthe'monstrousgiantGargantua'movedhimtoproduceafollowupofhisown(underthe
anagram'AlcofribasNasier'),HorriblesetEspouvantablesFaictzetProuessesduTrsRenommPantagruel,FilsduGrantGantGargantua(1532),which
waspromptlycondemnedasobscenebyParisUniversity.RabelaisrespondedwithVieInestimableduGrantGargantua...(1534),asatiricalpresequelinwhich
heairedhisviewsoneducation,themoralityofwar,andtheologians.Predictably,ittoowasproscribed,withsuchvehemencethathewasforcedtogointohiding.
HewasrescuedbyCardinalDuBellay(14921560),whotookhimtoItaly,andthensecuredhimapostasphysicianinamonastery,untilhisfellowcanonsobjected
tohispresence.AftertakinghisdoctorateatMontpellier,hewasforatimeattachedtothecourt.Athirdbook(1546),chauvinisticallymalebuttheologically
unobjectionable,sufferedthesamefateastheothers,andattacksonhimwerenowmountedalsobyCALVINandamonkcallinghimselfPutherbus.Toanincomplete
fourthbook(1548)headdedsomelivelyantipapalallusions,butshortlyafterthecompleteversionwaspublished(1552),thenewKing,HenryII,madeuphis
differenceswiththePope,andthevolumewasbanned.Indeed,itissaidthatRabelaiswasimprisonedcertainlyherenouncedtheemolumentsDuBellayhadgranted
himasabsenteeincumbentoftwoparishes.Afifthbook,intwoinstalments(156264),isnotregardedasbeingentirelygenuine.Thewholework,however,forits
zest,erudition,wit,andcomicinvention,isoneoftheworld'smostnotableliteraryentertainments,whosedisciplesrangefromSWIFTandSTERNEtoJOYCE.URQUHART'S
creativetranslation(165393)ofthefirstthreebookswascontinued(1694)ratherlessfelicitouslybyPeterMotteux(16601718),anunremarkabledramatistof
NormanoriginwhodiedinaLondonbrothelseeGargantuaandPantagruel,tr.UrquhartandMotteau,introductionbyTerenceCave(1994).SeeTheHistories
ofGargantuaandPantagruel,tr.BurtonRaffel,newedn1992.
Rabinovitz,Solomon
seeSHALOMALEICHEM.
Racine,Jean(163999)
Frenchdramatist,wasborninLaFertMilon.Hismotherdiedin1641givingbirthtohissister,andhisfather,afterabriefsecondmarriage,diedin1643.Hewas
broughtupbyhismaternalgrandmotherandwaseducatedasaboarderatthegrammarschoolatBeauvaisandattheprogressiveschooloftheJansenistreligious
houseofPortRoyaldesChamps(whosereligiousbeliefsPASCALwassupporting),afterwhichhestudiedphilosophyatCollged'Harcourt,Paris.Failing,inspiteof
nepotism,togainabeneficeinthedioceseofUzr,hereturnedtoParis,wherein1664heofferedatragedyaftertheGreek,LaThbade,toMOLIRE,whose
companypresenteditthatsummer.AlexandreleGrand(1665)wasputonfirstbyMolireandtwoweekslaterbyMontfleury(c.160067),andcausedabreach
withPortRoyal,towhoseadherents'amanwhowritesplaysisapublicpoisoner'.InNovember1667,thedayafteraprivatepreviewintheQueen'sapartmentsin
theLouvre,AndromaqueopenedattheHteldeBourgogne.Racine'smistress,MileDuParc(163368)wasinthetitlerole:inacourtdispositionduringaseriesof
sorcerytrialsin1679hewasaccusedofpoisoningherinordertoenjoytheservicesofMileChampnesle(164298),whoplayedseveralofhistragicheroines.The
subjectofBrnice(1670)wassuggestedtohimbyHenrietta(164470),Duchessed'Orlans,sisteroftheKingofEngland(CharlesII)andsisterinlawofLouis
XIVshealsoproposedthesamethemetoCORNEILLE.Bothplays

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wereperformedwithinaweekofeachotherfivemonthsafterhersuddendeath,withRacine'soutlastingitsrival.In1677,afterseveralfurthersuccesses,particularly
Iphignie(1674)andPhdreetHippolyte(1677),furtherexplorationsofthemesfromGreekmythology,hemadeasensiblebutlovelessmarriagewith25yearold
CatherinedeRomanet,renouncedthetheatre,andwasappointed(withBOILEAU)HistoriographerRoyal.
HewrotenothingmoreforthestageuntilpersuadedbyMmedeMaintenon(16351719),mistressand(from1683)secretwifeofLouisXIV,tocomposetwoplays
forherschoolforimpoverishedyoungladiesatStCyr.Twobiblicalplaysresulted,Esther(1689publiclyperformed1721)andAthalie(1691).Thelatter,oneof
hisstrongestworks,fellflatwhenplayedbyschoolgirlsandhadsmallsuccesswhenpublished,butwasrecognizedasamasterpiecewhenitwasfinallyputonatthe
ComdieFranaisein1716.Racinewasatragicdramatistofthehighestorder,whoseobservanceoftheunitiesofaction,setting,andtimeenabledhimallthemore
effectivelytodevelopasituationfromthepointatwhichitisabouttoburstopen.Thepoetryofhisrhymingalexandrinesistheperfectmatchforhisdramaticplanit
issaidthathewrotethesecondlineofeachcoupletfirst,inordertoavoidanysuggestionofartifice.SeeAndromache,Britannicus,Berenice,newedn1967,and
Iphigenia,Phaedra,Athaliah,newedn1970,tr.JohnCairncrossBritannicus,Phaedra,Athaliah,tr.C.H.Sisson,1987.
Radcliffe,Ann(17641823)
neWard,Britishnovelistandpoet,wasborninLondon,thedaughterofatradesmanwhothroughhisandhiswife'sfamilyhadconnectionsinartisticandcourt
circles.Whenshewas23shemarried,inBath,WilliamRadcliffe,alawyerwholaterbecameEditoroftheEnglishChronicle.Afterashortnovel,TheCastlesof
AthlinandDunbayne(1789),shepublishedASicilianRomance(1790),whichWALTERSCOTTregardedasthefirstEnglishpoeticalnovel.ShefolloweditwithThe
RomanceoftheForest(1791),whichquicklywentthroughseveraleditions,wasdramatizedbyJohnBoaden(d.1839),andwastranslatedintoFrenchandItalian.
HerreputationinmoderntimesrestsonTheMysteriesofUdolpho,aRomanceInterspersedwithSomePiecesofPoetry(1794),forwhichherpublisherpaidthe
thenunprecedentedsumof500forthefirstedition.The'poetry'ispuerile,butthenovelitselfisoneofthemostfamousexamplesoftheGothicgenre,beingallthe
moreimpressiveinthateventhemostbizarremanifestationshaverationalexplanations.Suchwasitssuccessthatshereceived800forTheItalian,orthe
ConfessionaloftheBlackPenitents(1797),aromanceoftheInquisition.HavingwrittenatravelbookabouthercarriagetripthroughHollandandGermany,she
retiredfromtheliteraryscenesocompletelythatin1816ananonymouscompiler,thinkingshewasdead,publishedabookofherverses,withtheadditionofsomeof
hisorherown.SeeRobertMiles,AnnRadcliffe:'TheGreatEnchantress',1995(criticalbiography)J.M.S.Tompkins,AnnRadcliffeandHerInfluenceon
LaterWriters,1980JohnAndrewStoler,AnnRadcliffe:theNovelofSuspenseandTerror,1980.
RadclyffeHall,Marguerite
seeHALL,RADCLYFFE.
Raine,Craig(b.1944)
Britishpoetandcritic,wasborninBishopAuckland,Durham,thesonofaonetime'painteranddecorator,plumber,electrician,publicanandboxer,butwhenIwas
growingup,hewasaSpiritualistandafaithhealer'seethememoir'ASilverPlate'inRich(1983tradeedn1984).HewaseducatedatBarnardCastleSchooland
ExeterCollege,Oxford.Duringthe1970shewasalecturersuccessivelyatExeterandLincolncollegesandChristChurch,Oxford.HewasPoetryEditoratFaber&
Faber,apostoriginallycreatedbyT.S.ELIOT,from1981to1991,whenhebecameaFellowofNewCollege,Oxford.Hispoetry,whichisspare,tight,andexpressive
ofawiderangeofemotionsandsituations,oftenhasaliterary,ahistorical,orsimplyaneroticstartingpoint.HisbooksofversebeforeRichwereTheOnion,
Memory(1978)andAMartianSendsaPostcardHome(1979).ThecollectionClay:WhereaboutsUnknown(1996)recordshisreactionsovertenyearstothe
birthsoftwosonsandthedeathsofrelativesandfriends.History:theHomeMovie(1994)isahistoricalchronicleinverse,withfictionalepisodes,comprising87
poemsinthreelinestanzas,whichreflectsthelinksbetweenhisfamilyandthatofPASTERNAKRaine'swifeAnn,whomhemetin1972whentheywerebothresearch
studentsatOxfordandmarriedafewweekslater,isthedaughteroftheRussianpoet'ssisterandofRaine'suncle.'1953'(1996)isastrongverseplaybasedon
AndromaqueofRACINE,transformedtoa1950s'scenarioinwhichtheAxispowershavewonWorldWarII.HaydnandtheValveTrumpet:LiteraryEssays
(1990)thetitleisareferencetoareviewer'sanachronismisasubstantialcollectionofhisliteraryjournalism.
Raine,Kathleen(b.1908)
Britishpoetandcritic,wasborninIlford,Essex,butspentpartofherchildhoodasanevacueeinNorthumberland,wheresheplacesher'poeticroots'.Shewas
educatedattheCountyHighSchool,Ilford,andatGirtonCollege,Cambridge,whereshereadnaturalsciencesandwastheonlyfemalememberofthe'Cambridge
Poets',whoincludedEMPSON.StoneandFlower:Poems19351943(1943)wasdistinctiveforitspreciseawareness'andobservationofnaturalphenomena.Since
then

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shehasquietlypursuedthepolicysheexpressedintheintroductiontoTheCollectedPoemsofKathleenRaine(1956):'Theeverrecurringformsofnaturemirror
eternalrealitytheneverrecurringproductionsofhumanhistoryreflectonlyfallenman,andarethereforenotsuitabletobecomeasymbolicvocabularyforthekindof
poetryIhaveattemptedtowrite.'ShewasaResearchFellowatGirtonfrom1955to1961.HercriticalworksincludeseveralstudiesofBLAKEnotablyWilliam
Blake(1951rev.edn1969)andofDAVIDJONESandYEATS.Shewasacofounderin1981ofthejournal,Temenos,'toreaffirmvalueswhichweregardasessential
iftheartsaretorecoverfromtheirpresentdecline'.Herseriesofspiritualandliteraryautobiographies,FarewellHappyFields(1973),TheLandUnknown(1975),
andTheLion'sMouth(1977)reissuedinonevolumeasAutobiographies(1991)isalsoarecordofherintensebutunfulfilledrelationshipwithGavinMaxwell
(191469),thetravelwriter,naturalist,andauthorofRingofBrightWater(1960)seeDouglasBotting,GavinMaxwell:aLife(1993).Afterhisdeathshewrote
thepoeticalsequence,OnaDesertedShore(1973).SeeCollectedPoems19351980,1981ThePresence:Poems19841987,newedn1994Livingwith
Mystery:Poems19871991,1992SelectedPoems,1989.
Ralegh(orRaleigh),(Sir)Walter(15521618)
Englishpoet,prosewriter,manofwar,andadventurer,wasborninHayesBarton,Devonshire,ayoungersonofacountrygentleman,andspentayearorsoatOriel
College,Oxford,beforefightinginEuropeandIrelandasavolunteertotheProtestantcause.By1580hehadbecomeafavouriteofElizabethI,inwhosehonourhe
composedseveralpoems(addressedto'Cynthia'),andonwhosebehalfheharriedtheSpaniardsanddiscoveredandcolonizedVirginia.Hewasknightedonhis
return.Hisplain,racyaccountofthenavalactioninwhichtheRevengewentdown(TENNYSONbasedhisballad'TheRevenge'onit)waspublishedanonymouslyin
1591.Thenextyearhefelloutoffavourbecauseofhisaffairwithamaidofhonour,whomhelatermarried(theirfirstsexualencounterisentertaininglydescribedby
AUBREY).HisreputationrevivedafterhisexplorationofGuiana,ofwhichhepublishedin1596abasicallyaccuratedescription.Accusedin1603ofconspiracyagainst
JamesI(JamesVIofScotland),hewassentencedtodeathbutwasinsteadimprisonedforlifeintheTowerofLondon,wherehewroteTheHistoryoftheWorld
(1614),awellwrittenandwellarrangedaccountofbiblical,Greek,andRomanhistorywhichbreaksoffattheendoftheThirdMacedonianWarin168BC.Hewas
releasedin1616tofindagoldmineinGuiana.Theexpeditionwasadisaster,andonhisreturntheoriginalsentenceofbeheadingwascarriedout,whichheawaited
calmly,writingverses.Therewasnoauthenticatededitionofhispoetryuntilthateditedin1875byJohnHannah(181888),ArchdeaconofLewes.SeeSelected
Writings,ed.GeraldHammond,newedn1986StephenCoote,APlayofPassion:theLifeofSirWalterRalegh,newedn1994WaiterOakeshott,TheQueen
andthePoet,1960.
Ramanujan,A(ttipat)K(rishnaswami)(192993)
Indianpoet,wasborninMysoreandeducatedatD.Bhanumaiah'sHighSchoolandMaharaja'sCollege,becomingPhDinlinguisticsattheUniversityofIndiana,
USA,in1963.HetaughtEnglishliteratureatseveralIndianuniversitiesbetween1950and1958.In1962hebecameamemberoftheteachingstaffofChicago
University,wherehewasappointedprofessorofDravidianstudiesandlinguisticsin1972.Hisfirstbookofverse,TheStriders(1966),wasaPoetrySociety
recommendation.Heexplainedthat'Englishandmydisciplines(linguistics,anthropology)givememy''outer"forms...andmyfirstthirtyyearsinIndia....my
personalandprofessionalpreoccupationswithKannadaandTamil,theclassicsandfolkloregivememysubstance'.Healsopublishedvolumesofverse,andanovel,
inKannada.SeeTheCollectedPoemsofA.K.Ramanujan,1995.
Ramsay,Allan(1684/51758)
Scottishpoet,dramatist,andanthologist,wasborninLeadhills,Lanarkshire,thesonofafactorwhodiedshortlyafterwards.Hismothermarriedalocalfarmer,who
educatedhimattheparishschoolandin1700apprenticedhimtoanEdinburghwigmaker.Ramsaybecameamasterwigmakerandwaselectedacityburgessin
1710.In1724hefinallyabandonedthewigtradeforthebooktrade,andin1725foundedthefirstcirculatinglibraryinBritain.InPoems(1721)heemployeda
varietyofverseforms,includingtheepistleandwhathetermedthe'standardhabbie',asixlinerhymingstanzaendingwithashortpunchline(seeSEMPILL).Hewrote
bothinEnglishandinScots,whichhadceasedtobeapoeticmediumsinceJAMESVI'ScourtmovedtoLondonin1603.HefurtherrevivedinterestinScottishliterature
withTheEverGreen(1724),ananthologyofearlypoetry,andseveralcollectionsofballadsandsongs,TheTeaTableMiscellany(172437).Hisverseplay,The
GentleShepherd(1725),whichhasgoodsongsandexcellentcharacterization,wasthefirstnotableScottishdramaforalmosttwohundredyears.In1736hebuiltin
Carubber'sClosethefirstregulartheatreinEdinburgh.HewasforcedtocloseitalmostimmediatelyintheaftermathoftheLicensingActof1737,ineffectbanning
unauthorizedperformancesoutsideLondonRamsayappealedagainstitunsuccessfullyinverseto

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theCourtofSession.Agenuinepastoralandsatiricalpoet,hecreatedanatmosphereinwhichFERGUSSONcouldwriteinScotsandfromwhichBURNStookhis
inspiration.HissonAllan(171384),theportraitpainter,designedforhisfather'sretirementahouseonCastleHill,Edinburgh,whichthepoet,alarmedattheexpense,
alteredwhileitwasbeingbuilt,givingit,accordingtothejudgeLordMilton(16921766),thelikenessofagoosepie.SeePoemsbyAllanRamsayandRobert
Fergusson,ed.AlexanderMansonKinghornandAlexanderLaw,newedn1985BurnsMartin,AllanRamsay:aStudyofHisLifeandWorks,newedn1973
andinAndrewHook(ed.),TheHistoryofScottishLiteratureVol.2:16601800,newedn1989.
Ransom,JohnCrowe(18881974)
Americanpoetandcritic,wasborninPulaski,Tennessee,thesonofaMethodistministerwhogavehimhisearlyeducation.AftergraduatingfromVanderbilt
Universityin1909,hereadGreatsasaRhodesScholaratChristChurch,Oxford,andreturnedtoVanderbiltin1914asamemberoftheEnglishfaculty.Hewasa
1stlieutenantintheUSArmyFieldArtilleryinFranceinWorldWarI,duringwhichhewrotePoemsAboutGod(1919).BackatVanderbilt,aliterarygrouphad
beenformedlocallywhichcametoinclude,inadditiontohimselfandhiscolleagueDonaldDavidson(18931968),theirstudentsALLENTATEandWARRENItalso
publishedTheFugitive(192225),apoetryjournalreflectingitsmembers'oppositiontoSouthernromanticismandtoindustrialization,whoseothercontributors
includedHARTCRANE,GRAVES,andLauraRiding(190191).ChillsandFever(1924)presagedamarkedchangeinRansom'sattitudetohisownpoetryaselection
fromitandfromPoemsAboutGodwaspublishedbytheWOOLFSinLondonasGraceAfterMeat(1924).AfterTwoGentlemeninBonds(1927),hepublished
onlyahandfulofnewpoems,thoughhecontinuedtorevisehisearlierwork,andtoreissueitasSelectedPoems,the1969editionofwhichwontheNationalBook
Award.Hewasfrom1937to1958CarnegieProfessorofPoetryatKenyonCollege,wherehefoundedin1939,andediteduntil1959,theKenyonReviewasa
voiceoftheNewCriticism.HiscriticalworksincludeTheWorld'sBody(1938),essaysTheNewCriticism(1941)andBeatingtheBushes:SelectedEssays
19411970(1972).SeeThomasD.Young,GentlemaninaDustcoat:aBiographyofJohnCroweRansom,1976.
Ransome,Arthur(18841967)
Britishjournalistandchildren'swriter,wasborninLeeds,theeldestchildofahistoryprofessorwhodied,unnecessarily,afteranaccidentincurredwhilefishingona
familyholiday,whentheboywas13.HewaseducatedatRugbySchoolandstudiedsciencefortwotermsatYorkshireCollege(laterLeedsUniversity)before,at
17,goingtoLondon,wherehescrapedalivingasahackjournalist.Whenhecould,hespentholidayswiththeCoilingwoodfamilyintheLakeDistrict.In1913,to
escapeanunhappymarriageandtheeffectsofbeingsued(albeitunsuccessfully)byLordAlfredDouglas(18701945)forstatementsinacommissionedbookabout
WILDE,hewenttoRussia.HebecameacorrespondentfortheDailyNews,taughthimselfthelanguage,andstudiedthefolklore,whichherecreatedinOldPeter's
RussianTales(1916).HeremainedinRussiauntil1919,becomingfriendlywithleadersoftheRevolution,aboutwhichhewroteinTheCrisisinRussia(1921).He
alsometEvgeniaShelepin(d.1975),whohadbeensecretarytoLeonTrotsky(18791940),andwhomhemarriedin1924afterhisdivorce.Duringthe1920she
wasareporterontheManchesterGuardian,forwhichhewenttoEgyptandChinain192426.Hegavehisothertimetofishing,aboutwhichhewroteRodand
Line(1929),andsailing'Racundra's'FirstCruise(1923)recountsaBaltictripinaketchofhisowndesign.In1928,nowlivingintheLakeDistrict,hetaughtthe
Coilingwoodgrandchildrentosail.TheexperienceinspiredSwallowsandAmazons(1930)anditslonglineofholidayadventures,withtheirsenseofplaceand
attentiontoconstructivedetail.HewasmadeCBEin1953.SeeTheAutobiographyofArthurRansome,ed.RupertHartDavis,newedn1985HughBrogan,The
LifeofArthurRansome,newedn1992PeterHunt,ApproachingArthurRansome,1992(criticalstudy).
Rao,Raja(b.1908)
Indiannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninHassan,Mysore,andeducatedatMadarasaeAliyaSchool,Hyderabad,forayearatAligarhMuslimUniversity,
andthenatNizamCollege,Hyderabad,fromwhichhegraduatedinEnglishin1929.HethenstudiedinFranceatMontpellierUniversityandtheSorbonne.Hespent
manyoftheensuingyearsinFrance(hisfirstwife,whomhemarriedin1931,wasFrench),andsubsequentlydividedhistimebetweenIndia,Europe,andtheUSA,
wherehebecameaparttimeprofessorofphilosophyattheUniversityofTexas,Austin,in1965.InKanthapura(1938),whichFORSTERheldtobethebestIndian
novelwritteninEnglish,hetracestheemergenceofarevoltagainstalocalplantationmanager,describingthevillage,itsinhabitants,andtheirdaytodayactivitiesina
languagewhichreflectstheirspeechandculturalcharacteristics.TheSerpentandtheRope(1960)thetitlereferstothesymbolsofillusionandrealityinIndian
traditionmovesbetweenIndia,France,andBritain,reflectingthroughitsmaincharactershispersonalsituationinthe1930sandalsohisphilosophicalandspiritual
sensitivities,intheexpositionofwhichhedrawsonsev

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eralancientcultures.TheCatandShakespeare:aTaleofIndia(1965),anexplorationofindividualdestiny,andComradeKirillov(1976,butwritteninthe
1940s),inwhichMarxistandHinduphilosophiesarecompared,arenovellas.ThePolicemanandtheRose(1978)includesstoriesfromTheCowoftheBarricades
andOtherStories(1947).
Rattigan,(Sir)Terence(191177)
Britishdramatist,wasborninKensington,London,thesecondsonofadiplomat,FrankRattigan(18781952),whoin1922,whenActingHighCommissionerin
Constantinople,hadtoresignfromtheservicebecauseofhisaffairwithPrincessElisabethofRomania,latelybecomeQueenofGreece.Thetwoboysweretakenby
theirmotherforaholidayinacottagerentedfromadramacritic.Theonlybooksinitwereplays,whichRattiganreadrightthroughandasaresultformedhislife's
ambition.HewonascholarshiptoHarrow,andanothertoTrinityCollege,Oxford.Afterwriting(withafriend,PhilipHeiman)FirstEpisode,aplayaboutOxford
whichwasperformedinLondonin1933,heleftuniversity,withhisfather'sgrudgingconsentandonconditionthatheliveathomefortwoyears.Attheendofthis
time,havingwrittensixplayswithoutanacceptance,hetookajobasascriptwriterwithWarnerBrothers.FrenchWithoutTears,acomedybasedonaFrench
crammerhehadattendedin1921athisfather'sinstigation,wasfinallystagedinNovember1936,afteralastminutechangeofdenouementandadisastrousdress
rehearsal.Itranfor1030performances.In1941,ontheadviceofapsychiatristwhomhehadconsultedabouthiswriter'sblock,hevolunteeredfortheRoyalAir
Force,inwhichhebecameanairgunnerwiththerankofflightlieutenant.FlarePath(1942),aboutthestrainaffectingRAFofficers,waswrittenwhilehewason
activeservice,andwashissecondsuccessfulplay.
AfterthewarhecapitalizedonhiscraftsmanshipandabilitytotreatdramaticsituationspowerfullywithTheWinslowBoy(1946),TheBrowningVersion(1948),
TheDeepBlueSea(1952),andSeparateTables(1954).Amisguidedreferenceto'AuntEdna',personifyinghisintendedaudience,whichheinsertedinthepreface
tohissecondvolumeofcollectedplays(1953),returnedtohaunthim,especiallyinthelightofthereceptionofthenewwaveofavantgardedramatists.Latterly,his
consistenttouchfaltered,butCauseClbre(1977),completedwhilehewasdyingofcancer,wasdescribedbytheSundayTimescriticas'theatricalinthebest
senseoftheword'.Inadditiontofilmscriptsofhisownplays,RattiganwrotethoseforTheWaytotheStars(1945),TheFinalTest(1953),andGoodbyeMr
Chips(1969).HewasmadeCBEin1958andwasknightedin1971.SeePlays,2vols1982,1985GeoffreyWansell,TerenceRattigan,1995(biography)
MichaelDarlowandGillianHodson,TerenceRattigan:theManandHisWork,newedn1983.
Ravenscroft,Edward
seeMOLIRETATE,NAHUM.
Rawlings,MarjorieKinnan(18961953)
Americannovelist,wasborninWashington,andin1907won$2inastorycompetitionintheWashingtonPost.ShewaseducatedatWesternHighSchoolandthe
UniversityofWisconsin,afterwhichshewasapublicistfortheYoungWomen'sChristianAssociationinNewYork.ShemarriedjournalistandyachtsmanCharles
Rawlingsin1919theyweredivorcedin1933.Duringthe1920sshewasastaffwriterontheLouisvilleCourierJournalandRochesterJournal,andwrote
syndicatedverses('SongsofaHousewife').AftersettlingonanorangegroveinCrossCreek,Florida,shehadaseriesofsketchesandastorypublishedinScribner's
Magazinein193031.Thoughshestatedinanaddressin1939,'Idon'tholdanybriefforregionalismandIdon'tholdwiththeregionalnovelassuch',itwasasa
novelistoftheFloridabackwoodswhereshelivedthatshebeganhercareerwithSouthMoonUnder(1933)andhadhergreatestsuccess,withTheYearling
(1938),aboutaboy,thefawnherears,andthebetrayalwroughtbymanandnature,whichwonthePulitzerPrize.In1941shemarriedNortonBaskin,ahotelowner,
whooncerepliedtoavisitorwhohadexclaimedatseeing'thefinehandofMarjorieKinnanRawlings'inthedecor:'YoudonotseeMrsRawlings'finehandinthis
place.Norwillyouseemybigfootinhernextbook.Shewrites.Irunahotel.'Theyears194347werelargelyspentdefendingasuitforlibelbroughtbyafriendwho
claimedshehadsuffered'greatpainandhumiliation'frompassagesinCrossCreek(1942),atopographicalautobiography.ThecasefinallywentagainstRawlingson
appealtotheFloridaSupremeCourt,whichorderedhertopaydamagesof$1.
Read,(Sir)Herbert(18931968)
Britishcriticandpoet,wasborninKirbymoorside,Yorkshire,theeldestsonofafarmer,afterwhosedeathinaridingaccidenttheboywassentattheageofnineto
theCrossleyandPorterEndowedSchoolfororphansinHalifax.Heleftat16toworkasasavingsbankclerk,butpersuadedanuncletoadvanceasmalllegacy,on
whichhewenttoLeedsUniversity.AsanofficerintheGreenHowards,hewonboththeDistinguishedServiceOrderandtheMilitaryCrossinWorldWarI,during
andafterwhichhewroteanumberofwarpoemsTheEndofaWar,atrioofpoemsaboutanappallingincidentinFrance,appearedin1933.Afterabriefspellin
theTreasury,heworkedatthe

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VictoriaandAlbertMuseum,andwasthenProfessorofFineArtatEdinburgnUniversity193133.HewasEditoroftheBurlingtonMagazinefrom1933to1939,
duringwhichtimehealsopublishedsomeformativeworksofartcriticism,includingArtandSociety(1937).HewasacofounderoftheInstituteofContemporary
Artsin1947.Thoughhechampionednoveltyinart,hisliterarycriticismcentredontheRomanticsseeCollectedEssaysinLiteraryCriticism(1938).Hewrote
onenovel,TheGreenChild(1935),anallegoricalfantasyofmoderntimes.Likeitschiefprotagonist,heretiredtoruralYorkshirein1950,aneventcelebratedinthe
titlepoemofMoon'sFarmandPoemsMostlyElegaic(1955).Whilehewishedtoberegardedprimarilyasapoet,itisasachampionofthevisualartsthatheis
remembered.TREECEcommentsinHerbertRead:anIntroductiontoHisWorkbyVariousHands(1944):'TheultimateattractionofRead'swork,andofhis
character...liesintheenigma,paradox,andperfectlyweddedopposites.'Hewasknightedin1953.ThenovelistPiersPaulRead(b.1941)ishisson.See
CollectedPoems,newedn1992CollectedEssays,ed.PiersPaulRead,1992TheInnocentEye,newedn1996(earlyautobiography)TheContrary
Experience:Autobigraphies,newedn,forewordbyGrahamGreene,1973JamesKing,TheLastModern:aLifeofHerbertRead,1990.
Reade,Charles(181484)
Britishnovelistanddramatist,wasbornatIpsdenHouse,Oxfordshire,theyoungestof11childrenofacountrygentleman,andwaseducatedprivatelyandat
MagdalenCollege,Oxford,where,inspiteofonlyathirdclassdegreeinGreats,hewaselectedtoafellowshipandsubsequentlybecameVicePresident.Hewas
calledtotheBarin1853,butinsteadchosetowrite.TheTheatresAct(1843)pavedthewayfortheopeningofmanynewtheatres(subjectonlytotheirobtaininga
licence)andforthestagingoforiginalplaysasaresultthestandardmelodramacouldnowtakeonamoreliteraryaspect.Hismostsuccessfulplaywasthecomedy,
MasksandFaces(1852),writtenwithTomTaylor(181780),whichhethenturnedintoanovel,PegWoffington(1853),aromanticizedstudyoftheIrishactress
(c.171860)whichpresentsherasmoremoralthansheappearstohavebeen.SomeoftheresearchhehadputintoGold(1853)wasutilizedinthenovel,'ItIs
NeverTooLatetoMend'(1856),exposingprisonconditionsandthetreatmentofcriminals,fromwhichhemadeanotherplayin1865.Furthercrusadingnovels
wereHardCash(1863),revealingtheiniquitiesofprivatelunaticasylums,andPutYourselfinHisPlace(1870),ondubioustradesunionpractices.Hispassionfor
researchledalsotothenovelforwhichheisuniversallyremembered,TheCloisterandtheHearth(1861),anextraordinarypanoramaofmedievalEuropeanlifeand
customs,basedonastudybyERASMUSandexpandedfromhisownshortstory,'AGoodFight',whichappearedinthejournalOnceaWeekin1859.Henever
married,buthefatheredanillegitimateson,whomhemadehisheir.HelivedwiththeactressLauraSeymourfrom1855untilherdeathin1879.SeePlays,ed.
MichaelHammett,1986.
Reaney,James(b.1926)
Canadianpoetanddramatist,wasborninSouthEasthope,Ontario,andeducatedattheCentralCollegiateVocationalInstitute,Stratford,andUniversityCollege,
Toronto,afterwhichhetaughtEnglishattheUniversityofManitoba,returningtoTorontotowriteaPhDthesisontheinfluenceofSPENSERonYEATS.Hemarriedthe
poetColleenThibaudeau(b.1925)in1951.In1960hebecameaprofessorofEnglishatMiddlesexCollege,UniversityofWesternOntario,wherehefoundedthe
artandliterary'littlemagazine',Alphabet,whichheedited(andoftenhimselfprinted)forthewholeofitsexistence(196071).TheRedHeart(1949),acollectionof
lyricsinwhichachildfigure/poetseekstocometotermswithprovincialsociety,andASuitofNettles(1958),asuburbanecloguewhosestructureisbasedon
Spenser'sTheShepheardesCalender,eachwontheGovernorGeneral'sAwardsodidhisthirdvolumeofverse,TwelveLetterstoaSmallTown(1962),inthe
sameyearashisTheKilldeerandOtherPlays(1962)wonitfordrama.Inthatandafurthercollectionofplays,MasksofChildhood,ed.BrianParker(1972),the
imageofchildhoodfeaturesasasymbolofinnocence.Hismostambitiousdramaticachievement,involvingavarietyofstagetechniquesandforms,isthesequence
basedonthemassacreofanimmigrantIrishfamilyinOntarioin1880:SticksandStones(produced1973),TheStNicholasHotel(1974),andHandcuffs(1975),
publishedasTheDonnellys:aTrilogy(1983).SeeSelectedShorterPoems,1975,andSelectedLongerPoems,1976,ed.GermaineWarkentinRichardStingle,
JamesReaneyandHisWorks,1994.
Redgrove,Peter(b.1932)
Britishpoetandnovelist,wasborninKingston,Surrey,andeducatedatTauntonSchoolandQueen'sCollege,Cambridge,wherehereadscience,afterwhichhe
workedasascientificjournalistandeditor.HewasafoundermemberoftheGroup(seeLUCIESMITH),andpublishedhisfirstvolumeofverse,TheCollectorand
OtherPoems,in1960,sincewhenhehasregularlybroughtoutnewcollections.AfterbeingGregoryFellowinPoetryatLeedsUniversity196365,hewasfrom
1966to1983PoetinResidenceatFalmouthSchoolofArtinCornwall.Thelocalterrainappearsasabackgroundinmanyofhispoems,inwhichloveandscience
oftenfeature.Fromthestarthisworkwasparticularlyconcerned

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withthecontinuumbetweentheimaginationwhendreamingandwhenawake,andbetweentherealandsurrealworlds.HisnovelsincludeIntheCountryoftheSkin
(1972),whichwontheGuardianawardforfiction,andTheBeekeepers(1980).Hehasalsowrittenseveralbookswithhiswife,thepoetandnovelistPenelope
Shuttle(b.1947),includinganoveloftheoccult,TheTerrorsofDrTreviles(1974),astudyofattitudesandthecreativeimpulse,TheWiseWound:Menstruation
andEverywoman(1978),andAlchemyforWomen:PersonalTransformationthroughDreamsandtheFemaleCycle(1995)herowncollectionsinclude
BuildingaCityforJamie(1996),whichrecordsthecomingofmiddleageandthegrowingupoftheirdaughter.RedgrovewasawardedtheQueen'sGoldMedalfor
Poetryin1996.SeeTheMoonDisposes:Poems19541987,newedn1989BookofWonders:theBestofPeterRedgrove'sPoetry,ed.JeremyRobinson,
1996TheCyclopeanMistress:SelectedShortFiction,1993(prosepoems)SexMagicPoetryCornwall:aFloodofPoems,ed.JeremyRobinson,2ndrev.
edn1995AssemblingaGhost,1996(subsequentcollection).
Reeve,Clara(17291807)
Britishnovelist,wasborninIpswich,theeldestofeightchildrenoftheperpetualCurateofStNicholas,who,sheclaimed,taughtherallsheknew.Onhisdeathin
1755,shemovedwithhermotherandtwosisterstoColchester,whereshebeganherliterarycareerwithOriginalPoemsonSeveralOccasions(1769).She
translatedfromLatinthepoliticalromance,ArgenisbyJohnBarclay(15821621),whichwaspublishedasThePhoenix(1772).In1777shehadTheChampionof
Virtue:aGothicStory,'bytheEditorofthePHOENIX',privatelyprintedbyalocalprinter.AftersomerevisionsundertakenatthesuggestionofherfriendMartha
Bridgen,seconddaughterofSAMUELRICHARDSON,shesoldthecopyrightinwhatwasnowcalledTheOldEnglishBarontoaLondonbooksellerfor10.Itwas
publishedunderhernamein1778.'TheliteraryoffspringofTheCastleofOtranto,writtenuponthesameplan',assheadmitsinthepreface,differedfromthatbook
inthatitwasconcernedlesswithsupernaturalviolencethanwiththe'mannersoftruelife'andwiththeemotionsofthecharactersHORACEWALPOLE,predictably,
commentedinaletter(1778),'ItissoprobablethatanytrialformurderattheOldBaileywouldmakeamoreinterestingstory.'OnlyinTheExiles:or,TheMemoirs
oftheCountdeCronstadt(1788)didsheagaingenerateanyromanticexcitement.Shewrotethreemoralizingcontemporarynovels,ahistoricalstory,and'Castle
Connor',themanuscriptofwhichwaslostintransitontheIpswichtoLondoncoach.TheProgressofRomanceThroughTimes,CountriesandManners(1785)is
atreatise,intheformofadialogue,ontheEnglishnovelandancientromance.ShediedinIpswich,unmarried.SeeTheOldEnglishBaron,ed.JamesTrainer,1967.
Reid,Forrest(18751947)
Irishnovelist,wasborninBelfast,thesonofabusinessmanagerwhohadpreviouslybeenabankruptshipowner,andwaseducatedattheRoyalAcademical
Institution.Hewrotehisfirstnovel,TheKingdomofTwilight(1904),whileanapprenticewithaBelfastteaimporter.In1905hereceivedalegacy,withwhichhe
tookhimselftoChrist'sCollege,Cambridge,shortlyafterthepublicationofhissecondbook,TheGardenGod(1905).Likemostofhisothernovelsastudyof
adolescenceandmalefriendships,ithasasceneinwhichtheheroencourageshisfriendtoposenakedontherocksduringaswimmingexpedition.Reid,inhis
innocence,notonlysentacopytoHENRYJAMES,butdedicatedthebooktohim.Jameswasappalled.FORSTERreadhisthird,TheBracknels(1911rev.edn,asDenis
Bracknel,1947),aboutaBelfastladmisunderstoodbyhisfamily,andwroteanappreciativeletter.Thiswasthestartofalifelongfriendship,eventhoughReidwas
shockedbypartsofMaurice,claimingnottohaverealizedthatitsauthorwashomosexual.ReidrewroteFollowingDarkness(1912)asPeterWaring(1937),in
whichformitpresentsabalancedpictureofconfusedadolescenceinthe1890s.Inhistrilogy,UncleStephen(1931),TheRetreat(1936),andYoungTom(1944),
hetakeshischiefprotagonistgraduallybacktoadolescenceandchildhood.ReidlivedallhislifeinBelfast,unmarried,butpursuedseveralinterests,especiallycroquet,
whichheoftenplayedinEnglandatchampionshiplevel.HealsowrotesignificantcriticalworksonYEATS(1915)andDELAMARE(1929),andtwomemorable
autobiographicalstudies,Apostate(1926)andPrivateRoad(1940).SeeBrianTaylor,TheGreenAvenue:theLifeandWritingsofForrestReid18751947,
1980.
Reid,V(ictor)S(tafford)(191387)
Jamaicannovelist,wasborn,waseducated,andlivedinJamaica,havingbeenajournalistandnewspaperforeigncorrespondent,andrunapublishingandprinting
company.Hisfirstnovel,NewDay(1949),issignificantintheimmediatepostwardevelopmentofWestIndianliteratureinfollowingthegrowthofJamaican
nationalismfromtheMorantBayRebellionof1865totheestablishmentofthenewconstitutionin1944.Further,theserecollectionsofan87yearold,middleclass,
whitefarmerofAfroEuropeanancestrymakeitthefirstWestIndiannovelinwhichthenarrationisinJamaicandialect.Reidalsobrokenewgroundinhisonlyother
adultnovel,TheLeopard(1958),inwhichhepursuedhisthemeofAfroCaribbeanrelationshipsthroughastudyofcolonialtension

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duringtheMauMaurebellioninKenya.Healsowrotefictionforchildren.
Remarque,ErichMaria(18981970)
Germannovelist,wasborninOsnabruckofFrenchCatholicdescent,andwenttothelocalgymnasium.Draftedintothearmyat18,hewaswoundedfivetimesduring
thecampaigninWorldWarIinwhichawholegenerationofhiscountrymenwasdestroyed,whilethenewspapersrecorded'ImWestennichtsNeues'[Nonewsin
thewest].Afterthewarhetriedbeingateacher,stonecutter,andtestdriver,beforebecomingajournalist.ImWestennichtsNeues(1929asAllQuietonthe
WesternFronttr.A.WWheen,1929tr.BrianMurdoch,1995)wasbyanextraordinarycoincidencepublishedinthesamemonththatSHERRIFF'SJourney'sEndhad
itsWestEndpremiereinLondon.Brutallyrealistic,writteninthefirstperson,butintendedas'neitheranaccusationnoraconfession',thoughitaskspertinentquestions
ofitsreaders,itsold2millioncopiesworldwidein18months.In1932heleftGermanyforSwitzerlandindisillusionmentattheNaziregime,whichbannedthe
bookin1933as'defeatist'anddeprivedhimofhiscitizenship.In1939hewenttotheUSA,ofwhichhebecameacitizenin1947.Hepublishedseveralpopular
novels,ofwhichTheThreeComrades,tr.Wheen(1937)wasmadeintoafilm(1938)withscreenplaybyF.S.FITZGERALD.SeeChristineR.BarkerandR.WLast,
ErichMariaRemarque,1979(criticalstudy).
Rendell,Ruth(b.1920)
neGrasemann,Britishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninLondon.BothherparentswereteachershermotherwasSwedishbutwasbroughtupin
Denmark.ShewaseducatedatLoughtonHighSchool.Sheworkedonanewspaperfrom1948to1952.Sheandherjournalisthusband,DonaldRendell,marriedin
1950,divorcedin1975,andremarriedtwoyearslater.Theyliveina16thcenturyhouseinSuffolkwhosewhereaboutsareacloselyguardedsecret.Therearethree
distinctstrandstohernovelwriting.The14detectivestories(inaninterviewin1990sheclaimedthatthiswasthedefinitivecanon)involvingInspectorWexfordbegan
withFromDoonwithDeath(1964)andarealsodistinctivefortheattentiongiventotheprivatelivesanddomestictraumasofWexfordandhisfaithfulassociate,
Burdenshesubsequentlyaddeda15th,KissingtheGunner'sDaughter(1992),anda16th,Simisola(1994).Herindividualthrillersusuallyhavemultilayered
plotsandurbansettings,anddependonsomecriminalmaladjustmentforthedevelopmentofthemainsituation.BeginningwithADarkAdaptedEye(1986),shehas
alsowritten,asBarbaraVine,novelswhich,whilemainlyconcernedinsomewaywithcrime,delvedeeperintopsychologyandmotivationinTheBrimstone
Wedding(1996)sheinterweavesthestoriesoftwoverydifferentwomen,eachwithasecret.TheRendell/VinedistinctionbecamefinallyblurredwithTheKeysto
theStreet(1996),anexplorationofloveandlosstowhichmurdersandmysteryprovidethebackground,publishedunderherrealname.CollectedStoriesappeared
in1988subsequentcollectionshaveincludedTheCopperPeacockandOtherStories(1991)andBloodlines:LongandShortStories(1995).Shewasmade
CBEin1996.
Rhys,Jean,pseudonymofEllaGwendolenReesWilliams(18901979)
Britishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasbornatRoseau,Dominica,thedaughterofaWelshdoctorandawhiteDominican,andwaseducatedthereattheconvent
schooluntilshewas16.ShethenspentonetermatthePerseSchool,Cambridge,andoneatTree'sSchoolofDramaticArt(laterRADA),afterwhichshebecamea
chorusgirlandfoundthefirstofaseriesofmiddleagedlovers.ShemarriedaDutchwriterin1919,andlivedwithhiminParisuntilhewasimprisoned.Someofher
'sketches'ofPariswerepublishedbyFORDMADOXFORDinthetransatlanticreviewin1924.Theyhadanaffair,andhewroteanenthusiasticforewordtoTheLeft
BankandOtherStories(1927).Thefournovelsshethenwrote,Postures(1928),AfterLeavingMrMackenzie(1931),VoyageintheDark(1934),andGood
Morning,Midnight(1939),closelyreflectherownsomewhatalarmingexperiencesbetween1914and1937.Theirsparestyle,whichwassodistinctiveforthetime,
mayhavecontributedtotheobscurityintowhichtheyandtheirauthornowdrifted.Divorcedin1932,shemarriedanEnglishman,whodiedin1945.In1947she
marriedMaxHamer(d.1964),afterwhoseimprisonmentforembezzlementtheimpoverishedcouplewerefoundinaderelictcottageinDevon.Shewastracedthere
atthetimeoftheBBCbroadcastofGoodMorning,Midnightin1957,afterseveralreportsofherdeath.
WideSargassoSea(1966)isonly55,000wordslong,butsuchwasthecarewithwhichshepareditdown,andsuchthepainandlabourthatitcost,thatshehad
onlybeenpreventedfromdestroyingthemanuscriptbythelocalvicar,whopliedherwithwhiskyandencouragementuntilitwasfinished.Itisthestoryofthemad
CreolewifeofCHARLOTTEBRONT'SMrRochesterinJaneEyre,fromherchildhoodinJamaicatothemomentoftruthoftheconflagrationatThornfieldHall.Stark,but
intenselyvivid,itisasplendidworkofcreativeimagination,andalsoamajorcontributiontoWestIndianliterature.JeanRhyswasmadeCBEin1978.SeeThe
CollectedShortStories,1990Letters19311966,ed.FrancisWyndhamandDianaMelly,newedn1995Smile,Please:anUnfinishedAutobiography,ed.
DianaAthill,newedn1990Car

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oleAngier,JeanRhys,newedn1992(biography)CherylAlexanderMalcolmandDavidMalcolm,JeanRhys,1996(biographical/criticalstudy)CoralAnn
Howells,JeanRhys,1991(criticalstudy).
Rich,Adrienne(b.1929)
Americanpoetandcritic,wasborninBaltimore,'Splitattheroot,neitherGentilenorJew,/Yankeenorrebel'('ReadingsofHistory',1960).Shewasthedaughterof
aJewishdoctorandofaSouthernProtestantmusician,whotaughtherathomeuntilshewasnine.ShethenwenttoRolandParkCountrySchoolandRadcliffe
College,graduatingintheyearinwhichAChangeofWorld(1951),withaprefacebyAUDEN,waspublishedintheYaleSeriesofYoungerPoets.In1953she
marriedAlfredConrad,aJewishlecturerineconomics,andquicklyhadthreesons,whowerebroughtupJewish.InSnapshotsofaDaughterinLaw:Poems1954
1962(1963)shebegantoexpressthesocial,political,andpersonalconcernstowhichmuchofhercreativeenergyhassincebeendevoted.Sheandherhusband
separatedin1966:hediedin1970.ThetitleofTheWilltoChange:Poems19681970(1971)reflectedherattitudetoactiveinvolvementintheprocessofpolitical
andsocialchange.Inapaperin1976sheexplained:'Itisthelesbianinuswhodrivesustofeelimaginatively,renderinlanguage,grasp,thefullconnectionbetween
womanandwoman...[and]whoiscreative,forthedutifuldaughterofthefathersisonlyahack.'TwentyOneLovePoems(1976)isasequenceoflesbianlyrics.
ShehastaughtEnglishatseveraluniversities,beingappointedatStanfordin1986.CollectedpoetryisinTheFactofaDoorframe:PoemsSelectedandNew
19501984(1984)andCollectedEarlyPoems19501970(1993)seealsoAnAtlasoftheDifficultWorld:Poems19881991(1992)andDarkFieldsofthe
Republic:Poems19911995(1995)essaysareinOnLies,Secrets,andSilence:SelectedProse19661978(1979),Blood,Bread,andPoetry:SelectedProse
19791985(1986),andWhatisFoundThere:NotebooksonPoetryandPolitics(1995).SeeSelectedPoems19501995,1996.
Richards,Frank,pseudonymofCharlesHamilton(18761961)
Britishchildren'swriter,wasborninEaling,Middlesex,thesixthofeightchildrenofajournalistwhodiedwhentheboywasseven.Hewaseducatedatvariouschurch
andprivateschoolsand,accordingtohisownaccount,soldhisfirststorywhenhewas17.Hebegantoconcentrateonwritingforboys'papers,especiallytheGem
(founded1907)andtheMagnet(1908)onthetitlepageoftheissueofMarch1908ofthelatterwasthefirstillustrationofBillyBunteroftheRemove,looking
comparativelyslim.ThestoriesaboutGreyfriarsSchool(writtenundertheFrankRichardsnamewhichHamiltoninduecourseassumedashisown)proliferated,and
Buntergraduallyputonmoreweight,becomingtheFatOwl,inwhichform,withtheotherfourchiefcharactersandtheiracademicestablishment,heremained
fossilized.ThestoriesreappearedafterWorldWarIIinhardcovers,andBunterandCo.tookonafurtherleaseoflifethroughtelevision,forwhichRichardswrote
thescripts.ThelastbookofallwasBunter'sLastFling(1965),publishedalongsideJ.S.Butcher,GreyfriarsSchool:aProspectus(1965),acomprehensiveguide
toactivities,curriculum,andbuildings,whichisaskitontherealthing.Thecontinuedpopularityoftheserieswasduetotheveryfamiliarityofthesetting,plots,and
situations,aswellasofthecharacters.Richards,whowassaidinhisheydaytoturnout1millionwordsayear(ononeoccasion18,000wordsinoneday),created
innumerableschools,aboutwhichhewroteundermanynames,includingHildaRichards,authorofstoriesaboutBessieBunteratCliffHouse.Henevermarried.The
AutobiographyofFrankRichards(1952)isdeficientonthesubjectofhisearlyyears.
Richardson,DorothyM(iller)(18731957)
Britishnovelist,wasborninAbingdon,Berkshire,andeducatedatSouthboroughHouse,Putney.Whileherfatherdissipatedhisinheritance(hewentbankruptin
1893),shetaughtinGermany,andwasthenagovernessinEngland.Afterhermother'ssuicidein1895,shebecameaHarleyStreetdentist'sreceptionist,andmixed
inprogressivecircles.Shebeganearningsomemoneyfromjournalismin1908,andfromtranslationin1913.Anindependentandearlyexponentofthestreamof
consciousnesstechniqueinfiction(seealsoMAYSINCLAIR),shebegan,withPointedRoofs(1915),asequenceof12autobiographicalnovels(inwhichWELLS,with
whomshehadanaffairin1907,appearsasHypoWilson),finallypublishedtogetherasPilgrimage(1938).ItwasfurtherextendedbyMarchMoonlightand
reissuedposthumouslyin196667.VIRGINIAWOOLF,whowrotetoafriendthatshehadbeen'bribedbyverylargesumsofmoneytodowhatofallthingsIhavecome
todetestwritereviewsfortheNation[andAthenaeum]',saidinherreviewofRevolvingLights(1923)thatitsauthorhad'developedandappliedtoherown
uses,asentencewhichwemightcallthesentenceofthefemininegender'.In1917Richardsonmarriedanartist,AlanOdle,15yearsyoungerthanshewashediedof
tuberculosisin1948.SeeGloriaG.Fromm,DorothyRichardson:aBiography,newedn1994JohnRosenberg,DorothyRichardson,theGeniusTheyForgot:a
CriticalBiography,1973JeanRadford,DorothyRichardson,1992(criticalstudy)CarolWatts,DorothyRichardson,1995(criticalintroduction).

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Richardson,HenryHandel,pennameofEthelFlorenceLindesayRobertson(18701946)
neRichardson,Australiannovelist,wasborninMelbourne,theeiderdaughterofWalterLindesayRichardson(182579),anIrishdoctorwhoemigratedin1852,
andMaryBailey(183695),whohadbeensentoutfromEnglandtojoinherbrotherwhenshewas14.DrRichardson,havingretiredandtakenhisfamilytravellingin
Europe,wasforcedbythecollapseofhisinvestmentstopractiseagain,inHawthorn,thenChiltern,thenQueenscliffe,wherehedevelopedsignsofmadnessandwas
removedtoaMelbourneasylum.HiswifemanagedtogetajobaspostmistressinupcountryKoroit,whereRichardson,since'Motherhadanunconquerable
prejudiceagainstStateSchools',hadlessonswiththeparson'sdaughtersattherectory,andwhereherfatherspenthislastmonths.MrsRichardsonwaspromotedto
abetterpostinMaldon,andherdaughterboardedforfouryearsatthePresbyterianLadies'College,Melbourne,whereshewas'consideredoddand
unaccountable'.AfteranunhappyspellasamorninggovernessinaprivateschoolinToorak,sheandhersisterleftAustraliawiththeirmotherforatrip'home'.She
neverreturned,'saveforaflyingsixweeks'visit[in1912],totestmymemories'.
In1887hermothertookhertoLeipzigtostudymusic,atwhichshehadshownsomeskill.Heresherealizedthatshedidnothavethetalenttobecomeaconcert
pianist,butdiscoveredamtierinherdesiretocontributetoEuropeanliterature.Shealsofoundahusband,JohnG.Robertson(d.1933),laterProfessorofGermanic
StudiesatLondonUniversity,whomshemarriedin1895.Forherfirstnovel,MauriceGuest(1908),onwhichshehadworkedsince1897,shechoseamalepen
name,asGEORGEELIOThaddone.Heavyandbrooding,itusestheheadyatmosphereoftheLeipzigConservatoriumasthemilieuforastudyofsexualinfatuationand
thenatureofgenius.TheGettingofWisdom(1910)'containedaveryfairaccountofmydoingsatschool'.Lightandintendedtoamuse,andwiththeintensityofher
ownrelationshipwithanoldergirltoneddown,thisclassicchild'seyeviewsooffendedtheschoolthatwhenshetriedtorevisititduringherbrieftriptwoyearslater,
shewasrefusedadmittance.InAustraliaFelix(1917),TheWayHome(1925),andUltimaThule(1929),reissuedasTheFortunesofRichardMahony(1930),
sheusedaspectsofherfather'slifetoexplorethetensionsinamarriageandemployedtherealitiesandvagariesofAustralianlifeinthedecadesfollowing1850to
illustratethepsychologicalpullsexercisedbytheoldandthenewcountries.Thefirsttwobooksofthetrilogysoldsobadlythattheirpublisher,Heinemann,rejected
thethird,whichwaspublishedatherhusband'sexpense.ItwastakenupbyHeinemannafterarapturousreception,anditsauthorwasnominatedfortheNobelPrize
forLiteraturein1932.ShepublishedTheEndofaChildhoodandOtherStories(1934),andjustonemorenovel,TheYoungCosima(1939),ahistoricalstudyof
musicalgeniuswhichlacksthedepthwithwhichshewasabletotreatthemesfromherownexperience.FromthetimethecouplemovedfromStrasbourgtoLondon
in1903,Richardsonlivedmuchinherownworld,visitedbyacquaintances,andattendeddevotedlyfirstbyherhusband,andthen,inSussex,byhersecretary
companion,OlgaRoncoroni.SeeTheEndofaChildhood:theCompleteStoriesofHenryHandelRichardson,ed.CarolFranklin,1992MyselfWhenYoung,
1948DorothyGreen,HenryHandelRichardsonandHerFiction,1986(rev.ednofUlyssesBound,1973).
Richardson,John(17961852)
Canadiannovelist,wasborninQueenston,UpperCanada,ofUnitedEmpireLoyalistandIndiandescent.HefoughtfortheBritishintheWarof1812,andservedin
theBritishArmyintheWestIndiesfrom1816to1818,afterwhichhesettledinLondon.ForhisepicpoemTecumseh:or,TheWarrioroftheWestinFour
CantoswithNotes(1828),heemployedthemockheroicmetricalformofBYRON'SDonJuan,andhadafailure.Hisnovel,cart:or,TheSalonsofParis(1829),
reflectshisownrakishexperiencesinFrance.Wacousta:or,TheProphecy(1832),thefirstCanadiannovelbyanativeCanadian,isanextraordinary,Gothicstyle
romanceofrevengesetinthe1760sthereisamodernedition,ed.CarlKlinck(1967),andadramatizationbyREANEY(1979).Afterservingasamajoronthe
royalistsidein1835intheSpanishcivilwar,hereturnedtoCanadaasacorrespondentforTheTimes,fromwhichhewasremovedforhiscriticalattitudetothe
administrationofthecountry.HewroteasequeltoWacousta,TheCanadianBrothers:or,TheProphecyFulfilled(1840reissuedinUSA,withdiplomatic
excisions,asMatildaMontgomerie,1851).HewaspublisherofTheNewEra:or,TheCanadianChronicle,Brockville.AfteritsfailureheestablishedThe
CanadianLoyalistandSpiritof1812,Kingston,whichhadanequallytruncatedexistence,asdidhisappointmentasasuperintendentofpoliceontheWelland
Canalin1845.In1849hewenttoNewYork,wherehediedinextremepoverty.Hewroteothernovelsofasensationalkind,andaccountsofhisexperiencesin
SpainandCanadasetagainsttheeventsofthetime.SeeDavidBeasley,TheCanadianDonQuixote:theLifeandWorksofMajorRichardson,Canada'sFirst
Novelist,1977DennisDuffy,JohnRichardsonandHisWorks,1983.
Richardson,Samuel(16891761)
Britishnovelistandprinter,wasborninDerbyshire,oneofninechildrenofacraftsman

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carpenter.ThoughintendedforuniversityandtheChurch,hedoesnotappeartohavehadaparticularlygoodeducation(hisunderstandingofLatinandGreekwas
poor),thoughhewasearlyoncommissionedindependentlybythreelocalyoungladiestowritelovelettersontheirbehalf.Whenfamilyfinancialdifficultiesthreatened,
hewasapprenticedat17toaLondonprinter,andin1719openedhisownbusiness,firstinFleetStreetandtheninSalisburyCourt,wherehebecametheofficial
printeroftheJournalsoftheHouseofCommons.In1739twobooksellersinvitedhimtowriteahandbookofmodelletterscoveringvarioussituations,tohelp
'countryreaders'tocomposetheirown.LettersWrittentoandforParticularFriendsontheMostImportantOccasionsdulyappearedin1741,butinthe
meantimetheinitialideahadfurtherblossomedintoafullblownnovel.
Pamela:orVirtueRewarded(1740,dated1741)waswrittenlargelyathiscountryhouse,NorthEndinHammersmith,inthethreemonthsNovember1739to
January1740.Itwassignificantinthatits15yearoldheroine,whosuccessfullydefendshervirginitythroughout,isaservinggirl.Thedeviceofletterswrittenshortly
aftertheeventstheydescribegivesanimmediacytoeachepisodeandheightensthesuspense,asdoestheenormousdetailwithwhichthesituationsareembellished.
Thebook'ssuccess,whichcoincidedwiththebeginningsofthecirculatinglibraries,canbejudgedfromthefactthatsomeoneimmediatelybroughtoutaspurious
PamelainHighLife,whichinducedRichardsontoaddtwofurthervolumes(1741),constitutingalessimpressivecontinuation.ItalsoinspiredHENRYFIELDINGtoenter
thefieldofcomicfiction.Clarissa(174748)hasasimilarthemebutatragicend,andismoresuccessfulasanovelinthattherearefourcorrespondents,who
supplementeachother'saccountsandextendthebook'srange.TheHistoryofSirCharlesGrandison(1754)hasamorecomplexbutequallysensationallove
interestwith,onthisoccasion,ahero,whovacillatesmosthonourablybetweentheattractiveHarrietByronandanItalianinamorataofhispast.AUSTENwasso
impressedthatshedramatizedepisodesfromit,probablyforperformancebyherfamily.
Richardsonwasamoralistwhospecializedindividedmindsandinfemalesinpsychologicalaswellassometimesphysicaldistress.In1755hepublishedACollection
oftheMoralandInstructiveSentiments...ContainedintheHistoriesofPamela,Clarissa,andSirCharlesGrandison.Hewasaconsiderableartistinboth
hiscrafts.In1754hewaselectedMasteroftheStationers'Company,andin1760heboughtahalfshareinthebusinessoflawprintertotheKing.Hediedof
apoplexy.Hewasmarriedtwice,eachwifebearinghimsixchildren,ofwhomonlyfourdaughterssurvivedhim.SeeT.C.DuncanEavesandBenD.Kimpel,Samuel
Richardson:aBiography,1971MarkKinkeadWeekes,SamuelRichardson:DramaticNovelist,1973JocelynHarris,SamuelRichardson,1987(critical
study).
Richler,Mordecai(b.1931)
Canadiannovelist,wasbornintheStUrbainStreetdistrictofMontrealseeTheStreet:Stories(1969)thesonofaJewishjunkdealer.HewenttoBaronByng
HighSchool,whichherenamedFletcher'sFieldHighinhisautobiographicalstories('UnderthejurisdictionoftheMontrealProtestantSchoolBoard,[it]hadastudent
bodywhichwasneverthelessalmostahundredpercentJewish').HeleftSirGeorgeWilliamsUniversityaftertwoyears,havingbecome'quitefrightenedthatifIgota
BA,I'dgetanMA,andthenImighttryforaPhD,andthatwouldbetheendofme'.AftertwoyearsinParis,hereturnedtoMontreal,whereheworkedforthe
CanadianBroadcastingCorporation.In1954,havingbeensent100advancebyaBritishpublisherforhisfirstnovel,heleftforEngland.TheAcrobats(1954),'a
mixtureofHemingwayandSartreandalltheotherwritersIhadread',henowrejects.Hisfourth,TheApprenticeshipofDuddyKravitz(1959),hasbecomethe
archetypalstoryoftheJewwhopusheshimselfoutofthemodernghettotomaterialsuccess,byanymeans.Cocksure(1968),abawdysatireonLondonsocietyand
thecommunications'business,wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward,whichalsowentthatyeartohisHuntingTigersUnderGlass:EssaysandReports(1968),and
thentohisnextnovel,StUrbain'sHorseman(1971),inwhichtheJewishexperienceisrealisticallyandsymbolicallyplayedoutthroughtwooverlappinglives.In
1972,havinguseduphisEnglishexperience,hereturnedtoMontreal,madeabriefforaytoHollywood,taughtcreativewritingfortwoyearsatCarletonUniversity,
Ottawa,andwasaselectorfortheAmericanBookoftheMonthClub(197288).SolomonGurskyWasHere(1989),theoutcomeofeightyearsofresearchand
writing,isalabyrinthinefamilysagainwhichCanadianhistoryandtheinnateJewishabilitytostirthingsupareinventivelycombined.Hispoliticalcommitmentis
demonstratedinOhCanada!OhQuebec!:RequiemforaDividedCountry(1992).HeisthecompilerofWritersonWorldWarII:anAnthology(1992).See
ThisYearinJerusalem,newedn1996(autobiographicalstudy).
RiderHaggard,H.
seeHAGGARD.
Riding,Laura
seeCAMERONGRAVESRANSOM.
Rilke,RainerMaria(18751926)
Germanpoet,wasborninPrague,thesonofarailwayofficialwhosemilitarycareerhadbeencutoffbyillness.Hewaseducatedat

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thePiaristSchool,Prague,from1882to1884,whenhismotherwenttolivewithherloverinVienna.HethenattendedthemilitaryacademiesatSanktPoltenand
MahrischWeisskirchenuntil1891,whenhisparentsacceptedthattheregimewasmakinghimill.HewenttotheCommercialAcademyinLinz,afterwhichhestudied
forayeareachattheuniversitiesatPrague,Munich,andBerlin.In1898hebegananaffairwithLouAndreasSalom,whowas36andmarried.HewenttoRussia
withherandherhusbandin1899,andagain,withheralone,in1900,whichwastheinspirationforDasStundenBuch(1905seePoemsfromtheBookofHours,
tr.A.L.Pick,1961),hisfirstsignificantcontributiontoliterature.HemarriedClaraWesthoff,asculptor,in1901:theyhadadaughter,buteffectivelylivedseparate
livesfrom1907.Fascinatedbytheconflict,'IdonotwanttosunderartfromlifeIwantthem,somehoworsomewhere,tobeofonemeaning',hetravelled,and
stayed,inmanypartsofEuropeinhispursuitofaconjunction.HeassociatedwithintellectualssuchasFREUD,TOLSTOY,andtheFrenchsculptor,AugusteRodin(1840
1917),aswhosesecretaryheactedin1905andtangledemotionallywithMagdayonHattingberg('Benvenuta')andBaladineKlossowska('Merline').NewGedichte
(1907asNewPoems,tr.J.B.Leishman,1964tr.StephenCohn,1992)reflectedhisisolationofselfthroughtherepresentationofindividualobjectsasself
sufficient,andtheacceptanceoflifeanddeathaspartofthesamething.HereturnedtriumphantlytothesethemesinDuineserElegien(1923tr.Leishmanand
StephenSpenderasDuinoElegies,rev.edn1948)andDieSonetteanOrpheus(1923asSonnetstoOrpheus,tr.Leishman,1936tr.LeslieNorrisandAlan
Keele,1991)seealsoDuinoElegies,SonnetstoOrpheus,tr.DavidYoung(1978).Hisdeathfromleukaemiawashastenedbyaninfectioncausedbyascratch
fromthethornofarose,oneofhisfavouritesymbols.SeeSelectedPoems,tr.AlbertErnestFlemming,2ndedn1986UncollectedPoems,tr.EdwardSnow,1996
(bilingualedition)LetterstoaYoungPoet,tr.M.D.HerterNorton,newedn1993ofrev.edn1954DonaldPrater,ARingingofGlass:theLifeofRainerMaria
Rilke,newedn1994RalphFreedman,LifeofaPoet:RainerMariaRilke,1996.
Rimbaud,Arthur(185491)
Frenchpoet,wasborninCharleville,thesecondoffourchildrenwhosurvivedofanarmyofficerwhoabandonedhisfamilyin1860.Hehadalreadypublishedpoems
inLatinandFrenchwhenthelocalschoolsuspendeditsoperationsin1870becauseoftheFrancoPrussianWar.Havingthenrunawayfromhomethreetimes,he
wasattheinvitationofVERLAINEpackedofftoPariswithhismother'sblessing,takingwithhim'LeBateauIvre'[TheDrunkenBoat],anextraordinarypoeticvisionin
25quatrainsofrhymingalexandrines.Anintenserelationshipensued,culminating,aftertwotripstoLondon,inBrussels,whereVerlaineshothiminthehandandwas
sentencedtotwoyears'imprisonment.Rimbaudworkedatthe16prosepoemsandversescomprisingUneSaisonenEnfer,whichwasprintedinBrusselsin1873
butneverdistributed,forthoughhismotherhadpaidthedeposithewasunabletomeetthefinalbill.Thatwashislastattemptatpublication,thoughVerlaineedited
Illuminations(1886tr.EnidRhodesPescelwithASeasoninHell,1973),anenigmaticfusionoffreeverseandpoeticprosewhichsomecriticsregardasthefirst
manifestationofSurrealism.In1880,afterseveralyearsofinternationalvagrancy,hearrivedinHarar,Ethiopia,whichwasthebasefromwhichheconductedforthe
restofhislifeacareerofdubiousdealinginarmsandothercommodities.HediedofcancerinMarseilles,wherehisrightleghadbeenamputatedsixmonthsearlier,
afterhehadbeencarriedbylittertoAden,andgonefromtherebyseatoFrance.SeeASeasoninHell:thePsychologicalAutobiographyofArthurRimbaud,tr.
PatriciaRoseberry,newedn1995ASeasoninHellandOtherPoems,tr.NormanCameron,newedn1994Poems,tr.PaulSchmidt,ed.PeterWashington,
1994.
Rive,Richard(193189)
SouthAfricanshortstorywriter,wasborninDistrictSix,CapeTown,thesonofanAmericanseamananda'coloured'SouthAfrican,andwonascholarshiptohigh
school.HegraduatedinEnglishatCapeTownUniversityin1949,andthentaughtEnglishandLatin,initiallyatHewatTrainingCollege.In1962hetouredAfricaand
EuropeonaFairfieldFoundationscholarship.Hisfirstvolumeofshortstoriesofurbanslumlife,AfricanSongs,waspublishedinEastBerlinin1963.Hewrotetwo
novels:Emergency(1964)coversthethreedaysbetweentheSharpevillemassacreandtheimpositionofastateofemergencyBuckinghamPalace:DistrictSix
(1987)exploresthecharactersandattitudesofacommunitydrivenoutoftheirhomestomakea'whitesonly'area.HestudiedatColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,in
196566asaJuniorResearchFellowatMagdalenCollege,Oxford197174,hewroteathesisonSCHREINER,thefirstvolumeofwhoselettersheedited(1988).Inan
interviewin1963hesaidthat'abodyofliteratureisemergingfromSouthAfricawhichisgoingtobeaSouthAfricanliteratureregardlessoftheparticipantsorthe
colouroftheirskins....IamurbanSouthAfrican,andIdonotwishtobeanythingelse.'Hewasoneofthefewblackwritersofhisgenerationtoliveandwritein
SouthAfrica.HewasmurderedinhishomeinDistrictSix,CapeTown.Theperpetratororperpetratorshaveneverbeenbroughttojustice.SeeAd

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vance,Retreat:SelectedShortStories,1990WritingBlack,1981(autobiographicalstudy).
RobbeGrillet,Alain(b.1922)
Frenchnovelist,wasborninBrestof'extremerightwinganarchists',andwaseducatedatlycesthereandinParis,andattheInstitutNationalAgronomique.He
spentsometimeinNurembergundertheGermanforcedlabourschemeduringWorldWarII,afterwhich,havingobtainedhisagrgationd'agronomie,hedid
agriculturalresearchinMorocco,FrenchGuinea,andMartinique.Hebecameafulltimewriterafterbeingsenthomein1951forhealthreasons,andin1955was
madeliteraryadvisertoEditionsdeMinuit,hispublisher.Anearlyexponentofwhatcametobeknownasthenouveauroman,hehasstatedhispositionintheessays
inPourunNouveauRoman(1963tr.BarbaraWrightinSnapshotsandTowardsaNewNovel,1965).HisfirstnoveltobepublishedinEnglishwasLeVoyeur
(1955tr.RichardHowardasTheVoyeur,1958),inwhichatravellingwatchsalesmanonavisittotheislandofhisbirthissurprisedandrelievednottobecharged
withamurderandrapewhichhemay,ormaynot,havecommitted.LaJalousie(1957tr.HowardasJealousy,1959)theFrenchtitleisapuncentresona
husband'sobsessionthathiswifeishavinganaffair.DansleLabyrinthe(1959tr.ChristineBrookeRoseasIntheLabyrinth,1960)isafurtherexplorationof
consciousness,withdistinctechoesofKAFKA.HisbestknownworkisthefilmL'AnneDernireMarienbad(1961),forwhichhewrotethescriptanddialogue,
beforeturningitintoanovel(1961tr.HowardasLastYearatMarienbad,1962).Theseriesofthreenovelstermed'Romanesques'LeMiroirQuiRevient
(1984tr.JoLevyasGhostsintheMirror,1991),Angliqueoul'Enchantment(1988),andLesDerniersJoursdeCorinthe(1994)arepostmodernist
autobiographicalstudies.
Roberts,(Sir)CharlesG(eorge)D(ouglas)(18601943)
Canadianpoet,novelist,andshortstorywriter,wasborninDouglas,NewBrunswick,thesonofanAnglicanminister,andspenthischildhoodinacountryparishby
theTantramarmarshesseehisnostalgicpoem,'TheTantramarRevisited'(1886).HewaseducatedattheCollegiateSchool,Fredericton,andtheUniversityofNew
Brunswick.Hegraduatedin1881,havingalreadypublishedtheinnovativeOrionandOtherPoems(1880),thefirstofnumerouscollectionsspanningsixtyyears.He
isthemostnotableoftheConfederationPoets,allborninthe1860s,whoconstitutethefirstschoolofCanadianverseseealsoCARMAN,LAMPMAN,andD.C.SCOTT.AS
afurthermeasureofhisinfluence,thetitlepoemofTheIcebergandOtherPoems(1934)marksoneoftheearliesteffectiveusesoffreeverseinCanadianpoetry.
AfterabriefspellasEditoroftheWeek,Toronto,hetaughtEnglish,French,andeconomicsatKing'sCollege,Windsor,from1885to1895.Earth'sEnigmas
(1896)ishisfirstincursionintoafieldofmodernfictionofwhich,withSETON,hewasaninnovator,andwhichincludes,inTheHeartoftheAncientWood(1900),
oneofseveraldistinctiveexpressionsofthedifficultartoffabulizingthehumanwildanimalrelationshipwithoutsentiment.In1897helefthiswifeandfamilytobea
freelancewriterandeditorinNewYork,fromwhichhewenttoEnglandin1908.HeenlistedasaprivateintheBritishArmyin1914,transferringtotheCanadian
Army,inwhichhebecameamajor.HewassubsequentlyattachedtotheCanadianWarRecordsOfficeinLondon.HereturnedtoTorontoin1925,andwas
knightedin1935forhisservicestoCanadianliterature.TheodoreGoodridgeRoberts(18771953),thepoetandauthorofhistoricalromancesandnovelsof
adventure,washisyoungerbrother.SeeTheCollectedPoemsofSirCharlesD.G.Roberts:aCriticalEdition,ed.DesmondPaceyandGrahamAdams,1985
TerryWhalen,CharlesD.G.RobertsandHisWorks,1994.
Robertson,EthelFlorenceLindesay
seeRICHARDSON,HENRYHANDEL.
Robinson,EdwinArlington(18691935)
Americanpoet,wasborninHeadTide,Maine,andgrewupinGardiner(the'TilburyTown'ofhisverse).HedroppedoutofHarvardin1893afterhisfather'sdeath
andthelossofthefamilyfortune,andreturnedhometobeaprofessionalpoet.PoemsfromTheTorrentandtheNightBefore(privatelyprinted1896)reappeared
inTheChildrenoftheNight(1897),agloomyvolume,mainlyinthelyricalstyle.Afterhismother'sdeathin1896hewenttoNewYorkCity,andwasasubway
inspectoruntilPresidentTheodoreRoosevelt(18581919),whoadmiredhiswork,obtainedforhimasinecureintheNewYorkCustomHouse,whichhehelduntil
thechangeofadministrationin1909.TheManAgainsttheSky(1916)waswrittenafterhehaddiscoveredtheMacDowellColony,acreativeretreatinPeterboro,
NewHampshire,foundedinmemoryofthecomposerEdwardA.MacDowell(18611908),towhichhethenreturnedeverysummer.CollectedPoems(1921)won
thePulitzerPrize,asdidTheManWhoDiedTwice(1924)andTristram(1927),thelastofatrilogyofArthurianromanticnarrativepoems.Obsessedwithfailure,
financiallyembarrassed,andperiodicallyalcoholic,hewasessentiallytheMiniverCheevyofhisownpoem,who'...lovedtheMedici,/Albeithehadneverseen
one/Hewouldhavesinnedincessantly/Couldhehavebeenone'(1910).SeeEllsworthBarnard,EdwardArlingtonRobinson:aCriticalStudy,1952.

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Robinson,Lennox(18861958)
Irishdramatist,wasborninDouglas,Co.Cork,thesonofaChurchofIrelandcleric,andhadlittleformaleducationbecauseofillhealth.Hebecameinterestedinthe
stageafterseeingtheAbbeyTheatrecompanyontourinCorkin1907.In1908hisfirstplay,TheClancyName,aruralpiece,wasperformedinDublinattheAbbey
Theatre,ofwhichhewasappointedManagerin1909.Heresignedin1914afteranunsuccessfulAmericantour,andwassucceededbyERVINE.Hereturnedtothe
companyin1919,andwasin1923madeadirector,inwhichcapacityhevotedwithYEATSfortherejectionofO'CASEY'STheSilverTassie.Hewasaprolificdramatist,
whosebestplaysreflecthisversatility.TheWhiteheadedBoy(performed1916),TheRoundTable(1922),TheWhiteBlackbird(1925),andTheBird'sNest
(1938)aredomesticcomediesoffamilyattitudes.InChurchStreet(1934)andDramaatInish(1934),thetouchisstilllight,butthemessagesaresocialones.In
TheLostLeader(1918)heexploreswhatmighthavebeeniftheIrishpoliticalleader,CharlesStewartParnell,hadnotdiedin1891attheageof45.Healsowrote
anautobiographicalnovel,AYoungManfromtheSouth(1917),andIreland'sAbbeyTheatre:aHistory,18991951(1951).SeeMichaelJ.O'Neill,Lennox
Robinson,1964(criticalstudy).
Rochester,(Wilmot,John),2ndEarlof(164780)
Englishpoet,wasborninDitchley,Oxfordshire,thesonofafamouslyharddrinkingCavaliergeneral,towhosetitlehesucceededin1658.Hewaseducatedat
BurfordGrammarSchoolandWadhamCollege,Oxford,afterwhichhetravelledinEurope.In1664heappearedatthecourtofCharlesII,wherehiswit,looks,and
dissipationearnedhimareputation,andhisoutspokennessseveralperiodsofexclusionfromtheroyalpresence.In1665heabductedtheheiressElizabethMalet,for
whichhewassenttotheTowerofLondonforthreeweeks.Hemarriedherin1667andhadfourchildrenbyher(shediedofapoplexyin1681),andonebythe
actressElizabethBarry(16581713).HewasconvertedonhisdeathbedbyGilbertBurnet(16431715),laterBishopofSalisbury,whowroteSomePassagesof
theLifeandDeathoftheRightHonourableEarlofRochester(1680).AsitwastobewithBURNS,Rochester'searlydeath,hisamorousexploits,andtheobscenity
ofsomeofhisverseovershadowedhisgiftforlyricalandsatiricalpoetry.Hisworkhastheringoftruth,asinthesong'MyDearMistressHasaHeart...',andat
timesatenderness('ASongofaYoungLadytoHerAncientLover').Ihephilosophicaltone('UponNothing','PlainDealing'sDownfall')recursinASatyragainst
MankindWrittenbyaPersonofHonour(1679),astudyofthehumanconditionaswellasofcontemporarysociety.SeeTheCompletePoems,ed.DavidM.
Vieth,newedn1975TheCompleteWorks,ed.FrankH.Ellis,1994ViviandeSolaPinto,EnthusiasminWit:aPortraitofJohnWilmotEarlofRochester,
rev.edn1962ofRochester,1935MarianneThormhlen,Rochester:thePoemsinContext,1993.
Roethke,Theodore(190863)
Americanpoet,wasborninSaginaw,Michigan,ofaPrussianfamilywhocametotheUSAin1872andestablishedathrivinggreenhousebusiness.Thegreenhouse
reappearsasacontinuingmotifinthevolumeswhichconstitutehisspiritualautobiography:TheLostSon,andOtherPoems(1948),PraisetotheEnd!(1951),and
TheWaking:Poems19331953(1953),whichwonthePulitzerPrize.In1922hisfather,OttoRoethke,soldhisshareinthebusinesstohisbrotherCharles,whom
hehaddiscoveredwasembezzlingcompanyfunds.Charlescommittedsuicidein1923Ottodiedofcancerthreemonthslater.Theodore,aftergraduatingfromArthur
HillHighSchool,insistedongoingtotheUniversityofMichigan,AnnArbor,afterwhichhedidayear'spostgraduatestudyatHarvard.PoemsheshowedtoRobert
Hillyer(18951961),apoetandamemberofthefaculty,weresubmittedtoliteraryjournals,andpublished.AtLafayetteCollege,Pennsylvania,wherehewasan
Englishlecturerandtenniscoach,heestablishedhisvocationasa'teacherpoet'.WhileatMichiganStateCollegein1935heexperiencedadruganddrinkinduced
mysticalunionwithnature,washospitalizedforseveralmonths,andwasthenmaderedundant.HewentontoPennsylvaniaStateCollege,andwhiletherepublished
hisfirstbookofpoetry,OpenHouse(1941).HewasappointedtotheUniversityofWashington,Seattle,in1947.WordsfortheWind(1957)andTheFarField
(1964)contained,insuchpoemsas'IKnewaWoman','TheFarField',and'TheMeadowMouse',hauntingreflectionsonloveandonnature.SeeTheCollected
PoemsofTheodoreRoethke,newedn1985OnthePoetandHisCraft:SelectedProseofTheodoreRoethke,ed.RalphJ.Mills,1965JayParini,Theodore
Roethke:anAmericanRomantic,1980(biography)PeterBalakian,TheodoreRoethke'sFarFields:theEvolutionofHisPoetry,1989.
Rogers,Samuel(17631855)
Britishpoet,wasborninStokeNewington,andreceivedafineeducationatprivateschoolsinnorthLondon.InsteadofbecomingaPresbyterianminister,hewas
persuadedtoenterthebankinCornhillofwhichhisfatherwasapartner.Graduallyhecameintothewholefamilyshareinthebusiness,andanannualincomeof
5000.HebeganhispoeticalvocationwithAnOdetoSuperstition(1786).ThePleasuresofMemory(1792)issignificantforitstimeinthatitisbasedonthe
philosophicaltheoryofassociationofideas,butitisthe

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workofadilettante,whofeltboundtoburdenhisexpositionwithfootnotes.TheVoyageofColumbus(1810)isanexcursionintoromanticism,andJacqueline
(1814,inthesamevolumeasBYRON'SLara)asimplecountrytaleheresumedhisreflectivepersonainHumanLife(1819).InItaly:aPoem(2vols1822and1828)
heroughlyfollowed,inblankverseandprose,theprogressofByron'sChildeHarold.LikeallhisworksexceptJacqueline,itwaspublishedathisownexpense,
whichhecouldeasilyafford.Hewasthusabletodestroytheunsoldcopiesandreissueitinonevolumein1830,withsumptuousengravingsbyJ.M.W.Turner
(17751851)andThomasStothard(17551834).Aconnoisseurofart,withwhichhefilledhishouseoverlookingGreenPark,hekneweverybody,totheextentthat
onthedeathofWORDSWORTHhewasofferedthePoetLaureateship,whichhedeclined,leavingitforTENNYSON.Hisbreakfastswerefamous.WALTERSCOTTcommented,
ofoneheattendedin1826inthecompanyofhisdaughtersandsoninlaw:'R.wasexceedinglyentertaining,inhisdry,quiet,sarcasticmanner.'Rogers'sTableTalk
wasfirstpublishedin1856(ed.AlexanderDyce).
Rojas,FernandoDe(1475/61541)
Spanishnovelist,wasborninLaPuebladeMontalban,Toledo,ofafamilywhichhadbeenforciblyconvertedfromJudaism.HebecameaBachelorofLawat
SalamancaUniversityin1498or1499,bywhichtimehehadwrittenthefirstversionofwhatisusuallycalledLaCelestina.PublishedasComediadeCalistoy
Melibea(1499),this16actromanticnovelindialogueendswiththedeathofCalistoinafallandthesuicideofMelibea,whomhehasjustsuccessfullyseduced,by
jumpingofftheroof.Anenlargedversion,in21acts,withanextendeddenouementandadditionalcharacters,waspublishedbetween1502and1504as
TragicomediadeCalistoyMelibea.Inboth,Celestina,thesuperiorprocuress,ismurderedbyCalisto'sservants,withwhomshehasrefusedtoshareherfee.In
about1507RojamovedfromhishometowntoTalavera,wherehepractisedlaw,servedforanumberofyearsasLordMayor,andinabout1517marriedLeonor
Alvarez,whoseJewishbornfather,AlvarodeMontalbn,wasin1525refusedpermissiontoberepresentedbyRojaswhenbeinginterrogatedbytheInquisition.La
CelestinawasfirsttranslatedintoEnglishbytheSpanishscholarJamesMabbe(15721642)asTheSpanishBawdRepresentedinCelestina(1631).SeeLa
Celestina,theSpanishBawd,tr.J.M.Cohen,1964.
Rolfe,F(rederick)W(illiam)(18601913)
Britishnovelist,whoclaimedtobeBaronCorvoandalsousedtheappellationFrRolfe,wasborninCheapside,London,ofapianomanufacturingfamily.Heleft
NorthLondonCollegiateSchoolforBoysat14,andfrom1878to1886taughtatvariousschools.HavingbeenconvertedtoCatholicism,hestudiedatStMary's
College,Oscott,andthenforthepriesthoodatScotsCollege,Rome,fromwhichhewasexpelledin1890.HisearlieststoriesappearedinTheYellowBook,and
werecollectedasStoriesTotoToldMe(1898)andInHisOwnImage(1901).ChroniclesoftheHouseofBorgia(1901)isbothalearnedandacolourful
pageantofthetimes.InHadriantheSeventh(1904),ariotousautobiographicalprojectioninwhichtheheroissummonedtobePopeinreparationforhisrejection
aspriest,heattemptedtogethisownbackontheCatholicChurch,andlargelysucceeded.In1908,havingmercilesslyandungratefullybattenedonfriendsandwell
wishersinLondon,heleftforVenice,wherehecontinuedtospongeonthemfromadistance.Sinister,embittered,anddepraved,heleftvariousworksoffictionwhich
havebeenpublishedposthumously,includingthesemiautobiographicalTheDesireandPursuitoftheWhole:aRomanceofModernVenice(1934ed.Andrew
Eburne,withcutsrestored,1993)andNicholasCrabbe:or,TheOneandtheMany(1958).Therehavebeenseveralcollectionsofhisletters.SeeA.J.A.Symons,
TheQuestforCorvo:anExperimentinBiography,newedn1993(biography).
Rolle,Richard(c.130049)
Englishmystic,wasborninThorntonDale,nearPickering,Yorkshire.HewasforatimeatOxford,whichheleftwhenhewas18toreturnhometobeahermit.
Havingdevisedanappropriateoutfitfromclothesthatweretohand,hewentoffbyhimself,andwasgivenshelter,andhisownroom,bytheDaltonfamily.Herehe
composedsomeofhisearlierworks.SubsequentlyhehadacellinthearchdeaconryofRichmondshire,andthenatHampole,whereitispresumedhediedofthe
plague.HewasthefirstEnglishmystictowriteinthevernacular,intowhichquiteearlyinhisvocationhetranslatedthePsalterandaccompanyingcommentaryfrom
Latin.LatterlyhewroteepistlesinEnglishfortheencouragementandedificationofholywomen:themostattractiveofthese,TheFormofLiving,isaddressedtohis
'chosenpupil',MargaretKirkby,ayounganchoressatEastLayton.HismoresignificantreligiousworksareinLatin,andincludeIncendiumAmoris(asTheFireof
Love,tr.CliftonWolters,1972tr.H.C.Backhouse,newedn1992),andMelosAmoris,ed.E.J.EArnould(1957).SeeFrancesM.M.Comper,TheLifeof
RichardRolle:togetherwithaneditionofhisEnglishlyrics,newedn1969.
Ronsard,Pierrede(152485)
Frenchpoet,wasborninChateaudelaPoissonire,nearCouturesurLoir,thesixthand

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youngestchildofacultivatedsoldierwhobuilthismanorhouseonthesiteofthefeudalhome.Afterbeingtutoredathome,hewassentatninetoCollgedeNavarre
ofParisUniversity,whichhesoonlefttobecomeapageatcourt.HewenttoScotlandin1537inthetrainofMadeleine,thedaughterofFrancisI,whohadmarried
JamesVofScotlandshesurvivedthelocalclimateforonlytwomonths.AyearlearningmartialartsatthecuriesoftheDucd'Orlanscametonothingwhenhe
returnedfromaccompanyingadiplomaticmissiontoGermanywithotitis,whichaffectedhishearingfortherestofhislife.Instead,in1543hetookminororders
(sufficienttoqualifyforoneormorebeneficesfrompatrons),andstudiedundertheclassicalscholarJeanDorat(150888).WhenDoratwasappointedheadof
CollgedeCoqueretin1547,hewenttoo.HereheandDUBELLAYformedagroupofpoetscalledthe'Brigade',whoseinnercircle,namedthe'P1iade'fromabout
1553,comprisedthemselves,Dorat,AntoinedeBaif(153289),RmyBelleau(152877),tienneJodelle(153273),andPontusdeTyard(152173).His
benefices,ofwhichthemajoroneswereStCosmelezTours(1565)andCroixval(1566),andacourtpension(hewasappointedalmonertotheyoungKingCharles
IXin1559),supportedhisliteraryendeavours,forwhichheisthemostsignificantFrenchpoetofthe16thcentury.Hemadethealexandrinethemediumofserious
verse,usingitforthethoughtfulutterancesinHymnes(155556)andforhispatrioticreflectionsonthepoorstateofthecountry,whichhebeganwithDiscourssur
lesMisresdeceTemps(1562).
HislyricsforeshadowtheRomanticmovementtwohundredyearslater.BesidesexaltingMary,QueenofScots,hislovepoetryconferredimmortalityonseveralless
distinguishedladies:amongthemareCassandreSalviati(c.15311609)MarieDupin,acountrygirlwhomheencounteredin1554whenshewas15andthefinal
loveofhislifeandtheobjectof142'SonnetspourHlne'(1578),HlnedeSurgres,maidofhonouratcourt,whomhefirstmetin1566whenshewas19.
DRAYTON,DRUMMOND,MONTGOMERIE,andSPENSERareamongthe16thandearly17thcenturyEnglishandScottishpoetswhobenefitedfromhisinfluence.SeePoemsof
Love,1975,andOdes,HymnsandOtherPoems,1977,ed.andtr.GrahameCastorandTerenceC.Cave.
Ros,AmandaM'Kittrick,pseudonymofAnnaMargaretM'Kittrick(18601939)
Irishnovelistandpoet,wasbornnearBallynahinch,Co.Down,trainedatMarlboroughTrainingCollege,Dublin,andwasappointedtoateachingpostinLarne,
whosestationmaster,AndrewRoss(d.1917),shemarriedin1887.Asatenthweddinganniversarypresent,hegaveherthemoneytopayforthepublicationofher
novel,IreneIddesleigh(1897).Withtheproceedsfromitssales,shebuiltthemanewhouse.Asecond,muchlonger,novel,DelinaDelaney,waspublishedin1898.
Theabsurdityandartificialityoftheirplotsisonlyexceededbytheextravaganceofthelanguageandtheoddityofthestyle,ofwhichalliterationandhangingparticiples
areconspicuousfeatures:'Puttingonherlittlesailorhat,FatherGuerdostoodfacingtherusticruby,thenmovedforwardandlockedthedoorofhismenialmenageof
misery.'Lengthylegalwranglingoveralimekiln,whichsheinheritedfromafriendin1908,leftherasembitteredwithlawyersasshealreadywaswithcritics.Since
prosefictiondidnotseemtobeasufficientlyeffectivemediumofretribution,sheburstintoverse,withPoemsofPuncture(1913)andFumesofFormation(1933).
AfterRoss'sdeath,shemarriedafarmer,whodiedin1933.Sheleftanunfinishednovel,HelenHuddleson(ed.andcompletedbyJackLoudan,1969).Shehadher
ownappreciationsociety,foundedatOxfordUniversityin1907,toreadaloudextractsfromherwork.SeeAmandaMcKittrickRosReader,ed.FrankOrmsby,
1988JackLoudan,ORareAmanda!,newedn1969(biography).
Rosenberg,Isaac(18901918)
Britishpoet,wasborninBristolofaRussianJewishimmigrantfamily,andwasbroughtupinLondon'sEastEnd,whereheattendedboardschools.At14hewas
apprenticedtoanengraverinFleetStreet.ThankstoJewishphilanthropy,hewasabletostudyattheSladeSchoolofArt,wherehewonseveralprizes,andexhibited
hispaintingsattheWhitechapelGallery.Hepublishedprivatelyapamphletofverse,NightandDay(1912),followedbyYouth(1915).Diagnosedashavingweak
lungs,hewenttoSouthAfricain1914tostaywithhissister.Thoughmedicallyunfitforwarservice,hereturnedin1915andenlistedinthearmy,toearnmoneyfor
thefamily.HewasintheBantamRegimentandthentheKing'sOwnRoyalLancasters,andsufferedconsiderablyfromblisteredfeetandotherprivations,including
beingforbiddentosendpoetryhomefromFrancebecausethecensorcouldnotbebotheredtoreadit.Stillaprivate,hewaskilledinactionnearArras.SASSOONsaw
inhim'afruitfulfusionbetweenEnglishandHebrewculture'.Thoughhewouldhavebeen(andwas)apoetanyway,themainbodyofhisworkhasassociationswith
thewar.Itrangesfrom'OnReceivingtheNewsoftheWar'and'August1914',tographicrecreationsofitsgrimhorrorsandprivaterepulsionsin'Marching','Louse
Hunting',and'DeadMan'sDump',andtobrieflyricalmomentsin'BreakofDayintheTrenches'and'Returning,WeHeartheLarks'.Imagesofwaroccurinpoems
basedonclassicalorbiblicalthemes,andintheun

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finishedMosesaPlay(1915).SeeTheCollectedWorksofIsaacRosenberg:Poetry,Prose,Letters,Paintings,andDrawings,ed.IanParsons,rev.edn1979
JosephCohen,JourneytotheTrenches:theLifeofIsaacRosenberg18901918,newedn1992.
Ross,Alan(b.1922)
Britishpoet,prosewriter,andeditor,wasborninCalcuttaandspenthisinfancyinBengal,beingbroughtbacktoEnglandwhenhewasseven.Hewaseducatedat
HaileyburyandStJohn'sCollege,Oxford,andservedindestroyersandminesweepersduringWorldWarII,havingalreadypublishedabookofverse,Summer
Thunder(1941).Hehassincedisplayedmanytalents:travelwritercricketandsoccer,andbrieflyNorthAfrican,correspondentoftheObserverchildren'sauthor
criticanthologistandpublisher.In1961,whenJOHNLEHMANNgaveitup,hebecameEditorandproprietoroftheLondonMagazine,whosescopeandinfluencehe
singlehandedlyincreased.Hehasalsoownedsteeplechaseandflatracehorses.Hispoetryismarkedbyitsgraphicquality,anditsaccessibility.Arguablythebest
cricketeralsotohavepublishedpoetryofdistinction,hisaccountsoftoursabroad,mostnotablyAustralia55:aJournaloftheMCCTour(2ndedn1983),areina
classoftheirown.Hisautobiographicalstudies,BlindfoldGames(1986),CoastwiseLights(1988),andAfterPusan(1995),areinterspersedwithpoemswrittenat
thetimeoroutoftheexperienceshedescribes.Theyalsofeatureamostcolourfulcollectionofendearingliteraryandartisticeccentrics,towhomhehasbeenavalued
friend.HewasmadeCBEin1982.SeePoems19421967,1968TheTajExpress:Poems19671973,1973.
Ross,Martin
seeBOWENSOMERVILLE.
Ross,Sinclair(b.1908)
Canadiannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasbornonafarminShellbrook,Saskatchewan,andafterhighschoolworkedfortheUnion(laterRoyal)BankofCanada
inlocaltownshipsuntil1933,whenhewastransferredtoWinnipeg.HeservedintheCanadianArmyinEnglandduringWorldWarII,afterwhichhereturnedtothe
bankinMontrealuntilhisretirementin1968.HethenlivedinGreeceandSpainuntil1980,whenhecamebacktoCanada.PreeminentasachroniclerofCanadian
prairielife,hisfirstnovel,AsForMeandMyHouse(1941),isset,asaremanyofhisstories,duringtheDepressionofthe1930s,andreflectsthroughthediaryofthe
repressedwifeofaministerthestultifyingisolationaswellasthehardships.InbothTheWell(1958)andWhirofGold(1970),whichhaveSaskatchewanMontreal
settings,honestyultimatelyprevailsovercriminalinstincts.TheexperimentalformofSawbonesMemorial(1974),inwhichtheactionisrepresentedthroughamosaic
ofdialogues,memories,andspeechesataretirementparty,addsafreshdimensiontotheliteratureoftheCanadiansmalltown.TheLampatNoonandOther
Stories(1968)hasanintroductionbyLAURENCE.SeeMortonRoss,SinclairRossandHisWorks,1994.
Ross,William(UilleamRos)(176290)
Gaelicpoet,wasborninSkyeandeducatedonthemainlandatthegrammarschoolinForres.ThefamilymovedtoGairlochinWesterRoss,andhejoinedhisfather
asanitinerantpedlar.OnoneoftheirtripshemetandfellinlovewithMarionRossinStornoway,butin1782shemarriedaseacaptain,becameMrsClough,and
wenttoliveinLiverpool.In1786RossbecametheschoolmasteratGairloch.ItissaidthatMarionwasunhappyinhermarriageandwrotetoRoss,askinghimto
cometoher.HegotasfarasStirlingbeforedecidingthatdiscretionwaswiserthanardour,andreturnedhome,catchingonthewaythechillwhichaggravatedhis
tubercularcondition,andkilledhim.Whilehewrotepoemsofaconventionalnature,toCharlesEdwardStuart,tohishomeland,totheseasons,andtowhisky,healso
expressedhisunrequitedloveforMarioninanumberofpoemswhicharemostunusualoftheirkind,andwhichhavebeentranslatedintoEnglishbyIAINCRICHTONSMITH
andDERICKTHOMSON.IntheirpoeticformtheyreflectthepoetryofBURNSandoftheelegistsofclassicaltimes,withbothofwhichhewasfamiliar,andintheirpersonal
intensitythereisnothingtomatchtheminGaelicliteratureuntilMACLEAN.
Rossetti,Christina(183094)
Britishpoet,sisterofD.G.ROSSETTI,wasborninLondon,theyoungestoffourchildrenofanItalianacademic,apoetandfreedomfighter,whoarrivedinEnglandasa
refugeein1824.Shewaseducatedathomebyhermother,herstrictreligiousupbringingbeinginlinewiththeAnglicanismoftheOxfordMovement.Illformostofher
teens,sheremainedatthevariousfamilyhomes,caringforherfatheruntilhisdeathin1854,hermotheruntilshediedin1886,andthentwoaunts.Shenevermarried,
thoughonreligiousgroundsshebrokeoffoneengagementandrejectedaproposalfromamanwithwhomshewasinlove.Attheageof17,attheinstigationofher
brother,shesubmittedtwopoemstotheAtheneum,whichwerepublished.ShecontributedsevenpoemstothePreRaphaelitejournal,TheGerm,in1850.Withthe
helpofherbrother,whoalsosuppliedtwowoodcutsasillustrations,shegotpublishedGoblinMarketandOtherPoems(1862),whosenarrativetitlepoemisa
parableofloveanddeathinthePreRaphaeliteethos.WithThePrince'sProgressandOtherPoems(1866),itgainedherareputationamongtheliterarylitewhich
hershynessmadeitdifficultforhertoenjoy.

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Throughaprolongedperiodoffamilysorrowsshecontinuedtowrite,bothpoetryincludingSingSong:aNurseryRhymeBook(1872)andAPageantandOther
Poems(1881)anddevotionalprose.Theconflictbetweenherintellectualbackgroundandreligiousinclination,thedepthsoffeelingsheexperiencedinherpersonal
life,andhertechnicalbrillianceinconventionalverseforms,notablythesonnet,rondeau,andballad,giveheradistinctive,andsensuous,poeticvoice.SeePoemsand
Prose,ed.JanMarsh,1994SelectedPoems,ed.C.H.Sisson,1984SelectedProseofChristinaRossetti,ed.DavidA.KentandPaulStanwood,1996
KathleenJones,LearningNottoBeFirst:theLifeofChristinaRossetti,newedn1992JanMarsh,ChristinaRossetti:aWriter'sLife,1995.
Rossetti,DanteGabriel(182882)
Britishpoetandpainter,wasborninLondonandeducatedatKing'sCollegeSchoolandtheRoyalAcademy.WithseveralotherartistshefoundedthePreRaphaelite
Brotherhood,whichaimedtorecapturetheessence,colour,anddetailofpreRenaissanceart.Theirjournal,TheGerm,lastedfourissuesin1850underthe
editorshipofRossetti'syoungerbrotherWilliam(18291919),whowastobecometheuncleofFORDMADOXFORD.Apassionatefriendshipwithhismodel,Elizabeth
Siddal(b.c.1834),wasfinallyconsummatedwhenshemarriedhimin1860.Shediedofadrugoverdosetwoyearslater,andin1870heretrievedfromthecoffinthe
poemshehadburiedwithher.HisothergreatlovewasJane,thewifeofMORRIS,whoappearedunperturbedbytherelationship.(Warmthandsexwereformany
yearsprovidedbyFannyCornforth.)Thereceptioninsomecirclesofhisversetranslations,TheEarlyItalianPoets11001300(1861),reissuedasDanteandHis
Circle(1874),ledhimtopublishPoems(1870).Itincludedthe50'HouseofLife'sonnetswhich(withtheunnecessaryexpurgationof'NuptialSleep')wererepeated
insequenceinBalladsandSonnets(1881)'TheBlessedDamozel',whichhadoriginallyappearedinthesecondissueofTheGermandwhichparticularlysymbolizes
thePreRaphaelitemoodthecontemporarybutromanticised'Jenny'andtheballadlike'TroyTown'and'SisterHelen'.
Rossettithepoettriespartlytoreflecthisartisticaimsinaliteraryform,andpartlytoreconcilethebody,thespirit,andlove.Hebecameavirtualrecluseinhishousein
CheyneWalk,Chelsea,after1872,neverrecoveringfromabreakdownbroughtonbydrugs,alcohol,andtheclimaxofalongrunningliteraryfeud(whichappearsto
havebeenbegunbyhisbrotherWilliam).Itwasintensifiedbyanattackby'ThomasMaitland'thepoetandjournalistRobertBuchanan(18411901)on'The
FleshlySchoolofPoetry'intheContemporaryReviewofOctober1871.Rossettirepliedwith'TheStealthySchoolofCriticism'intheAthenaeuminDecember,but
thepsychologicaldamagetohimhadbeendone.SeeSelectedPoemsandTranslations,ed.CliveWilmer,1991OswaldDoughty,AVictorianRomantic:Dante
GabrielRossetti,newedn1960(biography)JoanRees,ModesofSelfExpression:thePoetryofDanteGabrielRossetti,1981.
Rossetti,William
seeFORD,FORDMADOXROSSETTI,D.G.WHITMAN.
Roth,Henry(19061995)
Americannovelist,wasborninTysmenitz,Galicia,andwasbroughttoNewYorkin1908.ThefamilymovedfromtheLowerEastSidetoHarlemin1914,firsttothe
Jewishandthen(becausehismotherwantedabetterview)totheIrishquarter.HewenttoDeWittClintonHighSchoolandtheCityCollegeofNewYork,wherehe
waswhenin1927helefthomeandmovedinwiththemucholderNewYorkUniversityprofessor,EdaLouWalton,apoetwithabohemianlifestyle.Sheencouraged
himtowriteandcompleteCallItSleep(1934),acrosssectionalviewofJewishEastSidelife,seenmainlythroughtheeyesofthechildDavidSchearlbetweenthe
agesof6and8.Ithadmoderatereviews.MaxwellPerkins(18841947)commissionedasecondnovelforScribner'swhich,thoughitfeaturedaCommunist
proletarianandRothhadjoinedtheCommunistPartyand'dedicatedmycreativitytotheportrayalofproletarianvirtue',wasneverfinished.Insteadhesufferedifnot
necessarilythemostprofoundthencertainlythelongestrecordedattackofwriter'sblock,forwhichseveralexplanations,noneofthemconclusive,aresuggestedinthe
collectionofhisessays,correspondence,diaries,andinterviews,ShiftingLandscape,ed.MarioMaterassi(1987).
In1938,atanartists'retreattowhichhehadgoneinsearchofrelease,hemetMurielParker(d.1990),apianistandcomposer,whomhemarriedin1939.From
NewYorkthecouplemovedwiththeirtwosonstoBoston,whereRothworkedasatoolgrinder,andthentoMaine,wherehewasasupplyteacher,psychiatric
assistantinamentalhospital,andthenaduckandgoosefarmer,whilealsoofferingprivatetuitioninLatinandmathematics.HisanonymitywasbrokenafterCallIt
Sleepwasreissuedin1960andthenpublishedinpaperbackin1964.ItwashailedasamasterpieceforitscontributiontoJewishwriting,socialhistory,andthe
literatureofthepsychologyofchildhood,andforitsuncannyrecreationofdifferentformsofdialogue.Withthehelpofhiswife,whoforaperiodbecamea
schoolteachertosupportthefamily,thebondsoftheblockagewereeventuallyloosened.In1979,neverhavinggivenuptrying,Rothbeganasixvolumenovel,Mercy
ofaRudeStream,ofwhichthe

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first,AStarShinesOverMtMorrisPark(1994)islargelyarecyclingofhischildhoodexperiencesthesecond,ADivingRockintheHudson(1995),isrevealing
aboutaspectsofhisyouthwhichhehaderasedfromhismemorywhenwritinghistwopreviousnovelsthethird,FromBondage(1996),recallsthecircumstancesof
hislifeinthe1930s.
Roth,Philip(b.1935)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninNewark,NewJersey,ofJewishimmigrantparents,andwaseducatedatWeequahicHighSchoolNewark
College,RutgersUniversityandBucknellUniversity.Afterayear'spostgraduatestudyatChicagoUniversity,hedidarmyserviceandthenreturnedtoChicagoto
teachEnglishfortwoyears.'Goodbye,Columbus',publishedintheParisReview195859,wasreprintedinhisfirstbook,Goodbye,Columbus,andFiveShort
Stories(1959),whichwontheNationalBookAward.ThevoicewasunmistakablyJewishandirreverent,andthedialoguewasvibrant,andfunny.Itwasnotuntilhis
fourthbook,andthirdnovel,Portnoy'sComplaint(1969),thathemanagedtoabsorbhis'ideasaboutsex,guilt,childhood,aboutJewishmenandtheirGentile
women'into'anoverallfictionalstrategy'.Italsoprovedshockingtosome.TheGreatAmericanNovel(1973)enabledhimtocombinehismockeryofthatgenre
withhischildhoodpreoccupation,baseball.Thetrilogy,TheGhostWriter(1979),ZuckermanUnbound(1981),andTheAnatomyLesson(1984)publishedwith
ThePragueOrgy(1985)asZuckermanBound(1985)demonstratesthetruismthatthelinebetweenautobiographyandfictioncanbebothmarginaland
perplexing.Hethenproducedacoda,TheCounterlife(1987),followedbyTheFacts:aNovelist'sAutobiography(1988),whichpurportstofill'thegapbetween
theautobiographicalwriterthatIamthoughttobeandtheautobiographicalwriterthatIam'.
Hereturnedtofiction,butstillwithapreoccupationwiththeauthor'sotherself,inDeception(1990).OperationShylock:aConfession(1993)isafurtherbasisfor
sharpspeculationaboutthenatureofselfandtheplaceoftheJewinthemodernworld.MickeySabbath,theprotagonistofSabbath'sTheater(1995),isabattered
64yearoldJewishFalstaffwhoadvertiseshimselfashavinganaffinitywithKingLear.Hismonstrousfortunesandpriapicescapadesrepresentwildlaughterinthe
faceofdeath.Patrimony:aTrueStory(1991)isaworriedattemptbyRothtocometotermswithmemoriesofhisfather.RothmarriedMargaretMartinsonin
1959.Theyseparatedin1962shewaskilledinacarcrashin1968.Hissecondmarrriage,in1990,wastotheBritishactressClaireBloom(b.1931)theydivorced
in1995herautobiographyisLeavingaDoll'sHouse(1996).CriticalessaysbyRothareinReadingMyselfandOthers(1975).SeePhilipRothReader,1980
GeorgeJ.Searles(ed.),ConversationswithPhilipRoth,1992HermioneLee,PhilipRoth,1982(criticalstudy)JayHalio,PhilipRothRevisited,1992(critical
study).
Rousseau,JeanJacques(171278)
socialphilosopherandprosewriter,wasborninGeneva.Hismotherdiedafewdayslater,andin1722hisfather,aProtestantwatchmaker,disappearedafterbeing
involvedinafight.Apprenticedtoalawyerandthentoanengraver,hetoolefttownin1728whenhewasunabletoreturnfromawalkbecausethecitygatewas
locked.HewasconvertedtoCatholicisminTurin,andfortwelveyears,whenhewasnotwanderinginItaly,Switzerland,orFrance,helivedmainlywithMinede
Waren(c.170264),whoseloverhebecamein1733.HesettledinParisin1742,failedtointeresttheAcademyofSciencesinanewformofmusicalnotation,and
beganalongrelationshipwithThrseleVasseur(17211801),theirseveralchildrenbeingconsignedtotheFoundlingHospital.In1749,whilewalkingtovisit
DIDEROT,whowasunderhousearrestatVincennesafterbeingreleasedfromjail,hereadinamagazinehewascarryinganannouncementofaprizeofferedbythe
AcademyofDijonforanessayonwhethertheprogressoftheartsandscienceshadcontributedtothepurificationofmorals.Decidingthatithadnot,headvancedin
hiswinningentry,DiscourssurlesSciencesetlesArts(1750tr.R.Wynne,1752),histhemeofthe'noblesavage',happierinanaturalstatethaninacivilizedone,
whichhadaremarkableinfluenceonEuropeancultureandputtheEnglishLakes,andtheLakePoets,onthemap.Heintensifiedhisviewsinanessayoninequality
(1755),havingreturnedtoProtestantismandbegunafruitfulcreativeperiodduringwhichhelivedrentfreeincottagesontheestatesofwealthypatrons.Oneofthese
wasMmed'Epinay,withwhomheultimatelyfelloutbecauseofhispassionateaffairwithhersisterinlaw,Sophied'Houdetot,whoalreadyhadahusbandanda
lover.Romanticsensibilitiesinformtheunlikelyruralmnagetroiswhichistheultimatetheme,butnotthefinaloutcome,ofhisnovel,Julie:ou,LaNouvelle
Hloise(1761tr.WilliamKenrickasEloisa,1761).Hepresentedhisviewsoneducationintheformofafurthernovel,mile:ou,Del'ducation(1762tr.
KenrickasEmiliusandSophia:or,ANewSystemofEducation,176263),andonlibertyintheessayDuContratSocial(1762tr.asATreatiseontheSocial
Compact,1764).ThreatenedwitharrestinFrance,andwithbothbooksbannedinGeneva,wheremilewaspubliclyburned,hesettledintheregionofNeuchatel
undertheprotectionofFrederick(theGreat),KingofPrussia,assumedArmeniancostume,andrenouncedhisGenevancitizenship.

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In1766,attheinvitationofDAVIDHUME,hetookrefugeinEngland,wherehebegantocomposehisConfessions(178289tr.178391tr.J.M.Cohen,1953),an
autobiographywhichisamodelofreadabilityandfrankness.PersecutionmaniadrovehimbacktoFrance,whereafterfurtherattemptsatselfjustification,hefinally
resignedhimselftocalmerreflections,manifestedinLesRveriesduPromeneurSolitaire(1782tr.PeterFranceasReveriesoftheSolitaryWalker,1979),which
inspiredTHOMASGRAY'SElegy....ThesimplicityandmodestyofhislastyearsbeliehisreputationasoneoftheearliestembodimentsofwhatCARLYLEtermed'thehero
asmanofletters'(1840).SeeMauriceCranston,JeanJacques:theEarlyLifeofRousseau,newedn1987,TheNobleSavage:JeanJacquesRousseau1754
1762,newedn1993,andTheSolitarySelf:JeanJacquesRousseauinExileandAdversity17621778,1996.
Rowe,Nicholas(16741718)
Britishdramatistandpoet,wasborninLittleBarford,Bedfordshire,thesonofaprominentlawyer,andwaseducatedatWestminsterSchool,fromwhichhewent
straighttotheMiddleTemple,beingcalledtotheBarin1696.Thefirstofhisblankversetragedies,TheAmbitiousStepMother,wasperformedin1700thatand
Tamerlane(1701),whichwasregularlyrevivedontheanniversaryofthelandingoftheProtestantWilliamandMaryin1688,movedacontemporarycritictosuggest,
'consideringthedegeneracyofourpresentPoets,MrRoehasthefairestPretencetosucceedDrydeninTragedyofanyofhisBrethren'.TheFairPenitent(1703),
thefirstofwhathetermedhis'shetragedies',issignificantalsointhatits'melancholytaleofprivatewoes'beganaresurgenceofthedomesticdrama.Hethenwrotea
comedy,TheBiter(1704),atwhichhewasoneofthefewmembersoftheaudiencetolaugh.Hedidnotrepeattheexperiment.HiseditionofTheWorksofMr
WilliamShakespear(1709),insixvolumeswithabiographyandcriticalnotes,makeshimthefirstseriousShakespearianeditor.Hissearchforpublicemployment
nowbroughthimthepostofsecretarytotheDukeofQueensberry,afterwhosedeathin1711hewrotehisfirstplayforsevenyears,TheTragedyofJaneShore
(1714),thepublicsuccessofwhichwasenhancedbycleverpreproductionpublicity.WiththeaccessionofGeorgeIin1714,hefoundregularprefermentatlast,
becomingLandSurveyortotheCustoms,PoetLaureate(1715),andClerkofthePresentations(1718).HisfinalplaywasTheTragedyofLadyJaneGrey(1715).
Hislastdayswerechronicledbythepress,andhewasburiedinWestminsterAbbey'overagainstChaucer'.LUCAN'SPharsalia,thegreattranslationinverseonwhich
hehadbeenworkingfortwentyyears,waspublishedin1719,andearnedhiswidowapensionof40ayearfromtheKing.SeeThreePlays,ed.J.R.Sutherland,
1929.
Rowley,Samuel
seeMARLOWE.
Rowley,William(c.1585c.1642)
Englishdramatist,nottobeconfusedwithSamuelRowley(d.?1633),whomayhavehadahandinMARLOWE'SDrFaustus,isoneofthemoreshadowyofthosewho
wroteincollaborationfortheJacobeantheatre.Aleadingstagecomedian,heappearstohavewrittenunaidedthecomedyAShoeMakeraGentleman(performed
1609),thetragedyAll'sLostbyLust(c.1619),whichPEPYSrecordsseeingin1661,andtworevisionsofearlierplaysofwhosefirstperformancesthereisnorecord,
AWomanNeverVexedandAMatchatMidnight.WithMIDDLETONhewroteAFaireQuarrell(1617)andTheSpanishGipsie(1621),aswellastheprofound
tragedy,TheChangeling(1622).HealsocollaboratedatdifferenttimeswithDEKKER,JOHNFORD,HEYWOOD,andWEBSTER,andwithDekker,Ford,andWebsterwrote
thelostTheLateMurderinWhitechapel.
Rowson,Susanna(17621824)
neHaswell,Americannovelistanddramatist,wasborninEnglandinPortsmouth,thedaughterofanavalofficerwhotookherasachildtoMassachusetts,wherehe
hadbeenappointedtothecustoms:shedescribedthesinkingoftheirshipoutsideBostonharbourinhernovel,Rebecca:or,TheFilledeChambre(1792).The
familyreturnedtoEnglandin1778afterbeinginternedasloyalists.In1786shemarriedWilliamRowson,ahardwaremerchant(andtrumpeterintheroyalhorse
guards).Shealsopublishedanovel,Victoria(1786)PoemsonVariousSubjects(1788)twomorenovelsandthenCharlotte:aTaleoftheTruth(1791),a
melodramaticstoryofseduction,betrayal,andruination,setinBritainandNewYorkCityduringtheWarofIndependence(177581).Whenherhusband'sbusiness
failed,thecouplewentonthestage(sheassingeranddanceraswellasactress).AfterperforminginEdinburghtheyundertookanAmericantourtoPhiladelphia,
Baltimore,Annapolis,andBoston,wheretheysettled.ThepublicationinAmericaofCharlotte(insomeeditionsasCharlotteTemple)in1794madeherthefirst
Americanbestsellingnovelist.Shewasalsowritingplays,ofwhichthetopicalmusicalcomedySlavesinAlgiers:or,AStruggleforFreedom(1794)gavedramatic
expressiontoherfeminism:'Womenwerebornforuniversalsway,/Mentoadore,besilent,andobey.'In1797sheopenedanacademyforyoungladiesinBoston,
whereshetaughtuntil1822,addingtohervariedcanontextbooksonhistory,geography,andspelling.
Roy,Gabrielle(190983)
FrenchCanadiannovelistandshortstorywriter,was

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borninSaintBoniface,Manitoba,theyoungestof11children.ShewaseducatedthereatStJosephAcademy,andatWinnipegNormalSchool,afterwhichshe
taughtinlocalschoolsuntil1937,whenshewenttoEnglandtostudydramaattheGuildhallSchoolofMusicandDrama.ShereturnedtoCanadaattheoutbreakof
WorldWarII,andworkedasajournalistuntilthepublicationofherfirstnovel.Bonheurd'Occasion(1945tr.HannahJosephsonasTheTinFlute,1947tr.Alan
Brown,1980),astudyofhowwarcanironicallyeasetheproblemsofurbanunfortunates,wontheGovernorGeneral'sAwardinitsEnglishtranslation,andthePrix
Fminaintheoriginal,thefirstCanadiannoveltowinamajorFrenchliteraryaward.Threecollectionsoflinkedstoriesreflectherchildhoodandearlyadult
experiencesinManitoba:LaPetitePouled'Eau(1950tr.HarryBinnseasWhereNeststheWaterHen,1950),RueDeschambault(1955tr.BinnseasStreetof
Riches,1957,winneroftheGovernorGeneral'sAward),andLaRouted'Altamont(1966tr.JoyceMarshallasTheRoadPastAltamont,1966).Eachofthefour
storiesinLaRivireSansRepos(1970)examinesanaspectoftheclashofculturesaffectingtheEskimocivilizationoneofthemwaspublishedseparatelyas
Windflower(tr.Marshall,1970).AdifferentchildfromaprairieoutpostoraWinnipegslumfeaturesineachofthestoriesinCesEnfantsdeMaVie(1977tr.
BrownasChildrenofMyHeart,1979),forwhichshewasgivenherthirdGovernorGeneral'sAward,thistimeintheoriginalFrench.FragilesLumitresdela
Terre:EcritsDivers19421970(1978,tr.BrownasFragileLightsofEarth,1982)containsjournalismaswellasautobiographicalandliteraryessays.Roy
marriedDrMarcelCarbottein1947,inwhichyearshealsobecamethefirstwomanFellowoftheRoyalSocietyofCanada.ShewasmadeCompanion,Orderof
Canada,in1967.
Rubens,Bernice(b.1928)
Britishnovelist,wasborninCardiff,thethirdoffourchildrenofaLithuanianrefugeewhoworkedasatallymanforashillingaweek.ShewaseducatedatCardiffHigh
SchoolforGirlsandtheUniversityCollegeofSouthWales,andmarriedRudiNassauerin1947,theyearinwhichshegraduated.Afterteachingforayear,she
becameawriteranddirectorofdocumentaryfilmsfortheUnitedNationsandotherorganizations.HerfirstnovelwasSetonEdge(1960)herfourth,TheElected
Member(1969),wontheBookerprizeforfiction.Shehascommented:'MyfirstfournovelswereessentiallyonJewishthemesinaJewishenvironment,forinthat
environmentIfeltsecure.'Herbroadterritory,intheseandsubsequentbooks,isthedesperationofthelovelessandtherejected,andherrangeembracessheer
comedy,comedyofmanners,tragicomedy,andtragedy,withouteverjettisoningheressential,oftensly,verbalwit.Herobservationoffamilyrelationshipsisespecially
acute,andhersituationsarevaried,andunusual.AmaletransvestiteheadsthecastofSundayBest(1971)afoetuskeepsadiaryinSpringSonata(1979)arapist
isatlargeamonggenteelwidowsonacruiseinBirdsofPassage(1981).Brothers(1983)isaRussiatoIsraelJewishfamilychronicleoffourgenerationsin
KingdomCome(1990)shechartsthecoming,thecareer,thedoubts,andtheinevitablerejectionofa17thcenturyMessiah.Whilesomeofhercharactersmayverge
towardsthepsychotic,theprotagonistofASolitaryGrief(1991)isapsychiatrist,whoseattitudetohishandicappedchildcausesratherthanrelieveshissuffering.
MotherRussia(1992),describedbyonecriticas'themotherofallblockbusters',hadcontradictoryreviews.RubensreturnedtoherrootswithYesterdayinthe
BackLane(1995),arealisticblendoflove,death,guilt,andatonementwhichbeginsinCardiffduringthebombinginWorldWarII.
Rudd,Steele,pseudonymofArthurHoeyDavis(18681935)
Australianfictionwriter,wasborninDraytonontheDarlingDowns,Queensland,thesonofaWelshblacksmithwhoin1870selectedlandatEmuCreek,wherethe
familymovedin1875andwheretheboywenttothestateschooluntilhewas12.Afterworkinginshearingshedsandasastockrider,hebecameacivilserviceclerk
inBrisbane,transferringtotheSheriff'sOffficein1889,andbeingappointedUnderSheriffin1902.Hewasmaderedundantin1904,bywhichtime,asSteeleRudd,
hehadbecomeanotablehumorist.('Steele'stoodforSTEELE,and'Rudd'wasacontractionof'Rudder',underwhichhehadwrittenrowingskitsintheBrisbane
Chronicleintheearly1890s.)From1895hecontributedtotheBulletinsketchesbasedontheexperiencesofhisownfamily,publishedasOnOurSelection(1899)
andOnOurNewSelection(1903).HenowfoundedSteeleRudd'sMagazine,whichfoldedin1907butwassubsequentlyrevivedthreetimesunderdifferentguises.
AftertryingfarmingontheDarlingDowns,hefinallyreturnedtocitylifeinabout1917.TheoriginalRuddfamilycharacters,andtheircomicattemptstomakeorder
outofdisarray,becameenshrinedinAustralianmythology,thankspartlytotheirmanipulationbytheircreator,inwhoseGreenGreyHomestead(1934)theymakea
finalappearance,andpartlytotheirexploitationthroughothermedia.BertBailey(18681939),withEdmundDuggan(18621938),adaptedOnOurSelectionfor
thestagein1912,andhimselfplayedthepartofDadformanyyearstherehavebeennumerousfilm,radio,andstripcartoonspinoffs.SeeASteeleRuddSelection,
ed.FrankMoorhouse,1986.

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Rukeyser,Muriel
seeWALKER.
Runyon,(Alfred)Damon(18801946)
Americanjournalistandshortstorywriter,wasbornRunyan(thechangeofspellingissaidtohavebeenduetoacompositor'serrorinabyline)inManhattan,
Kansas.Hewasleftalonewithhisfather,atypesetter,inPueblo,Colorado,afterthedeathofhismotherfromconsumptionin1889.HeleftHindaleElementary
Schoolat12,workedasanerrandboyforlocalnewspapers,andin1895wastakenonasareporter.Heservedinthe13thMinnesotaVolunteersintheSpanish
AmericanWar(18981900).HethenreportedforColoradonewspapers,graduatingtowritingonsportfortheSanFranciscoPostandoncrime,politics,and
businessfortheRockyMountainNews,whosesocialeditorhemarried.In1911hewashiredasasportswriterbytheNewYorkAmerican,ownedbyWilliam
RandolphHearst(18631951),forwhoseconglomeratehewroteinvariouscapacitiesmostoftheninetymillionpublishedwordswithwhichheiscredited.With
'RomanceintheRoaringForties'(CosmopolitanMagazine,1929)heinitiatedalonglineofstories,manyofwhichfirstappearedintheSaturdayEveningPost.He
madelovablecaricaturesofthepeoplewithwhomhemixed(gangsters,murderers,tarts),andinvented,orrecorded,afracturedEnglishdialect,dependingontheuse
ofthehistoricpresentforthenarrative,whichwasdescribedas'Runyonese'inaseriouscorrespondencewhichdevelopedinjournalsinEnglandinthe1930s.Thetitle
ofthefirstofmanycollections,GuysandDolls(1931),wasalsothatofthesuccessfulmusicalbasedonhischaracters(1952).Admiredbutnotlikedbyhisfellow
journalists('Damonwouldthrowadrowningmanbothendsoftherope'),heignoredhischildrenandhiswife,afterwhosedeathhemarriedhismistress,a26year
oldMexicandancer.SeeJimmyBreslin,DamonRunyon:aLife,1992.
Rushdie,Salman(b.1947)
Britishnovelist,wasborninBombayofaMuslimfamilyandhadabilingualupbringinginEnglishandUrdu.HisfamilyemigratedtoPakistanin1964.Hewaseducated
inEnglandatRugbySchoolandKing'sCollege,Cambridge.Afterayearasaprofessionalactorwithamultimediatheatricalgroup,hesubsidizedhisnovelwritingby
workingparttimeasanadvertisingcopywriter.Hisfirstnovel,Grimus(1975),isafantasywhoseultimatesourceisa12thcenturySufinarrativepoemcalledThe
ConferenceofBirds.Intherichlyinventive,andoftencomic,Midnight'sChildren(1981),whichwontheBookerprizeforfictionandtwootherawards,andin
Shame(1983),thenarratorineachcaseisacharacterwho,likeRushdiehimself,isontheborderlinebetweencultures.TheSatanicVerses(1988),whichisinpart
anattackontheThatcheriteregimeinBritain,gaveoffenceforremarksputintothemouthofitscharacters.On14February1989theAyatollahKhomeiniissueda
fatwa(legalruling)declaringRushdieanapostatewhoshouldbekilledforinsultingtheProphetMuhammad.Rushdiewentintohiding.InDecember1990,hemadea
statementinwhichheembracedIslamandformallydisassociatedhimselffromthesentimentsofthecharactersinhisnovel.HarounandtheSeaofStories,afable
withachildaschiefcharacter,waswritteninhidingandpublishedin1990.ImaginaryHomelands:EssaysandCriticism19811991(1991)includes'InGood
Faith',hisdignifiedarticlewrittenjustbeforethefatwa,'IsNothingSacred',theHerbertReadMemorialLecturewhichwasreadoutinhisabsencebyPINTER,and
'WhyIHaveEmbracedIslam'.Anewedition(1992),publishedonthethirdanniversaryofthedeclarationofthefatwa,hasthepaperhedeliveredinpersonat
ColumbiaUniversity,NewYork,inDecember1991.In1992hewasenabledtovisitDenmark,Spain,Norway,Germany,Sweden,Canada,andIreland,todrumup
supportforthecancellationofthefatwa.HewroteinanarticleinFebruary1993:'IsuspectthatbecauseIhavenotbeenkilledmanypeoplethinkthatthereis
nobodytryingtokillme.'
HissecondbookwritteninhidingwasEastandWest(1994),nineshortstoriesofvariousgenres,illustratingthethemeof'Home','suchascattered,damaged,various
conceptinourpresenttravails'.ItwasfollowedbyhisfirstnovelsinceTheSatanicVerses,TheMoor'sLastSigh(1995),aparableofgoodandeviltracingthe
courseofafamily's,andIndia's,upheavalsbeforeandafterIndependence.By1996Rushdiewasmakingpublicappearances,stillunderpoliceprotection.Hevisited
AustraliaandNewZealandin1995,andtheLeipzigBookFairearlyin1996:afterwardsamilitantMuslimleader(sincedeceased)intheUKconfirmedthatthe
fatwaremainedinplace.InitsnamethepublishersortranslatorsoftheJapanese,Italian,Norwegian,andTurkisheditionsofTheSatanicVerseshavebeenwounded
orkilled.SeeCatherineCurdy,SalmanRushdie,1996(criticalstudy).
Ruskin,John(18191900)
Britishprosewriter,artcritic,andsocialphilosopher,wasborninLondon,theonlychildofawealthywinemerchant,andwaseducatedbyhismotherandbytutors
untilhewenttoChristChurch,Oxford,whereatthethirdattempthewontheNewdigatePrizeforpoetry.ModernPainters(184360)beganasavindicationofJ.
M.W.Turner(17751851),andbecameanartisticandspiritualguidetothehistoryofEurope,whichRuskinknewfromfrequenttourswithhisparents.TheSeven
LampsofArchitecture(1849)offendedarchitectsbutbroughtreasonandeloquencetobearonthe

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relationshipbetweenvirtueandart,whichheelaboratedinTheStonesofVenice(185153).HewasoneofthefoundersoftheWorkingMen'sCollegein1854.This
wasthestartofaphaseofsocialandpoliticalawareness,exemplifiedbyUntoThisLast:FourEssaysontheFirstPrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy(1862the
essayswereoriginallypublishedinCornhillMagazinein1860),whichwasregardedasabsurdinitstime,andSesameandLilies(1865),onthepositionofwomen
insociety.In1870hebecamethefirstSladeProfessorofFineArtatOxford.HisreviewoftheGrosvenorGalleryexhibitionin1877,inthecourseofwhichhe
accusedtheAmericanpainterJamesAbbottMcNeillWhistler(18341903)of'flingingapotofpaintintothepublic'sface',wasthesubjectofalibelactionWhistler
wasawardeddamagesofonefarthing.
Ruskin'sclassicandurbanefairytale,TheKingoftheGoldenRiver(1851),waswrittenin1841for12yearoldEuphemia('Effie')ChalmersGray,whowasto
becomehisunfortunatepartnerfrom1848to1854inanunconsummatedmarriage,ontheannulmentofwhichshemarriedthepainter,JohnEverettMillais(182996).
In1866heproposedunsuccessfullyto18yearoldRoseLaTouche,whomhehadknownsinceshewasnineandwhodiedinsanein1875.Onhisfather'sdeathin
1864hehadinheritedasmallfortunewhenhismotherdiedin1871heboughtahouseonConistonintheLakeDistrict.Fromhere,in1880,movedbythe
illustrationsbyKateGreenaway(18461901)forherUndertheWindow(1878),heinitiatedacorrespondencewithher,theprimeobjectofwhichwastosecurea
privatesourceofpicturesoflittlegirls.Soonafterwardsthementalinstabilitywhichhadaffectedhislifebecameperiodicinsanity.SeeSelectedWritings,ed.Kenneth
Clark,newedn1991Praeterita,ed.KennethClark,newedn,ed.A.O.J.Cockshut,1994(autobiography)JoanAbse,JohnRuskin:thePassionateMoralist,
1980(biography)TimothyHilton,JohnRuskin:theEarlyYears18191859,1985GeorgeLandow,Ruskin,1985(introductiontohistheories).
Russell,Bertrand,(3rdEarlRussell)(18721970)
philosopher,wasborninTrelleck,Monmouthshire,theyoungersonofViscountAmberley.HewasagodsonofMILL,andgrandsonofthe1stEarlRussell(1792
1878),andsucceededtothetitlein1931.Hismotherhavingdiedin1874andhisfatherin1876,hewasbroughtupbyhisgrandmother,andwaseducatedbytutors
untilhewenttoTrinityCollege,Cambridge,ofwhichhewaselectedaFellowin1895.HisfirstmajorworkwasPrinciplesofMathematics(1903).Introductionto
MathematicalPhilosophy(1919)waswritteninprison,towhichhewassentencedforsixmonthsforaseditiousarticle.Withhissecondwifehefoundeda
progressiveschoolinHampshirein1927.HisappointmenttoachairattheCityCollegeofNewYorkin1940wasabruptlyterminatedbylitigation,theauthorities
beingsuccessfullysuedforemployinganatheistwhopractisedfreelove.AHistoryofWesternPhilosophy(1945)finallybroughthimfinancialsecurity.Human
Knowledge:ItsScopeandLimits(1948)wasthelastofalonglineofphilosophicalworksthroughwhichhebecamepubliclyrecognizedasanoutstandinglogician.
Anactiveopponentofnuclearwarfare,andfounderoftheCommitteeof100,hewasin1961,withhisfourthwife,sentencedtoprisonforhispartindemonstrations,
butservedonlyaweekbecauseofhisage.HisWhigaristocraticbackgroundandhisremarkableintelligenceinstilledinhimaconvictionthatwhateverhethoughtwas
right,evenonmattersaboutwhichheknewnothing.ThefirstofnumerousobjectsofextramaritaldesirewasLadyOttolineMorrell(18731938),whoaddressedto
himsome1500letters.HewasawardedtheOMin1949,andtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1950.SeePortraitsfromMemoryandOtherEssays,newedn
1995,andAutobiography,newedn1985CarolineMoorehead,BertrandRussell,newedn1993(biography)RayMonk,BertrandRussell:theSpiritof
Solitude,1996(criticalbiography)A.C.Grayling,Russell,1996(introductiontohislogicandphilosophy).
Russell,GeorgeWilliam(18671935)
Irishpoet,painter,editor,economist,andjournalist,whowroteunderthepseudonymof(acontractionofon),wasborninLurgan,Co.Armagh,andeducatedat
RathminesSchool,Dublin,andtheMetropolitanSchoolofArt,wherehemetYEATS,whoespeciallyawakenedinhimasenseofmysticcommunicationwithan
idealisticCelticpast.Homeward:SongsbytheWay(1894)promisedmorebywayofpoeticvisionthanhelaterachieved,buthehadotherwaysofexpressinghis
interestinthedevelopmentofmodernIrishliteratureandhisconcernfortheIrishpoliticalscene.In1897hegaveuphisjobasadraper'sclerktoworkfortheIrish
AgriculturalOrganisationSociety,whosejournal,theIrishHomestead,heeditedfrom1906to1923,whenitamalgamatedwiththeIrishStatesman,ofwhichhe
wasEditoruntil1930.HisplayDeirdrewasperformedin1902,andhewasassociatedwiththeIrishNationalTheatreSocietyandtheUnitedArtsClub,whilehis
supportoftheIrishLiterarySocietyledtohiscompilingNewSongs(1904),whichincludedtheworkofsomeofthebestoftheyoungerwriterswhosetalentshehad
spotted.HispoliticalwritingisbestseeninTheNationalBeing(1916),andhisimaginativeproseinTheInterpreters(1920).SeeCollectedWorks,ed.Henry
Summerfield,3vols197884HenrySummerfield,ThatMyriadMindedMan:aBiographyofG.W.Russell'',1975.

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Rutherford,Mark,PseudonymofWilliamHaleWhite(18311913)
Britishnovelist,wasborninBedford,thesonofaDissentingbooksellerwholaterbecameadoorkeeperattheHouseofCommons,fromwhichvantagepointhe
wroteparliamentarysketches.HewaseducatedatBedfordModernSchool,fromwhich,afteraprocessofconversion,hewenttoNewCollege,StJohn'sWood,to
studyfortheIndependentministry.Withtwoothers,hewasexpelledin1852forunorthodoxbiblicalviews,towardswhichhewasalmostcertainlyimpelledby
readingWORDWORTH'SLyricalBallads.HedidsomeworkfortheWestminsterReview,atwhoseofficeshemetGEORGEELIOT.In1854hepassedintothecivilservice,
workingfirstasaclerkinSomersetHouse,andfrom1858intheAdmiralty,whereherosetobeAssistantDirectorofContractsuntilhisretirementonapensionin
1891.ForTheAutobiographyofMarkRutherford,DissentingMinister(1881)andMarkRutherford'sDeliverance,BeingtheSecondPartofHis
Autobiography(1885rev.edn1888)heinventednotonlyapseudonymousauthor,butalsoReubenShapcott,whowassupposedtohaveeditedthemafter
Rutherford'sdeath.EssentiallytheyarelucidaccountsofhisownspiritualprogressandofthesensibilitiesoftheNonconformistcommunity.Rutherfordalsowrotefour
othernovels,ofwhichClaraHopgood(1896)wasaccusedofimmoralityonaccountofthedeterminationofClara'ssisternottomarrythemanbywhomsheis
pregnant.SirWilliamHaleWhite(18571949),thephysician,washiseldestson.
Rymer,Thomas(16411713)
Englishcritic,wasborninYorkshireandeducatedatNorthallertonFreeSchoolandSidneySussexCollege,Cambridge.In1664hisfatherwasconvictedofplanning
anuprisingagainstthemonarchy,andwashanged,drawn,andquartered.ThomaswentfromCambridgetoGray'sInn,andwascalledtotheBarin1673.In1674he
appearedinprintasthe(anonymous)translatorofReflectionsonAristotle'sTreatiseofPoesiebythecontemporaryFrenchcritic,RenRapin.InhisownThe
TragediesoftheLastAge(1678),writtenintheformofalettertoSirFleetwoodSheppard(163498),hebringswhathecalls'commonsense'aswellas'the
practiceoftheancients'tobearparticularlyonthreeplaysofBEAUMONTandFLETCHER.Healsocoinedtheterm'poeticaljustice'forthefunctionofthepoet(or
tragedian)to'seejusticeexactlyadministered,ifheintendedtoplease'.Hisheroictragedyinrhymingverse,Edgar,ortheEnglishMonarch,wasalsopublishedin
1678,butwasneverperformed.HereturnedtotheattackonsacreddramaticcowsinAShortViewofTragedy(1693),devotingathirdofittoSHAKESPEARE'S
Othello,whichhehadleftoutofhispreviousbookforwantofspace.Hisviewsonthatplay,whose'tragicalpartis,plainlynoneother,thanaBloodyfarce,without
saltorsavour',couldbeheldoutrageousweretheynotinplacessowitty.OnSHADWELL'Sdeathin1692,thepostsofPoetLaureateandHistoriographerRoyalwere
separated,thelattergoingtoRymer.InthiscapacityhealsoeditedalltreatiesmadebytheEnglishgovernmentsince1101athisdeath,15volumesofFoederahad
beenpublished,partlyathisownexpense.SeeTheCriticalWorksofThomasRymer,ed.CurtA.Zimansky,1956.

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S
Sbato,Ernesto(b.1911)
Argentiniannovelist,wasborninRojasofItalianimmigrantparents,andcompletedhissecondaryschoolinginLaPlata,wherehealsoattendedtheuniversity,atwhich
hestudiedphysics.Inhisyouthananarchist,hebecamealeaderoftheYoungCommunistsin1931,whenhewentundergroundforawhile,livingincognito,toavoid
oppression.AfterbeingawardedaresearchscholarshiptostudyradiologyinParis,hetransferredhisresearchtotheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.Hewas
appointedaprofessoroftheoreticalphysicsattheTeachers'TrainingCollege,LaPlata,in1940.Helosthispostin1945afterprotestingagainsttheprevailingregime,
thoughhehadalreadydeterminedonaliterarycareer.Inaseriesofcollectionsofessaysandcriticalworkspublishedfrom1945,headdressesliterary,philosophical,
linguistic,andsocialissues.HisnovelsElTnel(1948tr.HarrietOnisasTheOutsider,1950tr.MargaretSayersPedenasTheTunnel,1988)andSobreHroes
yTumbas(1961tr.HelenR.LaneasOnHeroesandTombs,1990)arepowerfulstudiesofartisticpsychopaths,inwhichpresentdayandhistoricalArgentinaare
reflectedbytheuseofavarietyofmodernisttechniques.Asnovelist,observer,chronicler,andacharacterinhisownbook,heexaminesinAbaddnel
Exterminador(1974tr.AndrewHurleyasTheAngelofDarkness,1991)thetotalstateofmankindinArgentinainthe1970s.
Sackville,Thomas(1stEarlofDorset)(15361608)
Englishpoetanddramatist,wasbornatBuckhurstinWithyham,Sussex,theonlysonofSirRichardSackville(d.1566),whoasUnderTreasureroftheExchequer
andChancelloroftheCourtofAugmentationsamassedsomuchwealththatafterhisdeathhewasknownas'Fillsack'.HejoinedtheInnerTemplein1555andwas
calledtotheBar.Withafellowstudent,ThomasNorton(153284),whowasataboutthattimetranslatingCALVIN'STheInstitutionofChristianReligion(1561),he
wroteGorboduc,firstperformedbeforeElizabethI,hissecondcousin,on18January1561.Itwaspublishedin1565,andwasbroughtoutinarevisededitionas
TheTragedieofFerrexandPorrex(1570).Previously,performancesoftragedyhadbeenlargelyadaptationsortranslationsofSENECAandotherclassicalauthors.
GorboducisboththefirstEnglishtragedyandthefirstEnglishplayinblankverse.Asinclassicaltragedy,theactionofthissadtaleofkinglyindecisionisoffstage
afterthemainprotagonistsaredead,themoralisdrivenhomeinacuriousfifthactinwhichtheperilsoftherebeingnolegitimateheirtoathronearepropounded.
SackvillecontributedtothesecondpartofAMyrroureforMagistrates(1563)thedramaticpoemonHenry,DukeofBuckingham,andalso'TheInduction',in
whichflashesofgenuinepoetryillumineasuitablygloomyprologuetothetalesofwoe.Heinheritedhisfather'sfortunein1566,andwascreatedLordBuckhurstin
1567.Hewasmuchindemandfordiplomaticmissions,oneofwhich,in1586,wastoinformMary,QueenofScots,thatshehadbeencondemnedtodeath.Under
herson,JamesI(VIofScotland),hewasmadeLordTreasurerforlifeandEarlofDorset.Hediedsuddenlyatthecounciltable.
SackvilleWest,Victoria(orVita)(18921962)
Britishnovelistandpoet,wasbornatKnole,Kent,whichhadbeengrantedtoSACKVILLEbyElizabethIin1566.Herfatherbecame3rdBaronSackvillein1908.She
waseducatedmainlybygovernessesatKnole,whereshereadprodigiouslyandbegantowrite.Foreigntravelbroadenedherexperience.In1913shemarried
NICOLSONtheirremarkablerelationshipandheraffairwithVioletTrefusis(18941972),thedaughterofEdwardVII'smistress,AliceKeppel(18691947),is
describedinNigelNicolson,PortraitofaMarriage(1973).AmongherearlierpublishedbookswereKnoleandtheSackvilles(1922),ahistoricalaccountofthe
houseanditsinhabitantsTheLand(1926),alongpoeminthestyleofVIRGIL'SGeorgicsandTheEdwardians(1930),arecord,intheformofanovel,ofEdwardian
highsocietyandcountryliving.In1930sheandherhusbandboughtthederelictSissinghurstCastle,Kent,whosegarden,whichtheythemselvescreated,inhiswords,
tocombine'theelementofexpectationwiththeelementofsurprise',hasbecomeanationalheritage.Inallshepublishedoverfortybooksothernotableonesarethe
preciselyexpressed,elegant

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novel,AllPassionSpent(1931),andthejointbiography,TheEagleandtheDove:StTeresaofAvila,StThrseofLisieux(1943).AvolumeofCollected
Poemswaspublishedin1933.ArticlesongardeningwhichshewrotefortheObserverfrom1946to1961werecollectedinseveralbooksarecentreprintisIn
YourGarden(1996).ShewasmadeCHin1948.SeeVictoriaGlendinning,Vita:theLifeofVictoriaSackvilleWest,newedn1992.
Sade,(DonatienAlphonseFranois),Marquisde(17401814)
Frenchnovelistandprosewriter,wasborninParisandeducatedatCollged'Harcourt,beingthencommissionedinthearmy.HeservedintheSevenYearsWar,at
theendofwhichin1763hewasdischarged,whereuponhisfatherforcedhimintoadynasticmarriagewithRenePlagiedeMontreuil(17411810)seeMargaret
Crosland,Sade'sWife:theWomanBehindtheMarquis(1995).Hismildlydeviantbehaviourwithbeviesofprostitutes,someofwhomcomplainedofrough
treatment,gothimintotroublewiththepolice:in1772hewascondemnedtodeathforsodomy,butreprieved.Hismotherinlawnowobtainedalettredecachet,on
thestrengthofwhichhewasputawaywithouttrial.Whileinsolitaryconfinement,latterlyintheBastilleinParis,fromwhichhewasmovedin1789afewdaysbefore
itssackmarkedthebeginningoftheFrenchRevolution,heamusedhimselfbywritinguphissexualfantasies.Healsowroteaphilosophicalnovel,AlineetValcour,
publishedineightvolumesin1795,andanumberoftalesintheGothicorpicaresquetradition,11ofwhichwerepublishedasLesCrimesdel'Amour(1800),the
firstworktocarryhisnameseeTheCrimesofLove,tr.Crosland(1996).
Ontheabolitionbythepeople'sgovernmentoflettresdecachet,hewasfreedandwasforatimeajudgeofarevolutionarytribunal,inwhichcapacityhe
demonstratedsuchleniencytohismotherinlaw'sfamily,andtoothers,thathenearlywenttotheguillotinehimself.Hewasimprisonedagainin1801,forpublishing
obsceneworks,principallyJustine(1791).In1803hisungratefulinlawshadhimpermanentlyincarceratedinthelunaticasylumatCharenton,wherehelived
comfortably,attendedbytwomistresses:amiddleagedactressandateenager.Hiswiferemainedloyaltohimuntil1810,whenshedivorcedhim.Asaphilosopher
heheldthathumanbeingsarefundamentallybadandthatthephysicalandsexualexploitationofothersisanaturalexpressionofsensualgratificationseeThe
MisfortunesofVirtueandOtherEarlyTales,ed.andtr.DavidCoward(1992).In1767hehadsucceededtohisfather'stitleofComte,whichhedeclinedtouse.
SeeThePassionatePhilosopher:aMarquisdeSadeReader,ed.MargaretCrosland,newedn1993DonaldThomas,TheMarquisdeSade,newedn1993
(biography)MauriceLever,MarquisdeSade:aBiography,tr.ArthurGoldhammer,newedn1994.
SaganFranoise,pseudonym(afterProust)ofFranoiseQuoirez(b.1935)
Frenchnovelist,wasborninCajarcofabourgeoisCatholicParisianfamily.AttheendoftheGermanOccupationtheyreturnedtoParis,whereshewenttothe
CouventdesOiseauxetduSacrCoeur.Afterayearatamountainschoolrecoveringfromanaemia,shewasenrolledinaprogressivecourseofstudy,andfailedher
baccalaureateandthenherfoundationcourseattheSorbonne.Just18,shehadatiffwithhermotheronholidayandwentbackalonetothefamilyapartment,where
shewrote,intwoandahalfmonths,BonjourTristesse(1954tr.IreneAsh,1955),asparelytoldnoveloftheselfdiscoveryofateenagegirlwhoisobsessedwith
thestatusquo.Shewastwoyearsmullingoverhersecond,UnCertainSourire(1956tr.AnneGreenasACertainSmile,1956),thestoryoftheconflictsinher
lovelifeofastudentattheSorbonne,whichshethenwroteasquicklyasherfirst.ThetwoaresaidtohavesoldovertwomillioncopiesintheUSAalone.Shehas
continuedtowritestylish,wittynovelsofsituationwhichrequirenospecializedknowledgeofFranceonthepartofthereader.Shehasalsowrittenplays,aballet,and
severalwellknownsongs.Herhobbyissportscarsshebecamenotoriousforfastdriving,andhadabadaccidentontheroadin1957.
Sahgal,Nayantara(b.1927)
nePandit,Indiannovelistandjournalist,wasborninAllahabad,thesecondofthreedaughtersofanactivelypoliticalcouplethetitleofherfirstvolumeof
autobiographyreferstoanincidentattheageofthree,whenherfatherwashauledofftoprisonwhilethefamilywasattea.ShewasthenieceofJawaharlalNehru
(18891964)andthusthefirstcousinofMrsIndhiraGandhi(191784).Shewaseducatedatthelocalconventandthen,herfatherhavingheeded'Gandhiji'scallto
boycottBritishandgovernmentaidedinstitutions',attheAmericanschoolofWoodstock,Mussooree.In1943shewassenttoWellesleyCollege,Massachusetts,
whereshegraduatedasBAinhistoryin1947.Herfatherhavingdiedin1944,andhermother(VijayalakshmiPandit)nowservingabroadasIndianAmbassadorto
theUSSR(shewaslaterAmbassadortotheUSA,andHighCommissionerinLondon),SahgalthenlivedforatimeattheresidenceofNehru,nowPrimeMinister.
Describingherselfas'Indianbyblood,nationality,upbringingandconvictionandWesternbyvirtueofmyEnglishmediumeducation',hernovels,unsurprisingly,
'haveapoliticalbackgroundorpoliticalambience'.Thefirst,ATimetobeHappy(1958),issetduringthestruggleforindepen

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dencebetween1932and1948.ThisTimeofMorning(1965)isastudyofpoliticalpowerintheensuingperiod,andStorminChandigarh(1969)ofthe
backgroundtothepartitionofthePunjab.InTheDayinShadow(1971)thefocusshiftstopersonalrelationshipseventsduringtwocriticalepisodesinrecenthistory
arethebasisofASituationinNewDelhi(1977)andRichLikeUs(1985).PlansforDeparture(1985)andMistakenIdentity(1989)arehistoricalnovelsofthe
Rajinthe20thcentury.Sahgalisalsoadistinguishedpoliticaljournalist(andwasamemberoftheIndiandelegationtotheUnitedNationsin1978),herIndhira
Gandhi:HerRoadtoPower(1982)isanoutspokenaswellasshrewdlyanalyticalaccountofaregime.ShemarriedGautamSahgal,abusinessman,in1949
(divorced1967),andE.N.MangatRai,acivilservant,in1979.SeePrisonandChocolateCake,1954,andFromFearSetFree,1962(autobiography).
SaintExupry,Antoinede(190044)
Frenchnovelist,prosewriter,andairman,wasborninLyons,oneoffivechildrenwhosefatherdiedin1904.HewaseducatedatNotreDamedeSaintCroix,Le
Mans,andVillaSaintJean,Fribourg,Switzerland,wherehepassedhisbaccalaureate.HethenenteredtheLyceSaintLouis,Paris,toprepareforthecoleNavale,
forwhich,aftertwoyearsstudy,hefailedhisoralexam.Duringmilitaryservicein192123heobtainedamilitarypilot'slicence,andin1929hebecameDirectorof
AeropostaArgentina,personallypioneeringsomeoftheinitialflights,forwhichhewasmadeamemberoftheLegionofHonourin1930(hebecameOfficerin1938).
Thisprovidedthebackgroundoftwopoeticnovels,CourrierSud(1929tr.StuartGilbertasSouthernMail,1933)andVoldeNuit(1931tr.GilbertasNight
Flight,1932).Afterthecollapseoftheholdingcompany,hewasbrieflyatestpilot,andthenreluctantlyacceptedapublicrelationspostwithAirFranceafterbeing
nearlydrownedinasubmergedseaplane.Healsopatentedaeronauticalinventions,thefirstofwhichwasalandingdevice,andundertookjournalisticassignmentsin
RussiaandSpain.Havingacquiredhisownplane,heattemptedin1935tobreakthespeedrecordfromParistoSaigon.HecrashedinthedesertjusteastoftheNile
valley,andwithhismechanicwalkedforfivedayswithoutfoodorwateruntiltheycameacrossaBedouincaravanherecreatedtheexperienceinTerredes
Hommes(1939asWind,SandandStarstr.LewisGalantire,1939tr.WilliamRees,1995).
PilotedeGuerre(1942asFlighttoArrastr.Galantire,1942tr.Rees,1995)isprimarilyaphilosophicalmeditationonflyingandtheroleofthepilotinWorld
WarII.UntiltheGermanoccupationofFranceheflewreconnaissancemissionsoverenemyterritory,forwhichhewasawardedtheCroixdeGuerre.Afterthree
yearsintheUSA,hereturnedtoactiveserviceinAlgiers,andflewAmericanLightningaircraftuntilgroundedforovershootingtherunway.In1944hemanagedtoget
permissiontomakefivereconnaissanceflightsfromSardinia.Hedisappearedwithouttraceonthetenth.LePetitPrince(1943tr.KatherineWoodsasTheLittle
Prince,1944),withhisownillustrations,isanallegoricalstoryforchildren,inwhichheexploredmanyofhispersonalphilosophicalconvictions.Remainingofficially
marriedtoConsueloGomezCarrillo(d.1979),whowashalfhisheightandaschildish,romantic,andunfaithfulashewas,andwithwhomhecouldnotbeartolive,he
addressedlong,reproachfulletterstoher,whileindulginginnumerousplatonicandsexualrelationshipswithotherwomen.SeePaulWebster,AntoinedeSaint
Exupry:theLifeandDeathoftheLittlePrince,newedn1994StacySchiff,SaintExupry:aBiography,newedn1996.
SaintJohn,Henry
seeBOLINGBROKE.
SaintJohnPerse,pennameofMarieRenAlexisSaintLgerLger(18871975)
Frenchpoetanddiplomat,wasborninSaintLgerlesFeuilles,Guadaloupe,ofancientlocaldescentonbothsides.ThefamilymovedtoPauin1899,andafter
passinghisbaccalaureateatthelocallyce,hestudiedlawatBordeauxUniversity.Hisfirstbookofverse,loges(1911tr.LouiseVarseaslogesandOther
Poems,1944),writtenwhenhewas21,recordshisemotionaldevelopmentasachild.In1914heenteredtheForeignService.WhileSecretaryofLegationinPeking,
hetravelledinManchuria,Mongolia,andtheGobiDesert,andwrote,inadisusedTaoisttemplewhichherented,Anabase(1924tr.T.S.EliotasAnabasis,1938),
anarrativepoemevokingtheancientmigrationsoftheEast.WhileCabinetDirector(192532)andSecretaryGeneral(193340)ofForeignAffairs,hepublished
nothing,soasnottocompromisehisposition.Removedfromhispostin1940,hetookrefugeintheUSA:inParisthecollaborationistgovernmentdeprivedhimofhis
citizenshipandtheGestapowreckedhisflatanddestroyedhisunpublishedmanuscripts.Exil(1942tr.DenisDevlininExileandOtherPoems,1949),writtenina
LongIslandbeachhouseloanedbyfriends,isoneofaseriesofpoemsofselfdiscoveryinaforeignland.Vents(1946tr.HughChisholmasWinds,1953),largely
writtenafterhisrightsandprivilegeshadbeenrestored,isanepicmeditationonthefutureofthecivilizationofEuropeAmers(1957tr.WallaceFowlieasSeamarks,
1958),isacelebrationofman'sdestiny.AnhonorarymemberoftheBritishordersKCVO(1927),GBE(1938),andKCB(1940),hewasalsoGrandOfficer,
Legionof

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Honour,andreceivedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1960.
StOmer,Garth(b.1931)
StLuciannovelist,wasborninCastriesandeducatedatStMary'sCollegeand,aftersevenyearsteachingintheeasternCaribbean,attheUniversityoftheWest
Indies,Jamaica,wherehegraduatedinFrench.HetaughtinFranceandGhana,beforedevotingtheyears196669towriting.In1975hejoinedtheEnglish
departmentoftheUniversityofCalifornia.HisfictionalvisionisthealienationoftheeducatedWestIndianinhisownland,asubjectexploredinthreenovelsandinthe
twonovellasinShadesofGrey(1968),ofwhichTheLightsontheHillwaspublishedseparatelyin1986.TheprotagonistofARoomontheHill(1968)finally
decidestostaywhereheis,puzzlingoverhismotives,acceptingultimatedespair.InNorAnyCountry(1969)areturntoStLuciaexercisesapartialrehabilitationbut
offersonlyapartialsolution,whichischeerlesslyanalysedinJ,BlackBarnandtileMasqueraders(1972).
Saki,penname(fromalineinEdwardFitzgerald'sRubaiyat,4thedn)ofHectorHughMunro(18701916)
Britishshortstorywriter,wasborninAkyab,Burma,thesonofaScottisharmyofficerwhowasInspectorGeneralofPolice.Afterthedeathofhismother,hewasat
theageoftwoshippedtoEnglandwithhisbrotherandsisterandbroughtupinDevonbytwoterrifyingaunts.AfterfourtermsatBedfordGrammarSchool,he
travelledabroadwithhisfather.HejoinedtheBurmaPolicein1893,butreturnedhomeaftersufferingsevenattacksoffeverin13months.Hewrotepoliticalsatirefor
theWestminsterGazette,collectedasTheWestminsterAlice(1902).HisfirstbookwasTheRiseoftheRussianEmpire(1900),onthestrengthofwhichhe
becamecorrespondentfortheMorningPostintheBalkansin1902,andtheninWarsaw,StPetersburg,andParis.Hereturnedin1908toresumeafreelance
career.Hisfirstvolumeofshortstories,Reginald(1904),wasfollowedbythreemore,thelastofwhichwasBeastsandSuperBeasts(1914).Satirical,especially
whendescribingsocietyliving,epigrammatic,andoftenwithatouchofcrueltyleavenedbyhissharpwit,theyfeatureparadoxesandincongruitiesofakindwhichhave
lastingparallels.TheUnbearableBassington(1912)isabooklengthstoryinthesamevein.WhenWilliamCame:aStonyofLondonUndertheHohenzollerns
(1914)postulatestheaftermathofasuccessfulinvasionbyGermany.At44heenlistedasaprivateinthe22ndRoyalFusiliers,andwassenttoFrancein1915,having
refusedacommission.HewasshotthroughtheheadbyasnipernearBeaumontHamel.SeeTheCompleteSaki,introductionbyNoelCoward,newedn1982A.J.
Langguth,Saki:aLifeofHectorHughMunro,withSixStoriesNeverBeforeCollected,1982.
Salinger,J(erome)D(avid)(b.1919)
Americannovelistandshortfictionwriter,wasborninNewYorkCity,theyoungerchildofaJewishhamimporterandofaGentileofScottishIrishparentage.After
twoyearsatMcBurneySchool,Manhattan,hewenttoValleyForgeMilitaryAcademy,fromwhichhegraduatedin1936.HeattendedasummersessionatNew
YorkUniversityin1937,wenttoAustriaandPoland,andthenenrolledatUrsinusCollege,Pennsylvania,whichheleftduringhisfirstyeartoattendtheshortstory
writingclassatColumbiaUniversity,NewYork.In1941hehadworkpublishedinCollier'sMagazineandEsquire,andtheNewYorkerboughtastoryabouta
mixedupteenagercalledHoldenCaulfield,whichwasnotpublisheduntil1946.InthemeantimeheservedasastaffsergeantincounterintelligencewiththeUSArmy
4thDivisioninEuropeinWorldWarII,andhadstoriespublishedalsointheSaturdayEveningPost.In1948helandedacontractwiththeNewYorker,which
published'ForEsmWithLoveandSqualor'in1950.TheCatcherintheRye(1951),thenovelhefinallyachievedoutofthecharacterofCaulfield(hehad
withdrawnanearlierversionin1946),receivedmixednotices,andthoughitreachedfourthplaceintheNewYorkTimesbestsellerlist,itdidnotachievecultstatus
untilthepublicationofthepaperback(1953)andofNineStories(1953inUKasForEsmWithLoveandSqualor,andOtherStories).Salingernowwentinto
retreatinCornish,NewHampshire,fromwhichhispublicutteranceshavebeenconfinedtolawsuits.FrannyandZooey(1961)wasoriginallytwostoriesintheNew
YorkerabouttheGlassfamily,whosesagahecontinuestantalizinglyinRaiseHightheRoofbeam,CarpentersandSeymour:anIntroduction(1963).'Hapworth
16,1924',afurtherandpresumablyfinalinstalmentintheGlasssaga,waspublishedintheNewYorkeron19June1965.IanHamilton'sInSearchofJ.D.Salinger
(1988)isastudyoftryingtowriteabiography.Therestissilence,exceptfromthewritersofcriticalstudies.SeeJackSalzman(ed.),NewEssayson'Catcherinthe
Rye',1992.
Salkey,Andrew(b.1928)
Jamaicannovelist,poet,andchildren'swriter,wasborninColon,Panama,andeducatedatStGeorge'sCollege,Kingston,MunroCollege,StElizabeth,andLondon
University.HetaughtEnglishfortwoyearsinaLondoncomprehensiveschool,andwroteradioscriptsandconductedinterviewsfortheBBCExternalServicesuntil
1976,afterwhichhedividedhistimebetweenLondonandMassachusetts,wherehehadbeenappointedProfessorofCreativeWritingatHampshireCollege.InA
QualityofViolence(1959),setin

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ruralJamaicaduringthedroughtof1900,theconflictisbetweentheblackfollowersofthecultofPocomaniaandthebrownlandowningminority.Escapetoan
AutumnPavement(1960)examinestheplightofthemiddleclassJamaicaninLondon,andTheLateEmancipationofJerryStover(1968)therootsfromwhich
theexodusoccurred.InlaternovelsexilesconsiderareturntowhatSalkeysummarizesinhispoliticalandsociologicalpoemsequence,Jamaica(1973),'Isthelan'I
want/an'isthelan'/Iouttoget'.Histwostudies,HavanaJournal(1971)andGeorgetownJournal(1972),recordhispersonalreactionstothewayinwhich
politicaldevelopmentsinCubaandGuyanawereaffectingculturalattitudesintheCaribbean.
Sand,George,pseudonymofBaronneDudevant(180476)
neAmantineLucilleAuroreDupin,Frenchnovelist,wasborninParisandafterherfather'sdeathwasbroughtupandeducatedathergrandmother'sestateat
Nohant,whichshelaterinherited.ShewenttotheCouventdesAnglaises,Paris,from1817to1820,andin1822marriedBaronDudevant(d.1871),bywhomshe
hadtwochildrenbeforetheyfinallyseparatedin1836.In1831shewenttoParistobeawriter,contributedtoLeFigaroandRevuedesDeuxMondes,andmixed
inartisticsociety,fromwhoseranksshechoseasuccessionoflovers.ThefirstwasJulesSandeau(181183),withwhomshewroteanovel,RoseetBlanche(1831),
andfromwhosenameshederivedherpseudonym.OthersincludedMUSSETandthecomposerFredericChopin(181049).Heraffairs,aswellashermarriage,
providedsomeofthematerialfor,andtheoutlookof,herearliernovels,notablyLlia(1833).Duringthe1840ssheconcentratedonsocialthemes,asinConsuelo
(184243).Inabout1848sheretiredtoNohant,wheresheindulgedprimarilyintalesofcountrylife,publishingoneormorenovelsalmosteveryyearuntilherdeath.
HENRYJAMES,reviewingMademoiselleMerquem(1868),commented:'ThetimewaswhenMadameSand'snovelsweretranslatedasfastastheyappeared,and
circulated,halfsurreptitiously,asworksdelightfulandintoxicating,butscandalous,dangerous,andseditious.'TheywerereadinFrenchbytheVictorianlittrateurs
theeffectofthenovelsofherfirstphasearetraceableinCHARLOTTEandEMILYBRONT,ofthesecondinGEORGEELIOT,andofthethirdinHARDYseePatriciaThomson,
GeorgeSandandtheVictorians(1977).CARLYLEcoinedtheterm'GeorgeSandism'tosumupwhathesawas'intheworld...fewsadder,sicklierphenomena...
thanGeorgeSandandtheresponseshemeetswith'.Hiswife,however,frequentlyrefersinherletterstotheexcitementSand'snovelsarousedinher,though,'having
stillsomesenseofdecencyremaining',sheusedthename'ErasmusDarwin'whenborrowingthemfromtheLondonLibrary.
Sandburg,Carl(18781967)
Americanpoet,wasborninGalesburg,Illinois,theeldestchildofanimmigrantSwedishironworkerwhocouldreadSwedishbutneverlearnedtowrite.Theboy,
whoseearlyautobiography,AlwaystheYoungStrangers(1953),waspublishedonhis75thbirthday(designated'CarlSandburgDay'inChicago),leftschoolat13,
anddidnumerousoddjobs,includingshiningshoesinabarber'sshop.AfterservinginPuertoRicoin1898intheSpanishAmericanWar,heenrolledinLombard
College,whichheleftin1902togowandering,withoutbotheringtotakehisdegree.In1904hisformerprofessorprintedonahandpress50copiesofSandburg's
pamphlet,InRecklessEcstasy,andtwootherproseitems.AfterbeingadistrictorganizerfortheWisconsinSocialDemocrats,andmarryingLillian('Paula')Steichen,
ateacherandthesisterofEdwardSteichen(18791973),thephotographer,hewenttoMilwaukee,whereheworkedasanewspaperreporter,andthenin1912to
Chicago.'Chicago'('HogButcherfortheWorld,/ToolMaker,StackerofWheat...')wasoneofhisninepoemsonlocalthemespublishedinPoetry:aMagazine
ofVersein1914.WithChicagoPoems(1916),Cornhuskers(1918),andSmokeandSteel(1920)hebecamethelaureateoftheindustrializedworkingclass.He
gaveupnewspaperworkin1920,andbecamealecturerandperformer,readinghispoetryandsingingfolksongstohisownguitaraccompaniment.TheAmerican
Songbag(1927)andThePeople,Yes(1936)reflectedhisresearchesintoAmericanfolktradition,andinhismonumentalbiography,AbrahamLincoln:thePrairie
Years(2vols1926)andAbrahamLincoln:theWarYears(4vols1939),whichwonthePulitzerPrizeforhistory,hecelebratedanarchetypalAmericanfolkhero.
RemembranceRock(1948),originallycommissionedbyMetroGoldwynMayeras'abiographicalnovelofAmericanlife,manners,andmorals',wasneverfilmed.
CompletePoems(1950)wonthePulitzerPrize.SeeTheCompletePoems,rev.andexpandededn1969TheSelectedPoems,ed.GeorgeandWilleneHendrick,
1996PenelopeNiven,CarlSandburg:aBiography,newedn1994GayWilsonAllen,CarlSandburg,1972(criticalstudy).
Santayana,Jorge('George')(18631952)
Spanishphilosopherandcritic,wasborninMadridofSpanishparents,andwastakentoAvilawhenhewastwo.In1872hisfatherlefthiminBoston,USA,withhis
wife,whohadpromisedherfirsthusband,anAmerican,thatshewouldbringuptheirthreechildrenthere.In1886hegraduatedsummacumlaudeatHarvard,
wherein1889hewasappointedaprofessorofphilosophy.

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Hefollowedabookofverse(1894)withTheSenseofBeauty(1896),asignificantstudyofaestheticsbasedononeofhiscourses:aswasThreePhilosophical
Poets(1910),onLUCRETIUSDANTE,andGOETHE,towhichT.S.ELIOT,agraduatestudentofSantayanain1908,acknowledgesadebtinhiscriticismofDante.TheLifeof
Reason(5vols190506)containstheessenceofSantayana'smoralphilosophy,intherealmsespeciallyofcommonsense,society,art,andreligion.Hismother's
deathin1912lefthimwithoutabaseinBostonatatimewhenhisclosefriendsandrelativeswereinEurope.HeresignedfromHarvard,andneverreturnedtothe
USA,inspiteofnumerousoffersofacademicposts.ForatimehelivedasecludedlifeofstudyandwritinginOxford,stoutlyrefusingtobeformallyattachedtoany
college.In1919hesettledontheContinent,wherehetookpermanentroomsintheHotelBristol,Rome,fromwhichhetravelledtoothercountries.InRealmsof
Being(4vols192840)heelaboratedonhispersonalphilosophicalsystem.TireLastPuritan(1935),'amemoirintheformofanovel',wasacriticalandpopular
internationalsuccess,beingregardedbytheAmericanpubliclessasthetestamentofaphilosopherthanasacomedyofmannnersaboutBostonsociety.DuringWorld
WarIIheremainedinRomeasapayingguestinaCatholicnursinghome.PersonsandPlaces,hisautobiography,waspublishedinthreevolumesin1944,1945,
and1953.SeeSelectedCriticalWritings,ed.NormanHenfrey,2vols1968NoelO'Sullivan,Santayana,1992(criticalstudy).
Sappho
7thcenturyBCGreeklyricpoet,wasbornintheAegeanislandofLesbos,whichsheleftatsomepointtoliveinSicilybecauseofsomepoliticaldisturbances.To
judgefromthefragmentsofherworkwhichareallthatwehaveoutoftheninebooksofversewhichdidnotsurvivetheMiddleAges,shewasaskilfulcomposerof
tender,sometimespassionate,simplywordedexpressionsoflove,oraboutlove,forthefemalesex.Shewasalsoindemandasawriterofweddingsongs,andwas
herselfmarried,andhadadaughter.Theapochryphalstorythatshethrewherselfoveracliffafterbeingrejectedbyaboatmanoflegendarybeautywasreworkedby
POPEinhisyouthfulpoeticalexercise,'SapphotoPhaon'.SeeSapphoofLesbos:thePoems,tr.TerenceDuQuesne,1990(withGreektextsandtextualnotes)in
SevenGreeks,tr.GuyDavenport,1995MargaretWilliamson,Sappho'sImmortalDaughters,1995(investigationofherlifeandculture).
Sargeson,Frank(190382)
NewZealandshortstorywriter,novelist,andcritic,wasborninHamiltonandeducatedatHamiltonHighSchool,andstudiedlawextramurallyatAucklandUniversity
College.Havingqualifiedasasolicitorin1926,hespentayearinEnglandandontheContinent,andonhisreturnfoundworkasanestatesclerkinagovernment
departmentinWellington.AchanceencounterinabarwithaneccentricKEATSenthusiastledhimbacktothepoet'sworkandletters,andtoareconsiderationofhis
ownliteraryefforts.Anearbreakdownin1929wasavertedwhenhewenttoliveatOkahakurawithhiseasygoinguncle,whoallowedhimtowriteinthemorningsin
returnforhelponthelandintheafternoons.In1931,havinghadhisfirstnovelrejected,hemovednearAucklandintotheTakapunapropertywhichwastoremainhis
headquartersfortherestofhislife.DuringtheDepressionhesubsistedonthedoleofnineshillingsaweek,didoddjobsingardensandkitchens,andwrotestories
andarticles,onlyafewofwhichwerepublished.Ashecontinuedtoworktowards'anappropriatelanguagetodealwiththematerialofNewZealandlife',matters
lookedup.HepublishedConversationwithMyUncleandOtherStories(1936)andcontributedtoTomorrowandotherjournals.Surgicaltuberculosisprevented
warservice,andafterafurthervolumeofstories,AManandHisWife(1940),hecompleted,inhis39thyear,thenovelhefelthimselfnowabletowrite.Itwasvery
shorthavingbeenserializedinJOHNLEHMANN'SNewWritingitbecamethetitlestoryofThatSummerandOtherStories(1946).HisfirstpublishednovelwasthusI
SawinMyDream(1949),aprogressfromyouthtoemancipationhismosthighlyregardedisMemoirsofaPeon(1965),theironic,picaresqueexploitsofan
AucklandCASANOVA.WrestlingwiththeAngel(1964)containshistwoplays,ATimeforSowing(1961)andTheCradleandtheEgg(1962).SeeTheStoriesof
FrankSargeson,1982ConversationinaTrainandOtherCriticalWriting,ed.KevinCunningham,1985OnceisEnough:aMemoir,1973,Morethan
Enough:aMemoir,1975,NeverEnough!PlacesandPeopleMostly,1977(reissued1981inonevolumeasSargeson)H.WinstonRhodes,FrankSargeson,
1969(criticalstudy).
Saroyan,William(190881)
Americanshortstorywriter,novelist,anddramatist,wasborninFresno,California,theyoungestoffourchildrenofArmenianimmigrants.Whentheirfatherdiedin
1911,theywereallputintoanorphanageinOaklandforfouryears,untiltheirmothercouldsupportthem.SaroyanwaseducatedinFresno,whiledoingdifferent
kindsofjobs,especiallytelegraphboy,outofschool,fromwhichhedroppedoutbeforegraduating.HeworkedinSanFranciscoasatelegraphoperatorandthen
branchmanager,butafterpublishingastoryinOverlandMonthlyandOutwestMagazinein1928hedecidedtobeaprofessionalwriter.TireDaringYoungMan
ontheFlyingTrapezeandOtherStories(1934)thetitle

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storyisaboutastarvingwritergavenoticeofanunusualifenigmatictalent.Afterseveralfurthercollections,ofwhichThreeTimesThree(1936)waspublishedbya
studentcooperativeinLosAngeles,wherehewasworkingonHollywoodscenariosforSCHULBERG'Sfather,hebeganassemblinghisstoriesbythemeor,aswithMy
NameisAram(1940),bysettingandcharacter.HeadaptedastoryinThreeTimesThreeasaoneactplay(1938)andthenasafulllengthsentimentalcomedy,My
Heart'sintheHighlands(1939),whichranforsixweeksonBroadway.TheTimeofYourLife(1939),setinaSanFranciscowaterfronthonkytonkandmuch
moreexperimental,wasawardedthePulitzerPrize,whichherefused.Noneofhisnumeroussubsequentplays,inwhichheattemptedtoputtruthbeforeartifice,has
quitethesameverve.TheHumanComedy(1943),hisfirstnovel,dedicatedtohismother,'whocannotreadandenjoyEnglishaswellasyoureadandenjoy
Armenian',isasemiautobiographicalstory,transferredtothetimeofWorldWarII,ofasmalltowntelegraphboy,whichbeganasafilmscenario.RockWagram
(1951)isanovelofselfdiscovery,TheLaughingMatter(1953)ofisolationandironicdesolation.In1943,whileservingintheSignalCorpsduringWorldWarIIhe
marriedCarolMarcus(laterMatthau),withwhomhehadhadarelationshipsinceshewas16.Theydivorcedin1949,remarriedin1951,anddivorcedagainin1952.
TheBicycleRiderinBeverlyHills(1952),HereComes/ThereGoes/YouKnowWho(1961),NotDying(1963),andShortDrive,SweetChariot(1966)are
autobiographicalstudies.
Sartre,JeanPaul(190580)
Frenchphilosopher,novelist,anddramatist,wasborninParis,thesonofanavalofficerwhodiedin1906.Hewasbroughtupinhisgrandparents'homeinMeudon
andtheninParis,wherein1915hewenttotheLyceHenriIV,returningtherein1920afterthreeyearsatthecoeducationallyceinLaRochelle,wherehismother
hadmovedwhensheremarried.WhenhestartedtospecializeinphilosophyatthecoleNormaleSuprieure,hehadalreadypublishedinLaRevuesansTitre
underapseudonymastory,'L'AngeduMorbidi'[AngelofMorbidity],andseveralchaptersofanovelwhichheneverfinished(afatewhichattendedmanyofhis
subsequentworks).In1928hefailedhisagrgationinhisresitin1929hecamefirst,withBEAUVOIRsecond.Theirlifelongaffair,whoseramificationsdefybelief,
beganshortlyafterwards.Aftermilitaryservice,hetaughtphilosophyinschoolsinLeHavre,Laon,andNeuilly,andpublishedL'Imagination(1936),anextended
philosophicalessay,LaNause(1938tr.LloydAlexanderasNausea,1949),anintellectualnovel,andavolumeofshortstories(1939).Calledupin1939asan
artillerymeteorologist,hewastakenprisonerwhentheGermansoverranFrance.In1941heescapedindisguisefromStalagXIIDatTrier,wherehehaddirectedand
actedinhisownChristmasmysteryplay,Bariona(published1962).Theexperienceinspiredfurthersymbolicdramas,ofwhichLesMouches(1943tr.StuartGilbert
asTheFlies,1946)andHuisClos(1944tr.GilbertasInCamera,1946)wereproducedduringtheOccupation.
In1944Sartregaveupteachingforwriting,travelling,lecturing,andpoliticalactivism,whileeditingwithBeauvoirtheavantgardemonthly,LesTempsModernes.His
trilogyofnovels,'LesCheminsdelaLibert'[PathsofFreedom](194549tr.EricSuttonandGerardHopkins,194750),gaveconcreteexpressiontothe
existentialistviewshehadexpoundedinL'treetleNant(1943tr.HazelBarnesasBeingandNothingness,1956).InCritiquedelaRaisonDialectique
(1960tr.AlanSheridanSmithasCritiqueofDialecticalReason,1976)hesetoutcriteriawhichheappliedinL'IdiotdelaFamille(1971tr.BarnesasTheIdiot
oftheFamily,1982),anexhaustivebutultimatelyunfinishedstudyofFLAUBERT.Hepublishedanautobiography,LesMots(1963tr.BernardFrechtmanasThe
Words,1964),shortlybeforehewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiterature,whichherefusedonthegroundsthatitwasanawardonlyforWesternorforSoviet
dissidentwriters.Henevermarried,butin1965heformallyadoptedashisdaughterArletteElkam,a28yearoldAlgerianJewesswhohadbeenoneofhisbedmates
fornineyears.SeeAnnieCohenSolal,Sartre:aLife,newedn1988ArthurC.Danto,Sartre,2ndedn1991(introductiontohisthought).
Sassoon,Siegfried(18861967)
Britishpoetandprosewriter,wasborninWeirleigh,Kent,ofJewishorigin.Hisfatherlefthomewhentheboywassevenanddiedin1895.Hewaseducatedat
MarlboroughCollegeandClareCollege,Cambridge,whichheleftwithoutadegreetoindulgehispassionsforplayingcricket,writingverse,andhuntingthefox.In
1915hewascommissionedintheRoyalWelchFusiliersandservedinFrance,wherehewontheMilitaryCross,wasrecommendedfortheVictoriaCross,andwas
severelywoundedin1917.WhileconvalescinginEnglandhewroteandmadepublicasearingattackontheconductofthewar.Hewaspronouncedtobesuffering
fromshellshock,andwasreturnedtothefrontin1918,wherehewaswoundedinthehead.Inthemeantimehisgraphic,brutal,butcompassionatewarpoems,
publishedinTheOldHuntsman(1917)andCounterAttack(1918),hadestablishedhimasaconsiderablewarpoet,anidentitywhichbeliedhissubsequent
developmentasawriterofsatirical,reflective,andspiritualpoetry,andofevocativeprose.MemoirsofaFoxHuntingMan(1928)

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perfectlyepitomizesawholesocialethosandwasthefirstofthreevolumesoffictionalizedexperiencewhichwerepublishedtogetherasTheCompleteMemoirsof
GeorgeSherston(1937).HeretracedSherston'sstepsinhisautobiographies,TheOldCenturyandSevenMoreYears(1938),TheWealdofYouth(1942),and
Siegfried'sJourney(1945).HewasmadeCBEin1951.SeeCollectedPoems190856,2ndedn1961MichaelThorpe,SiegfriedSassoon:aCriticalStudy,
1966.
Savery,Henry(17911842)
Bitishbornnovelist,wasborninButcombe,nearBristol,thesonofabanker.In1815hemarriedinBristol,whereheislistedasasugarrefinerin1817,anda
bankruptin1819.Hereturnedtothesametradein1822,havinginthemeantimeeditedtheBristolObserverandGloucester,Monmouth,SomersetandWiltshire
Courier.In1824heoverstretchedhimself,resortedtoforgingbills,panicked,andtriedtoescapetoAmerica.TheshipwasdelayedoffCotes,andSavery,seeinghis
partnerapproachinarowingboatwithaconstable,jumpedoverboard.Hewaspickedupandcharged.Inadramatictrial,hepleadedguiltyasadvised,andthen,the
judgehavingdonnedthefatalblackcap,argued:'Iwasnotawarethattoforgethenamesofpersonsnotinexistencewascriminal.'Thesentenceofdeathwas
commutedtotransportationforlifeonlyhoursbeforeitwasduetobecarriedout.InTasmania,hiseducationsecuredhimclericalposts,buthisdeviousbusiness
activitiesonthesidecausedhimproblems.Heappliedforhiswifeandsontojoinhim,butwhenshefoundoutthathewasstillaconvict,theyquarrelled,heattempted
suicide,andshesailedbackhome.Whileinprisonfordebt,heamusedhimselfbywriting,asSimonStukeley,aseriesofsketchesfortheColonialTimesand
TasmanianAdvertiser,which,whenpublishedinvolumeformasTheHermitinVanDiemen'sLand(1829),becamethefirstAustralianbookofessays.Onhis
releasehewroteanonymouslyafictionalautobiography,QuintusServintus(1831),thefirstAustraliannovel,whichendswiththeconvicthero,now41,receivinga
pardon.Itsauthorwasnotsolucky.Hewasgivenaconditionalpardonin1838,butwassubsequentlyconvictedofforgeryagain,anddiedintheprisonhospital.
Sayers,DorothyL(eigh)(18931957)
Britishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninOxford,thedaughterofaclergyman,andwaseducatedattheGodolphinSchoolandSomervilleCollege,Oxford,where
shegotafirstinmodernlanguages.Shethenpublishedtwobooksofverse,andhadtwoshortspellsasateacherandoneinpublishing,beforebecomingin1921an
advertisingcopywriterforS.H.BensonLtd,withwhomsheremaineduntil1931.WhoseBody?(1923),thefirstofwhathavebeendescribedas'detectivenovelsof
manners',introducedLordPeterWimsey,detectiveextraordinary,forwhomshewentontoprovideaWho'sWhoentryandotherbiographicalevidence.Thevaried
backgroundsofhernovelsarefilledinwithscholarlyprecision,especiallytheOxfordsettingofGaudyNight(1935),inwhichLordPeterundergoesasubtle
characterchangeundertheinfluenceofanevenmorevividlyrealizedcreation,HarrietVane,whofirstappearedinStrongPoison(1930),ontrialforthemurderof
herlover.AfterBusman'sHoneymoon(1937)Sayersturnedherattentiontoreligiousdrama,ofwhichshewroteforradioTheManBorntoBeKing(1943),a
playcycleinproseonthelifeofChrist.ShewasPresidentoftheModernLanguageAssociation193945,andacofounderin1949,andthenPresident,ofthe
DetectionClub.Shepublishedatranslation,withcommentary,ofDANTE'SInferno(1949)andPurgatorio(1955).In1924,onthereboundfromapassionatebut
unconsummatedromancewiththeRussianbornnovelistandjournalist,JohnCournos(18811966),shehadabriefaffairwithacarsalesman/mechanicthebabythat
resulted,ason,wasputouttoacousintobebroughtup.In1926shemarriedCaptainOswaldA.Fleming(d.1950),ajournalist.Theboywasnowgiventhename
Fleming,andwasattheageofteninstructedtoregardSayersashisadoptivemother.SeeTheLettersofDorothyL.Sayers18991936:theMakingofa
DetectiveNovelist,ed.BarbaraReynolds,newedn1996RalphE.Hone,DorothyL.Sayers:aLiteraryBiography,1979BarbaraReynolds,DorothyL.
Sayers:HerLifeandSoul,newedn1994.
ScannellVernon(b.1922)
Bitishpoetandnovelist,wasborninSpilsby,Lincolnshire,andeducatedatQueen'sParkSchool,Aylesbury.DuringWorldWarIIheservedintheGordon
HighlandersintheMiddleEastandinNormandy,wherehewaswounded.Atonetimeaprofessionalboxerandfrom1955to1962ateacherofEnglish,hepublished
hisfirstbookofverse,GravesandResurrections,in1948histhird,TheMasksofLove(1960),wontheHeinemannprizeforliterature.Hehasdescribedhismain
poeticthemesas'violence,theexperienceofwar,the''senseofdanger"whichispartoftheclimateofourtimes...'.Alongwithrecollectionsofthewar,andpoems,
suchas'AnyComplaints',inwhichwarimagesoccur,therearestudiesofsituations,incidents,andpeopleinthecontemporaryworldwhichareoftenbrutal,generally
sympathetic,andusuallyexpressedwithadrywit,aswellasreflectionsofamorepersonalnatureinATimeforFires(1991),his13thcollection,hewritesfiercely
butwithpainfulsimplicityaboutgrowingold.Hisnovelsreflectsimilarthemes,withTheFight(1953),hisfirst,The

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BigTime(1965),andRingofTruth(1983)beingsetintheworldofboxing.HiscriticalworksincludeEdwardThomas(1963)andNotWithoutGlory:Poetsof
theSecondWorldWar(1976),andhehascompiledSportingLiterature:anAnthology(1987).AProperGentleman(1977)isanaccountofhisunusual,and
ultimatelyviolent,experiencesintheroleofResidentPoetinthenewlycreatedvillageofBerinsfield,Oxfordshire,in197576.InTheTigerandtheRose(1971),
ArgumentofKings(1987),andDrumsofMorning:GrowingUpintheThirties(1992)hehastoldhislifestoryinreverseorder.SeeCollectedPoems1950
1993,1994.
Schiller,(JohannChristoph)Friedrich(von)(17591805)
Germandramatist,poet,andcritic,wasborninMarbachamNeckarandeducatedattheDukeKarlEugen'sMilitaryAcademy,wherehestudiedlawandthen
medicine.Hisfirstpoemwaspublishedin1777,andhisthirdattemptatamedicaldissertationwasacceptedbytheexaminersin1780,whenhequalifiedasa
regimentaldoctorandwaspostedtoStuttgart.Havingbeenputunder14days'arrestfortakingabsencewithoutleavetoattendaperformanceinMannheimofhisfirst
play,DieRaber[TheRobbers](1792),adramaoftheSturmundDrang[StormandStress]school,andfurtherdispleasedthedukebyhavingwrittenit,hechose
tofleeWurttembergforMannheim,wherehewasofferedayear'scontracttowritethreeplays.Withoutemploymentafterwards,hefoundedhisownliteraryand
criticaljournal,RheinischeThalia(subsequentlyThaliaand,from1792,NeueThalia),inwhichmuchofhisworkfirstappeared.'AndieFreude'[OdetoJoy]was
oneofthepoemshewroteduringthenextfouryears,aperiodwhichculminatedinthepublicationandpremiereofDonCarlos(1787tr.G.H.NoehdenandJ.
Stoddart,1798),whichmarksthebeginningofhisexplorationofpoliticalandmoralissuesthroughthemediumofhistoricaldrama,andhischangefromprosetoa
flexibleformofblankverse.HemovedtoWeimar,andwasin1789appointedaprofessorofhistoryatJenaUniversity.HewasrecommendedforthepostbyGOETHE,
whomhefirstmetatthehomeofhisfuturewife,CharlottevonLengefeld(theymarriedin1790).Aseriousillnessin1791causedhimtoresignfromtheuniversityand
delayedthecompletionofthesubstantialGeschichtedesdreissigjhrigenKrieges(1793tr.CaptainBlaquiereasTheHistoryoftheThirtyYearsWarin
Germany,1799).
Afterthepublicationofhismajortreatiseonaesthetics(1795tr.E.M.WilkinsonandL.A.WilloughbyasOntheAestheticEducationofMan,1967),hereturned
tocreativewritingwith'DieMachtdesGesanges'[ThePowerofSong]andotherpoems.DiscussionswithGoetheonepicanddramaticpoetryledtothemboth
experimentingwiththeballadform,andtoSchillermovingtowardsamoresymbolichistoricaldramawithintheframeworkoftheEuropeantragictradition.The
sombreplaysoftheWallensteintrilogy(tr.EJ.LamportwithTheRobbers,1979)wereperformedin179899,publishedin1800,andimmediatelytranslatedinto
EnglishbyCOLERIDGE(1800).InMariaStuart(1800asMaryStuart,tr.J.C.Mellish,1801tr.StephenSpender,1959withDonCarlos,tr.HilaryCollierSy
Quia,adaptedbyPeterOswald,introductionbyLesleySharpe,1996)hefurtherexploredthedichotomybetweenpoliticalandspiritualfreedom,contrastingthe
situationsofElizabethIofEnglandandhercousin,andenemy,Mary,QueenofScots.Subsequentplays,notablyDieJungfrauvonOrleans(1801tr.J.E.
DrinkwaterasTheMaidofOrleans,1835)andWilhelmTell(1804tr.SamuelRobinsonasWilliamTell,1825),aremoreexperimentalintechniqueaswellasin
historicalperspective.Hereceivedapatentofnobilityin1802.Hediedofpneumoniatenmonthsafterthebirthofhisfourthchild.CARLYLE'STheLifeofSchiller
(1825)isthefirstEnglishbiographyofanysignificantGermanwriter.BULWERLYTTONtranslatedThePoemsandBalladsofSchiller(1844).SeeLesleySharpe,
FriedrichSchillerDrama,ThoughtandPolitics,1991(criticalstudy)T.J.Reed,Schiller,1991(introduction).
Schmitz,Ettore
seeSVEVO.
Schopenhauer,Arthur(17881860)
Germanphilosopher,wasborninDanzig(nowGdansk,Poland),thesonofatraderofDutchdescent,andwasbroughtupinHamburg,wherehewenttoaprivate
schooluntilhewas15.Hethenaccompaniedhisparentsonatwoyeartripabroad,whichincludedthreemonths'boardingataschoolinWimbledon.Ontheirreturn
hewasputintoamercantileoffice,wherehestayed,evenafterhisfather'sdeath,until1807,whenhetookhimselfofftoschoolinGothaandthenWeimartostudy
classics.Whenhereceivedhisfather'sinheritance,heenrolledatGottingenUniversity,fromwhichhetransferredtoBerlintostudyphilosophy,finallypresentinghis
doctoralthesisatJena.HelivedwithhismotherinWeimaruntil1814,whentheyquarrelledandhewalkedout,nevertoseeheragain.Fromthenuntil1818helived
inDresden,wherehewroteDieWeltalsWilleundVorstellung(18193rdedn1859tr.R.B.HaldaneandJ.KempasTheWorldasWillandIdea,188386),a
pessimisticinterpretationofChristianitywhichproposesthatthereisnoneedtoreconciletheeviloftheworldwiththeexistenceofGod.Itreceivedlittleattention.
AppointedaprofessorofphilosophyatBerlin,heobtuselychosetolectureatthesametimeasthemoresenior,andmoredistinguished,GeorgWilhelmFriedrich
Hegel

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(17701831),andfailedtoattractanaudience.Hepublishednothingmoreuntil1836,havingin1831fledthecholeraepidemicinBerlin,inwhichHegeldied,and
settledinFrankfurt,wherehelivedaloneandfortherestofhislifefollowedanidenticaldailyroutine.Hereceivedscantrecognitioninhislifetimeuntilthepublication
ofParergaundParalipomena(1851ed.andtr.R.J.HollingdaleasEssaysandAphorisms,1970).SeeChristopherJanaway,Schopenhauer,1994
(introduction).
Schreiner,Olive(18551920)
SouthAfricannovelistandsocialreformer,wasbornatWittebergenmissionstation,ontheedgeofBasutoland,thesixthsurvivingchildofaGermanWesleyan
missionaryandhisEnglishwife.ShewasselfeducatedandbecameafreethinkeratanearlyagealoanofSPENCER'SFirstPrinciplesin1871introducedherto
scientificnaturalism.Whileagoverness,andplaguedwithasthma,sheworkedonthreenovels,foroneofwhichshedeterminedtofindapublisherwhenshewentto
Englandin1881totryforacareerinmedicine.Nothingcameofthelatter,butafterseveralrejectionsherbookwastakenbyChapmanandHall,whosereaderwas
MEREDITH,andpublishedasTileStonyofanAfricanFarm(1883)by'RalphIron'.Theidentityoftheauthorquicklybecameknown.Shewaslionized,hadanintense
relationshipwithHavelockEllis(18591939),thesexologistsee'MyOtherSelf':theLettersofOliveSchreinerandHavelockEllis18841920,ed.YaffaClaire
Draznin(1993),andbecameinvolvedinpublicdiscussionsonwomen'srights.ShereturnedtoSouthAfricain1889,takingupresidenceinMatjesfonteininthe
Karoo,whereshewasvisitedandconsultedbytheeminent.Dreams(1890)isacollectionofallegories.In1894shemarriedSamuelCronwright,anostrichfarmer
eightyearsherjunior,whochangedhisnametoCronwrightSchreiner,andlaterbecameapolitician.Adaughter,bornin1895,onlylivedfor16hours.Schreiner's
needtobeidentifiedwithacause,whichwasherrationaleasanovelist,ledhertowritethefictionalTrooperPeterHalketofMashonaland(1897),anoutspoken
andironicattackonthepoliticalambitionsofCecilRhodes(18531902),andtotakethesideoftheBoersagainsttheBritish.WomenandLabour(1911),amajor
feministstudy,wasjustpartofwhatforyearsshehadreferredtoasher'sexbook',themanuscriptofwhichsheclaimedhadbeendestroyed.Shewasaprominent
memberoftheWomen'sEnfranchisementLeague,butresignedwhenittranspiredthatitsaimsonlyreferredtowhites.
MaroonedinEnglandduringWorldWarI,shewasunpopularforheroppositiontohostilities,andwasaskedtoleaveherlodgingsbecauseofherGermanname.She
becamesochangedbyillnessthatwhenherhusbandjoinedherafteraseparationoffiveyears,hedidnotrecognizeher.Shereturned,withouthim,totheCape,and
diedfivemonthslateratWynberg,beingreinterred,asshehadrequested,onBuffelsKopintheKaroo.Herhusbandarrangedforthepublicationoftheunfinished
novelaboutprostitutionandothermattersoffemaleconcern,FromMantoMan:or,PerhapsOnly...(1926),andtheromanticsemiautobiographicalUndine
(1928).Thesewerethetwoothernovelsonwhichshehadworkedinthe1870s,neitherofwhichshewantedpublished.Intheirpresentationofintelligentwomanhood
challengingconventionstheyhaveasimilarthemetoTheStonyofanAfricanFarm,whosesignificancetodayisthelastingimpressionmadebyitsevocationofthe
SouthAfricanlandscapeandoftheethosofthetime,andintheleadshegavetonovelistssuchasGEORGEMOOREandD.H.LAWRENCEbydelvingintoforbiddensubjects.
SeeRuthFirstandAnnScott,OliveSchreiner:aBiography,newedn1990andinKennethParker(ed.),TheSouthAfricanNovelinEnglish,1978.
Schulberg,Budd(b.1914)
Americannovelistandscreenwriter,wasborninNewYorkCity,thesonofamotionpicturepioneer,andgrewupinHollywood.HewaseducatedatLosAngeles
HighSchool,DeerfieldAcademy,andDartmouthCollege,afterwhichhebecame'asortofapprenticescreenwriterformovieproducersDavidO.Selznickand
WalterWanger'.OneoftheHollywoodshortstorieshepublishedinnationalmagazinesgavethetitletohisfirstnovel,WhatMakesSammyRun?(1941),anaccount
ofthemeteoricrisefrompovertytomotionpicturemogulwhichisarchetypalintheuncompromisingironyofitsJewishandHollywoodbackgrounds.Heservedasa
USNavylieutenantinStrategicServicesduringWorldWarII,intheaftermathofwhichhewasinchargeofphotographicevidencefortheNurembergWarCrimes
Tribunal.ThedoomedprotagonistsofTheHarderTheyFall(1947)andTheDisenchanted(1950)arerespectivelyaheavyweightboxeronthewayupanda
heavyweightnovelistonthewaydown,thelatterhavingaffinitieswithF.S.FITZGERALD.Waterfront(1955),adaptedfromhisownscreenplay,isabrutalexposofNew
Yorkwaterfrontlife.SeealsoLove,Action,LaughterandOtherSadTales(1990).SeeMovingPictures:MemoriesofaHollywoodPrince,1981
(reminiscences).
Schuyler,James
seeO'HARA,FRANK.
Schwartz,Delmore(19131966)
Americanpoet,shortstorywriter,andcritic,wasborninBrooklyn,NewYork,theeldersonofmiddleclassJewishparentswhoimmigratedaschildren,andwho
separatedwhenhewasyoung.HewaseducatedatGeorgeWashingtonHighSchoolandNew

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YorkUniversity,afterwhichhedidpostgraduatestudiesinphilosophyatHarvardwithouttakingafurtherdegree,thoughhisgradeswereexcellent.InDreamsBegin
Responsibilities(1938)comprisedverseinvariousformsfromlyrictolongpoem,shortstories,anddrama.In1940hewasappointedtoteachcompositionat
Harvardheresignedin1947,possiblyoutofdissatisfaction.In1943hebecameaneditorofthePartisanReview,whichheremaineduntil1955.Theshortstories
ofTheWorldisaWedding(1948)especiallyevokeJewishdisillusionmentinAmericainthe1920s.Duringthe1950sheheldvisitinglectureshipsatvarious
universities,andalsoseveraleditorialposts.SummerKnowledge:NewandSelectedPoems19381958(1959)wontheLibraryofCongressBollingenPrize.He
separatedfromhissecondwifein1957.Latterly,thoughhewasavisitingprofessorofEnglishatSyracuseUniversityfrom1962to1965,hissenseofintellectual
alienationgavewaytodelusionsofpersecution.HediedofaheartattackinaseedyNewYorkhotel.SelectedEssaysofDelmoreSchwartz,ed.DonaldA.Dike
andDavidH.Zucker(1970)containshiscriticalwritings.CorrespondencebetweenhimandthepublisheroftheavantgardejournalNewDirectionsisinDelmore
SchwartzandJamesLaughlin,SelectedLetters,ed.RobertPhillips(1993).
Scott,Alexander(c.151583)
Scottishpoet,isbelievedtobethesamewhoplayedthefifeinatableauinParisin1540,organizedbytheKnightsoftheRoundTableoftheKingoftheBasoche,
andwhowasmusicianandorganistatthePrioryofInchmahomeintheLakeofMenteithin1548:hispoem,'TheLamentoftheMaisterofErskine',commemorates
thedeathatthebattleofPinkiein1547oftheelderbrotherofJohnErskine(d.1572),laterRegentMar,whowasatthetimethelicensorofthePriory.In1549his
twosonswerelegitimized,whichprobablymeansthathehadnow.marriedtheirmother.Thatitwasanunsuccessfulmarriageissuggestedbythecomment,'Quod
Scott,quhenhiswifelefthim',writtenbythemanuscriptcollector,GeorgeBannatyne(15451608),besidethepoem,'Toluveunluvititisanepane'.By1562Scott
hadbecomesomeformofProtestant,andhis'AneNewYeirGifttotheQueneMary,quhenschocomefirstHame'containssomesevereremarksaboutthelicence
oftheCatholicestablishmentinScotland.In1565hewasreceivingincomeasacanonoftheprioryatInchaffray,andin1567and1570hemadesubstantial
purchasesoflandsinFifeandPerthshire.Mostofhissurvivingpoetrycompriseslovelyricssophisticated,intricate,technicallyvaried,andoftencryingouttobe
sung,especially'Lo,quhatitistolufe!/Lerne,yethatlisttoprufe,/beme,Isay,thatnowaysmay/thegrundofgreifremufe,/botstilldecaybothnychtandday./
Lo,quhatitistolufe!'SeeJohnMacQueen(ed.),BallattisofLuve,1970.
Scott,DuncanCampbell(18621947)
Canadianpoetandshortstorywriter,wasborninOttawa,thesonofanitinerantMethodistministerwhoencouragedhimin'everyevidenttalent'andwhosesojourns
invarioustownsinQuebecgavehimthebackgroundofhisstories.HewaseducatedatSmithFallsHighSchool,Ontario,andWesleyanCollege,Stanstead,Quebec.
Lackingthefundstogoontomedicalschool,hebecameaclerkthirdclassintheIndianBranch(laterDepartmentofIndianAffairs),Ottawa,risingin1909to
SuperintendentofIndianEducation,andin1923toDeputySuperintendentGeneral,whichheremaineduntilhisretirementat70.WiththeencouragementofLAMPMAN,
whoseliteraryexecutorhebecameandwhosepoemsheposthumouslyedited(1900),hebegantowrite.TheMagicHouse,andOtherPoems(1893)was
conventionallyRomantic.InLaborandtheAngel(1898)hebroughthispoeticabilitytobearonhisexperienceoftheIndianculturehewentontoproducepoems
suchas'TheForsaken'and'OntheWaytotheMission'inNewWorldLyricsandBallads(1905).'AtGullLake:August1910'appearedinTheGreenCloister:
LaterPoems(1935).InthestoriesinIntheVillageofViger(1896)andTheWitchingofElspie(1923)seealsoIntheVillageofVigerandOtherStories,ed.
S.L.Dragland,1973hepresentedFrenchCanadawithasenseofrealism,andsometimeswithironyandareflectionofthesupernatural,makinghimthemost
significantCanadianshortstorywriterofhistime.HewasmadeCMGin1934.SeeSelectedPoetry,ed.GlennClever,1974SelectedStories,ed.GlennClever,
1987.
Scott,F(rancis)R(eginald)(18991985)
Canadianpoet,translator,lawyer,andsocialphilosopher,wasthesonof(Ven.)FrederickGeorgeScott(CMGDSO)(18611944),knownasthe'poetofthe
Laurentians'.HewasbornintherectoryofStMatthew's,Quebec,andwaseducatedatQuebecHighSchool,Bishop'sCollege,Lennoxville,and(asaRhodes
scholar)atMagdalenCollege,Oxford.HethenreadlawatMcGillUniversity,towhich,havingbeencalledtotheQuebecBar,hereturnedtoteachin1928,being
MacdonaldProfessorofLaw195567andDeanoftheFacultyofLaw196164.NationalChairmanoftheCooperativeCommonwealthFederationfrom1942to
1950,andanauthorityonconstitutionallaw,hewasleadingcounselinseveralsignificantcivilrightscasesbeforetheSupremeCourtofCanadabetween1956and
1964,andwasappointedQCin1961.HisfirstGovernorGeneral'sAwardwasforEssaysontheConstitution:AspectsofCanadianLawandPolitics

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(1977).Inhisyouthacomposeroflightverse,in1925hefoundedwithA.J.M.SMITHtheMcGillFortnightlyReviewasaforumformodernpoetryhesubsequently
editedotherliteraryjournals,CanadianMercury(19289),CanadianForum(193639),Preview(194244),andNorthernReview(194547).Hisownfirst
volumeofversewasOverture(1945)tohissocialandpoliticalsatireheaddedpoemsexpressiveofahumanisticattitudetonatureandsociety,demonstrated
especiallyinTheDanceisOne(1973).TheCollectedPoemsofF.R.Scott(1981),whichwontheGovernorGeneral'sAward,includessomeofhistranslationsof
FrenchCanadianpoets,notablyHEBERThealsocompiledandtranslatedtheinfluentialanthology,PoemsofFrenchCanada(1977).HewasmadeCompanion,
OrderofCanada,in1967.SeeSandraDjawa,ThePoliticsoftheImagination:aLifeofER.Scott,1989.
Scott,Paul(192078)
Britishnovelist,wasborninSouthgate,London,andeducatedatWinchmoreHillCollegiateSchooluntilhewas14,whenheandhiselderbrotherwereremoved
becauseofthecollapseoftheirfather'sbusinessasafashionartist.Ajobwasfoundforhimwithanaccountant,andanintroductiontopoetrycamethrougha
relationshipwithahomosexualestateagentand,moredecorously,withaliterarymindedcouplewholivednextdoor.CalledupbytheArmyin1940,hewonastripe
(waspromotedtolancecorporal)andthenlostitthroughsomesexuallyorientatedmisdemeanour,marriedanursesixyearsolderthanhewas,andpublishedan
opaquepoem,Gerontius(1941).In1943hewascommissionedintheRoyalIndianArmyCorps,inwhichheservedinIndiaandMalayaintheprovisionofair
supplies.Hisknowledgeofaccountancygothimajobinpublishingafterthewar,andhisexperienceofbothfieldsapartnershipinaliteraryagency,whereheguided
theascendancyofBRAINE,FOWLES,andMORRISWEST.Heresignedin1960tofurtherhisownliterarycareer.Hisearliernovels,JohnnieSahib(1952),TheAlienSky
(1953),andTheMarkoftheWarrior(1958),andtoagreaterextentTheChineseLovePavilion(1960)andTheBirdsofParadise(1962),allofwhicharesetin
theEast,earnedsomecriticalacclaimbutnotenoughmoneytoliveon.The'RajQuartet',TheJewelintheCrown(1966),TheDayoftheScorpion(1968),The
TowersofSilence(1972),andADivisionoftheSpoils(1975),tooktenyearstowrite,wreckedhishealthandhismarriage,andwasonlycompletedwiththehelp
ofextraadvancesfromhispublisherandfrequentrecoursetothebottle.Massiveandintricate,itisalargelysuccessfulattemptbyamanwithadeeplydividednature
toexplainthedivisionsfromwhichmodernIndiaemerged.StayingOn(1977),nomorethanacodatothemajorwork,wontheBookerprizeforfiction,fivemonths
beforehisdeathandseveralyearsbeforethetelevisionadaptationofthe'RajQuartet'(asTheJewelintheCrown)madehimfamousasawriter.SeeHilary
Spurling,PaulScott:aLife,newedn1991RobinMoore,PaulScott'sRaj,1990(criticalstudy).
Scott,(Sir)Walter(17711832)
Scottishnovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,historian,folklorist,dramatist,editor,andcritic,wasborninEdinburgh'sinsanitaryOldTown,ninthchildofasolicitor.He
waspermanentlylamefrominfantileparalysiscontractedwhenhewasabouteighteenmonthsoldasaresulthespentsomeyearsrecuperatingintheBordersandin
Bath,beforerejoininghisfamily,nowremovedtotheNewTown.BetweenboutsoffurtherillnesshewenttotheHighSchoolofEdinburghandEdinburghUniversity,
becominganapprenticeinhisfather'sfirmin1786,andbeingcalledtotheScottishBarin1792.HemarriedCharlotteCarpenter(17701826),ofFrenchbirth,in
1797theyweretohavetwosonsandtwodaughters.In1799ScottwasappointedSheriffDeputeofSelkirkshire,wherehecompletedhiscollectionoforalballads,
publishedasMinstrelsyoftheScottishBorder(180203).Henowturnedtocomposinghisownhistoricalballadepics,TheLayoftheLastMinstrel(1805),
Marmion:aTaleofFloddenField(1808),andTheLadyoftheLake(1810).
From1806to1812hewasaclerkoftheCourtofSession,whileatthesametimeinvolvinghimselffinanciallywiththepublishingandprintingcompanyofBallantyne.
HehadatownhouseinNorthCastleStreetandacountryseatatAbbotsford,Melrose,whichovertheyearsheextendedintotheGothicmansionwhichcanbe
visitedtoday.In1813,whilesearchingthereinanolddeskforsomefishingtackle,hefoundpartofanovelwhichhehadabandonedin1805.Whenhehadfinishedit,
Waverley:or,'TisSixtyYearsSince(1814)becamethefirstofalonglineofenormouslypopularhistoricalnovelswhichincludedGuyMannering(1815),RobRoy
(1817),TheHeartofMidlothian(inTalesofMyLandlord,1818),andRedgauntlet(1824),knowncollectivelyasthe'WaverleyNovels'.Theywereallpublished
anonymously,possiblybecausehefeltthembeneathhimasanofficialofthelaw,butprobablybecausehedidnotwanttoappeartobeleadingsomanylives.The
secretwaspubliclyrevealedatacharitydinnerin1827,bywhichtimehehadmuchenjoyedbeingthecauseofwhatwasamysterytoallexceptclosefriendsand
perceptivecritics.
HewaslargelyresponsiblefortherediscoveryinEdinburghCastlein1818oftheScottishcrownjewels,whichhadbeenmissingfor111years.In1819hereceiveda
baronetcyfromthehandofGeorgeIV,whosevisittoEdinburghin1822thenow'Sir'WaiterScottbrilliantlystagemanaged,initiatingin

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theprocesstherevivaloftheScottishtartantradition.Hisbusinessaffairs,however,hadbeenintroubleasfarbackas1813,andwhenin1826thegeneraleconomic
depressioncausedthecollapseofhispartners,hewasdeclaredbankrupt.Thoughalreadysufferingfromrecurringillness,herefusedhisfriends'helpinsettlingwithhis
creditors,declaringproudlyaccordingtothereminiscencesofLordCockburn(17791854),MemorialsofHisTime(1856)'No!thisrighthandshallworkitall
off!'.TheJournalofSirWalterScott182532(1890)containshisownaccountoftheeventsofthatyear(includingthedeathofhiswifefourmonthsafterthe
disaster),andoftherestofhislife,duringwhichhedrovehimselftowritewiderangingworks,includingStValentine'sDay:or,TheFairMaidofPerth(1828),
threeseriesofTalesofaGrandfather(182830),andLettersonDemonologyandWitchcraft(1830).In1830hehadthefirstofaseriesofcerebral
haemorrhages.TheGovernmentputafrigateathisdisposalforthewinterof183132,buthehadtoberushedbackfromNaplestoAbbotsford,wherehedied.His
trusteeshadthenpaidoff11shillingsinthepoundofhisoriginaldebtsofover100,000.
AsaverysuccessfulRomanticpoetwhowroteinEnglishonScottishthemes,ScottspreadScottishculturefarandwideseeSelectedPoems,ed.JamesReed
(1992).Hewasaworthyfounderofthehistoricalnovelinthathewasfairtobothsidesinaconflict,andherepresentedhistoricalcharactersandeventswith
intelligenceandinsight,whilehavinganeyetocomedyandtheeffectiverepresentationofScottishspeech.Hewasalsoanoriginatorofthegenreoftheshortstory,of
whichhewroteseveralparticularlypowerfultragicandsupernaturalexamplesseeTheTwoDroversandOtherStories,ed.GrahamTulloch(1987).Inallthishe
wasinstrumentalinpropagating,forbetterorforworse,theromanticviewofHighlandhistorywhichstillpopularlypertainstoday.HeeditedtheworksofDRYDEN
(1808)andSWIFT(1814).HiselderdaughterSophiamarriedJohnGibsonLockhart(17941854),whoseadmirablebiographyofScottwaspublishedinseven
volumesin183738(abridgededn1848).SeeEdgarJohnson,SirWalterScott:theGreatUnknown,1970(biography)JohnSutherland,TheLifeofSirWalter
Scott:aCriticalBiography,newedn1997RobinMayhead,WalterScott,1973(criticalstudy)DavidBrown,SirWalterScottandtheHistoricalImagination,
1979.
Sedges,John
seeBUCK.
Sedley(orSidley),(Sir)Charles(16391701)
Englishpoetanddramatist,wasbornposthumouslyinAylesford,Kent,andsucceededtothetitlein1656onthedeathofhisbrother,whosewidowhemarriedthe
followingyear.HewenttoWadhamCollege,Oxford,withouttakingadegree.PEPYSrecordssomeoftherowdiestexcessesofthisRestorationcourtpoet,whowas
in1633triedbeforetheLordChiefJusticeandfined650forindecentexposureandlewdbehaviouronthebalconyofOxfordKate's,aCoventGardentavern,
witnessedbyacrowdofathousand.Hewrotetwocomedies,TheMulberryGarden(1668),whoseopeningisbasedonMOLIRE'SL'coledesMaris,and
Bellamira:or,TheMistress(1687),areworkingofTERENCE'STheEunuch.Histragedyinheroiccouplets,AntonyandCleopatra(1677),wasprobably
supersededthatsameyearbyAllforLove,byhisfriendDRYDEN.In1668hewaselectedMemberofParliamentforRomney,inwhichcapacityheoftenspokeinthe
House.In1680hisskullwasfracturedwhentheroofofthetenniscourtintheHaymarketcollapsedwhilehewasplaying.Hewasinstrumentalinpromotingthe
RevolutionwhichbroughtWilliamandMarytothethronein1689,albeitthathisonlydaughter,Catherine(16571717),DuchessofDorchester,wasJamesII's
mistress.TheMiscellaneousWorks(1702),includingpoems,translations,andspeechesinParliament,waseditedbyCaptainAyloffe,nephewofSedley'smistress,
AnnAyscough,withwhomhehadgonethroughaformofmarriagein1672,thoughhiswifewasstillalive,butinsane.SeeThePoeticalandDramaticWorksofSir
CharlesSedley,ed.V.deSolaPinto,2vols1928.
Seferis,George,pennameofGiorgosSeferiades(190071)
Greekpoet,critic,anddiplomat,wasborninSmyrna,Turkey.In1914hewenttoAthens,whereheattendedclassicalgymnasiumandAthensUniversity,afterwhich
hestudiedlawattheSorbonneinParisandEnglishinLondon.HeenteredtheGreekMinistryofForeignAffairsin1926,servinginLondon(193134)andAlbania
(193638).DuringWorldWarIIheworkedfortheFreeGreekgovernmentinCrete,SouthAfrica,Italy,andEgyptinAlexandriahefirstproperlyencounteredthe
workofCAVAFY,whomhesucceededasthesecondmodernGreekpoettoachieveinternationalfame.SubsequentlyhewasAmbassadorinLebanon(195356)and
inLondon(195762).HetranslatedaselectionofT.S.ELIOTintomodernGreekin1936,atatimewhenhewasparticularlyconcernedwithusingratherthanfollowing
theclassicalliterarytraditionasheshowsin'TheExile'sReturn',inwhichheemphasizesthebleaknessofthepoliticalsituationin1938bydenyingthereaderthe
expectedrevelationofthehomecomingofOdysseus.Hislaterpoetryisimbuedwithalyricalpessimism.OntheGreekStyle:SelectedEssaysinPoetryand
Hellenism,tr.RexWarnerandTh.D.Frangopoulos(1966)containsenlighteningstudiesoftheplaceoftraditionincontemporaryliterature.Hewasawardedthe
NobelPrizeforLiteraturein1963.SeeCom

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pletePoems,tr.EdmundKeeleyandPhilipSherrard,2ndedn1995.
Selvon,Samuel(192394)
Trinidadiannovelist,wasborninthesmallvillageofBarataria,thesonofadrygoodsmerchantofIndianandScottishdescent,andleftNaparimaCollegeat16togo
towork.Hewrotestoriesduringwarserviceasanavalwirelessoperator,andwasthenajournalistontheTrinidadGuardian.In1950hewenttoLondon,wherehe
was'sweptupbyexaltation.Itwassovividasaperiodoftime,soverymuchalive.'HetookaroominNottingHillandworkedattheTrinidadHighCommissionuntil
becomingafulltimewriterin1954afterthepublicationofhisfirstnovel.ABrighterSun(1952),towhichTurnAgainTiger(1958)isasequel,heraldedtheheyday
oftheTrinidadiannovel.AstoryofthegrowingselfdeterminationofayounglabourerinTrinidad,itisnotablealsoforitshumourandforthedeftmixtureofEnglish
narrativeandCreoledialogue.AformofTrinidadiandialectisthemediumofnarrationofTheLonelyLondoners(1956),foritspathosaswellasitswitandlyricism
regardedasamongtheverybestnovelsofexile.Someofitscharacters,infreshsituationsforwhichSelvoncreatesnewstylisticanddescriptivedevices,reappearin
TheHousingLark(1965),MosesAscending(1975),andMosesMigrating(1983).AfterlivinginLondonforthirtyyearshesettledinCanada.Hewastwice
married.SeeinBruceKing(ed.),WestIndianLiterature,2ndedn1995.
Sempill,Robert,ofBeltrees(c.1595c.1665)
Scottishpoet,nottobeconfusedwithRobertSempill(c.153095),balladwriter,wastheeldersonofSirJamesSempillofBeltrees(15661625),authorofananti
Catholicsatiricaldrama,APicktoothforthePope:or,ThePackman'sPaternoster(published1669).Littleisknownabouthislifebeyondhiseducationat
GlasgowUniversityandhismarriagetoadaughterofLyonofAuldbar.SeveralpoemsattributedtohimappearedinChoiceCollectionofComicandSerious
ScottishPoems(170611),compiledbytheEdinburghprinterJamesWatson(d.1722).Amongthemis'TheLifeandDeathofthePiperofKilbarchen,orthe
EpitaphofHabbieSimpson'.Thesixlineverseformwhichheusedforthis,rhymingaaabab,withthefourthandlastlineshavingonlytwostresses,wastriumphantly
resuscitatedbyRAMSAY,whochristeneditthe'standardhabbie',andwasusedtoexcellenteffectbyFERGUSSONandBURNS.Sempillandhisson,Francis(c.161682),
wereneitherofthemgreatpoets,buttheyaresignificantinthatbeingoftheeducatedlessergentry,theyrepresentanewkindofauthor.Theyalsoprovidealink
betweentheScotsverseofthe16thcenturyanditsrevivalinthe18thcentury.
Seneca,LuciusAnnaeus(c.4BCAD65)
Romanphilosopheranddramatist,wasborninCorduba,Spain,thesecondsonofSeneca'theElder'(d.c.37),writerandteacherofrhetoric.Hewasbroughtto
Romeatanearlyage,andwasinfluencedbytheStoics.Heclimbedthepoliticalladder,beingconsulin56.Hispretensionstobeapractisingphilosopherare
questionable.Hecondonedvariousdynasticmurders,andwasbanishedforeightyearsundersuspicionofhavinganaffairwithoneofthesistersofthemademperor
Caligula.Fromhisreturnuntilhisretirementin62hewastutortoNero,andwhileheundoubtedlybutonlytemporarilycurbedtheworstexcessesofhispupil,hegrew
richintheprocess.Hedied,asdidhisnephewLUCAN,inthepurgefollowingthePisonianconspiracy.Inadditiontoanumberofphilosophicaltreatisesandessays,
whichincludeseveralinvestigationsofnaturalphenomona,heleftawickedskitonthedeademperorClaudius,Apocolocyntosis.Hisnineversetragedies(atenthis
thoughttobebyalaterhand)werealmostcertainlydesignedtobereadaloudorrecited,ratherthanperformed.Theirmelodramaandrhetoricwereimitatedbyearly
EnglishtragicdramatistssuchasSACKVILLEandKYD,atatimewhentheplaysofAESCHYLUS,EURIPIDES,andSOPHOCLES,onwhichSenecadrew,werelesswellknown,
LatinbeingmoretreasuredasalanguagethanGreek.SeeTheTragedies,tr.DavidR.Slavitt,2vols1995.
Senghor,Lopold(Sdar)(b.1906)
Senegalesepoet,philosopher,andstatesman,wasbornofSererestockinthevillageofJoal,fifthchildbyanoutoftownwifeofagroundnutmerchantwhobecamea
Catholicconvert.HavinglearnednoFrenchuntilhewasseven,hewaseducatedatalocalCatholicmissionaryschool,andinDakaratanecclesiasticalseminaryand
thenalyce.Hewonascholarship(thefirsteverawardedbySenegal)forhighereducationinParis,attheLyceLouisleGrandandthentheSorbonne,wherehe
becamein1935thefirstAfricantoachievethedegreeofagrgation.Hetaughtinlyces,embracedngritude(theculturalcontributionoftheBlackAfricanto
humanity),andwrotethelyricpoetrywhichwastoappearasChantsd'Ombre[SongsofShadow](1945).HostiesNoires[BlackHostages](1948)contained
verseswrittenwhileaGermanprisonerduringWorldWarII,afterhehadsurvivedaNazifiringsquad.HisanthologyofblackAfricanverse,Anthologiedela
NouvellePosieNgreetMalgache(1948),withaprefacebySARTRE,becameaseminalwork.AfurthervolumeofhisownisNocturnes(1961tr.JohnReedand
CliveWake,1969),asequenceoflovepoems.DeputyforSenegalintheFrenchNationalAssemblyfrom1946to1959,hewas,ontheindependenceofthecountry
ofhisbirthin1960,

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electeditsfirstPresident,inwhichcapacityheserveduntilhisretirementin1980.SeeSelectedPoems,1964,andProseandPoetry,1976,ed.andtr.JohnReed
andCliveWakeTheCollectedPoetry,tr.M.Dixon,1992JanetG.Vaillant,Black,French,andAfrican:aLifeofLopoldSdarSenghor,1990.
Serote,MonganeWally(b.1944)
SouthAfricanpoetandnovelist,wasborninSophiatownandtakenshortlyafterwardstotheJohannesburgtownshipofAlexandra,where'comparedtomanypeople,
Icamefromawelltodofamily.Mymotherwasanurse,myfatheramechanic.'Hewaseducatedfor18monthsinLesotho,andthenatAlexandraSecondary
SchoolandMorrisIsaacsonHighSchool,Soweto.Hebecameafreelancejournalist,sellinglocalstoriestowhicheverpaperswouldbuythem.Inabout1965he
beganworkingfortheundergroundmovementoftheAfricanNationalCongress.Hewasarrestedin1969andafterspendingninemonthsinsolitaryconfinementwas
releasedwithoutcharge.HisbooksofverseincludeYakhal'inkomo(1972),Tsetlo(1974),andBeholdMama,Flowers(1978).GUYBUTLERhasobservedabouthim
andMTSHALIthat'theirverylackofformalinstructioninEuropeaneloquencehasleftthemfreertoemployAfricanmodesofexpression'.InhispoliticalpoemsSerote
seemstoargueforaformofseparatisminwhichtheblackdictatesterms.ToEveryBirthItsBlood(1981),anovelsetinAlexandraTownship,hasasharp,allusive
style.SerotewasaFulbrightscholaratColumbiaUniversity,USA,graduatinginfineartsin1979,afterwhichhesettledinGaberone,Botswana,attachedtothe
MeduArtsEnsemble.In1986hemovedtoLondontoworktherefortheANC.HesubsequentlyreturnedtoSouthAfrica.ThirdWorldExpress(1992),along
poem,wonthe1993NomaAwardforPublishinginAfrica.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.MbuleloVizikhungoMzamene,1982andinJaneWilkinson(ed.),Talking
WithAfricanWriters,1992.
Service,RobertW(illiam)(18741958)
ScottishpoetoftheCanadiannorth,wasborninEnglandinPreston,theeldestoftenchildrenofaScottishbankteller,andattheageoffourwentwithayounger
brothertoliveforseveralyearswithhisfather'srelativesinKilwinning,Ayrshire.ThefamilyreconvenedinGlasgow,wherehewenttoHillheadHighSchool.After
beingaclerkintheCommercialBankofScotland,heemigratedin1895toBritishColumbia,workedhiswaydownthewestcoasttoMexicoandback,andin1903
resumedhisbankingcareerwiththeCanadianBankofCommerce,whichpostedhimtotheYukonin1904.HereheobservedtheaftermathoftheKlondikegold
rush,inwhichhesethishighlycolourednarrativeversessuchas'TheShootingofDanMcGrew'('AbunchoftheboyswerewhoopingitupintheMalamutesaloon..
.')and'TheCremationofSamMcGee',publishedinSongsofaSourdough(1907),whichwasfollowedbyBalladsofaCheechako(1909).Anovel,TheTrailof
'98(1911),wasnotsuchasuccess,andafterthepublicationofRhymesofaRollingStone(1912),heleftCanada,initiallytocovertheBalkanWarin1912forthe
TorontoStar.ServiceasawarcorrespondentandstretcherbearerinFranceinWorldWarIprovidedthebackgroundforTheRhymesofaRedCrossMan
(1916).From1913helivedsuccessivelyinParis,Nice,LosAngeles,andMonteCarlo,enjoyingahugeincomeandcontinuingtowritepopularverseandnegligible
romanticnovels.At39hedecidedtomarry:someoneFrench,forthatwaswherehewasliving,butlikehismotherwho'wouldbewillingtoblackmyshoesofa
morning...spittingonthemtomaketheblackinggofurther...aweeScotchlassiewhowouldrespectthebawbees[pennies]'.Heappearstohavehadnotrouble
findingasuitablepartner.Hewrotetwoautobiographiesthetitleofthesecond,HarperofHeaven:aRecordofRadiantLiving(1948),sumsuphislateryears
whilebelyinghisengaginglymodestattitudetohistriumphs:'ForGodsake,don'tcallmeapoet,/ForI'veneverbeenguiltyofthat.'SeeCollectedPoemsofRobert
Service,1993TheBestofRobertService,ed.AnneWatts,newedn1995JamesMackay,VagabondofVerse:RobertService,aBiography,newedn1996.
Seton,ErnestThompson(18601946)
naturalistandfictionwriter,wasbornErnestThompsoninSouthShields,andlateraddedthename'Seton'toreflecthisdescentfromtheScottisharistocraticfamily,a
branchofwhomwereearlsofWinton.In1866hisfamilyemigratedtoCanada,wherehewaseducatedatTorontoGrammarSchoolandwonascholarshiptothe
RoyalAcademyinLondon.BackinCanadain1881,hestudiedanimalandbirdlifeandhabits,madeaninternationalnameasanillustrator,andwasin1892
appointedofficialnaturalisttotheGovernmentofManitoba,oneofthefruitsofwhichwasLifeHistoriesofNorthernAnimals:anAccountoftheMammalsof
Manitoba(2vols1909).WildAnimalsIHaveKnown(1898)wasthefirst,andisthemostfamous,ofmanycollectionsofnaturestoriesbasedonhisobservations
andinstinct.In1896hesettledintheUSA,wherehefoundedaboys'organization,theWoodcraftIndians,thebasisofwhosephilosophywasenshrinedinhis
children'snovel,TwoLittleSavages:BeingtheAdventuresofTwoBoyswhoLivedasIndiansandWhatTheyLearned(1903).Thatandotherwritingswere
subsumedintotheofficialhandbookoftheBoyScoutsofAmerica,whichheestablishedin1910withthemovement'sfounder,SirRobert(laterLord)BadenPowell
(1857

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1941),andofwhichhewasappointedChiefScout.In1915,havingrepeatedlyand,asrecentresearchhasshown,withsomejustification,chargedtheadministration
withmilitarism,hewasexpelledfromtheorganizationonthegroundsthathewasnotanAmericancitizenhebecameonein1931,shortlyaftersettlinginNew
Mexico.Whilehecertainlyhumanizednatureinhisanimalstories,hewasafarbetternaturalistthanROBERTSandotherswhoseanthropomorphismcameunder
attackfromscientists.ATWOOD,inhercriticalstudyofCanadianliterature,Survival(1972),citeshisworkasillustratingtheCanadianinclinationtoidentifywitha
huntedprey.AnyaSeton,authorofDragonwyck(1944),Katherine(1954),andothermeticulouslyresearched'bodicerippers',whodiedin1990withoutever
divulgingherdateofbirth,wasadaughterbyhisfirstwife,whomhemarriedin1896.SeeBettyKeller,BlackWolf:theBiographyofErnestThompsonSeton,new
edn1988LorraineMcMullen,ErnestThompsonSetonandHisWorks,1994.
Sexton,Anne(192875)
neHarvey,Americanpoet,wasborninNewton,Massachusetts,thethirddaughterofawoollenmanufacturer.ShewaseducatedataboardingschoolinLowelland
atGarlandJuniorCollege,Boston,fromwhichsheelopedwhenshewas19andmarriedAlfred'Kayo'SextonIIthemarriagelasted26years.Attheageof27,
afterthebirthofherseconddaughter,alongperiodofemotionalinstabilityculminatedinacompletementalbreakdownandasuicideattempt.Atherapistencouraged
hertowriteaboutherexperiences.SheattendedROBERTLOWELL'SpoetryseminarsatBostonUniversity,whereshemetandbecameclosetoPLATH,afterwhosesuicide
shewrote,in'Sylvia'sDeath'(1963):'Thief!/howdidyoucrawlinto,/crawldownalone/intothedeathIwantedsobadly,andforsolong...'.Death,guilt,
insanity,sex,andincesthauntherwork,forwhich'confessional'isanevenmoreapttermthanwhenappliedtothatofothersofhercontemporaries.ToBedlamand
PartWayBack(1960)wasfollowedbyAllMyPrettyOnes(1962),thetitlebeingareferencetothedeathsofbothherparentsintheirfiftieswithinthreemonthsof
eachother.LiveorDie(1966)wonthePulitzerPrize.LovePoems(1969)recordsaprotractedaffair:TheDeathNotebooks(1974)containsfurtherreflectionson
suicide.Shewonseveralgrants,awards,andtravellingfellowshipswasCrawshawProfessorofLiteratureatColgateUniversityin1972andtaughtcreativewritingat
BostonUniversityfrom1972to1974.Shekilledherselfbyinhalingcarbonmonoxide.DianeWoodMiddlebrook,AnneSexton:aBiography(1991)drawson
tapesandotherrecordsofherpsychotherapysessions.SeeTheCompletePoems,1990TheSelectedPoemsofAnneSexton,ed.DianeMiddlebrookandDiana
HumeGeorge,1991NoEvilStar:SelectedEssays,Interviews,andProse,ed.StevenColburn,1985.
Shadbolt,Maurice(b.1932)
NewZealandshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasborninAucklandandeducatedatTeKuitiHighSchool,AvondaleCollege,andAucklandUniversity.Heworked
asajournalist,andwasthenadocumentaryscriptwriteranddirectorfortheNationalFilmUnit,beforebecomingafulltimewriterin1957.Hehassaidthat'asaman
ofmytimeandplace,Ihavesimplytriedtomakesenseofboth'.ThemaintitleofTheNewZealanders:aSequenceofStories(1959)aptlyreflectshissubsequent
explorationofhiscountry'senvironmentandhistory,andthepersonalitiesofitspeoples.ThishehasconductedinfurthershortstoriesseeFiguresinLight:
SelectedStories(1978)innovels,beginningwiththealmoststatutorysagaofrebelliousyouth,AmongtheCinders(1965rev.edn1984)inThePresenceof
Music:ThreeNovellas(1967),studiesoftheplaceoftheartistinsocietyandintermsofpersonalrelationshipsandinaplay,OnceonChunukBair(1982),
centringontheGallipolicampaignin1915.Latterly,asinthetrilogySeasonoftheJew(1986),Monday'sWarriors(1990),andHouseofStrife(1993),hehasused
historicalevents,andhistoricalcharacters,asameansoffocusingattentiononpresentdiscontents.Intheaccountofhisfamily,OneofBen's:aTribeTransported
(1993),hestatesthatforhimthereis'onlyonereasontowrite,anditisnottoserveliteraryfashionorscholarlyfads.Itis...togetagriponourexistence...flagit
downforamomentasitfliespast.Ifwealsowinalittleharmonyfromthehumanbedlam,thatisserendipity.'HewasmadeCBEin1989.
Shadwell,Thomas(164292)
Englishdramatistandpoet,wasprobablybornatSantonHall,Norfolk,andwaseducatedatKingEdwardVIFreeGrammarSchool,BuryStEdmunds,andfora
yearatGonvilleandCaiusCollege,Cambridge,beforestudyinglawattheMiddleTemple,ofwhichhisfatherwasamember.Hemarriedanactress,andin1668his
firstplay,TheSullenLovers,acomedyofhumoursinthemannerofJONSON,wasperformedwithgreatsuccess.Hewasaprofessionaldramatistwhoaimedtoplease
theaudienceratherthanthecritics,andoverthenext24yearshewroteadozenmorecomedies.TheyincludetherathervulgarEpsomWells(1672)asatireonthe
newscientificvogue,TheVirtuoso(1676)andanexposofLondonlowlife,TheSquireofAlsatia(1688).ThesethreeinparticularrankhimnextafterETHEREGE
andWYCHERLEYamongcomicdramatistsofthetime.Hisreputation,however,hassufferedeversinceMacFlecknoe:oraSatyruponT.S.(1682),laterfreely
acknowledged

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astheworkofthePoetLaureate,DRYDEN.Itwasunfair,butitwaswitty('Theresttosomefaintmeaningmakepretence,/ButShadwellneverdeviatesintosense'),
andwhateverthecauseofitsbeingwritten,ithassurvivedasapoemwhichsucceedsinitsaimofdivertingitsreaders.TherewassomecompensationforShadwell.
OntheaccessionofWilliamandMaryin1689,headdressedtothemtwoexcruciatinglyflattering'congratulatorypoems',andlaterthatyearhewasappointedtothe
postsDrydenhadhadtorelinquishforhispoliticalandreligiousprinciples,PoetLaureateandHistoriographerRoyal.Itisbelievedthathediedofanoverdoseof
opium,whichhehadbeentakingforsomeyearstorelievepain.SeeAlbertS.Borgman,ThomasShadwell:HisLifeandComedies,newedn1969.
Shaffer,Peter(b.1926)
Britishdramatist,wasborninLiverpool,twinbrotherofAnthony,theauthorofasuccessfulstageplaywhichisaparodyofdetectivefiction,Sleuth(1970).They
werebothatStPaul'sSchool.AfterbeingconscriptedascoalminersduringWorldWarII(Peterpassedhishoursdownthepitmentallyrehearsingtherolesof
SHAKESPEARE'Stragicheroes),theywenttoTrinityCollege,Cambridge.From1951to1954PeterworkedintheacquisitionsdepartmentofNewYorkPublicLibrary.
Hisfirstplay,FiveFingerExercise(1958),farfrombeinginthecurrent'AngryYoungMen'stream(seeJOHNOSBORNE),isatense,middleclassdomesticdramainthe
styleofPINEROorRATTIGAN.Hisnextsuccess,TheRoyalHuntoftheSun(1965),isapanoramicepicof16thcenturyPeru.BlackComedy(1967),theideafor
whichcamefromasketchhesawperformedbythePekingOperain1955,isafarcewhichturnsonthereversaloflightanddark.Thereisdarknessofadifferent
kindinEquus(1973),whichexploresthecaseofastableboywhohasdeliberatelyblindedsixhorseswithaspike.InAmadeus(1979),thedyingMozartaccuseshis
rivalofpoisoninghim.LetticeandLovage(1987)isapenetratingstudyoftwowomen.IfthereisalinkbetweenShaffer'svariedthemesandmoods,itisaconcern
withmodernpsychology,andwithman'sdestructiveneedforvengeance,furtherexploredinTheGiftoftheGorgon(1993).Stylisticallyhefavourstheimpassioned
monologueasadramaticdevice.Hissuccessbothwiththecriticsandthepublicisameasureofhisversatility.HewasmadeCBEin1987.
Shaftesbury,(Cooper,AnthonyAshley),3rdEarlof(16711713)
Englishphilosopherandcritic,wasbornatExeterHouse,theLondonresidenceofhisgrandfather,whofeaturesinDRYDEN'SAbsalomandAchitophel.Hisearly
educationwassupervisedbyLOCKE,onwhoserecommendationhewaslookedafterfromtheageofthreebyagovernesswhospokefluentLatinandGreek.Hewent
toWinchesterCollegefrom1683to1686,andwasthentakenonaneducationaltourofEurope,duringwhichhelearnedperfectFrench.HewaselectedMemberof
ParliamentforPoolein1695,andsucceededtohistitlein1699,afterwhichheattendeddebatesintheHouseofLordswhenhishealthallowed.Plaguedbyasthma,
hesufferedparticularlyintheLondonsmoghediedinNaples,wherehehadretiredin1711.Hisphilosophicalandliteraryviewswereencompassedin
CharacteristicksofMen,Manners,Opinions,Times(1711).Herehepropoundedthetheoryofbenevolence,maintainingtheexistenceofamoralsenseandofa
perfectuniverse.Asacritic,hesupportedridiculeasatestoftruth,andarguedthatgoodness,beauty,andtrutharesynonymous.
Shakespeare,William(15641616)
Englishdramatistandpoet,theeldersonofagloveranddealerinleathergoodsandwool,wasbaptizedinStratforduponAvonParishChurchon26April1564.A
bondwasissuedon28November1582forhismarriagetoAnneHathaway,eightyearshissenior.TheirdaughterSusannawasbaptizedon26May1583,andtwins
on2February1585.ThatisvirtuallyallthatisknownaboutShakespeare'searlylife,thoughalmostcertainlyheattendedthelocalgrammarschool.In1592heis
spitefullyalludedtoinROBERTGREENE'SAGroatsworthofWitBoughtwithaMillionofRepentance,as'anupstartcrowbeautifiedwithourfeathers'.Afterthe
plagueof159294haddisruptedtheLondontheatricalscene,hesurfacesasamemberoftheLordChamberlain'sMen,becomingapartnerintheestablishmentofthe
newGlobeTheatrein1599.ThecompanybecametheKing'sMenin1603,andin1610ShakespeareretiredtohisStratfordhouseofNewPlace,aconsiderable
propertywhichhehadboughtin1597.
Duringtheplagueepidemichewrote,andpublished,histwonarrativepoems,VenusandAdonis(1593)andLucrece(1594),bothdedicatedtotheyoungEarlof
Southampton(15731624).FrancisMeres(15651647)referstobothpoemsinPalladisTamia(1598),andalsotothecirculationbyShakespeareof'hissugred
Sonnetsamonghisprivatefriends'.Thesewerepublished,mysteriouslydedicatedtoa'MrW.H.',byanadventurousbooksellerin1609,withouttheirauthor's
permission.Thereare153sonnets,No.126beingmerely12linesofrhymedverse.Theyappeartobeaddressedtoanunknownyoungmanwhoisthepoet's
favouredfriendandisbeingurgedtomarry,toarivalpoetwhohasingratiatedhimselfwiththeyoungman,andtothepoet'smistress(thefamousDarkLady),who
betweentimeshasbeen

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havinganaffairwiththepoet'sfriend.Theirqualityvaries,butNos18,87,89,97,98,116,130,144,and146inparticularareamongthefinestoftheirkind.The
intensitywhichburnsthroughthesequencesuggestsfirmlythatitisautobiographical,whichwouldseemtobeconfirmedbythefactthatitwasneverreissuedinthe
poet'slifetime.
Shakespearecaredlittleaboutthepublicationofhisplays.Whatareknown,fromtheirformat,astheQuartosarelargelypiratededitionswrittendownduringa
performancethefirstrecordedoneisTitusAndronicus(1594).TheFirstFolioedition,ed.JohnHeminge(d.1630)andHenryCondell(d.1627),actorsandboth
ofthemfriendsofShakespeare,waspublishedin1623.Internalandexternalevidence,includingthedatesofquartos,suggeststhatamonghisearlierplays,written
betweenabout1587and1592,areTheComedyofErrorsandRichardIII.AtaboutthesametimeasVenusandAdonisandLucrece,heproducedthelyrical
comedyAMidsummerNight'sDream,thetragedyRomeoandJuliet,andtheplaywhichhoversinbetweenthetwocategories,TheMerchantofVenice.From
1596to1599washisageofhistoryRichardII,thetwopartsofHenryIV,andHenryV.Theywerefollowedbythehighfantasies,MuchAdoAboutNothing,As
YouLikeIt,andTwelfthNightorWhatYouWill.ThecommittaltotheTowerofLondonofhiserstwhilepatronSouthampton,aftertherebellionoftheEarlof
Essexin1601,probablyhadagreatereffectontheprogressionofShakespeare'sdramaticartthantheaccessionofJamesI(JAMESVIofScotland)twoyearslater:itis
tothisperiodthatthe'darkcomedies'or'bittercomedies'belongAll'sWellThatEndsWell,TroilusandCressida,andMeasureforMeasure.Hisevendarker
phase,theperiodofthegreattragedies,hadalreadybegunin1599withJuliusCaesar,inwhichthecharacterofBrutuspresagesthatofHamlet.Thesourceofthe
playofHamlet,whichdatesfromabout1601,isataleofrevengefromNorsefolklore,butinShakespeare'shandsitbecomesapenetratingstudyofman'sattitudeto
andambiguousrelationshipwithlifeanddeath.InOthello,Macbeth,KingLear,TimonofAthens,Coriolanus,andAntonyandCleopatra,hepouredouthis
messagesofpoeticpessimism,depictinginturneachofthemajorvices:jealousy,lustforpower,vanity,ingratitude(alsocruelty),pride,andsexuality.Tohisfinal
periodbelongthefairy,tales(andsomeofhissweetestpoetry)ofTheWinter'sTaleandTheTempest,bothperformedin1611.Probablythelastplayinwhichhe
hadahand(JOHNFLETCHERisthemostlikelycollaborator)literallybroughtdownthehouse,asanerrantcannoninHenryVIIIdemolishedtheGlobein1613duringthe
play'sthirdorfourthperformance.SeeTheCompleteWorks,ed.StanleyWells,1988SamuelSchoenbaum,WilliamShakespeare:aCompactDocumentary
Life,2ndedn1987StanleyWells,Shakespeare:aDramaticLife,1994(historicalstudyofhisart)C.T.Onions,AShakespeareGlossary,3rdedn1986and
criticalstudiesbyHarleyGranvilleBarker,G.B.Harrison,JohnDoverWilson,FE.Halliday,E.M.W.Tillyard,andG.WilsonKnightinparticular.
ShalomAleichem[Hebrew:'Peacebewithyou'or'Howdoyoudo?'],pseudonymofSolomonRabinovitz(18591916)
Yiddishnovelist,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninPereyaslev,Ukraine,thesonofagrainandlumbermerchantwhofellonhardtimesandbecamean
innkeeper.Afterleavinggymnasiumin1876,hetaughtinlocalschoolsandthenin1877becametutorinthehomeofaJewishlandowner,whodismissedhimwhenhe
wasdiscoveredtobeinlovewiththedaughterofthehouse.Thepairmarriedin1883,theyearhelefthispostasgovernmentappointedrabbiatLubuyanddecided
toabandonHebrewasaliterarymediumandtowritestoriesandsketchesinYiddish,whichwasconsideredbadformhencethepseudonym.In1888hefounded
DiYidisheFolksbibliotek[TheYiddishPopularLibrary]toraisethestatusofYiddish,buthewentbankruptafterthepublicationofthesecondannualvolume,and
hadtoresideabroaduntilhismotherinlawsettledhisdebts.WiththeadventofYiddishdailynewspapersineasternEurope,hebecameabletosupporthimselfand
hisgrowingfamilybyhispen,butthepogromsof1905sethimonaseriesofwanderings:firsttotheUSA,wherehewasdisheartenedbyhisreception,andthen
throughEurope,givingpublicrecitationsofhisworks,andtakingrefugeinresortsandspasforhistuberculosis.WhenWorldWarIbrokeouthewasforcedtoreturn
totheUSA,whereinspiteofhismisgivingsbeingrealizedaboutthelackoffinancialreturns,onthedayofhisfuneralmostoftheJewishbusinessesinNewYork
stoppedwork.AhumoristwithaprofoundinsightintotheJewishtalentforsurvival,hehasbeentranslatedintomanylanguages,includingHebrew,Russian,and
EnglishthemusicalFiddlerontheRoof(1964)isbasedonadramatizationofoneofhisstories.TheGreatFair,tr.TamaraKahana(1958)isanautobiographical
novelofchildhoodandyouthofunusualcharm.SeeTheBestofShalomAleichem,ed.IrvingHoweandRuthR.Wisse,newedn1991.
ShamsUdDinMuhammad
seeHAFIZ.
Shapcott,Thomas(b.1935)
Australianpoetandnovelist,wasborninIpswich,Queensland,oneofidenticaltwinboys.HeleftIpswichGrammarSchoolat15toworkinhisfather'saccounting
firm,ofwhichhebecameapartnerin1972,havingin1968

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graduatedinartatQueenslandUniversity.Hewasapublicaccountantfrom1972to1978.Intwoearlybooksofverse,TimeonFire(1961)andTheMankind
Thing(1964),hedeliberatelysublimatedhisinstincttoexperiment,whichhehasdonesinceinavarietyofformswhilebeing'concernedwithexploringwaysof
balancingessentiallylyricalexpressionwiththecadenceoflyricspeech'.AnotablecollectionisShabbytownCalendar(1975),inwhichheexamineshisoriginsand
givesreintohissenseofplace.Hisfictionhasfollowedsimilarlinesofdevelopment.FloodChildren(1981)waspublishedforyoungadults.TheBirthdayGift
(1982)isastudyofapairofunidenticaltwinboysfromIpswichwhogrowup,andapart,together.InWhiteStagofExile(1984),evenmoreexperimentalinform,
theemigrationtoAustraliainthe19thcenturyoftheDirectoroftheHungarianNationalGalleryofArtisthebasisofanexplorationofnationalandintellectuallinks.
ShortstoriesareinLimestoneandLemonWine(1988)andWhatYouOwn(1991).Thedemonstrationofculturallinksalsoinformshisanthology,Contemporary
AmericanandAustralianPoetry(1976).Hewasin1973oneoftheoriginalmembersoftheAustraliaCouncilLiteratureBoard,ofwhichhewasDirectorfrom
1983to1990,whenhebecameExecutiveDirectoroftheNationalBookCouncil.In1982hemarriedashissecondwifethepoetJudithRodriguez,neGreen(b.
1936).HewasmadeAOin1989.SeeSelectedPoems19561988,rev.edn1989BitingtheBullet:aLiteraryMemoir,1990(essays,reviews,reflections).
Sharp,William('FionaMacleod')(18551905)
Scottishpoetandnovelist,wasborninPaisleyandeducatedatGlasgowAcademyandGlasgowUniversity.Afterteamingupwithagroupofgypsies,hewasplaced
inalawyer'sofficebyhisfather,onwhosedeathin1876hetookanextendedtriptoAustralia,whichhefoundtooroughforhim.HeobtainedapostinaLondon
bank,whichhegaveupin1881tocombinealiterarycareerwithtravelling.In1884,havingspentfivemonthsstudyingartinItaly,hemarriedafirstcousin,towhom
hehadbeenunofficiallyengagedfornineyears.Duringhisfirstburstofactivityheproducedseveralbooksofverse,twonovels,andstudiesofD.G.ROSSETTI(ofwhose
circlehehadbeenamember),P.B.SHELLEY,HEINE,andROBERTBROWNING,besideseditingthe'CanterburyPoets'and'BiographiesofGreatWriters'series.In1889he
wenttotheUSAandCanada,andthence,viaScotland,toRome,wherehespentthewinterof189091,andwroteagroupofpoems,SospiridiRoma(1891),in
whichherecreatestheromanticimageoftheancientpast.Healsoassumedanalternative,feminine,persona,whomhecalledFionaMacleod.Asthislady,whomhe
claimedwasareclusivecousinandforwhomhecompiledanentryinWho'sWho,hewroteseveralnovels,beginningwithPharais:aRomanceoftheIsles(1894),
andvolumesofshorterpieces,includingTheSinEaterandOtherTales(1895)twoversedramasandacorpusofpoetry,collectedinFromtheHillsofDream:
MountainSongsandIslandRunes(1896).Theancientculturewhichhedepictsneverexisted,butheisintheCelticTwilighttraditionforhisvisionaryandmusical
qualities,andforhispresentation,inHighlandsettings,oftheancientritualsoflove,andwar,anddeath.
Shaw,GeorgeBernard(18561950)
Irishdramatist,novelist,essayist,andcritic,wasborninDublinofProtestantparents.Hisfather'sdrinkinghabitsbarredthefamilyfromgenteelsociety,andwhen
Shawwas16hisheadstrongbutmusicalmotherleftforLondon,takinghistwosisterswithher.AfterfouryearsatWesleySchool,hebecameaclerkinafirmofland
agentsin1871,beingsoonpromotedtocashierwhentheincumbentofthatpostdecampedwithsomerents.Heappearedinprintin1875inPublicOpinion,witha
letteracutelyanalysingtheinfluenceoftheAmericanevangelists,DwightMoodyandIraSankey.In1876hethrewuphisjobandmovedtoLondon,wherehelived
withhismotherinanuncomfortablehouseoffFulhamRoad.Herehewrotefivenovels,ofwhichthelast,AnUnsocialSocialist,wasthefirsttobepublished(1884
asaserial,1887asabook),andthefirst,Immaturity,wasnotpublisheduntil1930.AfterreadingMARXinFrench,hebecameanactivesocialist,forcedhimselfto
beanaccomplishedpublicspeaker,andbecameanexecutivecouncilmemberoftheFabianSociety,forwhomheeditedFabianEssaysinSocialism(1889).He
wasabookreviewerforthePallMallGazette188588,andMusicCriticfortheStar(as'CornodiBassetto')188889andfortheWorld189094.Fromthis
experiencederivedtwoadmirablecriticalworks,TheQuintessenceofIbsenism(1891)andThePerfectWagnerite(1898).
InresponsetothechallengeofthemoderntheatreofferedbyIBSEN,heresuscitatedandrewroteaplayhehadbegunin1885withWilliamArcher(18561924):
Widowers'Houses(performed1892)wasanewkindofplayinthatdifferentsidesofasocialproblemarepresentedandarguedoutuponthestage.MrsWarren's
Profession(writtenin1893butbannedfrompublicperformanceuntil1926)hasasimilarintention.Atthestart,Shaw'sfutureasadramatistseemednomore
profitablethanithadbeenasanovelist,thoughTheDevil'sDisciple,ahistoricaldramabasedontheexploitsofGeneralBurgoyne(172292),wasfinancially
successfulwhenitwasstagedinNewYorkin1897.Hisprestigewasenhanced,however,byhisworkasDramaticCriticoftheSaturdayReviewfrom1895

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to1898,aswashispoliticalandeconomicexperiencebyserviceasalocalgovernmentcouncillorforSaintPancras(18971903).In1898hebrokenewground
whenhepublishedPlaysPleasantandUnpleasant,includingMrsWarren'sProfession,ArmsandtheMan,andCandida(thefirstofalineofplayswith
remarkableheroines).Shawwasconvincedthatplaysshouldbereadinthesamewayasnovels,andheprovidedexplicitandgraphicstagedirectionsandalso
prefaces,whichareratherpostscripts,ortreatises,ontheplay'stheme.ThreePlaysforPuritans(1901)includedCaesarandCleopatra,anenjoyableifimaginary
representationofthefamoushistoricalromance.Fromnowonhisplayswereregularlyproducedaswellasread,andheparticularlydemonstratedthebreadthofhis
socialawarenessandthecontrolofhismediumandofdialectics,aswellashissenseofcomedy,inManandSuperman(published1903),MajorBarbara(1907),
TheDoctor'sDilemma(1911),AndroclesandtheLion(1914),Pygmalion(1916),andSaintJoan(1924).BacktoMethuselah(1921),his'metabiological
pentateuch',isineffectfiveplaysspanningaphilosophicalexistencefromtheGardenofEdento'asfarasthoughtcanreach'.Hismostnotableproseworksofthe
interwarperiodareTheIntelligentWoman'sGuidetoSocialismandCapitalism(1928)andTheAdventuresofaBlackGirlinHerSearchforGod(1932).
Thelatter,anironicparable,waswritteninAfrica,wherehehadtoextendhisstayafteranaccident,causedbyhisputtinghisfootonthebrakeofahiredcarinstead
ofontheaccelerator.
In1898overworkcausedhimtocollapse.Anacquaintanceofhisownage,theIrishbornheiressCharlottePayneTownshend,wenttohishome(hewasstillliving
withhismother,butnowinFitzroySquare)andwassohorrifiedbytheconditionsthatsheinsistedonremovinghimtothecountry.Toavoidscandal,heproposed
marriage,andwasaccepted.Hismotherdiedin1913.Afterthedeathofhiswifein1943,helivedonatthehouseinAyotStLawrence,Hertfordshire,whichhehad
boughtin1906.Hewasaprolificletterwriter,whosecorrespondencewithEllenTerrywaspublishedin1931,withMrsPatrickCampbellin1952,andwithHarley
GranvilleBarkerin1956.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1925.SeeTheBodleyHeadCollectedPlayswithTheirPrefaces,7vols197075
BernardShawTheatrics:SelectedCorrespondenceofBernardShaw,ed.DanH.Laurence,1995HeskethPearson,BernardShaw:aBiographynewedn
1987MichaelHolroyd,BernardShaw:theSearchforLove18561898,newedn1990,BernardShaw:thePursuitofPower18981918,newedn1993,
BernardShaw:theLureofFantasy19181950,newedn1993,BernardShaw:theLastLaugh19501991,newedn1993,andTheShawCompanion,1992
DesmondMacCarthy,Shaw:thePlays,newedn1973.
Shaw,Irwin(191384)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninNewYorkCityandeducatedatBrooklynpublicschoolsandBrooklynCollege,fromwhichhe
graduatedinEnglishin1934,havingbeenrusticatedforayearforfailingcalculusasafreshman.Whilewritingradioserials,hecomposedaoneactsemi
expressionisticplay,BurytheDead,setinthe'secondyearofthewarthatistobegintomorrownight'.Itspowerfulpacifistmessageandspectacularstagecraftmade
itanotabletheatricaleventwhenitwasmovedtoBroadwayin1936aftertwoperformancesattheleftwingNewTheatreLeague.Afterhavinghadfourmoreplays
producedinNewYork,heservedintheUSArmySignalCorpsinWorldWarIIinNorthAfrica,theMiddleEast,France,andGermany,becomingawarrantofficer.
Inhiseagerlyawaitedfirstnovel,TheYoungLions(1948),threeindividuals,anintellectualliberal,aJew,andaGerman,presentthemoralissuesinherentinthewar
whichhadjustended.RichMan,PoorMan(1970)istypicalofmostofhissubsequentnovels,big,disjointed,andsociologicallyorientatedanexceptionisLucy
Crown(1956),astudyoftheeffectofabrokenmarriageonanonlychild.Criticsregardhisbestfictionasbeinginhisshortstories,63outofthetotalof84being
collectedinFiveDecades(1978),ofwhichhesays:'Inanoveloraplayyoumustbeawholeman.Inacollectionofstoriesyoucanbeallthemenorfragmentsof
men,worthyandunworthy,whoindifferentseasonsaboundinyou.'ManyofhisstoriesareaboutexpatriatesinParisorelsewhereontheContinent(hehimselflived
inEuropefrom1951)arecurringmotifisthemomentoftruth,thepointwhentheeyesoftheprotagonist,orthereader,areopenedtotheunderlyingrealityofthe
situation.SeeJamesR.Giles,IrwinShaw,1991(biographical/criticalstudy).
Shelley,Mary(Wollstonecraft)(17971851)
neGodwin,BritishNovelist,WasBorninLondon,theDaughterofGodwinandWollstonecraft,WhoDiedaFewDaysAftertheBirth.
Broughtupbyastepmotherwhowasuncongenialeventoherownchildren,andbyahighlyintellectualbutdistantfather,sherevelledinthefreedomsheexperienced
duringtwoextendedvisitsbetween1812and1814toTayside,nearDundee,whereshestayedwithafamilywhosesonworkedwithMary'sstepbrother,Charles
Clairmont,intheEdinburghpublishinghouseofConstable.SheappearstohavemetP.B.SHELLEYproperlyforthefirsttimeinMay1814,andinJulyofthatyearthey
leftEnglandtogether,withher16yearoldstepsisterClaireintowseeRobertGittingsandJoManton,ClaireClairmontandtheShelleys

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17981879(1992).Allthreeofthem,withMary'sinfantsonbyShelley,returnedtoSwitzerlandin1816,wheretheyjoinedforceswithBYRON,bywhomthe
assembledcompanywaschallenged,asmorningbrokeoneday,towritea'ghoststory'.Onlyonewascompleted,Mary'sFrankenstein,ortheModern
Prometheus(publishedanonymouslyin1818),theinitialsituationofwhich,assheexplainsintheintroductiontotheacknowledged(muchchanged)1831edition,
cametoherinanightmare.Whatwasperhapsmoreextraordinarythanfinishingherstoryofhorrorwasthatthisquiet,shy,19yearoldunmarriedmotherhad
conceived,intheformofasyntheticbeingwhichhauntsitscreator,acharacterwhichwouldsubsequentlyinspirenumerousbooks,films,andotherflightsofthe
imagination,andindoingsohadwrittenthefirstsciencefantasy.(Researchpublishedin1996suggestingthattheoriginalinspirationforthecharactercamefromher
visitwithShelleyin1814totheruinedCastleFrankenstein,birthplaceofKonradDippel(16731734),aphysiciannotoriousforhisexperimentswithcorpses,does
notdetractfromtheimaginativeuseshemadeofit.)
SheandShelleywerefinallymarriedinLondonon30December1816.Afterhisdeath,shestayedforthewinterinHUNT'Suncomfortablehousehold,returningto
Englandin1823.Between1840and1843sheandhersontravelledontheContinent,aboutwhichshewroteRamblesinGermanyandItaly(1844).Shealsodid
journalisticwork,andwroteshortstoriesandseveralfurthernovels,ofwhichLodore(1835)andFalkner(1837)retraceelementsofherlifewithShelley,andThe
LastMan(1826),astoryofthefutureinwhichdisasterstrikesEurope,isaforerunnerofapopulargenre.Sheeditedherhusband'spoetry(1839)andprose(1840).
SeeTheMaryShelleyReader,ed.BettyT.BennettandCharlesE.Robinson,1991TheJournalsofMaryShelley,ed.PaulaR.FeldmanandDianaScottKilvert,
2volsnewedns1995SelectedLetters,ed.BettyT.Bennett,1995MurielSpark,MaryShelley,2ndrev.edn1993ofChildofLight:aReassessmentofMary
WollstonecraftShelley,1951.
Shelley,PercyBysshe(17921822)
Britishpoetandessayist,wasbornatFieldPlace,Horsham,Sussex,theeldestsonofTimothyShelley(d.1844),aMemberofParliamentwhosucceededtohis
father'sbaronetcyin1815.HewaseducatedatSionHouseAcademy,Isleworth,andEton.BythetimeheleftschoolhehadpublishedZastrozzi:aRomance
(1810),wasmakingarrangementsforasecondnovel,andhadwritten,withhissisterElizabeth,OriginalPoetrybyVictorandCazire(1810).In1810hewentupto
UniversityCollege,Oxford,wherehebecameaclosefriendofThomasJeffersonHogg(17921862),hisfuturebiographer.Betweenthemtheyconcoctedand(in
February1811)distributedananonymouspamphlet,TheNecessityofAtheism.Shelleymadenoattempttoconcealhisauthorship,andthepairwereexpelledfor
refusingtoanswerquestions.ThatsummerherescuedHarrietWestbrook,apretty16yearoldschoolfriendofhissisters,fromwhathesawasthetyrannyofher
familybyelopingwithhertoEdinburgh,wheretheywentthroughaformofmarriage.Theunionwasnotasuccess.WhiletheywerelivingtogetherhewroteQueen
Mab:aPhilosophicalPoemwithNotes,whichwaspublishedprivatelyin1813,andinsubsequentunauthorizededitionsbecameaChartisthandbook.
In1814hefellforMary(MARYSHELLEY),the16yearolddaughterofGODWINandWOLLSTONECRAFT,andwentoffwithhertoSwitzerland,accompaniedbyhereven
youngerstepsister,Jane(orClaire)ClairmontseealsoTheJournalsofClaireClairmont,ed.MarionKingstonStocking(1968).ThetitlepoemofAlastor:orthe
SpiritofSolitude,andOtherPoems(1816)waswrittenwhenhewasbackinEngland.Itreflectshisdepressionatbeinghoundedbycreditorsandbythe
unfortunateHarriet,bywhomhenowhadtwochildren,andbeingcastoutevenbythatapostleoffreelove,Godwin,whostillexpectedShelley'sfinancialsupport,
especiallyafterthedeathofthepoet'sgrandfatherin1815gavehimaregularincome.In1816theunusualtrioreturnedtoLakeGeneva,whereBYRONjoinedthem.A
pregnantHarrietwasfounddrownedintheSerpentineinHydeParkinDecember,whereuponShelleyandMarymarriedinLondon.In1817hepublishedaromantic
epicinSpenserianmetreinsupportofrevolution,LaonandCythna,whichwassuppressedandreissuedinabowdlerizedformlaterthatyearasTheRevoltof
Islam.
In1818theShelleystooktheirtwochildrentoItaly,wherethedeathoftheirdaughterinspiredthebeautiful'LinesWrittenAmongtheEuganeanHills',whose
assuranceisameasureoftheartisticconfidencewhichenabledhimtocompletePrometheusUnbound(1820),anidealistic,allegoricaldramawithmuchsoaring
poetry.TheCenci(1819),amelodramaticverseplaycomposedforthetheatrebutregardedatthetimeastoostrongtobestaged,waswrittenafterthedeathoftheir
sonin1819.Theincomparable'OdetotheWestWind'belongstothisperiodtoo.LaterthatyearMaryhadafurtherboy,PercyFlorence(181989),whoinherited
thebaronetcyin1844.TheymovedpermanentlytotheregionofPisain1820,wheretheywerejoinedbyseveraldevotees,andwhereShelleywroteAdonais:an
ElegyontheDeathofJohnKeats(1821).ThediscoveryofagorgeousItaliangirl,EmiliaViviani,holedupinanearbyconventwhilehermotherhadanaffair,
rekindledShelley'sknighterrantvisions,

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whichheembodiedinEpipsychidion(1821).LessPlatonicwashisadmirationforJane,thecommonlawwifeofEdwardWilliams(shehadbeenabandonedbyher
armyofficerhusband),towhomhewroteseverallyricsin1822.Hewasalsoworkingon'TheTriumphofLife'.Thisphilosophicalpoem,inwhichthepoetisguided
byROUSSEAUthroughaseriesofvisions,showsastronginfluenceofDANTE'SDivineComedy,whichShelleyhadcloselystudied.Itscentraleventisbasedonthe
TriumphsofPETRARCH,andtheverseform(terzarima)isthatofboththeTriumphsandtheDivineComedy.Hehadcompleted544lineswhen,earlyinJuly,heand
WilliamssailedhisnewboattoLeghorntoseeHUNT.Onthereturnjourneytheboatcapsizedinasquall,andtheywerebothdrowned.Thebodieswerelaterwashed
ashore,whereindeferencetothequarantinelawstheywereburned,inthepresenceofByronandEdwardTrelawny(17921881),whodescribedthescenein
RecordsofShelley,ByronandtheAuthor(1878).Mary,herselfeditedThePoeticalWorksofPercyByssheShelley(1839).
InthelightofthecharismaattachedtoShelley'srebelliousnature,moralnonconformity,continuousquestingafterapersonalreligion,NeoPlatonismoflanguageand
thought,andhisyouth(hewasnotyet30whenhedied),somecriticalhostilityisperhapsinevitable.Hehadanextraordinarycommandofformandmetre,andan
intellectualcapacitywhichbeliedhisunfinishededucation.Heproducedmanypoliticalpamphletsandessays,ofwhich'APhilosophicalViewofReform'(1820)and
'ADefenceofPoetry'(1821)areparticularlynotable.ThelatterwasprovokedbyPEACOCK'STheFourAgesofPoetry,andisanaffirmation,basedontheexperience
ofhistory,ofthemoralandsocialcontributionofthepoet.SeeTheCompletePoeticalWorks,ed.ThomasHutchinson,rev.G.M.Matthews,1995Shelley's
Prose,ed.DavidLeeClark,prefacebyHaroldBloom,newedn1988RichardHolmes,Shelley:thePursuit,newedn1995(biography)EarlR.Wasserman,
Shelley:aCriticalReading,newedn1977MichaelO'Neill,TheHumanMind'sImaginings:ConflictandAchievementinShelley'sPoetry,1989.
Shepard,Sam(b.1943)
Americandramatist,wasbornSamuelShepardRogersinFortSheridan,Illinois,thesonofaserviceman,andwaseducatedatDuarteHighSchool,California.There
areconflictingaccountsofhisupbringing,butin1963hearrivedinNewYorkCity,wherehisfirstplay,Cowboys,wasperformedOffOffBroadwaythefollowing
year.Furthershortplaysfollowedinquicksuccession,basedmainlyonthenotionofcapturingthemovementofthecharacters'minds,inmuchthesamewayaswas
happeninginpopularmusic.Shepardhasplayedingroupsandbands,andinhisfirstfulllengthplay,TheToothofCrime(1972),tworockstarsconfronteachother
inametaphoricalcontestforsurvival.ItwasfirstproducedinLondon,whereheandhisfamilyspenttheyears197074andwherehehadexperienceofstage
direction.Subsequentlymanyofhisplayshavebeenprojectionsoffamilydiscordthroughwhichhesuggestslinksandexplores(butdoesnotnecessarilyresolve)
conflictswithaspectsofAmericanlifeandpopularcultureashedoesinparticularinthetrilogy,CurseoftheStarvingClass(1976),BuriedChild(1978),which
wonthePulitzerPrize,andTrueWest(1980).
Inthe1980shedevelopedatalentforfilmacting,andwonanOscarnominationforhisroleinTheRightStuff(1983).HislastfulllengthplayforsometimewasA
LieoftheMind(1985),inwhichthefracturedlanguagereflectsthebrokenlifeofawomaninthralltolove.BeforetheopeningofSimpatico(1994),hepublicly
expressedhisconcernaboutcommercialisminthetheatre:'Thereisalwaysthismarketingaspectthatseemstoleapontopofeverythinglikeavampire.Youdon't
havetheluxuryoflearningfromyourmistakes.Youjustgettheaxe.'Theplay,astronglydevelopedpsychologicalthrillerwithsurprisinglysympathetic
characterization,muchofitwritteninhisheadwhiledrivinghisDodgeacrosscountry,wasexcellentlyreceivedinNewYorkandLondon.StoriesareinMotel
ChroniclesandHawkMoon(1985).CruisingParadise(1996)comprises39autobiographicalandsemiautobiographicalpieces.SeeSevenPlays,newedn1997
Plays,2vols1996JosephChaikinandSamShephard,LettersandTexts19721984,newedn1995(diaries,journals,letters)MartinTucker,SamShepard,
1993(criticalbiography)CarlRosen,SamShepard,1993(criticalstudy).
Sheridan,Frances
seeSHERIDAN.
Sheridan,RichardBrinsley(17511816)
IrishdramatistandBritishpolitician,wasborninDublin,thesecondsonofThomasSheridan(171988),actormanageroftheTheatreRoyalandbiographerofSWIFT
(1784),andFrances,neChamberlaine(172466)hisgrandfather,ThomasSheridan(16871738),wasaminorpoetandafriendofSwift.Atheatreriotin1754
causedtheparentstoleaveIreland,theboyjoiningtheminEnglandin1759.InspiteofThomas'ssuccessasanelocutionistandFrances'swithhernovel,Memoirsof
MissSidneyBidulph(1761)recentlyassessedas'acultofdistressandsentimentalclassic,alovestoryofgreatmoralcomplexity...atthecentreofmany
importantcurrentsinthe18thcenturynovel',andwithacomedy,TheDiscovery(1763),thecouplehadtotakerefugefromcreditorsinFrancein1764,leaving
SheridanasaboarderatHarrow.In1770,afterFrances'sdeath,Thomas,backinEnglandandin

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funds,tookhissontoBath,whereSheridanwassostruckbyayoungsinger,ElizabethLinley(175492),thatheaccompaniedher,andachaperon,toFrance,where
shehopedtogetawayfromsexualharassmentbyanimportunatesuitor.Ontheirreturn,havinggonethroughaninvalidformofmarriage,theywereseparated,though
Sheridanhadtofighttwoduelswithoneofhersuitors,inthesecondofwhichhewaswounded.Theywereproperlymarriedin1773.Theirson,Tom(17751817),
becameatheatremanagerthedaughterbornin1792wasnotSheridan's.
Sheridan,havinggivenuphislawstudiesatthetimeofthemarriage,ofwhichhisfatherstilldisapproved,wroteaplayatthesuggestionofthemanagerofCovent
GardenTheatretoearnsomemoney.TheRivals,whichdrewonhispersonallife,waswithdrawninJanuary1775aftertwodisastrousperformances.Itwasputon
againtendayslaterinacleanedupandtightenedform,andwasahit,thecharactersofSirAnthonyAbsoluteandMrsMalaproppassingintoEnglishdramatic
heritage.Ashortfarce,StPatrick'sDay,wasfollowedbyacomicopera,TheDuenna(1775),which,withTheRivals,movedJOHNSONtoobservethatSheridan'has
writtenthetwobestcomediesofhisage'.In1776heborrowedheavilytobecomeprincipalmanagerofDruryLaneTheatre,forwhichhewroteATripto
Scarborough(1777),adaptedfromVANBRUGH'STheRelapseTheSchoolforScandal(1777,firstpublishedinDublin1780),hismasterpieceofantisentimentand
TheCritic(1779,published1781).
In1780hewaselectedtoParliament,representingStafford,Westminster,andIlchesterbetweenthenand1812.Formostofthistimehewasaprominentand
eloquentmemberoftheoppositionhesupportedBURKEinthemotiontoimpeachWarrenHastingsin1788,speakingonallfourdays,ofwhichEDWARDGIBBON
commented:'Attheclose[he]sankintoBurke'sarmsagoodactorbutIcalledthismorning,heisperfectlywell.'Healsoservedinofficethreetimes,being
TreasureroftheNavyandPrivyCouncillor180607,andanadvisertoandspokesmanforthePrinceofWalesthenotableactressMrsDoraJordan(17611816),
whomSheridanregularlyemployedwhenshewasnotcompletelyincapacitatedbyhernumerousroyalpregnancies,wasthemistressofthePrince'sbrother,theDuke
ofClarence,laterWilliamIV,whopursuedherafterbeingrejectedbyElizabethSheridan.ApartfromPizzaro(1799),ahastilycomposedadaptationofaGerman
dramawhichcontradictedhisowntenetnottomixpoliticsandthetheatre,Sheridanwrotenomoreforthestage,buthemaintainedhisassociationwithDruryLane
until1809,whenhewatcheditsdestructionbyfire,replyingtoafriendwhoremarkedonhisequanimity,'Amanmaysurelybeallowedtotakeaglassofwinebyhis
ownfireside.'Hewasachronicalcoholic,whosepolicyof'borrowandfearnot'contributedtohisendinghislifeinthemostwretchedcircumstances.Threeyearsafter
Elizabeth'sdeathhehadwooedandmarriedtheyoungdaughteroftheDeanofWinchester,HesterJane('Hecca')Ogle(17711817),whowasalreadyafflictedwith
cancerwhenhedied.TheSchoolforScandal,writtenwhenSheridanwas25,isthemostglitteringofEnglishcomedies,restoringratherthandisturbingitsaudience's
faithinhumannature.SeePlays,ed.CecilPrice,1975LindaKelly,RichardBrinsleySheridan:aLife,1997JamesMorwood,TheLifeandWorksofRichard
BrinsleySheridan,1985JamesMorwoodandDavidCrane(eds),SheridanStudies,1995(essaysonSheridanasadramatist,theatricalmanager,andpolitician).
Sherriff,R(obert)C(edric)(18961975)
Britishdramatistandnovelist,wasborninHamptonWick,Surrey,andeducatedatKingstonGrammarSchool,afterwhichhejoinedaninsurancecompany.He
servedasacaptaininWorldWarI,beingseverelywoundedatPasschendaelein1917.Backininsurance,hewroteplaysforhislocalrowingclub,ofwhichhewas
anactivemember,toperformforfunds.Journey'sEndbeganasanovel,butwiththedenouementandthewholeactiontransferredtotheWesternFront,was
reluctantlyputonbytheEnglishStageSocietyin1928,andonlyjustmanagedtogetapublicairinginJanuary1929.Itranfor594performancesandbytheautumnit
wasalsoplayingonBroadway,NewYork(485performances),andin17foreignlanguagesinEurope.Somehow,11yearsafterthewar,thetideagainstitsdepiction
onthestagehadturned,andtheplay'ssheerrealismspokedirectlyaboutthingswhichuptillthenhadnotbeenopenlydiscussed,stilllessshown.Sherriff'snextplay,
Badger'sGreen(1930),apleasantEnglishruralcomedy,failed,andhedeterminedtobecomeaschoolmaster,enteringNewCollege,Oxford,toreadforahistory
degree.Heneversatit,havingtakentimeofftogotoHollywoodtowritethescreenplayofWELLS'STheInvisibleMan,andconcludedthathewasnotuptothework.
Hewroteotherscreenplays(notablyTheDamBusters),andmorestageplays,ofwhichthemostpopularwerethemysteries,MissMabel(1949)andHomeat
Seven(1950).Ofseveralnovels,theunpretentious,episodic,seasideholidaystory,TheFortnightinSeptember(1931)wasthemostsuccessful,butTheWellsof
StMary's(1962),ablackcomedy,hassurvivedbest.SeeNoLeadingLady:anAutobiography,1968YorkNotesonJourney'sEnd,1991.
ShimazakiToson
seeNATSUMESOSEKEI.

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Shirley,James(15961666)
Englishdramatistandpoet,wasborninLondonandeducatedatMerchantTaylors'School,StJohn'sCollege,Oxford,andCatherineHall,Cambridge.Hetook
ordersandwasHeadmasterofEdwardVIGrammarSchool,StAlbans162325,butafterhisconversiontoCatholicismmovedtoLondonandbecameadramatist.
Heprosperedunderroyalpatronage,andbetween1636and1640madeseveraltripstoDublin,wherehisplayswerestagedatthenewpublictheatreinWerburgh
StreetandatthecastleoftheLordDeputy.TheActofParliamentin1642suppressingthestageendedhiscareerwhenitwasatitsheight,andhisaffairswerefurther
putinhazardbyhisnaturalsupportoftheroyalistcauseduringtheCivilWar.HepublishedhisPoems(1646),returnedtoteaching,andwrotemasquesforprivate
performance,includingTheContentionofAjaxandUlysses(published1659),inwhicharethelines:'Thegloriesofourbloodandstate/Areshadows,not
substantialthings./Thereisnoarmouragainstfate,/DeathlayshisicyhandonKings.'Heandhiswifearesaidtohavediedonthesamedayofexposureandother
privations,havinglivedintheopenfortwomonthsaftertheGreatFireofLondon.MoreofhistragicomediessurvivethanofanyotherauthorexceptJOHNFLETCHER,but
hewasathisbestinthecontemporarycomedy,ofwhichTheWittieFaireOne(1632)looksbacktoJONSONandforwardtoWYCHERLEYandFARQUHAR,andTheLady
ofPleasure(1635)hasaheroinewhocouldwellgraceaRestorationcomedyofmanners.Histragedies,whichincludeTheTraytor(1631)andTheCardinal
(1641),arefullofthelust,bloodthirstiness,andcasualattitudetomurderwhichhadbecomefeaturesofsuchdramas.
Sholokhov,Mikhail(Aleksandrovich)(190584)
Russiannovelist,wasborninKruzhilin,aCossackvillageontheDon,andwaseducatedinMoscowandVoronezh.At15hewasservingintheBolshevikarmy,at18
hewasmarried,andat20hewaspublishingrealisticstoriesofsocialandpoliticalconflictsinCossackruralsocietyseeOneMan'sDestiny:andOtherStories,
ArticlesandSketches19231963,tr.H.C.Stevens(1967).Atthesametimehewasbeginninghisfourvolumeepicnovelcycle(192840tr.StephenGarryas
AndQuietFlowstheDon,1934,andTheDonFlowsHometotheSea,1940),arichpanoramicexplorationoftheCossackcultureandcharacterintheyears
between1912and1922seealsoQuietFlowstheDon,tr.RobertDaglish,rev.anded.BrianMurphy(1996).Hissubsequentwork,whichincludes[Seedsof
Tomorrow](1932tr.Garry,1935)andasequel,dealingwiththeadventofcollectivizationinthesameregion,suffersconsiderablyincomparison.Hewaselectedto
theSupremeSovietin1937,andbecameamemberoftheCentralCommitteeoftheCommunistPartyin1961.Accusationsofplagiarism,whichwerecurrentinthe
1920sandresurfacedinthe1970sattheinstigationofSOLZHENITSYN,haveneverfullybeensubstantiated.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1965.
Shorthouse,JosephHenry(18341903)
Britishnovelist,wasborninBirminghamofaQuakerfamily.HiseducationlocallyandatGroveHouse,Tottenham,washamperedbyhisexcruciatingstammerand,in
1842,byavirulentattackoftyphus.At16hewentintothefamilychemicalfactory.AtmeetingsofaFriends'EssaySociety,heovercamehishesitantmannerandmet
hisfuturewife,whomhemarriedin1857.BothbecameAnglicanin1861.Anepilepticattackin1862lefthimpermanentlyasemiinvalid.In1867hebeganwriting
JohnInglesant,ofwhichhewouldreadoneortwoparagraphsanighttohiswife.Itwasfinallyfinishedin1876,butafterithadbeenrejectedbyseveralpublishers,
heputthemanuscriptaway.In1880hehadonehundredcopiesprivatelyprintedandboundinvellum,oneofwhichWARDsentpersonallytoAlexanderMacmillan
(181896),whopublisheditin1881.Itsold10,000copiesinthefirstyear.Partsofthisnovelofaspiritualquestin17thcenturyEnglandandItalywerefortyyears
laterfoundtohavebeenpainstakinglystitchedtogetherfromsourcesofthetimes,butitisstillanimpressivefeatoftheimagination,andithadenormousinfluence,
especiallyamongthosewhofoundtheirownreligiousdilemmasreflectedinit.Theauthorwaslionized,andwentontowritefivefurther,butonlyminor,novels.He
diedinEdgbaston,fromwhichhehadhardlyeverbeenfartherawaythanLondon,havingforthepreviousthreeyearsbeenunabletodomuchmorethanreadand
pray.
Shute,Nevil,PenNameofNevilShuteNorway(18991960)
Britishnovelist,wasborninEaling,Middlesex,andwenttoShrewsburySchool,andthentotheRoyalMilitaryAcademywithaviewtobeingcommissionedinthe
RoyalFlyingCorps.Hereturnedtocivilianlifewhenhefailedhisfinalmedicalbecauseofhisstammer,andservedathomeintheSuffolkRegimentattheendof
WorldWarI,beforegoingtoBalliolCollege,Oxford.FromtherehewentintothedeHavillandaircraftcompany,learnedtofly,andin1924joinedtheAirship
GuaranteeCo.,becomingin1929deputychiefengineerto(Sir)BarnesWallis(18871979)ontheR100,inwhichheflewtoandfromCanada.Thecrashofits
governmentsponsoredrival,theR101,in1930putanendtotheproject,andhefoundedhisownconstructioncompany,Airspeed.Heresignedin1938towritefull
time,havinghadseveralnovelspublished,beginningwithMarazan(1926).DuringWorldWar

Page499

IIheservedasanofficerintheRoyalNavalVolunteerReserveontheconstructionofsecretweapons,wroteabestsellingnovel,PiedPiper(1942),andwentasa
governmentcorrespondentontheNormandylandingsin1944andtoBurmain1945.NoHighway(1948)dealswiththeproblemsfrommetalfatiguewhichhe
foresawintheaircraftpassengerbusiness.In1948heflewhimselftoAustralia,wherehedecidedtosettlein1950.InATownLikeAlice(1950),ayoungEnglish
woman,whohaswithhergroupsufferedincredibleprivationsinMalayaduringWorldWarIIatthehandsoftheJapanese,usesaninheritancetotransforma
depressedsettlementintheAustralianGulfcountryinto'atownlikeAlice[Springs]'.OntheBeach(1957)projectsconditionsafteraglobalnuclearholocaust.Slide
Ruleisanautobiographyupto1938.
Shuttle,Penelope
seeREDGROVE.
Sidley,Charles
seeSEDLEY.
Sidney,(Sir)Philip(155486)
Englishpoet,prosewriter,andcritic,wasbornatPenshurstPlace,Kent,theeldestsonofafamousfamily,thoughhismeansweremodestforthewholeofhislifeand
hisknighthoodin1583wasnotformerit,butforreasonsofprotocol,sothathecouldstandasproxyatacourtceremony.HewaseducatedatShrewsburySchool
andChristChurch,Oxford,withouttakingadegreehedidnotreturnaftertheplaguehadclosedtheuniversityin1571.Between1572and1575hetravelledonthe
Continentandmetprominentintellectuals,afterwhichhespentsomemonthswithhisfather,SirHenrySidney(152986),LordDeputyofIreland.Likesomanybright
youngmen,hefellinandoutoffavourwithElizabethI,hisonlyappointmentforthepresent,inspiteoftheeffortsofhisuncle,theEarlofLeicester(c.153288),being
asanambassadortothecourtsofRudolph,EmperorofGermany,andWilliamofOrangein1577.HisstrongliteraryinterestsledtoaclosefriendshipwithSPENSER,
whodedicatedTheShepheardesCalendertohimin1579.Inabout1580,duringaperiodofunemployment,hewasstayingwithhissisterMary(15611621),
CountessofPembroke,lateranotableliterarypatronandalessnotableminorpoet.Herehebeganforheramusementaromance,whichheneverfinished,butwhich
waspublishedin1590inatruncatedversionasTheCountesseofPembrokesArcadia,andmorefullyandwithrevisionsin1593.Forthishecombinedthe
MenippeanformofproseinterspersedwithverseusedinArcadia(1501),bytheItalianJacopoSannazoro(14581530),withthekindofactionintheproseepic
Aethiopicaofthe4thcenturyGreekwriterHeliodorus,whichhadbeentranslated(fromaLatinversion)in1569byThomasUnderdowne(fl.156687).Atabout
thistime,too,hewrotehiscriticalessayonthecurrentstateofEnglishpoetry,publishedin1595bothasTheDefenceofPoesieandasAnApologieforPoetrie.
HewaselectedtoParliamentforhisfather'sformerconstituencyofKentin1581,theyearinwhichPenelopeDevereux(15621607),towhomhehadformerlybeen
engaged,marriedLordRich.HenowaddressedtoherthefirstconsiderableEnglishsonnetsequence,comprising108sonnetsandseveralsongs,whichwaspublished
in1591asAstrophelandStella.Hewashimselfmarriedin1583toFrancesWalsingham,bywhomhehadadaughterwhobecameCountessofRutland.In1585he
wasappointedGovernorofFlushing,topursue,underLeicester,theDutchwaragainstSpain.Afteronebrilliantmilitaryexploit,hewasmortallywoundedbyabullet
inanattacknearZutphen,handingthebottleofwater,whichwasbroughttohim,toadyingsoldierwiththeimmortalwords,'Thynecessityisyetgreaterthanmine.'
HediedfourweekslaterinArnhem,attendedbyhisverypregnantwife,whosebabywastobestillborn.
TheDefenceofPoesieisthemostconsiderableworkofEnglishcriticismatleastuntilDRYDEN.InhisArcadiaSidneyexperimentedwith,stretched,andembellished
thenewliterarymediumofEnglishprose.OfAstrophelandStella,C.S.LEWISobservesinEnglishLiteratureintheSixteenthCentury(1954):'Considered
historically...andinrelationtohispredecessors,Sidneyisoneofourmostimportantpoets.'AsidelightonthesubjectofwomenandromanceinRenaissancetimes,
aswellasonthestatusofSidney,isprovidedbyAnnaWeamys,whomayhavebeenthedaughterofaprebendaryofWestminsterAbbeyandwaslikelytohave
beeninherearlytwentieswhenshewroteAContinuationofSirPhilipSidney's'Arcadia'(1651ed.PatrickColbornCullen,1995).See[SelectedVerse],ed.
KatherineDuncanJones,1994SelectedPoems,ed.CatherineBates,1994AlbertC.Hamilton,SirPhilipSidney:aStudyofHisLifeandWorks,1977John
Buxton,SirPhilipSidneyandtheEnglishRenaissance,3rdedn1987.
Sienkiewicz,Henryk(18461916)
Polishnovelist,wasborninWolaOkrzejskaandwenttogymnasiumanduniversityinWarsaw.Afreelancejournalistandwriter,hetravelledinEurope,theEast,and
Africa,andin187678visitedAmericatoseekasiteforasettlementinCalifornia.Allhisnovelswereoriginallywrittenasserials,thehistoricaltrilogyof17thcentury
Polishpoliticalandsocialupheavals(188488)beingpublishedinEnglishasWithFireandSword(1890),TheDeluge(1891),andPanMichael(1893),tr.
JeremiahCurtin.QuoVadis?(1896tr.Curtin,1896),hisrichlypatternedstoryoftheconflictbetweenChristianityandtheancientreligionsin

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RomeatthetimeofNero,hasbeentranslatedintonumerouslanguagesandwasmadeintoaHollywoodepicfilm(1951).Hewasofficiallypresentedwithanestatein
Polandin1900,andhewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1905.
Silkin,Jon(b.1930)
Britishpoetandeditor,wasborninLondon,wasevacuatedduringWorldWarIItoWales,andwaseducatedatDulwichCollegeandLeedsUniversity,ofwhichhe
waslaterGregoryFellowinPoetry(195860).Hisfirstbookofverse,ThePortraitandOtherPoems(1950),waspublishedatthebeginningofaperiodduring
whichheworkedasamanuallabourerandasateacherofEnglishtoforeignstudents.LatterlyhehastaughtwritingandpoetryatuniversitiesinEngland,theUSA,
Australia,andIsrael.MuchofhisownpoetryisrootedinNorthumberland,wherehehaslivedformanyyears,andinthefermentofhisJewishbackground.Heis
particularlymovinginhistreatmentofdeath,mostofallintheautobiographical'DeathofaSon',whosethemeistakenupandextendedinhisdramaticpoem,'The
People'.TheLensBreakers(1992)resumeshisconcernswiththehorrorofviolenceandwiththefragilityoflife.Hewasacofounderin1952ofStand,ofwhichhe
hasbeentheprincipaleditoreversince.Oftheeditorialpolicyofthis,themostenduringandinfluentialofpostwar'littlemagazines',hewrotein1991:'Ibelieveartis
neededevenmorenow,nowthatthecontagionofindifferencetoone'sbrotherorsisterhumanappearstohavereachedanunparalleledcondition.'Hiscriticalworks
includeOutofBattle:thePoetryoftheGreatWar(1972),andheiseditorofThePenguinBookofFirstWorldWarPoetry(rev.edn1981)andcoeditor,with
JonGlover,ofThePenguinBookofFirstWorldWarProse(1990).SeeSelectedPoems,3rdrev.edn1994.
Sillitoe,Alan(b.1928)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,andpoet,wasborninNottingham,thesonofaworkerinabicyclefactory.Hewaseducatedlocally,leavingschoolat14alsoto
workinacyclefactory.HewasaradiooperatorintheRoyalAirForcefrom1946to1949,partofhisservicebeinginMalaya.HethenlivedinFranceandSpainfor
severalyears,duringwhichhewrotemostofthepoemslaterpublishedinTheRatsandOtherPoems(1960),inwhichheexpresseshisimpatiencewithsociety.A
similarexasperationwithauthority,assertedwithrawfury,informshisfirstnovel,SaturdayNightandSundayMorning(1958),andalsomotivatestheworkingclass
heroesinthetitlestoryofTheLonelinessoftheLongDistanceRunner(1959)andinAStartinLife(1970).Inothernovelsthesearchisforamorecompletelife,
asinKeytotheDoor(1961)thetrilogyaboutFrankDawleywhichconcludeswithTheFlameofLife(1974)andHerVictory(1982).InbothTheLostFlying
Boat(1983)andLastLoves(1990)thequestinvolvesareturnbyexservicemen,motivatedinonecasebygreedandintheotherbynostalgia,tositeswherethey
onceoperated.RawMaterial(rev.edn1978)isaseriesofmemoirsinfictionalforminwhichheoutlineshisfamilybackgroundandexploresthephilosophybehind
hisfiction.HehascontinuedtopublishpoetryseeCollectedPoems(1993)whichheusesto'expressemotionsthatcan'tbeexpressedinanyothermedium'.He
marriedtheAmericanbornshortstorywriterandpoetRuthFainlight(b.1931)in1959.SeeCollectedStories,newedn1996LifeWithoutArmour,newedn
1996(autobiographyto1958).
Simenon,Georges(190389)
Belgiannovelist,wasborninLigeandeducatedatthetheInstitutStAndrandatamilitaryschool,whichheleftat15.Afterabandoningtwojobsandcominginto
contactwiththecriminalworld,hewasofferedatrialbytheGazettedeLige,forwhichhethenwroteadailypiecesigned'GeorgesSim',thenameunderwhichhe
wrotehisfirstnovel(1921).HemovedtoParisin1922,andmarriedanartistin1923.Hewassoonwritingfortypopularnovelsayearunder24registered
pseudonyms,havingheededtheadviceofCOLETTE,whorejectedtwoofhisstoriesforLeMatinas'tooliterary',andestablishedhisliterarycredoofbrevityand
readability,imposinguponhimselfavocabularyof2000words.ThefirstMaigretdetectivenovels,11ofthem,appearedunderhisownnamein1931.Whathecalled
his'hardnovels'attractedtheattentionofcriticssuchasGIDEandMAURIAC,andheannouncedin1937thathewouldwintheNobelPrizeforLiteratureintenyears'
time.Heneverdid(helaterdenouncedthejudges),thoughLaVeuveCouderc(1942tr.JohnPetrieasTicketofLeave,1954)andLaNeigetaitSale(1948tr.
LouisVarseasTheSnowWasBlack,1950)areregardedasespeciallyevocativeofthedarkersideofeverydayexistence.HeservedasCommissionerforBelgian
refugeesinLaRochelleduringWorldWarII,afterwhichhesailedfortheUSAwithhiswifeandyoungson,leavingbehindhiswife'smaid,whohadbeenhismistress
for15years.Onthevoyagehemeta25yearoldFrenchCanadianwomanwhojoinedhisnewhouseholdinCanada,andmarriedhimin1950.Therewerealso
10,000(accordingtohim),1200(accordingtohissecondwife),otherwomenwithwhomhehadsexualrelations.In1957hetookanextensivechateauin
Switzerland,wherehecontinuedtowriteseveralnovelsayearuntil1973,whenheannouncedhisretirement,onlytobuyataperecorder,onwhichhedictated25
volumesofunreliablebutentertainingmemoirs.SeePatrickMarnham,TheMan

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WhoWasn'tMaigret:aPortraitofGeorgesSimenon,newedn1994.
Simpson,Louis(b.1923)
Americanpoetandcritic,wasborninKingston,Jamaica,theyoungersonofalawyerofScottishdescentandofaPolishbornJewesswhosefamilyhademigratedto
NewYork.Heremainedwithhisfatherwhenhisparentsdivorced,andwenttoMunroCollege.Afterhisfather'sdeathin1940hejoinedhismotherinNewYork,
andenteredColumbiaUniversity,fromwhichhewasdraftedintotheUSArmyin1942.Heservedinthe101stAirborneDivisioninEuropeduringWorldWarII,
winningtheBronzeStarandtwoPurpleHeartsforhisactionincombatinacorpusofnotablewarpoems,thepoignant'CarentanOCarentan''describesthefirst
actualbattleexperienceofthecompanyinwhichIserved'.HegraduatedatColumbiaUniversityin1948,andthenspenttwoyearsinFrance,duringwhichhe
attendedclassesatParisUniversityandassembledandpublishedathisownexpenseTheArrivistes:Poems19401949(1949).Aftertakingahigherdegreein
EnglishatColumbiaUniversity,hespentfouryearsasapublisher'seditorbeforereturningtoColumbiaasaninstructorhewasappointedaprofessorofEnglishatthe
UniversityofCaliforniain1959,andattheStateUniversityofNewYorkin1967.
AttheEndoftheOpenRoad(1963),histhirdcommerciallypublishedvolumeofverse,whichwonthePulitzerPrize,markedachangefromtraditionalformsto
'irregular,unrhymedlinesIwasattemptingtowriteversethatwouldsoundlikespeech',anddemonstratedagreaterdepthofvision.InSearchingfortheOx(1976)
andsubsequentcollectionsheexploreshischildhoodandhismother'smemoriesofhers,anddepictstheeverydaydetailsofdailyAmericanlife.RiversideDrive
(1962)isanautobiographicalnovel.NorthofJamaica(1972inUKasAirwithArmedMen,1972)isautobiography.Hiscriticalworksincludejointstudiesof
POUND,T.S.ELIOT,andW.C.WILLIAMS(1975)andofDYLANTHOMAS,GINSBERG,PLATH,andROBERTLOWELL(1978),ACompanyofPoets(1981),andTheCharacterofthe
Poet(1986).ShipsGoingIntotheBlue:EssaysandNotesonPoetry(1995)includesautobiographicalreflections.SeeCollectedPoems,newedn1990There
YouAre,1995(subsequentcollection).
Sinclair,'May'[MaryAmeliaStClair](18631946)
Britishnovelist,wasborninRockFerry,Cheshire,thesixthandyoungestchild,andonlydaughter,ofashipowner,afterthecollapseofwhosebusinessin1870her
parentsseparated.Shelivedwithhermotherinsomewhatstraitenedcircumstancesuntilthelatter'sdeathin1901,andseemstohavebeenlargelyselfeducated,apart
fromtheformativeyear188182,spentatCheltenhamLadiesCollege.Shecontributedtotheschoolmagazine,despitetheeditorialcensorshipoftheschool's
redoubtablefounder,DorotheaBeale(18311906),whosubsequentlywroteaffectionateletterstoherandintroducedhertotheidealistphilosophyofT.H.Green
(183682).HerfirstpublishedworkwasNakiketosandOtherPoems(1886)andanarticleofphilosophicalcriticisminanAmericanjournalshewasstill
propoundingtheoriesbasedonGreen'sinTheNewIdealism(1922).Ofherearliestnovels,thefirstbeingAudreyCraven(1897),BeatriceHarraden(18641936),
anotherformerpupil,commentedcattilyinalettertoMissBealewhichwaslargelyaboutherownpopularityasanovelist:'IseeMaySinclairfromtimetotime.For
yoursakeIhavetriedinmanywaystohelpherbutsheisextremely''difficile"....Imuchfearthatshehasnotthespecialgiftswhichmakeforsuccessinfiction,
thoughsheissocleverandwritessowell....Herlastbookthoughsowellreviewedasacleverpieceofwork,wasquiteunsuccessful.IbelieveMrBlackwood
spokeofonlytwohundredcopiessold.'
TheDivineFire(1904),abouttheartistinmodernsociety,wassuccessful,particularlyintheUSA,whereSinclairthentoured.Anactivesuffragette,shedrovean
ambulanceonactiveserviceduringWorldWarI,recountingherexperiencesinAJournalofImpressionsinBelgium(1915).Shehasbeencreditedwiththefirstuse
inaliterarycontext,inareviewofDOROTHYRICHARDSONintheEgoist(1918),oftheterm'streamofconsciousness',coinedbyWilliamJames(seeHENRYJAMES).Though
herlaternovels,whichincludetheautobiographicalMartyOlivier:aLife(1919)anditsconverse,LifeandDeathofHarrietFrean(1922),aremodernistin
narrativetechnique,theyarealsoincreasinglyconcernedwithpsychoanalyticalfactors.SeeTheophilusE.M.Boll,MissMaySinclair,Novelist:aBiographicaland
CriticalIntroduction,1972.
Sinclair,Upton(18781968)
Americannovelist,wasborninBaltimoreandmovedwithhisfamilytoNewYorkin1888.Keptathomeuntilhewasten,hewentthrougheightgrammarschool
gradesintwoyears,andenteredtheCityCollegeofNewYorkat13.Aftergraduating,hefinancedhimselfasaspecialstudentatColumbiaUniversitybywriting
novelettesofmilitaryacademylifeasLieutenantFrederickGarrisonandEnsignClarkeFitch.Afterseveralrejections,heprivatelyprintedhisfirstnovel,Springtime
andHarvest:aRomance(1901):itwastakenupcommerciallyandreissuedasKingMidas(1901).Thiswasthebeginningofalongcareerthatspannedoverforty
novelsandnumerouspoliticalandpolemicalproseworks.WiththeproceedsfromTheJungle(1906),anaturalisticexposoftheChicagomeatpackingtrade,he
establishedacooper

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ativesocialistcommunity,theHeliconHomeColony,inNewJersey.In1934hefoundedEPIC(EndPovertyinCalifornia),onwhosetickethestoodasDemocratic
candidateforthestategovernorship,andwasonlynarrowlydefeated.WithWorld'sEnd(1940),whichbeginsatamusicfestivalinGermany,heinauguratedalong
sequenceofnovelsaboutLannyBudd,coveringtheinternationalscenefrom1911to1950Dragon'sTeeth(1942)wonthePulitzerPrizeandwasthebasisofhis
nominationbyG.B.SHAWfortheNobelPrizeforLiterature.SeeTheAutobiographyofUptonSinclair,1963.
Singer,IsaacBashevis(190491)
shortstorywriter,novelist,andchildren'swriterinYiddish,wasborninRadzymin,Poland,andgrewupinWarsaw,wherehisfatherwasarabbi,andwherehewent
totheTachkemoniRabbinicalSeminary.Heworkedasaproofreaderonaliteraryjournalandin1926beganpublishingstoriesinHebrew,fromwhichheswitchedto
Yiddish,thelivinglanguageofhischildhood.HeeditedthemagazineGlobus,whichin1935serializedhisfirstnovel(tr.JacobSloanasSataninGoray,1958).In
1935hejoinedhisbrother,thenovelistIsraelJoshuaSinger(18931944),inNewYork,wherehebecameaprolific,valued,andlifetimecontributortothe'Jewish
DailyForward'.Hecontinuedtowritefiction,too,inYiddish:'Iliketowriteghoststoriesandnothingfitsaghostbetterthanadyinglanguage...ghostslove
Yiddish,andasfarasIknow,theyallspeakit.'[TheFamilyMoskat](tr.A.H.Gross,1950)washisfirstbooktoappearinEnglish.Like[TheManor](tr.Elaine
GottliebandJosephSinger,1967)and[TheEstate](tr.Singer,Gottlieb,andElizabethShub,1969)itisachroniclenoveltogetherthethreeofthemcoverfamilylife
inPolandfrom1863to1939.ThepublicationinatranslationbyBELLOWofhisstory'GimpeltheFool'(PartisanReview,1953),inwhichsimplefaithand
innocenceprevail,ledtoGimpeltheFoolandOtherStories(1957).Inthisandseveralsubequentvolumes,thelastofthemwrittenwhenhewas84,herecreates
thelostworldofPolishJewrythroughhumoroussituationsandpoignantcharacters,withadashofthesupernatural,sometimestransposinghismilieutotheNew
WorldseeTheCollectedStories(1982).
HewasconcernedwithrecordingJewishsocietyratherthantryingtochangeit,andhisinnateexuberanceparticularlysurfacesin[TheFoolsofChelmandTheir
History](tr.theauthorandShub,1973)andothernotablechildren'sbooks.'Ibelieveinstorytelling....Theeventsmustspeakforthemselves,'heexplained:andon
anotheroccasion,'Askingtheauthorforaninterpretationofhisbooksislikeaskingachickenwhatchemicalsitusedwhenitlaidanegg.'[TheCertificate](serialized
1967tr.LeonardWolf,1993),thesecondofhisworksposthumouslypublishedinbookform,isafictionalcounterparttohisautobiographicalstudiesabouthisearly
strugglesasanauthorandwithhisfaith,andhisdisillusionmentwithWarsawcitylife.Hepublishedseveralofthese,notablyInMyFather'sCourt(tr.Channah
KleinermanGoldsteinandothers,1966),andLoveandExile:theEarlyYearsaMemoir(1984),incorporatingthreeearliervolumes.HebecameanAmerican
citizenin1943,andwasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1978forhis'impassionednarrativeartwhich,withrootsinaPolishJewishculturaltradition,brings
universalconditionstolife'.SeeJanetHadda,IsaacBashevisSinger:aLife,1997LesterGoran,TheBrightStreetsofSurfside:theMemoirofaFriendship
withIsaacBashevisSinger,1994EdwardAlexander,IsaacBashevisSinger,1980(biographical/criticalstudy)LawrenceS.Friedman,UnderstandingIsaac
BashevisSinger,1988.
Singh,Khushwant(b.1915)
Indiannovelist,shortstorywriter,andhistorian,wasborninHadali(nowinPakistan)andeducatedinNewDelhiattheModernSchoolandStStephen'sCollege,
graduatingfromGovernmentCollege,Lahore,in1934.HethenstudiedlawatKing'sCollege,London,andwascalledtotheEnglishBarin1938.Hepractisedinthe
HighCourtinLahoreuntil1947,afterwhichhebecameapressattachtotheIndianForeignServiceinLondonandOttawa.HewasavisitinglectureratOxfordand
atseveraluniversitiesintheUSAbetween1965and1969,whenhebecameEditoroftheIllustratedWeeklyofIndia,Bombay.Hesubsequentlyheldleading
editorialpostsonothernationaljournals,andwaselectedtotheIndianParliamentin1980.HisfirstbookwasTheMarkofVishnuandOtherStories(1950),aform
offictioninwhichhehasplayedthepartofanironicobserverseeTheCollectedShortStories(1989).TraintoPakistan(1956,alsoknownasManoMajra),a
short,terselyexpressed,documentarynovelofavillageinthePunjabduringthemassracialkillingsandcounterkillingsthatfollowedPartition,isallthemoreeffective
becauseofthedetachednatureofthenarrative.IShallNotHeartheNightingale(1959)isamuchweakeraccountofsomeofthelessattractiveaspectsofthe
nationalcharacter.Delhi(1990),onwhichheworkedforovertwentyyears,isarich,exuberant,panoramicviewofsixhundredyearsofthehistoryofthecity,and
especiallyoftheSikhs,endingonanoteoftragedywiththeaftermathoftheassaultontheSikhtempleatAmritsar.
Sirin,V.
seeNABOOV.
Sisson,C.H.
seeHEATHSTUBBS.
Sitwell,Edith(18871964)
Britishpoet,anthologist,biographer,andcritic,theeldersisterofOSBERTandSACHEVERELLSIT

Page503

,wasborninScarboroughandbroughtupatthefamilyseatofRenishawHall,Derbyshire,whereherearlytasteforliteratureandmusic,andherstrikingbut
unconventionallooks,clashedwithherparents'interestsandideals.Shefoundnooutletforhertalentsuntilshelefthomein1914andpublishedavolumeofpoetry,
TheMother(1915).Asacounterblasttowhatshesawasthereflectivelyruralnatureofcontributionstotheseries,GeorgianPoetry(seeRUPERTBROOKE),sheedited
annuallyfrom1916to1921Wheels,ineachissueofwhichthereappearedpoemsbyallthreeSitwellsiblings,andin1919sevenbyOWEN.Herpenchantforabstract
phraseologyandeffectscreatedbyunusualvocalandtonicrhythmswasmadewidelyknownbythepublicperformancein1923ofherpoemsequence,Faade,set
tomusicbyWilliamWalton(190283).Theverbalvirtuositystayedwithher,buthersubsequentpoetryisequallyconcernedwithsymboliccontrasts,asinthelong
poemGoldCoastCustoms(1929),inStreetSongs(1942),andinGreenSongandOtherPoems(1944).HercriticalandhistoricalworksincludeAlexander
Pope(1930),AspectsofModernPoetry(1934),TheEnglishEccentrics(1933),andTheQueensandtheHive(1962),onElizabethI.Shewasawarded
honorarydoctoratesbyfouruniversities(andinsistedonthreesuffixesofHon.DLittandoneofHon.LittDafterhername)andwasmadeDBEin1954.See
CollectedPoems,newedn1993SelectedLetters,ed.RichardGreene,1997VictoriaGlendinning,EdithSitwell:aUnicornamongLions,newedn1993
(biography)MauriceBowra,EdithSitwell,newedn1982(criticalstudy).
WELL

Sitwell,(Sir)Osbert,(5thBaronet)(18921969)
Britishpoet,novelist,shortstorywriter,andprosewriter,wasborninLondonandeducatedatEton.Havingdeliberatelyfailedhisentrancetomilitarystaffcollege,he
wasneverthelesspersuadedtoentertheArmyin1911,andservedinFranceinWorldWarIasanofficerintheGrenadierGuards,fromwhichheresignedin1919.
InthesameyearhepublishedTheWinstonburgLine,threesatirical,pacifistpoems.Hissatiricveinpersistedinafurthervolumeofverse,ArgonautandJuggernaut
(1919),inthreenovels,BeforetheBombardment(1926),TheManWhoLostHimself(1929),andMiracleonSinai(1933),andinhisfirstbookofshortstories,
TripleFugue(1924).SatireistemperedwithcompassioninDumbAnimalandOtherStories(1930),andinthreeverseportraits,EnglandReclaimed:aBookof
Eclogues(1927),WrackatTidesend(1952),andOntheContinent(1958).Histravelbooks,notablyWintersofContent(1932)andEscapewithMe(1939),
areajudiciousblendofdescriptionandartappreciation.Hismasterworkishisautobiographicalpageantofcharacters,observations,andexperiences,published
between1944and1950underthetitlesofLeftHand,RightHand!,TheScarletTree,GreatMorning!,LaughterintheNextRoom,andNobleEssenceswitha
postscript,TalesmyFatherTaughtMe(1962).Hesucceededtohisfather'stitlein1943,andwasmadeCBEin1956,andCHin1958.SeeCollectedShort
Stories,introductionbyFrancisKing,1974JohnPearson,Faades:Edith,OsbertandSacheverellSitwell,newedn1989.
Sitwell,(Sir)Sacheverell,(6thBaronet)(18971988)
Britishpoet,prosewriter,andcritic,wasborninScarboroughandeducatedatEtonandBalliolCollege,Oxford,servingintheGrenadierGuardsinWorldWarI.His
firstbookofverse,ThePeople'sPalace,waspublishedin1918.SubsequentvolumesprovidedthebasisofCollectedPoems(1936)andSelectedPoems(1948),
afterwhich,anduntilAnIndianSummer:100RecentPoems(1982),itseemedthathiscrisp,linguisticallyintricatebutdescriptivestylewasoutoffashion.His
travelstookhimtoalmosteverycountryoftheworld(in1960hewasmadeafreemanofthecityofLima,Peru)hewroterevealinglyaswellaselegantlyaboutmany
ofthem.Hiswidecriticalinterestsaredemonstratedinhisnumerousbooksonart,architecture,music,andsocialhistory,andinphilosophicalandbibliographical
works.HewastheonlyoneofthethreeSitwellsiblingstomarry,whichhedidin1925.Heinheritedhisbrother'stitlein1969,andwasmadeCHin1984.SeeAll
SummerinaDay:anAutobiographicalFantasia,1926ForWantofaGoldenCity,1973(autobiographicalstudy)SarahBradford,SacheverellSitwell:
SplendoursandMiseries,1993(biography).
Skelton,John(c.14601529)
Englishpoet,wenttoOxfordandCambridgeuniversities,tobothofwhichhewasofficialpoet.Hetookholyordersin1498,whentutortothefutureHenryVIII.
Fromabout1502to1511hewasRectorofDiss,Norfolk,where,ifwearetobelievethejestbook,MerieTalesNewlyImprintedandMadebyMasterSkelton
(1567),hehadafairlywildtimeandkeptamistress,bywhomhehadachild.Backatcourt,hewasappointedHenry'spoetlaureate.Hisearliestworkswere
translationsfromtheLatin,afterwhichhewroteTheBowgeofCourte[CourtRations],asatiricalpoemintheformandmetreofadreamallegory.Ofthesame
periodisMagnificence,amoralitydramaperformedbeforeHenryVIIatWoodstock.Skeltonicversehasnoconsistentrhythmorlinestructure,onlyanirregularly
imposedrhyme.InthisjerkyformhecomposedPhilipSparrow,adirgeforapetbirdwhichC.S.LEWISinEnglishLiteratureintheSixteenthCentury(1954)calls
'ourfirstgreatpoemofchildhood',andTheTunningofElinorRumming,asomewhatcoarseexposoflifeinanalehousepresidedoverbyafemalepublicanwhose
reallifecounterpartwasin1522

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chargedwithoverpricingandwithservingshortmeasures.HeusedrhymeroyalforSpeak,Parrot,butrevertedtoSkeltonicsforColinCloutandWhyComeYe
NottoCourt,allofwhichsolampoonedCardinalWolsey(c.14751530)thatthepoethadtoseeksanctuary.Heemergedtomakeamendsbydedicatingtothe
prelatethepoemknownasTheGarlandofLaurel(1523),ostensiblyanallegoricalreviewofmedievalpoetry,whichendswithsevenlyricsaddressedtovarious
ladiesofhisacquaintance.
Skelton,Robin(b.1925)
Canadianpoet,critic,andeditor,wasborninEnglandinEasington,Yorkshire,andeducatedatPocklingtonSchool,York,Christ'sCollege,Cambridge,andLeeds
University.HelecturedinEnglishatManchesterUniversityuntil1963,whenheemigratedtoCanadaandjoinedtheEnglishdepartmentoftheUniversityofVictoria,
BritishColumbia,wherehewasChairman,DepartmentofCreativeWriting197376.Aversatilepoetwhosefirstcollection,PatmosandOtherPoems(1955),and
thefourwhichfollowedwerepublishedinLondon,andSelectedPoems19471967(1968)initiallyinToronto,hehasbecomeregardedasasignificantwriterof
poeticexile.HehasalsocontributedtothedevelopmentofCanadianliteraturebyhisassociationwithMalahatReviewascofounderandjointEditor(196771),and
Editor(197283).HiscriticalworksincludeThePoet'sCalling(1975),PoeticTruth(1978),andCelticContraries:SelectedEssays(1990)amonghismany
anthologiesarePoetryoftheThirties(1964),PoetryoftheForties(1968),andTwoHundredPoemsfromtheGreekAnthology(1971),whichhealso
translated.SeeTheCollectedShorterPoems19471977,1981TheCollectedLongerPoems,1985.
Slessor,Kenneth(190171)
Australianpoetandjournalist,wasbornSchloesser(thefamilychangedthenameduringWorldWarI)inOrange,NewSouthWales,thesonofaminingengineerand
ofthedaughterofScottishimmigrants.HewaseducatedatSydneyChurchofEnglandGrammarSchool,afterwhichhebecameajournalist.In1927hejoinedthe
staffofthesatiricalSmith'sWeeklyinSydney,becomingEditorin1938.EarthVisitors(1926)containedseveralpoemswhichhadappearedinthelimitededitionof
ThiefoftheMoon(1924).ItwasfollowedbyCuckoozContrey(1932)andFiveBells:XXPoems(1939),whoseoftenanthologizedtitlepoemisanelegytoa
frienddrownedinSydneyHarbour.LightversewrittenforSmith'sWeeklyappearedinDarlinghurstNightsandEarlyMorningGlories(1933).DuringWorld
WarIIhewasanofficialAustralianwarcorrespondentseeWarDiaries(1985)andWarDespatches(1987)ed.ClementSemmleruntilhisresignationafter
departmentalcriticismofhisaccountofthefightinginNewGuinea.OneHundredPoems19191939(1944)constitutedallthathewantedpreserving:hewroteonly
threemore,whichwereincorporatedinarevisededition,Poems(1957).HewasachiefleaderwriterandLiteraryEditoroftheSydneySun194457,Editorofthe
literaryjournalSoutherly195661,andaleaderwriterfortheSydneyDailyTelegraph195769.'FiveVisionsofCaptainCook'(1931)provedaninfluentialpoem
onthethemesofthevoyageranddiscovery,andheisunequalledasapoetofthecityofSydney.BreadandWine:SelectedProsewaspublishedin1970,and
furtherlightverseinBacklessBettyfromBondi,ed.JulianCroft(1984).HewasmadeOBEin1959.SeeGeoffreyDutton,KennethSlessor:aBiography,1991
AdrianCaesar,KennethSlessor,1996(biographical/criticalstudy)HerbertC.Jaffa,KennethSlessor:aCriticalStudy,newedn1977.
Smart,Christopher(172271)
Britishpoet,wasborninShipbourne,Kent,thesonofastewardtotheVaneestatesinthatcounty.Afterhisfather'sdeathin1733,hewaseducatedatDurham
Schooland,thankstoanannuityfromtheDuchessofCleveland,motherinlawofHenryVane,atPembrokeHall,Cambridge,ofwhichhebecameaFellow.In1749
debts,drink,andrestlessnesstookhimtoLondon,wherehelivedasahackwriter.InspiteofpublishingPoemsonSeveralOccasions(1752)andTheHilliad
(1753),asatireonamedicalquack,andwinningtheSeatonianprizeatCambridgeforreligiousversefivetimes,hisfinancialstatewassuchthatheissaidin1775to
havesigneda99yearleaseonhisexclusiveservicestotheperiodical,UniversalVisiter.Hedevelopedsymptomsofreligiousmaniaandwasconfinedtovarious
asylumsbetween1756and1763,duringwhichtimehewaswritingJubilateAgno(notpublisheduntil1939),arichamalgamofpersonalthoughtsanddevotions,in
whichoccurstheminutelyobservedportraitofhiscat('ForIwillconsidermyCatJeoffry...').ASongtoDavid(1763),oneofthemostoutstandingreligiouslyrical
poemsinthelanguage,contains86rhymingstanzas,intricatelyarrangedandcrammedwithstrangeandromanticimages,andjoyfullyrisingandfallingtoendwitha
triumphantclimax.Fortherestofhislifehepublishedtranslations,psalms,religiouslyrics,andhymns,butinApril1770hewascommittedasadebtortotheKing's
Benchprison,wherehedied.SeeThePoeticalWorks,ed.MarcusWalshandKarinaWilliamson,4vols198087TheReligiousPoetryofChristopherSmart,
ed.MarcusWalsh,1972.
Smart,Elizabeth
seeBARKER.
Smith,A(rthur)J(ames)M(arshall)(190280)
Canadianpoet,

Page505

anthologist,andcritic,wasborninWestmount,Montreal,ofEnglishimmigrantparents.HewaseducatedatWestmountHighSchoolandMcGillUniversity,wherehe
initiallydidaBSccourse,editedaliterarysupplementtotheMcGillDaily,andwithF.R.SCOTTfoundedtheMcGillFortnightlyReview.Hespenttheyears192729
atEdinburghUniversity,wherehewroteathesisontheMetaphysicalpoets.UnabletofindanacademicjobinCanadaduringtheDepression,hewenttotheUSA.In
1936hefoundapermanentpostatMichiganStateUniversity,whereheremaineduntil1972,latterlyasPoetinResidenceaswellasaprofessorofEnglish.He
becameaUScitizen,whileretainingahomeinCanada.WithagroupofpoetswhoincludedScott,KLEIN,andPRATT,heeditedNewProvinces:PoemsofSeveral
Authors(1936)hewaspersuadedtodrophisprefacecriticizingandmockingolderandmoreconventionalCanadianpoets.TheBookofCanadianPoetry(1943
rev.edns1948,1957)gaveafurtherfilliptoCanadianpoetry.Thoughhisownversehadbeenwidelypublishedinjournalssincethe1920s,hisfirstvolumewasNews
ofthePhoenixandOtherPoems(1943),whichwontheGovernorGeneral'sAward.Askilfulandversatilewriter,whoserangecoversthebawdyaswellasthe
austere,hewasasconstructivelycriticalofhisownworkasofthatofothershisfivecollections,ofwhichthelastwasTheClassicShade:SelectedPoems(1978),
containinallfewerthantwohundredpoems.CollectionsofproseareTowardsaViewofCanadianLetters:SelectedCriticalEssays19281971(1973)andOn
PoetryandPoets:SelectedEssaysofA.J.M.Smith(1977).SeeMichaelDarling,A.J.M.SmithandHisWorks,1994.
Smith,Adam(172390)
Scottishpoliticaleconomist,wasborninKirkcaldy,theposthumoussonofthelocalcustomscontroller,andwas,itissaid,kidnappedbygypsieswhenhewasthree,
butquicklyrescued.Hewaseducatedattheburghschool,GlasgowUniversity,andBalliolCollege,Oxford,towhichhewonanexhibition.Hethensetupasa
freelancelecturerinEdinburghuntilhisappointmentin1751atGlasgowUniversityasProfessorofLogic,fromwhichhetransferredtothechairofMoralPhilosophy
thefollowingyear.InTheTheoryofMoralSentiments(1759),whichhaselementsofthedoctrinesofDAVIDHUME,hemadeobservationsalsoaboutthestateof
Englishpoetry.JOHNSONremarked,onhearingthatBOSWELLhadbeenastudentofSmithatthistime:'Sir,IwasonceincompanywithSmith,andwedidnottaketo
eachotherbuthadIknownthathelovedrhymeasmuchasyoutellmehedoes,Ishouldhavehuggedhim.'In1764Smithresignedhispostinfavourofalifeannuity
of300ayeartoactastutortotheyoungDukeofBuccleuch(17461812)onanextendedEuropeantour.In1766heretiredtoKirkcaldytocontinuewritingAn
InquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations(1776),anenormouslyinfluentialandwiderangingworkinwhichheskilfullyexaminedtheforces
contributingtoworlddevelopment.In1778hereturnedtoEdinburghasacommissionerofcustoms,livingintheCanongatewithhismother(whodiedin1794atthe
ageof89)andtwocousins.EssaysonPhilosophicalSubjects(1795),publishedposthumously,hada'BiographicalMemoir'bythephilosopher,ProfessorDugald
Stewart(17531828).SeeTheEssentialAdamSmith,ed.RobertL.Heilbroner,1986IanSimpsonRoss,TheLifeofAdamSmith,1995D.D.Raphael,Adam
Smith,1985(introductiontohiswork).
Smith,Alexander(183067)
Scottishpoetandprosewriter,wasborninKilmarnock,thesonofalacepatterndesigner,andwaseducatedataschoolinJohnStreetinGlasgow,towhichhis
parentshadmoved.UnwillingtogointotheChurch,hefollowedhisfather'strade.In1846hejoinedtheAddisonianLiterarySociety,towhichhecontributedessays
onliteraryandphilosophicaltopics.HispoemswereprintedintheEclecticandCritic,andhecametothenoticeofthecritic,Rev.GeorgeGilfillan(181378),who
wroteaneffusivearticleintheCriticon'ANewPoetinGlasgow',andrecommendedhisworkstothestudentsofGlasgowUniversity.Assurednowofanaudience,
SmithpublishedALifeDramaandOtherPoems(1853),whichinallsoldtheunprecedentednumberforafirstbookofpoetryofnearlyeleventhousandcopies.
Withhisearnings,thishomelylookingyoungScottookatriptoEngland,metMARTINEAUintheLakesandSPENCERinLondon,andonhisreturnspentaweekat
InverarayCastleastheguestoftheDukeofArgyll.InfluentialfriendsobtainedforhimthepostofSecretarytoEdinburghUniversityin1854.CityPoems(1857)had
somemerit,buthispoeticreputationhadbeenunderminedbyAYTOUN'Ssatirical'Firmilian'.EdwinofDeira(1861),ahistoricalpoemaboutthe7thcenturyKingof
Northumbria,sufferedincomparisonwithTENNYSON'STheIdyllsoftheKing,anditsauthorreceivedjust15.5s.3dforhisfouryears'labour.Hisproseworkshave
provedmorelasting,notablyDreamthorp:aBookofEssaysWrittenintheCountry(1863)andASummerinSkye(1865),whichhassomegraphiccomparisons
betweenindustrialGlasgowandthenaturalbeautiesoftheIsleofSkye.Hediedoftyphoid.
Smith,Charlotte(17491806)
neTurner,Britishnovelistandpoet,wasborninLondon.Hermotherdiedwhenshewasthree,andshewaseducatedatboardingschoolsuntilshewas12.She
marriedthesonofaWestIndiamerchantin1765herfirst

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childdied,andhersecondwasborn,whenshewas17.Morechildrenfollowed,herhusbandwasjailedfordebt,andin1784,toearnmoney,shepublishedather
ownexpenseElegiacSonnets,andOtherEssays,ofwhichtherewerefurthereditions,withanadditionalvolumein1797.Shethenjoinedherdegeneratehusbandin
adecrepitchateauinFrance,wherehehadgonetoescapehiscreditors.Shelefthimin1787andreturnedtoEngland.Witheightchildrentosupport,shebecamea
novelistwithasharpeyetomiddleclasstastesandacolourfulsenseofgrievanceagainstelementsofsociety,notablylawyers,atwhosehandsshehadherself
suffered.AfterEmmeline,theOrphanoftheCastle(1788),sheproducedinthenexttenyearsninemorenovelsTheEmigrants(1793),ablankversepoemon
victimsoftheFrenchRevolutionandseveralworksforchildren.TheOldManorHouse(1793),whichisregardedasherbestnovel,featuresherfavouritetheme
(andpersonalanathema),awithheldinheritance,andisenhancedbylovers'separation,socialsatire,andlovingdescriptionsoftheEnglishcountryside.COWPER,who
hadheardherreadextractsatthehomeofWilliamHayley(17451820),commentedinalettertoafriendoftheacquisitionofacaskofginandtheexpectationofa
printedcopy:'Howhappywouldstthoufindthyselfintheenjoymentofboththesearticlesatonce!'Thoughlatterlyafflictedbyillnessandfamilycrises,shecontinued
tosendmoneytoherhusband.SeeThePoemsofCharlotteSmith,ed.StuartCurran,newedn1995.
Smith,IainCrichton(b.1928)
Scottishpoet,novelist,andshortstorywriter,whoalsowritesinGaelicasIainMaca'Ghobhainn,wasbornintheIsleofLewisandeducatedattheNicolsonInstitute,
Stornoway,andAberdeenUniversity.HetaughtEnglishatObanHighSchoolfrom1955to1977.Whilehisbilingualismhasnotelicitedanydichotomyinhiswork(he
hastranslatedintoEnglishthepoetryofMACINTYREandMACLEAN,aswellashisownshortstoriesandverse),ithashighlightedtheconflictsbetweentheCalvinistic
disciplineoftheFreeKirkandthecomparativefreedomofhisyouthreflectedinthetitlesofhisearlycollectionsofverse,ThistlesandRoses(1961)andTheLaw
andtheGrace(1965)andbetweentheancientGaeliccultureandthebaselesscultureofmodernScotland.EndsandBeginnings(1994)concludeswithalong
poem,writteninthe'conspicuousphraseology'oftheOldTestament,voicinghisfeelingsaboutChristianityanditsdogma.Inhisfirstnovel,ConsidertheLilies
(1968),anelderlywomanexperiencesthetraumasoftheClearancesinthe19thcenturyhefrequentlyreturnstotheportrayalofoldageinhisfictionandverse,for
exampleinthepoem'OldWoman'.TheLastSummer(1969)andMyLastDuchess(1971)areinessenceautobiographicalnovels,whileinTheDream(1990)he
exploresthedifferentreactionsonthepartofaGlasgowcoupletotheislandoftheirbirthandtotheHighlandtradition.Thetellingsparenessinhiscapturingofimages
andsituationsisaseffectivelydemonstratedinhisshortstoriesasitisinhispoetry.HewasmadeOBEin1980.SeeCollectedPoems,newedn1995(includes
translationsofhisownpoetryinGaelic)ListentotheVoice:SelectedStories,introductionbyDouglasGifford,1993ALife,1986(verseautobiography).
Smith,Johnston
seeCRANE,STEPHEN.
Smith,Pauline(18821959)
SouthAfricanshortstorywriter,wasborninOudtshoorn,thedaughterofanEnglishresidentphysiciantoapredominantlyAfrikaansareaofLittleKaroo,andhis
Scottishwife.Shewaseducatedbygovernesses,brieflyattheGirls'HighSchool,andsporadically,owingtoillness,inScotlandandEngland.Thesuddendeathin
1898ofherfather,whosecompanionshehadbeenonexcursionstoseepatients,affectedherdeeplyandcutherofffromherchildhoodroots,thoughsherevisited
SouthAfricaseveraltimes.SomeoftheitemsinPlatkopsChildren(1935),abookofchildren'sstoriesandverses,werewritteninherteenssketchesofScottishlife
appearedintheAberdeenFreePressunderapseudonym.Whenshewas26shemetBENNETTinSwitzerlandwhiletravellingwithhermother.Ayearlaterherecords
(inJournals,13October1909):'IntheeveningIgotPaulineSmithtotalkabouthernovel,butIthinkImentioneditfirst.Sheermagnanimityandobstinacymingled.'
Hisfaithinherabilityslowlyovercameherdiffidenceandcounteredtheeffectofaseriousillness.In1923,whenshewaslivinginDorset,heputintoPooleHarbourin
hisyachtandpersuadedhertocomeforasail.Sheshowedhimherstory'ThePain'.HesentittotheAdelphimagazine,whichprinteditandseveralmore.Eightwere
publishedinTheLittleKaroo(1925newedn,withtheadditionof'Desolation'and'TheFather',1930).Fortheirdepictionofthedesolateexistenceofthepoverty
strickenAfrikanerandforthecraftoftheirwriting,theyrepresentanoutstandingandunusualcontributiontoliteratureinEnglish.Hernovel,TheBeadle(1926),
demonstratesherdepthofunderstandingofhumannatureinthatalovestorywhichhasechoesofD.H.LAWRENCEissetwithinthebroaderframeworkofAfrikaner
society.SeeStories,DiariesandOtherUnpublishedorOutOfPrintWork,ed.ErnestDeveiraandSheilaScholten,1983andinKennethParker(ed.),The
SouthAfricanNovelinEnglish,1978.

Page507

Smith,Rosamond
seeOATES.
Smith,'Stevie'[FlorenceMargaret](190271)
poetandnovelist,wasborninHull,theyoungerdaughterofaconsultantengineerwho,whenhisbusinessfailed,lefthisfamilyandwenttosea.Shewasbroughtupin
PalmersGreen(thenacountryvillageoutsideLondon)byhermotherandbyanaunt,whofeaturesinherwritingasthe'Lion'andwithwhomshelaterlived.After
threeyearsoftuberculosis,shewaseducatedatPalmersGreenHighSchoolandtheNorthLondonCollegiateSchool.ShethentookasecretarialcourseatMrs
Hoster'sandjoinedthepublishinghouseofNewnes,wheresheworkeduntil1953.Aftertryingtogetsomeofherpoemspublishedandbeingadvisedinsteadto'go
awayandwriteanovel',shedidjustthat,typingitinthefirm'stimeonthefirm's'veryyellow'carboncopypaper.NovelonYellowPaper(1936),an
autobiographicalexerciseinthefreeassociationofideasandexperience,wasfollowedinthesameveinbyOvertheFrontier(1938)andTheHoliday(1949).
Collectionsofherverse,withherspikyillustrations,beganwithAGoodTimeWasHadbyAll(1937),andincludeNotWavingButDrowning(1957),whosetitle
poembegins:'Nobodyheardhim,thedeadman,/Buthestilllaymoaning:/Iwasmuchfurtheroutthanyouthought/Andnotwavingbutdrowning.'Herpoetry,
whichoftensprangfromanewsitem,oneofherowndrawings,orafleetingvision(astheincongruoussightofacatontheLondonunderground),canbegraveor
gay,kindorunkind,andfrequentlyreflectsthetensionsinherownmakeup.Shediedofabraintumour,havingseveraltimescontemplated,andatleastonce
attempted,suicide.ShewasawardedtheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1969.SeeTheCollectedPoemsofStevieSmith,ed.JamesMacGibbon,newedn
1985SelectedPoems:aNewSelection,1994FrancesSpalding,StevieSmith:aCriticalBiography,newedn1990.
Smith,SydneyGoodsir(191575)
Scottishpoet,wasborninWellington,NewZealand,thesonof(Sir)SydneySmith(18831969),thenamedicalofficerintheNewZealandArmyCorps,andhis
Scottishwife.HewaseducatedatMalvernCollegeand,afteranabortiveattempttoreadmedicineatEdinburghUniversity,wherehisfatherwasnowProfessorof
ForensicMedicine,atOrielCollege,Oxford.Unfitformilitaryservice,hetaughtEnglishtoPolishservicemeninScotlandduringWorldWarII.Hisfirstbookofverse,
SkailWind(1941),containedseveralpoemsinScots,including'EpistletoJohnGuthrie',inwhichhejustifieshisuseofthatlanguage:'...yejistmaundree/My
ScotsforEnglish,man,'sneardeid,/SeetheweeshywashyLondonbree/Antellmethenwhaesbluidisreid!'ThepublicationofTheDeevil'sWaltz(1946)
coincidedwiththeactionofthegroupofEdinburghpoetscalledtheMakarsClubtorationalizethespellingofScots,inwhichheistheprincipalpoetoftheScottish
RenaissancealongsideMACDIARMID.Hisdistinctive,oftenuproarious,andsometimestenderapproachisbestseeninUndertheEildonTree(1948),24linked
celebrationsoflove,evokingfiguresfromclassicalandCelticlegendandhistory(aswellas16yearoldSandra,pickedupinanEdinburghpub).Variouslyafreelance
journalist,radiowriter,andartcriticfortheScotsman,healsowrote,inScots,averseplay,TheWallace(1960),andarambling,inventivelyexpressed,comicnovel
ofEdinburgh,CarotidComucopia(1947).SeeCollectedPoems19411975,introductionbyHughMacDiarmid,1975.
Smithyman,Kendrick(b.1922)
NewZealandpoetandcritic,wasborninTeKopuru,Auckland,andeducatedatSeddonMemorialTechnicalCollege,AucklandTeachersCollege,andAuckland
UniversityCollege.HeservedintheNewZealandforcesinWorldWarII,afterwhichhetaughtinprimaryschoolsuntil1963,whenhebecameaseniortutorinthe
Englishdepartment,AucklandUniversity.SevenSonnets(1946)wasfollowedbyTheBlindMountainandOtherPoems(1950),andthenbyseveralfurther
collectionsincludingTheSealintheDolphinPool(1974),inwhose'AChipofMarble'heconfesses,'Icouldnotgetthehang/ofevocation'.Thisbeliesoneofthe
chiefattributesofapoetwhoserealismisinthetraditionofthe1930s,whoseinventivenessreflectstheAmericanpoeticinfluenceoftheimmediatepostwarperiodand
histravelinBritainandNorthAmerica,whosewitilluminatesaspectsofdailylife,andwhosevoice,withthatofBAXTERandCURNOW,isregardedasacentralfeatureof
postwarpoetryinNewZealand.AWayofSaying(1965)wasthefirstfulllengthstudyofNewZealandpoetry.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.PeterSimpson,1990
Auto/Biographies:Poems1987,1988,1989,1993.
Smollett,Tobias(172171)
Scottishnovelist,wasbornonhisgrandfather'sestateintheValeofLeven,Dunbartonshire,andwaseducatedatDumbartonGrammarSchoolandGlasgow
University,whereheacquiredamedicalqualification.In1740hesetoutforLondontofindaproducerforhisversetragedy,TheRegicide,orJamesIofScotland.
Whenhefailedtodoso,hesignedonasaship'ssurgeonforthechaoticexpeditionagainsttheSpanishintheWestIndies.HewassubsequentlystationedinJamaica,
wherehefoundhisfuturebride,theCreoledaughterofanEnglishplanter.HereturnedtoEnglandin1744,havingresignedhiscom

Page508

mission.Anoutspokennesstowardshispatientsmilitatedagainsthisestablishingaprofitablepracticebutwasanassetinjournalism,whichheexercisedwithtwofairly
ferociousJuvenaliansatires,Advice(1746)andReproof(1747),andotherunmemorabletopicalverses.Then,asitwereoutoftheblue,heproducedananonymous
novel,TheAdventuresofRoderickRandom(1748),asemiautobiographicalaccount,toldwithvividdetail,ofamuchputuponScotwhojoinstheNavy,servesin
theWestIndies,andfinallyretrieveshislostfortunes.SogoodwasitthatitwasthoughttobetheworkofHENRYFIELDING,underwhosenameitwastranslatedinto
French.Smollettrespondedin1749byresuscitatingTheRegicideandpublishingitas'bytheauthorofRoderickRandom'.EvenafterthesuccessofTheAdventures
ofPeregrinePickle(1751),forwhichhehadvisitedParisinpursuitoffirsthandmaterialforitshero'sGrandTour,moneyproblemsloomed.Havingobtaineda
medicaldegreefromStAndrewsUniversity,hetriedtosetuppracticeinBath,butthenearesthegottomedicalrecognition,beforedevotinghimselfentirelyto
literature,wastoassistDrWilliamSmellie(16971763),thecelebratedobstetrician,withtherevisionofhisTreatiseonMidwifery(1752).
Typically,hisnexttwonovels,TheAdventuresofFerdinand,CountFathom(1753),anearlyterrorstory,andTheAdventuresofSirLauncelotGreaves(1762),
withalatterdayDonQuixoteashero,failedbecauseofhisdeterminationtoexperiment.Hehadmeanwhiletranslated(1755)theoriginalDonQuixoteofCERVANTES,
andotherContinentalworks.Healsowroteadisconcertinglyminatorytravelguide,TravelsthroughFranceandItaly(1766),whichmovedSTERNEtodubhim
'Smelfungus',andACompleteHistoryofEnglandto1748(175758).HewasEditoroftheCriticalReview175663(beingimprisonedforthreemonthsin1759
forimpugningthecourageofanadmiral),theBritishMagazine176067,andTheBriton176263.Hislastnovel,TheExpeditionofHumphryClinker(1771),in
whichapartyoftravellerswanderthroughEnglandandScotland(revisitedbyhimin1766),isinletterform,witheverchangingpointsofview,frequentbutforgivable
prejudices,andsuperbhumourandnarrativetiming.Heneverreallyrecoveredfromthedeathofhis15yearolddaughterin1763,andhespentmuchoftherestof
hislifeabroadforhishealth,tendedbyhiswifeandbythoseforeigndoctorswhomhedidnotmistrust.HediedatthevillatheyhadtakennearLivorno(Leghorn)he
wasanadvocateoftheclimateoftheMediterraneaninthetreatmentoftuberculosis,fromwhichhesuffered.SeeLewisM.Knapp,TobiasSmollett:DoctorofMen
andManners,newedn1963PaulGabrielBouc,TheNovelsofTobiasSmollett,tr.AntoniaWhite,1976andinAndrewHook(ed.),TheHistoryofScottish
LiteratureVol.2:16601800,newedn1989.
SnorriSturluson(11791241)
Icelandicpoetandhistorian,wasbornontheestateofHvamm,thesonofachief,andhadaculturedupbringingatOdin,inthehouseholdofthelearnedIonLoptsson.
HewaspresidentoftheAlthing121518and122231,havingspenttwooftheinterveningyearsinNorwayandSweden.Intheendhemeddledtoomuchin
internationalaffairsandwasassassinatedbyemissariesofHaakonIVofNorway.Heistheauthoroftwohighlysignificantworks:Heimskringla[OrboftheWorld],
acollectionof17sagascomprisingahistoryofthekingsofNorwayfrommythicaltimesto1177andtheProseEdda,whosethreepartsconstituterespectivelya
collectionofNorsemythology,astudy(withexamples)ofdifferentformsofskaldicverse,andatreatiseonNorsemetre.TheanonymousEgil'sSaga(c.1230)has
beenattributedtohim,inthatitoffersanoverviewofearlyScandinavianandEnglishhistorysimilarinconceptiontothatofHeimskringla,withwhichitalsosharesan
understandingofhumancharacter.
Snow,(Sir)C(harles)P(ercy)(190580)
Britishnovelistandcritic,wasborninLeicester,thesonofaclerkinashoefactory.HewaseducatedatAldermanNewton'sGrammarSchooland,foracareerin
science,atUniversityCollege,Leicester.HewentontoresearchinphysicsattheCarendishLaboratory,Cambridge,becomingaFellowofChrist'sCollegein1930,
andbeingacollegetutorfrom1935to1945.Whentheresuitsofhisownresearchfailedtoconfirmhisexpectations,heturnedhisattentiontoscientificadministration
andtotheexpositionofcurrentscientificachievements,inwhichhesawhimselfbeingasocialcriticaswellasawriter,thoughhisfirstnovel,DeathUnderSail
(1932),wasalightdetectivestory.DuringWorldWarIIhewasTechnicalDirector,MinistryofLabour,andfrom1945untilhisresignationfromthecivilservicein
1960hewasacommissionerforthegovernmentrecruitmentofscientists.AsamemberoftheHouseofLords,hewasParliamentarySecretary,Ministryof
Technology196466.In1935,afterpublishingTheSearch(1934),whichcentresonthevagariesofascientificcareer,heconceivedtheideaforasequenceofnovels
whichwouldreflectcontemporaryEnglishsocietyandissues.StrangersandBrothers(1940reissuedasGeorgePassantin1973,toallowtheoriginaltitletobe
usedfortheseries)isthefirstof11novelswhichdrawonSnow'sprofessionalandpersonalexperiencesovertheyears,andinwhichLewisEliot,informedobserver
orsometimeschiefprotagonist,ishisalterego.TheMasters(1951)andTheAffair(1960)areexposuresofuniversitypoliticsnuclearscientistsand

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moraldilemmasfeatureinTheNewMen(1954),andpoliticiansinCorridorsofPower(1964).HislecturesatCambridge,TheTwoCulturesandtheScientific
Revolution(1959introductionbyStephanCollini,1993),reflectinguponthebarriersofmisunderstandingandignorancebetweenpractitionersinscienceandthearts,
provokedafierceresponsefromLEAVISonthedefinitionof'culture'.SnowwasmadeCBEin1943,wasknightedin1957,andin1964becamealifepeerwiththetitle
ofBaronSnow.In1950hemarried,ashersecondhusband,thenovelistPamelaHansfordJohnson(191281),whosemainworksareherfirst,ThisBedThyCentre
(1935),andTheUnspeakableSkipton(1959),basedonthelifeofROLFE.
Snyder,Gary(b.1930)
Americanpoetandessayist,wasborninSanFranciscoand'grewupinaruralfamilyinthestateofWashington....Icameherebyapath,aline,ofpeoplethat
somehowworkedtheirwayfromtheAtlanticseaboardwestwardover150years.OnegrandfatherendedupintheterritoryofWashington,andhomesteadedin
KitsapCounty.Mymother'ssidewasrailroadpeopledowninTexas,andbeforethatthey'dworkedthesilverminesinLeadville,Colorado.'Hewaseducatedat
LincolnHighSchool,Portland,Oregon,andReedCollege,wherehereadanthropology.AfterstudyinglinguisticsatIndianaUniversity,hereturnedWest,andwas
associatedwithGINSBERG,KEROUAC(whoportrayedhiminTheDharmaBums),andothermembersoftheSanFranciscoRenaissance,whileatthesametimereading
classicalChineseattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.Subsequentlyhejudiciouslycombinedtheactivewiththecontemplative.HehasbeenaseamanonaSouth
Pacifictanker,alogger,atimberscaler,andaforestfirewatcheronSourdoughMountain,Alaska.InJapanbetween1959and1968hestudiedBuddhismunderZen
teachers.Hispoetry,whichincludestenderexpressionsoferoticism,hasreflectedthelifehewasleadingatthetime.Riprap,hisfirstcollectionthetermisoneused
byforesters,waspublishedinJapanin1959,andsubsequentlyincorporatedinRiprap,andColdMountainPoems(1965).InMythsandTexts(1960)heused
NativeAmericanfolkmaterialsuchashasinformedhiscontinuinginterestin'ethnopoetics',therecoveryandtransmissionoftribal/oralpoetryseealsoTheOld
Ways:SixEssays(1977).EarthHouseHold(1969)andThePracticeoftheWild(1990)areinfluentialvolumesofessaysonpoliticalandecologicalissues.His
collectionofverse,TurtleIsland(1974),wonthePulitzerPrize.InthesubsequentcollectionsAxeHandles(1983)andLeftOutintheRain:NewPoems1947
1985(1986)hefurtherexploresthevalidityoftheculturalrehabilitationofthenaturalworld.MountainsandRiversWithoutEnd(1996)hasbeendescribedasan
'Americanepicpoem'.SnyderbecameaprofessorattheUniversityofCalifornia,Davis,in1985.SeeBobSteuding,GarySnyder,1976(criticalstudy)PatrickD.
Murphy,UnderstandingGarySnyder,1992(criticalstudy).
Solzhenitsyn,Alexander(IsaYevich)(b.1918)
Russiannovelist,wasborninKislovodskinthenorthernCaucusus,theposthumoussonofastudentwhohadenlistedinthearmyandbeenkilledsixmonths
previously,andofashorthandtypist.HewasbroughtupinRostovonDon,wherehetookadiplomainmathematicsandphysicsattheuniversity,whilealso
completingacorrespondencecourseattheInstituteofPhilosophy,Literature,andHistoryinMoscow.In1941hewascalledupfromhispostasaphysicsteacherto
beadriverofhorsedrawnvehicles,fromwhichhegraduatedtotheartillery,servingasthecommanderofagunpositionandbecomingatwicedecoratedcaptain.
On9February1945hewasarrestedandstrippedofhisrankandmedalsforcriticizingStalininaprivatelettertoafriend.Havingservedfiveyears'imprisonmentin
MoscowandthenthreeyearsinalabourcampinKazakhstan,wherehedevelopedstomachcancer,hewasreleasedintoexile,fromwhichhereturnedin1956to
settleasateacherinRyazan,sometwohundredkilometressouthofMoscow.Hisfirstpublishedworkwas[OneDayintheLifeofIvanDenisovich](1962tr.
RalphParker,1963tr.H.T.Willetts,1991),astarkstudyofsurvivalinalabourcamp.In[CancerWard](1968tr.NicholasBethellandDavidBurg,1969)and
[TheFirstCircle](1968tr.MichaelGuybon,1968),bothfirstpublishedoutsidetheUSSR,heexplored,throughthemediumofhisownexperiences,philosophies
ofdestinyandchoice.HavingbeenexpelledfromtheWriters'Unionin1969,andawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1970,hewasin1974deportedafterthe
publicationinParisofthefirsttwopartsofhismeticuloushistoryoftheSovietpenalsystem,[TheGulagArchipelago](197376tr.ThomasEWhitney,197478),
followingthesuicideofhisformerassistantwho,afterfivedaysofinterrogationbytheKGB,hadrevealedwhereshehadhiddenacopyofthecompletework.See
MichaelScammell(ed.)TheSolzhenitsynFiles,tr.CatherineA.Fitzgeraldandothers(1995)fordocumentsrelatingtohisharassmentbytheSovietauthorities.
In1976hesettledwithhissecondwifeandchildrenintheUSA,onanestateinthemountainsnearVermont,wherehegavetheplacetheaspectofalabourcamp,
andlivedanasceticexistenceinahutinthegrounds.HerehecontinuedhisprojectednovelcycleofmodernRussianhistory,['TheRedWheel'],whichbeganwith
[August1914](1971tr.MichaelGlenny,1972),employinga

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varietyofadditionalnarrativetechniquesdrawnfromnonfictionwriting,newspaperjournalism,andfilmmaking.HereturnedpermanentlytoRussiain1994,toa
tumultuousreceptionfromthegeneralpublic.[TheOakandtheCalf](1975tr.Willetts,1980)isanautobiographicalstudyofliterarylifeintheUSSR.[Invisible
Allies](1991tr.AlexisKlimoffandMichaelNicolson,1996)isanaccountoftheundergroundnetworkwhichsupportedhisoppositiontotheSovietestablishment,
writteninZurichbeforehecametotheUSA.'TheRussianQuestion'attheEndoftheTwentiethCentury,tr.YermolaiSolzhenitsyn(1995),writtenjustbeforehis
return,isahistoricalessaycentringontherulesofthetsars.
Somers,Jane
seeLESSING,DORIS.
Somerville,E(dith)O(enone)(18581949)
Irishnovelist,wasborninCorfu,whereherfather,acolonelintheBuffs,wasstationed.ShewaseducatedbygovernessesatthefamilyseatofDrishane,
Castletownshend,Co.Cork,andbrieflyatAlexandraCollege,Dublin.ShestudiedpaintinginDusseldorfandParisin1884.In1886,whileworkingathomeona
commissiontoillustratethreeserialsfortheGraphic,shefirstmethersecondcousin,VioletMartin(18621915),who,as'MartinRoss',becameherliterary
collaborator.Outoftheiruniquerapport,thenatureofwhichhasneversatisfactorilybeenexplained,cameAnIrishCousin(1889),acuriousblendofIrishGothic
andsocialcomment.Theirthirdjointventureintofiction,TheRealCharlotte(1894),foritsdepictionofsociety,itssubtlenarrativeanddialogue,andits
characterization,especiallyoftheeponymousantiheroine,isregardedasthefinestIrishnovelofthatperiod.ThestoriesinSomeExperiencesofanIrishR.M.
(1899)wereconceivedinresponsetoarequestfromBadmintonMagazine,andwerelargelywrittenwhileMartinwasseverelyincapacitatedafterafallwhile
hunting.Neverthelessthisanditssequels,FurtherExperiencesofanIrishR.M.(1908)andInMrKnox'sCountry(1915),arecomicmasterpiecesof
misunderstandingsandsportingoccasions,asanexIndianarmyofficerfromEnglandadjuststobeingaresidentmagistrateinruralIreland.Martin'snameasco
author,andherspiritualisticintervention,werestillattributedafterherdeathtoseveralnovels,ofwhichTheBigHouseofInver(1925),astoryoffamilysocialand
economicdecline,isthemostnotable.Somerville,havingbeenMasteroftheWestCarberyFoxHounds190308and191219,revertedtohersecondary
occupationofpainting,ofwhichsheheldseveralexhibitionsinLondonandtwoinNewYork.ShecontinuedtoliveatDrishaneuntil1946,whenwithhersistershe
movedtoahouseinthevillageappropriatelycalled'TallyHo'.SeeSelectedLetters,ed.GiffordLewis,1989GiffordLewis,Somerville&Ross:theWorldofthe
IrishR.M.,1985(biography)HilaryRobinson,SomervilleandRoss:aCriticalAppreciation,1980.
Sophocles(496406BC)
classicalGreekdramatist,wasborninColonus,nearAthens,anddefeatedAeschylusforthedramaprizein468.Hissome120plays,thelastofwhich,Oedipusat
Colonus,wasfinishedjustbeforehisdeath,included18prizewinningtetralogies.Aswellasmakingtheactiondependmoreonthewillofthecharactersthanofthe
gods,heintroducedthethirdactor,andwasthefirsttouseascenepainter.Onlyseventragediessurvive.Ofthese,KingOedipus,inwhichthetruthisrevealedthat
Oedipushasslainhisfatherandmarriedhismother,andAntigone,whoseheroinestandsupforherrights,liveonparticularlyinthemodernimaginationand
demonstratetothefulltheabilityofSophoclestoillustratehumansufferingandemotions.HisinfluenceonEnglishliterature,andonWesternthoughtasawhole,is
considerable.MILTONwassteepedinhiswork,andSamsonAgonistesparticularlyrecallsaspectsofOedipusatColonus.ARNOLDisprobablythinkingofthesame
playwhenhereferstoSophoclesin'DoverBeach'.SWINBURNE'SAtalantainCalydonisatributetotheclassicalGreekdramatists,anditspopularsuccessatthetime
isareflectionofthepoeticqualityofthechoralodesofSophocles.FromhisreadingofSophoclesFREUDderivedtheterm'Oedipuscomplex'asthebasisofhistheory
ofinfantsexuality.YEATSwrote,fromvarioustranslations,poeticallyanddramaticallyeffectiveversionsofthetwoOedipusplays,whoseintensitywassuchthatduring
aperformancein1927thebarkingofaphantomdogwasheard.POUNDandHEANEYareothermodernpoetswhohaveproducedversionsoftheplaysinEnglish.
Sophocleswasapopularpersonageinhisowntime,andwasin440electedoneofthetengeneralsdeputedtosortoutthetroublesomeSamians.Asafounder
memberoftheguildorcollegeofAsclepius,hewaseffectivelyresponsibleforintroducingtoAthensthecraftofmedicine.SeeTheThebanPlays:OedipustheKing,
OedipusatColonus,Antigone,ed.DavidGreneandRichardLattimore,1994.
Sorley,CharlesHamilton(18951915)
Scottishpoet,wasborninAberdeen,thesecondchildandeldertwinsonofProfessorWilliamSorley(18551935),whoin1900movedwithhisfamilyto
Cambridge,wherehehadbeenappointedtothechairofMoralSciences.HewaseducatedatMarlboroughCollege,wherehegainedareputationasafearless
literarycriticandaprecociouspoet.HavingwonascholarshiptoUniversityCollege,Oxford,hespentthefirstfew

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monthsof1914withafamilyinMecklenburg,andthenenrolledforatermattheuniversityatJena.HewasonawalkingtourintheMosellewhenAustriaHungary
declaredwaronSerbia,andwithafriendwasimprisonedforseveralhoursasaspy.BackinEngland,heenlistedandwasstraightawaycommissionedintheSuffolk
Regiment.Thoughhewasoneofthefirstofficersinthenewlyformed'Kitchener'sArmy',hisattitudetowar,fosteredbyhismonthsinGermany,wasambivalent
expressedinthepleaformutualunderstandingof'ToGermany'andintheironyof'AlltheHillsandValesAlong'.HisbattalionwaspostedtoFranceinMay1915,
andwasmovedintothesupporttrenchesinJuly,andintothefrontlineatthebeginningofthebattleofLoos,bywhichtimehehadbeenpromotedtocaptain.
TowardstheendofOctober,overdueforleave,hewaskilledbyasniper'sbullet.Thesonnetbeginning'Whenyouseemillionsofthemouthlessdead/Acrossyour
dreamsinpalebattalionsgo...'wasfoundinhiskitwhenitwasreturnedtoEngland.GRAVES,recordingthefactofhisdeathinGoodbyetoAllThat,referstohimas
'oneofthethreepoetsofimportancekilledinthewar',theothersbeingOWENandROSENBERG.SeeThePoemsandSelectedLettersofCharlesHamilton
Sorley,ed.HildaD.Spear,1978.
Souster,Raymond(b.1921)
Canadianpoet,wasborninToronto,ofwhichhehassaid:'Torontohasaflavourallitsown....MyrootsareherethisistheplacethattugsatmyheartwhenIleave
itandfillsmewithquietreliefwhenIreturntoit.'HewaseducatedatTorontoUniversityschoolsandforayearattheHumbersideCollegiateInstitute,afterwhich,
exceptforwarserviceintheRoyalCanadianAirForce,heworkedfortheCanadianBankofCommerceinTorontountil1984.Hepublishedhisfirst'littlemagazine',
Direction,whileintheAirForce,andhisfirstbookofverse,WhenWeAreYoung,in1946.AsignificantoffshootofContact,whichhefoundedin1952,andwhich
surviveduntil1954,wasContactPress,whichheranwithDUDEKandLAYTONasaliterarypublishinghousefrom1952to1967.Describedasanurbanimagist,hisbest
poetry,whichisspreadthroughmanycollections,ofwhichTheColouroftheTimes(1964)wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward,istobefoundamonghisshorter
lyrics.SeeCollectedPoems19401988,7vols198092BruceWhiteman,RaymondSousterandHisWorks,1985.
Soutar,William(18981943)
Scottishpoet,wasborninPerth,thesonofajoiner,andwaseducatedatPerthAcademyuntil1916,whenhewasconscriptedintotheRoyalNavy.Symptoms
appearedofwhatin1924wasdiagnosedasthespinediseasewhichwastocrippleandkillhim,butafterdemobilizationhetookadegreeinEnglishatEdinburgh
University,havingin1923publishedanonymouslyabookofpoems,GleaningsbyanUndergraduate.Anoperationin1930failedtohalthiscondition,andhenoted
inhisdiarythat3Novemberofthatyearwasthelastdayonwhichhewasabletogetoutofbed.Hisfatherextendedhisgroundfloorbedroom,andfor13yearshe
carriedonaheroicexistence,dispassionatelyrecorded,togetherwithhisviewsonpoetry,politics,andmetaphysics,inaseriesofremarkablejournalsseeDiaries
ofaDyingMan,ed.AlexanderScott(1954).HewasnowwritingalsoinScots,aboutwhichhestatedtoMACDIARMID,'IftheDoricistocomebackalive,itwillcome
firstonacockhorse.'Truetohisconviction,heproducedSeedsintheWind:PoemsinScotsforChildren(1933rev.edn1943)which,togetherwithRiddlesin
Scots(1937)andtheposthumouslypublished'Whigmaleeries',constitutethemostsignificantcollectionofverseforchildreninthelanguage.Allhispoemsareshort,
andtothepoint.HewrotebetterinScotsthaninEnglish(thoughsomeofhisEnglishpoemsaboutWorldWarIIhaveaneat,sardonicring),andbycontinuous
experimentheenrichedthelanguageanditspoeticrange,notleastthroughhis'ThemesandVariations',forwhichhewoulduseEnglishpoemsandtranslationsfrom
manylanguagesasstartingpointsfornewpoemsinScots.SeePoemsofWilliamSoutar:aNewSelection,ed.W.R.Aitken,1988.
Southall,Ivan(b.1921)
Australianchildren'snovelist,wasborninCanterbury,Victoria,andleftBoxHillGrammarSchoolat14toworkfortheMelbourneHeraldasanengraver.Hejoined
theRoyalAustralianAirForcein1942,andservedinEnglandinCoastalCommand,captainingaSunderlandflyingboatandwinningtheDistinguishedFlyingCross
foranactioninwhichaUboatwassunkseehisshortpersonalaccountofthewar,FlyingWest(1974).In1960,havingbeenfreelancesince1947andwrittennine
adventurestoriesforboysabouttheexploitsofaRAAFpilot,he'wokeuponemorningdeterminednevertowriteanotherbookforchildren.Thedearlittledarlings
couldgojumpinthelake.'Then,therebeingadelayintheresearchforhisnextadultdocumentarybook,heembarkedonanovel,which'begantolooklikethe
sourceofastorythatmightinvolvechildrenoftheordinarykind'.HillsEnd(1962)wasthefirstofseveralbooksinwhichagroupofchildrenfaceuptoanexternal
disaster.Subsequentnovels,ofwhichJosh(1971)wontheBritishLibraryAssociation'sCarnegieMedal,havetendedtoconcentrateonthejoysandagoniesofa
singlecharacter,andparticularlyonthetraumasofgrowingupandseekingapersonalidentity.HewasmadeAMin1981.SeeAJourneyofDiscovery:Writingfor
Children,1975(essays).

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Southern(e),Thomas(16601746)
Irishdramatist,wasborninOxmantown,nearDublin,andeducatedatTrinityCollege,Dublin,afterwhich,in1678,heenteredtheMiddleTempletostudylaw.Inhis
firstplay,thetragedyTheLoyalBrother(1682),forwhichDRYDENsuppliedaprologueandepilogue,thevirtuousprincerepresentstheCatholicDukeofYork,later
JamesII.TheDisappointment(1684)isadomesticdrama.In1685hejoinedtheArmyasanensign,butafterhehadquicklyrisentocommandacompany,his
militaryprospectsweredashedbytheabdicationofJamesII.Henowrevertedtohisliterary,career,andproducedacomedy,SirAnthonyLove(1690),whose
popularityheacknowledgedwasduemainlytothefactthatthenamepartwaswrittenforandplayedbythetalentedMrsMountfort(16671703).Alesssuccessful,
butbetter,comedyisTheWivesExcuse:or,CuckoldsMakeThemselves(1692).ThebestofallhisworksarethetragediesTheFatalMarriage(1694)and
Oronooko(1696),bothbasedonstoriesbyBEHN.Byallaccountsahighlyrespectedman,towhomDrydenentrustedtherevisionandcompletionofhistragedy,
Cleomenes(1692),hemanagedhisaffairsbetterthanmostofhiscalling,beingdescribedbyPOPEas'Tom,whomHeavensentdowntoraise/Thepriceof
prologuesandofplays'.SeeTheWorksofThomasSoutherne,ed.RobertJordanandHaroldLove,2vols1988JohnW.Dodds,ThomasSoutherne,Dramatist,
newedn1970.
Southey,Robert(17741843)
Britishpoetandprosewriter,wasborninBristol,thesonofadraper,butwaslargelybroughtupbyaneccentricmaidenauntinBath.Havingbeenexpelledfrom
WestminsterSchoolforpublishingamagazine,theFlagellant,whichdenouncedflogging,hewasacceptedbyBalliolCollege,Oxford,wherehewrotealotofbad
verse,wentontheriver,andthoughtupwaysofgettingoutofgoingintotheChurch,whichhisfamilyexpectedhimtodo.The'Pantisocracy',theselfgoverning,self
reliantsocietyinAmericawhichhedevisedwithCOLERIDGE,cametonothing,butafterheleftOxfordin1794withouttakinghisdegree,thepairestablishedasmall
communeinacrampedBristolfiat.In1795,havingpublishedPoemswithRobertLovell(177096),andsoldJoanofArc:anEpicPoem(1796),hesecretly
marriedhisfiance,EdithFricker,fromwhomhepartedonthesamedaytogowithhisuncletoLisbon.Onhisreturnhemadeanattempttostudylaw,butwas
unabletogoalongwithit.Henowbecameafulltimewriterandjournalist.Poems(2vols179799)wasfollowedbyThalabatheDestroyer(1801),thefirstof
severalnarrativepoemsbasedonhisvoluminousreading.In1803hewasfinallypersuadedtojointheColeridgehouseholdatGretaHall,Keswick,wherehe
remainedfortherestofhislife,supportinghisfamily,andsomeoftheColeridgesaswell,bytheprodigiousoutputofhispen.
In1813WALTERSCOTTturneddownthePoetLaureateshiponthegroundsthathealreadyheldtwocrownappointmentsasalawyer,andrecommendedSoutheyas
beingmoreneedfulifnotmoredeservingofthepost.Southey'sacceptance,andhissubsequentsupportofmovestoeradicateseditionandpublicdissent,turnedto
embarrassmentwhenWatTyler,aproductofhisradicalyouth,themanuscriptofwhichhehadpresumedlost,waspublishedin1817withouthispermission.Though
hewasinhisdaysomethingofapoeticinnovator,apartfromafewpoems,suchas'InchcapeRock','MydaysamongtheDeadarepassed...',and'TheBattleof
Blenheim'(withitsironicrefrain,'But'twasafamousvictory'),andhissuccinctTheLifeofNelson(1813),heisrememberedasthefaithfulfriendofColeridgeand
WORDSWORTH,andthebuttofBYRON'STheVisionofJudgement.Edithdied,insane,in1837,andwithhisownmindnowfailing,hemarriedCarolineBowles(1786
1854),averyminorpoetwithwhomhehadcorrespondedfortwentyyears.SeeMarkStorey,RobertSouthey:aLife,1997.
Soyinka,Wole(AkinwandeOluwoleSoyinka)(b.1934)
Nigeriandramatist,poet,novelist,andcritic,wasbornofaYorubafamilyinAbeokuta,WesternNigeria,thesonoftheHeadmasterofStPeter'sSchoolandofthe
founderofthelocalWomen'sUniongrouphecallsherthe'WildChristian'inhisaffectionateearlyreminiscences,Ak:theYearsofChildhood(1981).Hewas
educatedatStPeter's,AbeokutaGrammarSchool,GovernmentCollege,Ibadan(towhichhewonascholarshipathissecondattempt),andUniversityCollege,
Ibadan,aftertwoyearsatwhichhewenttoEngland,graduatinginEnglishatLeedsUniversityin1957.Hewasalreadywritingplays.HehimselfproducedThe
SwampDwellersasanentryfortheLondonUniversityDramaFestivalin1958itwasperformedattheArtsTheatre,Ibadan,withhisLionandtheJewelin1959.
HewasnowascriptreaderattheRoyalCourtTheatre,London,wherein1959hepresentedhisownprogrammeofreadings,songs,andanightmarishoneact
politicalsatireonSouthAfrica,TheInvention.BackinNigeriahewroteaoneactcomedy,TheTrialsofBrotherJero(produced1960),towhichJero's
Metamorphosis(1973)isasequel.Healsocompleted,directed,andactedinhisambitioussymbolicdrama,ADanceoftheForests,presentedbyhisown
company,the1960Masks,forthecelebrationofNigerianindependenceinOctober1960,atwhichitwontheprizeofferedbytheBritishliteraryjournal,Encounter.
Thencamehisthreetragedies:TheStrongBreed(1964),withitsscapegoatthemeKon

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gi'sHarvest(1964),whichisalsoasatireonthecontemporarypoliticalsceneandTheRoad(1965),inwhichheusessharpaction,avarietyofstylesofdialogue,
andelementsofYorubacultureinanexplorationoftheessenceofdeath.In1965hepublishedhisfirstnovel,TheInterpreters,astudyoftherelationshipbetween
humanpersonalityandfate.Hewasalsoinpolicecustodyforseveralweeks,onachargeofsubstitutingatapeofaspoofelectionbroadcastfortheofficialonehe
wasacquittedforlackofevidence.Theimageoftheroadasanaltaruponwhichlivesaresenselesslysacrificedintheinterestsofprogressrecursinandinformsthe
firstcollectionofhispoetry,IdanreandOtherPoems(1967),inwhichisnoneofhisearlier,satiricalverse.
In1967hewasappointedHeadoftheDepartmentofDramaticArtsatIbadanUniversity,butbeforehecouldtakeuptheposthewashuntedbythemilitary
authoritiesandthesecretpoliceforhispublicdenunciationofthecivilwarandforhiseffortstoavertit.Hewasheldwithouttrialfor26months,23oftheminsolitary
confinementseehisaccount,TheManDied:PrisonNotes(1972),duringwhichhewrotefragmentsofverse,drama,andprosebetweenthelinesofbooks
smuggledintohim.ThepoemsarecollectedinAShuttleintheCrypt(1972),whichincludesthetwowhichhemanagedtosmuggleout,publishedasPoemsfrom
Prison(1969).Otherwritingsdraftedduringhisincarcerationincludetheallegoricaldramaofevil,MadmenandSpecialists(published1971),andasecondnovel,
SeasonofAnomy(1973).In1970hegaveuphispostatIbadantodevotehistimetowriting,andwentintoexiletoavoidbeinginvolvedinpoliticaldebate.He
returnedafterthefalloftheprevailingregimein1975tobeProfessorofComparativeLiteratureandHeadoftheDepartmentofDramaticArts,IfeUniversity,where
hefoundedarovingcompany,theGuerrillaTheatre,topresenthis'shotgunsketches'ofpoliticalsatire.
OgunAbibima(1976)isalongpoeminspiredbyMozambique'sstandagainstRhodesia.Itcelebrates,throughtheinterventionofOgun,Yorubagodofiron,war,
andhunting,aunionofAfricandivisionswhichwillliberateSouthAfrica,athemetowhichMandela'sEarthandOtherPoems(1988)isalsodevoted.Heretired
fromIfein1985andreturnedtoAbeokuta,subsequentlygoingintovoluntaryexileagainasaresultofthecontinuationofmilitaryruleinNigeriainTheOpenSore
ofaContinent:aPersonalNarrativeoftheNigerianCrisis(1996)heexploresthehistoryofandfutureforhiscountry.TheBeatificationofanAreaBoy,first
performedinLeedsin1995,isacomedyaboutmodernNigeriaatwhoseheartliesachillingrealism.InIsar:aVoyagearound'Essay'(1989)heconstructsan
imaginativebiographyofhisfather(whosenicknamewas'Essay',standingforhisinitials),usingasstartingpointsdocumentshefoundinanoldtinbox.Hiscritical
worksincludeEssaysonLiteratureandCulture,ed.BiodunJeyifo(1988).HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1986.SeeCollectedPlays1,1973,
and2,1974SixPlays,1984Ibadan:thePenkelemesYearsaMemoir19451967,newedn1995EldredD.Jones,TheWritingofWoleSoyinka,rev.edn
1988andinJaneWilkinson(ed.),TalkingwithAfricanWriters,1992.
Spark,Muriel(b.1918)
neCamberg,Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,andcritic,wasborninEdinburghofaJewishfather(hermotherwasEnglish),andwaseducatedatJames
Gillespie'sSchoolforGirls,Edinburgh,andHeriotWattCollege,whereshesoughttocompleteher'educationinEnglishprose'whilestudyingtechnicalsubjects.She
wasateacherinaboys'schoolinreturnforbeingtaughtshorthandandtyping,andthenworkedinanexclusivePrincesStreetdepartmentstore.Havingconcluded
that'inordertowriteaboutlifeasIintendedtodo,IfeltIhadfirsttolive',shebecameengagedtoateacher13yearshersenior,andjoinedhiminSouthernRhodesia
(Zimbabwe),wheretheyweremarriedin1937.Themarriagecollapsed,andin1944shereturnedtoBritain,whereanenthusiasmfortheworkofCOMPTONBURNETT
landedherasecretarialjobinthepoliticalintelligencedepartmentofMI6.ShewasGeneralSecretaryofthePoetrySocietyandEditorofPoetryReview194749.
AtthistimeshewaswritingcriticalandbiographicalworksandpoetryseeCollectedPoems(1967)butsheturnedtowritingfictionafterwinningtheObserver
shortstorycompetitionin1951.
ShebecameaCatholicin1954,whichsuperimposedanintellectualpatternontheconflictingelementsofherupbringingandearlieryears.Sheestablishedher
distinctivenovelwritingprocessfromaconvictionthat'anygoodnovel,orindeedanycompositionwhichcalledforaconstructionalsense,wasessentiallyanextension
ofpoetry'.Herfirstnovel,TheComforters(1957),establishedhermotifofthesocialorculturalmisfit,orlonerinasocietyofmisfits,whichrecursespeciallyinThe
BalladofPeckhamRye(1960),TheDriver'sSeat(1970),LoiteringwithIntent(1981),andAFarCryfromKensington(1988).Inhermostwidelypublicized
novel,ThePrimeofMissJeanBrodie(1961),astrongwilledbutobtuselyarrogantschoolmistressisthearchitectofherowndestruction.Sinisterfigureshover
roundthebizarredinnerpartyguestsinSymposium(1990),oneofwhomisawitch.Inher20thnovel,afurtherblackcomedy,RealityandDreams(1996),afilm
director'sartandhislifebecomeconfusedin'thetractofnoman'slandbetweendreamsandreality'.MurielSpark'sdialoguehastheprecisionofapoetandthewitof
askilledsatirist,while

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hereyeforthebizarreandherskillasashortstorywriterseeTheCollectedStories(1994)enablehertocrystallizeacharacter,asituation,oracompletemilieu
inafewparagraphs,orevenwords.
In1963,lifeinLondonbecame'impossible.IfeltthatIhadlostmyprivacy,myfreedom.'ShemovedtoNewYork,wheretheEditoroftheNewYorker,inwhich
muchofherworkhasfirstappeared,gaveheranofficeoverlookingTimesSquare.In1967shetransferredtoRome,gettingherself'admittedtotheSalvatorMundi
hospital'whensheneededtheprivacyinwhichtofinishabook.Sincethe1980sshehaslivedpermanentlyina14thcenturypriesthouseinTuscany.Shewasmade
OBEin1967,andDBEin1993.WinnerofDavidCohenPrizeforBritishLiteraturein1977.SeeCurriculumVitae,newedn1994(autobiographyto1957)
NormanPage,MurielSpark,1990(criticalstudy)JudySproxton,TheWomenofMurielSpark,1992(criticalstudy).
Spencer,Elizabeth(b.1921)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninCarrollton,Mississippi,intoafamilywhichonbothsideshadfarmedinCarrollCountysincethe1830s.Asa
childshespentmuchtimeatthefamilyplantationownedbyhermother'sfather,aformercountysheriff.Alifelongstoryteller,shewaseducatedatJ.Z.GeorgeHigh
School,Carrollton,andBelhaven,thePresbyteriancollegeforwomeninJackson,afterwhichshedidaMAthesisonYEATSatVanderbiltUniversity,wherehertutor
wasthepoetcriticDonaldDavidson(18931968).Aftertwoyearsasaschoolteacher,shebecameareporterontheNashvilleTennessean,whiletakinganevening
courseinshortstorywriting.Sheresignedin1946toworkfulltimeonanovel,FireintheMorning(1948),astoryofdarksecrets,familyhatreds,and
reconciliation.ShewasamemberoftheEnglishfacultyoftheUniversityofMississippifrom1948to1953,duringwhichtimeshewroteThisCrookedWay(1952).
In1953shewenttoItalyonaGuggenheimFellowshipandmetJohnRusher(b.1920),anEnglishmanwhowasdirectorofalanguageschoolinRometheywere
marriedinCornwall,UK,in1956.TheVoiceattheBackDoor(1956),about'theconfrontationofracesonthelocallevel'isherfinalfictionalstatementinthe
Southernliterarytraditionandherstrongestnovel.Itspublicationmarkedawatershedinherlife.In1957theNewYorkerpublishedhershortstory,'TheLittleBrown
Girl',whichithadrejectedin1947heronlypublishedstoryhadbeen'Pilgrimage'(1950).In1958sheandherhusbandsettledinMontreal,Canada.InTheLightin
thePiazza(1960),publishedalsointheNewYorkerinitsentirety,sheturnedtoafemaleprotagonistandaninternationalsetting,asshedidagaininNoPlaceforan
Angel(1967)andTheSnare(1972).Maleprotagonists,complexrelationships,andtheMississippicoastafterthe1969hurricane,arefeaturesofTheSaltLine
(1985).
InthemeantimeSpencerdevelopedhershorterfiction,arecurrentthemeofwhichshehasdescribedas'liberationandtheregretyouhavewhenyouliberateyourself'.
Herfirstcollection,ShipIslandandOtherStories(1968),wasreprintedwithKnightsandDragons(1965),anovellaaboutaguiltriddenAmericanwomaninItaly,
inTheStoriesofElizabethSpencer(1981)seealsoJackofDiamondsandOtherStories(1988)andOntheGulf(1991).Marilee(1981)comprisesthree
storiesofayoungwomangrowingupintheSouthwhohasaffinitieswithSpencerhadshestayedinMississippiandnotbecomeawriter.SeePeggyWhitman
Prenshaw,ElizabethSpencer,1985(biographical/criticalstudy).
Spencer,Herbert(18201903)
Britishphilosopher,wasborninDerby,theeldestandonlysurvivorofeightchildrenofateacherofmathematics.Hewaseducatedlocallyuntilhewas13,whenhe
wassenttoanuncle,ThomasSpencer(17961853),thesocialreformer,whowasperpetualCurateofHintonCharterhouse,nearBath.Afterliterallyrunningaway
(hedidthe120milejourneyhomeonfootinthreedays),hewassentback,andstayedforthreeyears.In1837hebecameacivilengineerontherailways,butwas
maderedundantin1841whenthelineonwhichhewasworkingwascompleted.Afterdabblinginpoliticalandtechnicaljournalism,hewasin1848appointeda
subeditorontheEconomist,withfreeaccommodationandticketstothetheatreandopera,ofwhichhewasthejournal'scritic.Henowwrotehisfirstbook,Social
Statics,ortheConditionsEssentialtoHumanHappinessSpecified...(1850).'Humanhappiness',tohim,didnotincludemarriagetoMarianEvans(GEORGE
ELIOT),whomhemuchadmiredforherintellect,andwhoprobablywouldhavemarriedhim,butherlackof'physicalbeauty'(ashelaterexplainedtofriends)
disqualifiedher.In1853,havingbeenleft500byhisuncle,hegaveuphisjobandwentontheContinent.Hereturnedcomplainingof'signsofanenfeebledactionof
theheart',whichenabledhimtoacttheeccentrichypochondriacfortherestofhisbachelorlife.Inhismonumental'SystemofSyntheticPhilosophy'(announcedin
1860,published186296),FirstPrinciples,ThePrinciplesofBiology,ThePrinciplesofPsychology(originallypublishedin1855,butnowrevised),The
PrinciplesofSociology,andThePrinciplesofEthics,heattemptedasynthesisofhumanknowledgeaccordingtothelawsofevolution.
Spender,(Sir)Stephen(Harold)(190995)
Britishpoet,critic,editor,andtranslator,wasborninLondon(halfGer

Page515

manand'atleastonequarterJewish'),andspenthischildhood'inastyleofausterecomfortagainstabackgroundofcalamity'.HewaseducatedatUniversityCollege
SchoolandUniversityCollege,Oxford,wherehewasafriendofMACNEICEandwasapprovedofbyAUDEN.'Stillatthestageofputtingmymoneyonanappearanceof
madnessinmypoems',in1928heproducedonasmallhandpresseditionsofaboutthirtycopieseachofNineExperiments'byS.H.S.'andPoemsbyAuden.He
leftOxfordaftertwoyearswithoutfinishinghisdegree,andfrom1930to1933spenthalftheyearinGermany,wherehewascaughtupinthepoliticalandsocial
unrestofthetimes,whichalongwithhispersonaluneasinessisreflectedinPoems(1933)andinthecriticalwork,TheDestructiveElement:aStudyofModern
WritersandBeliefs(1935)hisexperiencesinGermanywerealsoreflectedinTheTemple,anovelwrittenatthistimebutnotpublisheduntil1988onthegrounds
ofindecencyandpotentiallibel.
WiththeexperiencealsooftheSpanishCivilWar(193639)expressedinhiscollectionTheStillCentre(1939)heisregardedprimarilyasapoetofthe1930s,
towhichmanyofhisbestknownandmostmemorablepoemsbelong:'AStopWatchandanOrdnanceMap','TheExpress','TwoArmies','AnElementarySchool
Classroom',and'ThePylons',fromwhichderivedthenameofthePylonschoolofpoets,whoseworkwasconcernedwithmodernindustrialdevelopment.Hewas
founderEditorwithCONNOLLYoftheliterarymagazineHorizon193441,andcoEditorofEncounter195366,inwhichmanynewauthorswerebroughttopublic
notice,andcontemporaryliterarycontroversieswereaired.Astranslatoraswellaspoet,heenabledtheworkespeciallyofGRCIALORCAandRILKEtobereadin
English.Hewasin1966thefirstnonAmericantobeappointedConsultantinPoetrytotheLibraryofCongress.HewasProfessorofEnglishLiterature,University
College,London197077.HewasawardedtheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1971,madeCBEin1962,andknightedin1983.Anunauthorizedbiography
publishedin1992raisedquestionsofthemoralityaswellasofthedangersofwritingaboutlivingpeoplewhowishtopreservetheirprivacy.WhileSpenderwas
unsuccessfulinhisattempttogetthatbooksuppressed,anovelpublishedshortlyafterwards,towhichheobjectedonthegroundsthatitbreachedthecopyrightinhis
autobiography,WorldWithinWorld(1951),waswithdrawnbeforethecasecametocourt,onlytobereissuedin1996afterthepoet'sdeath.SeeCollectedPoems
19281985,newedn1989Dolphins,1993(subsequentcollection)WorldWithinWorld,newedn1991,andTheThirtiesandAfter:Poetry,Politics,People
(19331975),1978(memoirs)Journals19391983,ed.JohnGoldsmith,newedn1992.
Spenser,Edmund(155299)
Englishpoet,wasborninLondonandeducatedatMerchantTaylors'Schoolfromitsfoundationin1561until1569,whenhewenttoPembrokeHall,Cambridge,as
asizar,graduatingasMAin1576.GabrielHarvey(c.15491630),aFellowofthecollegeandateacherofrhetoric,introducedhimtotheEarlofLeicester(c.1532
88),afavouriteofElizabethI,andtoLeicester'snephew,SIDNEY,towhomSpenserdedicatedTheShepheardesCalender(1579).Thisseriesof12eclogues,onefor
eachmonthoftheyear,inwhichthepoetappearsasColinClout,representsareturntopastoralverseandtothelanguageofCHAUCERitalsocontradictsthe
correspondencebetweenSpenserandHarveypublishedin1580(ThreeProper,andWittie,FamiliarLettersandTwoOtherVeryCommendableLetters),in
whichamongobservationsaboutearthquakesisanexplorationoftheuseofLatinandGreekmetresforEnglishpoetry.In1579SpensermarriedMachabyasChilde,
bywhomhehadtwochildren.In1580hewenttoIrelandassecretarytothenewGovernor,LordGreyofWilton(153693).Hisadministrativecareerflourished,and
hecollectedvariouspostsandsinecuresafterGrey'srecallin1582,beingin1590formallyassignedtheestateandcastleofKilcolman,Co.Cork.
SpenserhadbegunwritingTheFaerieQueenin1580,butitwasnotuntil1589,onavisittoLondon,thathefoundapublisherforthefirstthreebooks,which
appearedunderhisownnamein1590,withadedicationtoElizabethI,whorespondedbyawardinghimapensionforlifeof50ayear.Thesamepublisher,William
Ponsonbie(c.15461604),'dwellinginPaulesChurchyardatthefigureoftheBishopsHead',issuedin1591Daphnaida:anElegieupontheDeathof...Douglas
Howard(daughterofLordHoward),andComplaints,acollectionofsplendidlongerpoems(including'TheRuinesofTime','Virgil'sGnat',and'MotherHubberds
Tale')whichhadtobewithdrawnastwoofthemcontainedunkindallusionstotheLordTreasurer,LordBurleigh(152098).ColinCloutsComeHomeAgaine
(1595)waswrittenin1591andisprefacedbyalettertoRALEGH,whohadsponsoredSpenser'sLondontrip.Thisautobiographicalecloguerehearsestheexcursion,
describesthecourt,andconcludeswithanappreciationofareturntoapastoralexistenceandtothepoet'slove,Rosalind.Machabyasmusthavediedsomeyears
earlier,forRosalindwasanEnglishgirl,ElizabethBoyle,whohadsettledinIrelandwithherbrother.Thecoupleweremarriedin1594.Spenserrecordshiscourtship
inasonnetsequence,Amoretti(1595),publishedwith'Epithalamion',agorgeousweddinghymnwhichisasunusualinthestrikingrangeofitsmusicalverse,itsdetail,
anditswit,asitisinthefactthatitisthebridegroom'sowngifttohisbride.Bycontrast,Prothalamion

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(1596),writtenforthe'doublemarriage'ofLadyElizabethandLadyKatharineSomerset,daughtersoftheEarlofWorcester,ismerelyagreatpoem.TheSecond
PartoftheFaerieQueen,booksWtoVI,wasalsopublishedin1596,andcompletesallwehaveoftheplanned12books,apartfrom'TwoCantosofMutabilitie',
presumedtobelongtooneofthefurtherbooksandincludedintheeditionof1609.
In1596Spenserpreparedareport,AViewofthePresentStateofIreland,advocatingeventoughermeasuresagainstterroristsinparticular(healsoproposedthat
allIrishpoetsshouldbeputtodeathfortheir'lewdloveoflibertie').Itwascirculatedinmanuscript,butpublicationwasshelvedpending'furtherauthority'.In
September1598hewasappointedHighSheriffofCork,butthefollowingmonththerebelpatriot,theEarlofTyrone(c.15401616),havingpreviouslyroutedthe
EnglisharmynearArmagh,invadedMunster.Theprovinceerupted,andKilcolmanwasrazed.Spenserescapedwithhisfamily,andwassenttoLondonwith
dispatchesfortheGovernment,amongwhichhetookapersonalmemorandumaboutthesituationfortheQueen,writtenbyhimself.Hewastakenillshortlyafterhis
arrival,diedon13January,andwasburiedinWestminsterAbbey.
WhetherSpenserwrotemorethanwehaveofTheFaerieQueenisnotknown,buttheschemeofthecompleteworkandtheincidentwhichprecipitatestheactionof
thefirstbookaredescribedinthepoet'slettertoRaleghdated23January1589.Theeffectofthisepicdreamromance,whichalsohasmyriadallegoricaldepths,is
heightenedbythestanzaformheinventedforit:eightiambicpentametersrhymingababbcbc,followedbyatriumphantAlexandrinerhymingc.SeeThePoetical
Works,ed.J.C.SmithandE.deSelincourt,newedn1970SelectedShorterPoems,ed.DouglasBrooksDavies,1995W.L.Renwick,EdmundSpenser:an
EssayonRenaissancePoetry,newedn1964GrahamHough,APrefacetotheFaerieQueen,1962C.S.Lewis,Spenser'sImagesofLife,ed.AlastairFowler,
newedn1978.
Spinoza,Benedict(FormerlyBaruch)de163277)
Dutchphilosopher,wasborninAmsterdam,oneoftwochildrenwhosurvivedtoadulthoodofthesixbythreewivesofMichaeldeSpinoza(d.1654),aSpanishJew
whoprobablycametotheNetherlandsasachildintheemigrationofthemarranos.HestudiedfortherabbinateunderManassehbenIsrael(160457)whoin
1655petitionedCromwelltoreadmitJewstoEnglandbutwassidetrackedbycontactwiththosewhofoundextensionsoftheirintellectualbeinginunorthodox
Christianity,modernscience,thephilosophyofDES CARTES,andtheLatinlanguage.In1656,unabletojustifyJudaismonthebasisofthetheophanyatSinai,hewas
formallyexpelledfromthesynagogueandwasforatimebanishedbythecivilauthoritiesasafreethinker.Onhisreturnhelivedbygivingprivatelessonsinphilosophy
andbygrindingopticallenses.InthesecludedvillageofRijnsburgfrom1660to1663,hereceivedlearnedvisitors,includingHenryOldenburg(c.161577),first
SecretaryoftheRoyalSocietyinLondon,andwrote,inLatin,hisexpositionofCartesianphilosophy(1663),theonlybookhepublishedunderhisownname.The
anonymousTractatusTheologicoPoliticus[TheologicoPoliticalTreatise](1670)wascondemnedbytheReformedChurchin1673andbannedin1674.In1673
heundertookafruitlesspeacemissiontotheFrenchforcesensconcedinUtrecht.LaterthesameyearhewasofferedaprofessorshipatHeidelbergbytheElector
Palatine,providedthathedidnot'disturbthereligionpubliclyestablished'.Herefused,choosinginsteadtoekeouthisretirementinTheHague.
Spinozadiedofconsumption,probablyaggravatedbydustfromthelensgrinding.Friendsgatheredtogetherpartsofhiscorrespondenceandunpublishedand
unfinishedworks,andissuedtheminananonymousvolumein1677.ItincludedEthica[Ethics],whichhehadwithheldfrompublication.Infiveparts,itincorporates
histheorythatGodisimmanentthroughouttheworld,notanexternalruler,andthatabsoluteknowledgeisobtainablethroughreason.Predictably,thebookwas
bannedafterithadsoldout.SpinozaisthegreatestJewishphilosopher,whosewritings,thoughinfluencedbyJudaism,belonginthemainstreamofEuropean
philosophy.HewroteinLatinbecause,ofallthelanguagesheknew,itwascapableofrespondingtotheintricacyofhisphilosophicalandscientificargument.Henever
marriedhedidsketchingforahobby,smokedapipe,andenjoyedamugofbeer.SeeRogerScruton,Spinoza,1986(introductiontohisthoughtandworks).
Sprat,Thomas
seeCOWLEY.
Squire,(Sir)J(ohn)C(ollings)(18841958)
Britishpoet,critic,andjournalist,wasborninPlymouth,andeducatedatBlundell'sSchoolandStJohn'sCollege,Cambridge.Afterworkingasafreelancejournalist
andpublishingPoemsandBaudelaireFlowers(1909),hebecamein1913LiteraryEditoroftheNewStatesman.TheSurvivaloftheFittest,andOtherPoems
(1916)wasaprotestagainstthewar.In1919hefoundedthemonthlyliterarymagazine,theLondonMercury,whichheediteduntil1934andinwhichhemadea
pointofencouragingpoets,thoughhisactivepromotionofthosewhowereforconveniencetermedtheGeorgiansledthemalsotobecalledthe'Squirearchy'.Hewas
ChairmanoftheArchitectureClub

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192228,andoftheEnglishAssociation192629andwasagovernoroftheOldVicTheatrefrom1922to1926.Betweenthewarshemanagedhisowncricket
club,theInvalids,ofwhichBLUNDENwasatonetimePresidentSquireandatypicalInvalidselevenarehilariouslybutaffectionatelyportrayedbytheScottishnovelist
A.G.Macdonnell(18951941)inEnglandTheirEngland(1933).RegardedeveninhisowntimelessasaseriouspoetthanasaskilledparodistseeCollected
Parodies(1921)hewasableoccasionallytogriptheheart,asin'WinterNightfall'andthechilling'TheStockyard',writtenafteravisittoChicago.Hepublished
severalvolumesofshortstoriesandcollectionsofcriticalessaysandreviews,andeditedABookofWomen'sVerse(1921)andTheCambridgeBookofLesser
Poets(1927).Hewasknightedin1933.SeeCollectedPoems,introductionbyJohnBetjeman,1959TheHoneysuckleandtheBee,1937(autobiography).
Stal,Mmede(17661817)
neGermaineNecker,Frenchnovelist,prosewriter,andcritic,wasborninParis,theonlychildofJacquesNecker(17321804),politicianandfinancier,andof
SuzanneChurchod(173794),whohadoncebeenengagedtoEdwardGibbon.Shewaseducatedathome,andafterseveralyearsofnegotiationswasin1786
marriedtoBarondeStal(17491802),theSwedishAmbassador.Theyformallyseparatedin1800ofherchildren,onlythefirst,adaughterwhodiedat20months,
washis.SheairedhertheoryoffreedominLettressur...JeanJacquesRousseau(1788tr.asLettersontheWorksandCharacterofJ.J.Rousseau,1789).
AttheonsetoftheFrenchRevolutionin1792sheleftforCoppet,thecastleandbaronyontheLakeofGenevawhichherfatherhadboughtin1784.Fromthereshe
wentontoEngland,andactedaschatelaineofthemigrcolonyatJuniperHall(whereBURNEYmetherfuturehusband).Shereturnedwhenastateofwarwas
declaredwithFrance.DelaLittrature...(1800tr.asATreatiseonAncientandModernLiterature,1803),aformidablestudyoftheEuropeansituationin
whichsheexpressedtheessenceofromanticism,waspublishedshortlybeforeNapoleon,contrarytoherhopes,reestablishedhispositionatthebattleofMarengo.
AfterthepublicationofDelphine(1802tr.1803tr.AvrielH.Goldberger,1995),anovelwithpoliticalaswellasfeministimplications,heforbadehertocomewithin
tenleaguesofParis.ShewaswellreceivedinGermanyandItaly,andmadeCoppetacentreofactiveliberalthoughtandliterarydiscussion.Shewrotetwofurther
novels(1802,1807)astudyofGermany(printedin1810,destroyedbythepolice,andfirstpublishedin1813,inEngland)andotherhistoricalandcriticalworks.In
1816,afewdaysafterofferingtoachieveareconciliationbetweenBYRONandhiswife,shemarriedJohnRocca(17881818),invalidedoutofthearmyat22,to
whomshehadbeenformallybutsecretlybetrothedin1811,andbywhomshehadasonin1812.SeeMajorWritingsofGermainedeStal,ed.VivianFolkenflik,
1992MadelynGutwirth,MadamedeStal,Novelist,1978(criticalstudy).
Stafford,Jean
SeeLOWELL,ROBERT.
Stanhope,PhilipDormer
SeeCHESTERFIELD.
Stanislavsky,Constantine
SeeCHEKHOVMAETERLINCK.
Stanyhurst,Richard(15471618)
Irishprosewriterandtranslator,wastheeldestsonofJamesStanyhurst(d.1573),RecorderofDublinandSpeakeroftheIrishHouseofCommons.Hewas
educatedatPeterWhite'sSchoolatKilkenny,andatUniversityCollege,Oxford,afterwhichhestudiedlawintheInnsofCourt.Hethenreturnedhome,
accompanied,ashistutor,by(St)EdmundCampion(154081).UsingtheelderStanyhurst'slibrary,CampionwroteintenweeksahistoryofIreland,whichwas
revisedbyStanyhurstandpublishedin1577inHOLINSHED'SChronicleswithhisownTreatiseContainingaPlaineandPerfectDescriptionofIreland.Whilehe
wasnotparticularlycomplimentarytotheIrish,heisoneoftheearliestIrishauthorsofnotewhowroteinEnglish.Asacriticheinveighedagainstcontemporarypoets
wholackedaclassicaleducation,andasapoetwrotelovesongstoagirl'inbodyfinefashioned,abraveBrounette'.Shewastooanxiousformarriage,however,and
insteadhemarriedJanetBarnwell,whodiedinchildbirthin1579attheirKnightsbridgehome,aged19.HenowsettledinLeyden,wherein1593hepublisheda
curious,lumberingtranslationintoEnglishhexametersofthefirstfourbooksofVIRGIL'SAeneid,intowhichheintroducedwordsofhisowncoinage.Thoughhemadea
secondmarriagetoanEnglishCatholic,heneverreturnedeithertoEnglandorIreland.
Stark,Freya(18931993)
Britishtravellerandprosewriter,wasborninParis,theelderdaughterofasculptorandofapainterherparentscommutedbetweenMontmartreandAsolo,near
Venice,aRenaissancetownrecommendedtothembyPenBrowning(seeROBERTBROWNING),whomsherememberedashavingafacewhichremindedherofan
orange.(HerhomeinAsoloformanyyearswasoppositethelodgingswherein1889RobertBrowningfinishedAsolando.)Shewasbroughtupinthewestof
EnglandandinItaly,andwaseducatedathomebygovernessesandbyreadingonherown,havingbeenabletospeakGermanandItalian,aswellasEnglish,since
shewasfive.At13she

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sufferedahorrifyingaccidentinthePiedmontsilkfactorywhichhermothermanaged,beinghalfscalpedwhenherloosewaistlengthhairwassuckedbythedraughtof
anelectricloomintotheworkingsofaverticalspindle,whichthenwhirledherroundandroundofftheground.Shespenttheyears191214asadaystudentat
BedfordCollege,LondonUniversity,whereshecameundertheinfluenceofProfessorW.P.Ker(18551923),theScottishscholarandteacherofEnglish,who
becameheradoptivegodfatherhisdeathoccurredwhiletheywereclimbingtogetheronMonteRosaintheAlps.ShesubsequentlystudiedforayearattheSchool
ofOrientalStudiesbeforeabravegambleontheStockExchangemadeitpossibleforhertotravelintheEast,onwhichshewasdetermineddespiteseveralyearsof
debilitatingillness.Thecourseofherjourneyscanbefollowedfromherbooksaboutthemandtheregionsshetraversed:theybeganwithBaghdadSketches(1932in
UK1937),andincludedTheSouthernGatesofArabia(1936),LettersfromSyria(1942)oneoftheterritoriesinwhichshewasengagedingovernmentservice
duringWorldWarII,BeyondEuphrates(1951),TheCoastofIncense(1953),RidingtotheTigris(1959),TheMinaretofDjam(1970),andRiversofTime
(1982),whichcontainsawideselectionfromheruniquerangeofphotographsofaspectsoftheMiddleEast.Traveller'sPrelude(1950)isanautobiographyofthe
years18931927.In1947shemarriedStewartPerowne(d.1989),fromwhomlatterlyshelivedapart.ShewasmadeCBEin1953andDBEin1972.MollyIzzard,
FreyaStark:aBiography(1993),publishedonDameFreya'sonehundredthbirthday,hasbeencriticizedforitscontroversialattitudetoitssubjectandforits
structure.SeeAlexanderMaitland,ATowerintheWall:ConversationswithDameFreyaStark,1982.
Stead,C(hristian)K(arlson)(b.1932)
NewZealandpoet,novelist,shortstorywriter,andcritic,wasborninAucklandandeducatedatMountAlbertGrammarSchoolandAucklandUniversity.After
teachingattheUniversityofNewEngland,NewSouthWales,hebecameamemberofthestaffofAucklandUniversityin1959,beingAssociateProfessor196468,
andProfessorofEnglish196986.Hehassaid,'Poetryismadeofwords',apropositionhedemonstratedinWhethertheWillisFree:Poems19541962(1962),in
whichwas'PicturesinaGalleryUndersea',votedbysubscribersthemostpopularpoeminLandfallin15yearsofpublication.ThelongtitlesequenceofQuesada:
Poems19721974(1975)reflectsthequestofCERVANTES'SQuixote.Subsequently'averylargesubjectforceditswayintomypoems',Americaninvolvementin
VietnamandNewZealand'ssupportofit,themanifestationofwhichwasWalkingWestward(1979).Between(1988)includesamongexamplesofpoeticdeftness
severalwittyvariationsonCATULLUS.Voices(1990),commissionedbytheGovernmenttomarkthesesquicentenary,presentsaseriesofselfportraitsoftypicalNew
Zealandcharacters,inhistoryandtoday.Eventsfeature,too,inhisfirstnovel,Smith'sDream(1971rev.edn1973),apoliticalfable.LateronesincludeAllVisitors
Ashore(1984),sharplyrecountedreveriesofadisappointedacademic,SisterHollywood(1989),andTheEndoftheCenturyattheEndoftheWorld(1992),an
evaluation(inthe1990sinNewZealand)ofapastloveaffairintheformofaseriesofliteraryexercises.HiscriticalstudiesTheNewPoetic(1964rev.ednasThe
NewPoetic:YeatstoEliot,1987)andPound,Yeats,EliotandtheModernistMovement(1986)arerelevantalsotohisownpracticeasapoetandtopoetryin
NewZealand.Reviews,lectures,andcriticalessaysarecollectedinIntheGlassCase:EssaysonNewZealandLiterature(1981)andAnsweringtothe
Language:EssaysonModernWriters(1989).HewasmadeCBEin1985.
Stead,Christina(190283)
Australiannovelist,wasborninRockdale,Sydney,thedaughterofadistinguishednaturalistwithsocialistprinciples,bywhomshewaslargelybroughtupafterher
mother'sdeathwhenshewastwo,andwhosechildrenbyasecondmarriagein1907shehelpedtoraise.ShewaseducatedatSydneyGirls'HighSchoolandSydney
Teachers'College,afterwhichsheadministeredtestsinsteadofbeingaclassteacher,becauseofherweakvoice.Shethenworkedasasecretary,scrimpingand
savingupforthefaretoEurope.InLondon,whereshehadgoneprincipallyinpursuitofanAustralianuniversitylecturerwithwhomshehadfalleninlove,shemet
William(Bill)Blake(Blech)(18931968),aneconomistandMarxistwhohadbeenbroughtupintheUSA,thesonofGermanJewishimmigrants.Hegaveherajob
andin1929theywenttogethertoParis.'DearBillsaidtomeonceinthebeginningofthingshewouldliketobetomewhatG.H.LeweswastoGeorgeEliot....I
wasnotverypleased,becauseG.E.wasnotaprettygirl.'Theyfinallymarriedin1952afterhisdivorce.
Herfirstnovel,SevenPoorMenofSydney(1934),ismodernistintechnique,comprisingaseriesoflooselyconnectedcharacterstudies.ItwaspublishedafterThe
SalzburgTales(1934),50storiesandsketcheswithlinkingcommentary,cobbledtogethertoprovideamoreconventionalintroductiontoherwork.HouseofAll
Nations(1938)isalong,rivetingtaleofskulduggeryinthebankingbusiness.TheManWhoLovedChildren(1940),withitsgrim,melodramaticending,isan
explorationofherownadolescentexperience,withthesettingtransferredtoAmericaForLoveAlone(1944),setinSydneyandLondon,reflectsherownself
imposedprivationsandthecircum

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stancesoftheyearsbeforesheleftSydney.ThecouplelivedintheUSAfrom1937to1947,andthenlargelyinEngland.AfterthreelessernovelswithNewYork
backgrounds,Steadproduced,afteragapof14years,DarkPlacesoftheHeart(1966inUKasCotters'England,1967),astudyofpovertyinpostwarBritain,
followedbyThePuzzleheadedGirl:FourNovellas(1967).AfterBlake'sdeathshevisitedAustraliain1969andthenreturnedpermanentlyin1974,subsisting(itis
said)onadietofsteaktartarandredvermouth,andquarrellingwithherlongsufferingfamilyandevenwithherliteraryadmirers,whoincludedPATRICKWHITE.She
wrotetwofurthernovels:TheLittleHotel(1973),ablackcomedyofongoingsinaSwisshotel,andMissHerbert(TheSuburbanWife)(1976),afeminist
cautionarytale.I'mDyingLaughing(1986),posthumouslypublishedinaformeditedbyherliteraryexecutor,isastudy,tragicandcomicinturns,ofHollywood
radicalism,corruption,andgreedintheearly1940s.SeeChrisWilliams,ChristinaStead:aLifeofLetters,1990(biography)HazelRowley,ChristinaStead:a
Biography,newedn1995SusanSheridan,ChristinaStead,1988(criticalstudy)JenniferGribble,ChristinaStead,1994(criticalstudy).
Steele,(Sir)Richard(16721729)
Britishessayistanddramatist,wasborninDublin,thesonofanattorney,andwaseducatedatCharterhouseandMertonCollege,Oxford,whichheleftsuddenlyto
jointheGuards.Erraticaswellasextravagant,in1701hepublishedTheChristianHero,atreatiseadvocatingsoundChristianbehaviour,andwrotethefirstofthree
comediesofsentiment(TheFuneral:Or,GrieflaMode,TheLyingLover:Or,TheLadiesFriendship,andTheTenderHusband:Or,theAccomplished
Fools),noneofwhichwassuccessful.AbriefmarriagetoanelderlyheiresswasfollowedbyamorepermanentonetoMaryScurlock(d.1730),addressedas'Dear
Prue'inhiscorrespondence(published1787),whomhehadmetathisfirstwife'sfuneral.In1709hefoundedthethriceweeklyperiodicaltheTatlerwhich,with
ADDISON'Scontinuinghelp,wassucceededbytheSpectator.Hisowndailyjournal,theGuardian,ranfor175issuesin1713.HewaselectedtoParliamentin1713,
andexpelledin1714forseditiouslibel.Hereturnedtogracein1715,whenhewasappointedInspectoroftheRoyalStablesandCommissionerforDruryLane
Theatre,andknighted.Hislastcomedy,TheConsciousLovers,stagedin1722,takesamorerealisticandromanticviewofmarriagethanhadbeenusualin
Restorationdrama.HehadmorecharmandhumourthanAddison(heremarkedofLadyElizabethHamiltonintheTatler,49,that'...tobeholdherisanimmediate
checktoloosebehaviourtoloveherisaliberaleducation'),andwasamorededicatedpoliticaljournalistbutitwastheircombinedtalentsandshrewdawarenessof
theirpublicthatbroughtthemlastingacclaim.SeeTheTatler,ed.DonaldEBond,3vols1987WillardConnely,SirRichardSteele,1934.
Stein,Gertrude(18741946)
Americannovelist,poet,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninAllegheny,Pennsylvania,theyoungestoffivesurvivingchildrenofwealthyJewishparents,whotookthemto
Europein1875aftertherehadbeendevastatingfloodsandafireintheregionseeLindaWagnerMartin,'FavoredStrangers':GertrudeSteinandHerFamily
(1995).TheyreturnedfiveyearslatertosettleinEastOakland,California,whereshewaseducatedatlocalschoolsandbygovernessesathome.Hermotherdiedin
1888andherfatherin1891.WhenherbrotherLeo(18721947)wenttoHarvard,shefollowedhimtoRadcliffeCollege,whereshereadphilosophyandpsychology
underWilliamJames(18421910),brotherofHENRYJAMESandthentoJohnsHopkinsUniversity,whereshestudiedmedicinehalfheartedlybeforejoininghiminParis
in1903.Theycollectedmodernartandasalonofmodernpainterswhosetechniquesofperceptionshedeterminedtoreproducelinguistically:thebookwaseventually
publishedasMatisse,PicassoandGertrudeStein(1933).HerfirstpublishedworkwasThreeLives(1909),inwhichshetriedtorepresenttheconsciousnessand
speechrhythmsofthreeordinarywomen.TheMakingofAmericans:BeingaHistoryofaFamily'sProgress,acubistnovelofthesensibilityofAmericans,was
writtenin190608,butdidnotfindapublisheruntil1925(inUSA1926).In1909AliceB.Toklas(18771967),aCalifornian,joinedthehousehold,andbecame
Stein'stypist,editor,housekeeper,cook,and'wife'foranaccountoftheirrelationshipseeDianaSouhami,GertrudeandAlice(1992).Leo,whodidnot
appreciateherwriting,nowdividedtheartcollectionwithherandleftforAustriaseeBrendaWineapple,Sister,Brother:GertrudeandLeoStein(1996).
TenderButtons:Objects,Food,Rooms(1914)reflectedhertheory'thatnounsmadepoetrybutinproseInolongerneededthehelpofnounsandinpoetrydidI
needthehelpofnouns'.Thus'Salmon'becomes:'Itwasapeculiarbinabinfondinbeside.'Becauseofthedifficultyofgettingpublished,Steinsoldthepainting'Girl
withaFan'byPabloPicasso(18811973)andsetupToklasasherpublisherundertheimprintofPlainEdition,whichissuedseveralofherbooks,includingOperas
andPlays(1932)seealsoSelectedOperasandPlays,ed.JohnMalcolmBrinnin(1993)andLastOperasandPlays,ed.CarlvanVechten(1995).ForThe
AutobiographyofAliceB.Toklas(1933),aninvertedmemoirofherselfandtheirartisticandliterarysetinParis,sheatlastachievedpublicrecognition,andin1934
shedidalecturetourtoAmericanuni

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versitiesandotherinstitutions.Everybody'sAutobiography(1937)andWarsIHaveSeen(1945)areautobiographicalstudiesinamoreexperimental,lessplayful
vein.ThecouplewereinEnglandwhenWorldWarIIbrokeout.TheyimmediatelyreturnedtoParisafteritsfallin1942theywenttotheirhouseinthesouthof
France,wheretheyremained,despitethepotentialdangerfromtheirbeingJewish.SteindiedofcancerinParis,herlastwordsreportedlybeing:'Whatistheanswer?',
andwhentherewasnone,'Thenwhatisthequestion?'.SeeGertrudeSteinCompanion,ed.BruceKellner,1988ASteinReader,ed.UllaE.Dydo,newedn
1993LindaSimon(ed.),GertrudeSteinRemembered,1995RenateStendhal,GertrudeStein:inWordsandPictures,1994.
Steinbeck,John(190268)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninSalinas,California,thethirdoffourchildren,andtheonlyson,ofparentsofGermanandIrishdescent.Hisfather
managedaflourmillandwasTreasurerofMontereyCountyhismotherwasateacher.Thefamilybookshelvescontainedawealthofstandardauthors.After
graduatingfromSalinasHighSchoolin1919,heattendedStanfordUniversityasaspecialstudent,withmarinebiologyashismainsubject.Heleftwithouttakinga
degree,muchofhistimehavingbeenspentearningmoneytosupporthimselfatavarietyofjobs,includingwaiter,ranchhand,clerk,and'breakingarmyremountsfor
officers'gentlebehinds'at$30ananimal.Determinedtobeawriter,heworkedhiswaytoNewYorkaboardafreighter,butfoundnooutletforhisstories.He
returnedwestbythesamemeansafterayear,duringwhichhehadworkedonabuildingsiteandbeenfiredfromapostasareporter.Hesupportedhimselfby
temporarywork,asestatecaretaker,driverofamailcoach,andonafishfarm,wherehemethisfirstwife,whowasonholidayinthearea.Theybeganmarriedlife
stayingrentfreeinthefamilysummercottage,onanallowancefromhisfatherandonwhatshecouldearnfromoccasionalwork.CupofGold(1929),afictionallife
ofthe17thcenturybuccaneer,SirHenryMorgan,foundapublisheraftersevenrejections,butmadenomoney.AbreakthroughcamewhentheNewYorkliterary
agencyof(Mavis)McIntoshand(Elizabeth)Otisofferedtohandlehiswork,butitwasonlywithhisfourthnovel,TortillaFlat(1935),thathebegantomakean
impact.Thiswarm,earthy,episodictreatmentofthelivesofthelocalpaisanosalsoreflectedhispassionforArthurianlegend:'ForDanny'shousewasnotunlikethe
RoundTable,andDanny'sfriendswerenotunliketheknightsofit.'InDubiousBattle(1936)describestheexploitationoffruitpickers,bothbymanagementandby
unscrupulousstrikeleaders.HisreportageoftheconditionsofimmigrantworkersafteravisittoacampnearSacramentoin1936,andhisfearsofarevolt,caused
suchcontroversythatafriendwrotefromNewYorkexpressingconcernabouthispersonalsafety.
OfMiceandMen(1937),anovelofcompassionratherthanprotest,theonlydraftofwhichwashalfdestroyedbyaplayfulpuppyandhadtoberewritten,sold
117,000copiesinitsfirstmonth.Hesuccessfullyadapteditforthestagethesameyear.Theplightofthemigrantworkers,personifiedbytheJoadfamilyfrom
Oklahoma,isthethemeofTheGrapesofWrath(1939),anovelofstrongsocialprotestaboutwhichhefeltsoambivalentthatheadvised,'Thiswillnotbeapopular
book.Anditwillbealosstodoanythingexceptprintasmalledition...'(itwas850pageslong).Itwasalsosonaturalisticthathewasbeggedtotonedownthe
language(heagreed)andtoalterthecontroversialending(herefused).ItwonthePulitzerPrizeandisthekeynovelinhiscanon.DuringWorldWarIIhewasawar
correspondentintheEuropeansectorfortheNewYorkHeraldTribuneseeRoyS.Simmonds,JohnSteinbeck:TheWarYears19391945(1996).Whenthe
filmLifeboat(1944),whichhehadwrittenforAlfredHitchcock(18991980)todirect,wasreleased,hewassoappalledatdistortionsofhisoriginalscriptthathe
demandedthathisnameberemovedfromthecredits:hisrequestwasnotgranted.
In1948hissecondmarriagebrokeupandthedeathoccurredinacaraccidentofhisclosestfriend,EdwardRicketts,amarinebiologistwithwhomhehad
collaboratedonresearch,andwhohasaffinitieswithDoc,theimmaterialisticmodulatorofCanneryRow(1945).Hemarriedagainin1950.EastofEden(1952),
looselybasedonthebiblicalstoryofCainandAbel,coversthreegenerationsofdiscordintheSalinasValley.TheWinterofOurDiscontent(1961)isastudyof
conscienceinasmalltownsetting.Havingin1959returnedtotheKingArthurlegend(ifhehadeverleftit),hespentalmostayearinEnglandworkingonaversionof
MALORY,whichhenevercompleted.HispublishednonfictionincludesSeaofCortez(1941),aphilosophicalandscientificmeditationwrittenwithRickettsARussian
Journal(1948),firsthandpoliticalobservationsandTravelswithCharleyinSearchofAmerica(1962)andAmericaandAmericans(1966),sociological
reportageseeWarrenFrench,JohnSteinbeck'sNonfictionRevisited(1996).HeinsistedonpayingMcIntoshandOtiscommissiononthemonetaryawardfrom
theNobelPrizeforLiterature,whichhewonin1962.SeeElaineSteinbeckandRobertWallstein(eds),Steinbeck:aLifeinLetters,newedn1994JacksonJ.
Benson,TheTrueAdventuresofJohnSteinbeck,Writer,newedn1990(biography)JayParini,JohnSteinbeck:aBiography,newedn1996HowardLevant,
TheNovelsofJohnSteinbeck:aCriticalStudy,new

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edn1983R.S.Hughes,BeyondtheRedPony:aReader'sCompaniontoSteinbeck'sCompleteShortStories,1987.
Stendhal,PseudonymofMarieHenriBeyle(17831842)
Frenchnovelistandcritic,wasborninGrenoble,thesonofalawyer.Hismotherdiedwhenhewasseven.HewaseducatedatthecoleCentral,Grenoble,and
passedintothecolePolytechnique,Paris,whichheneverattended,insteadacceptinganofferfromacousinofaclericaljobintheMinistryofWar.Heheldstaff
positionsinNapoleon'sarmyinItaly,Germany,Austria,Hungary,andRussia,andin1814wasassistingintheorganizationofthesoutheastfrontierwhenNapoleon
wasexiledtoElba.HewenttoItalyandwrote,underhispseudonym,ahistoryofItalianpainting,livesofmusicians,andatravelguide.In1818hefellinlovewith
MathildeViscontiniDembowski(17901825),anardentpatriot.Heleftin1821becauseofherindifferencetohissuit,andbecausehewassuspectedbytheAustrian
policeofbeingconnectedwiththeCarbonari.InParishepublishedaphilosophicaltreatiseexpressinghisfeelingsforMathilde(referredtoasMtilde),Del'Amour
(1822tr.GilbertandSuzanneSaleasLove,1957),followedbytwocriticalpamphlets,RacineetShakespeare(1823,1825),inwhichtheclassicalregularityofthe
formerisunfavourablycontrastedwiththefreecreativityofthelatter.Hisfirstnovel,Armance(1827),revealedhiminpracticeasmoreofarealistthanaRomantic.
ThetitleofLeRougeetleNoir(1830tr.CatherineSlaterasTheRedandtheBlack,introductionbyRogerPearson,1991)referstotheredcoatsofthemilitary
andtheblackgarbofthepriesthood,whichhasregainedtheascendancyaftertheeraofNapoleon,andthroughwhichJulienSorelmovestomaterialtriumphsand
ultimatelytomurder.
Aftertherevolutionin1830,StendhalobtainedtheconsulshipinTrieste,buthadtoacceptCivitavecchiainsteadwhentheAustriangovernmentblockedthe
appointment.HewroteLaChartreusedeParme(1839tr.MargaretR.B.ShawasTheCharterhouseofParma,1958),hismasterlytaleofdestiny,in52days.
Basedonanoldmanuscript,withthesettingbroughtforwardtotheperiodofWaterloo,itincorporatesamemorableaccountofthebattleitselfinthecourseofa
seriesofintriguesandsecretpassions.Hehadanapoplecticstrokein1841andreturnedtoParis,wherehediedsuddenlyofafurtherseizure.Vied'HenriBrulard
(posthumouslypublished1890tr.JohnSturrockasTheLifeofHenryBrulard,1995),writtenin183536,isamasterlyexerciseinselfexploration,taking
Stendhal'slifeuptohis17thyear,withsomeanticipationsofsubsequentexperiences.SeeJonathanKeates,Stendhal,newedn1995(biography).
Stephen,Leslie
SeeTHACKERAYWOOLF,VIRGINIA.
Stephens,James(18821950)
Irishnovelistandpoet,wasborninDublin.Atanearlyagehewasplacedinanorphanage,wherehegotafirmgroundinginProtestantismbutlittleelse,andfrom
whichheranaway,livingroughanddependingonpeople'skindness.Itwasprobablyhistinystaturewhichenabledhimtoempathizeparticularlywiththefairiesand
othersmallbeingsofIrishmythology,justas,byhisownaccount,heusedasachildtosquatbesideadog,orcat,orevenabush,andpractiseprojectinghimselfinto
it.Hisfirstvolumeofverse,Insurrections(1909),wasmoreconcernedwithhighlightingtheconditionsoftheDublinpoor,butlatterlyhispoetrybecamemore
mysticalinoutlook,matchingthesurerdevelopmentofhisprose.HewasaprotgofG.W.RUSSELL,whorecommendedthepublicationofhisnovelofurbanidealism,
TheCharwoman'sDaughter(1912).HismostlastingworkisTheCrockofGold(1912),aphilosophicalfairytalewithmodernimplications.Hissenseofcomedy
ismoreevidentinDeirdre(1923)andinIntheLandofYouth(1924),inwhichheattemptstoreconcileheroicIrishmythologywithsimpleruraldelights.Hewas
RegistraroftheIrishNationalPortraitGalleryfrom1915to1924,afterwhichhedividedhistimebetweenParisandLondon,wherehebecameanoutstanding
broadcasterofhisown,idiosyncratic,scripts,publishedasJames,SeamusandJacques(1964).SeeCollectedPoems,2ndedn1954HilaryPyle,James
Stephens:HisWorksandanAccountofHisLife,1965.
Sterne,Laurence(171368)
Britishnovelist,wasborninClonmel,Ireland,thesonofanEnglisharmyofficerwhosefamilyfollowedhimaround.TheywentbacktoEngland,andthentoIreland
again:toWicklow,nearwhichtheboyfellunhurtthroughamillrace,toDublin,wherein1721helearnedtowrite,andtoCarrickfergus.From1723untilhisfather's
deathinJamaicain1731(havingsurvivedbeingrunthroughinaduelwithafellowofficerinGibraltar),SternewassettledinaschoolinHalifax.In1733acousin
offeredtosupporthimatJesusCollege,CambridgehegraduatedasBAin1736,andtookholyordersin1738.Fromthenuntil1759helivedthelifeofaneccentric
Yorkshirecountryparson.Hewasfrequentlyillwithconsumption,andhiswife,whomhehadmarriedin1741onlearningthatshehadbequeathedhimherproperty,
provedasmuchatrialtohimasheclearlywastoher.AdisputeamongtheclergyofYorkMinstersuggestedtohimtheplotofacomicnovel,APoliticalRomance,
whichwasregardedassounsuitableforpublicationthatitdidnotappearuntil1769itwasoftenreissuedasTheHistory

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ofaGoodWarmWatchCoat.Thesuccessitachievedamonghisfriends,amongwhomithadbeenprivatelycirculatedin1759,determinedhimtobecomea
novelist.HewrotethefirsttwobooksofTheLifeandOpinionsofTristramShandy,Gentleman,whichhearrangedtobeprintedinYorkatafriend'sexpense,
aftertheyhadbeenturneddownbytheLondonpublishingfirmofRobertDodsley(170364),towhichSternehadofferedthemfor50.Thereactionofthe
internationalliteraryworldwasphenomenal.SternemovedtoLondontocapitalizeonhisnewreputation.Dodsley'sbrotherJames(Roberthavingretired)wasnow
onlytoopleasedtoreissuethefirsttwobooks(1760),tocommissiontheauthortosupplyafurthervolumeeveryyearfortherestofhislife,andtopublishacollected
editionofhissermonsasTheSermonsofMrYorick(7vols176069).Inspiteofrecurrentillness,SterneplungedenthusiasticallyintothefashionablelifeofLondon
andFrance,whilekeepingtohiscontractforTristramShandy(theninthbookwaspublishedin1767),andwritingASentimentalJourneythroughFranceand
Italy(1768),thoughItalyremainedunvisitedbythewhimsicaltraveller.Duringthespringof1767heindulgedinanenergeticbutPlatonicaffairwithElizaDraper,a
23yearoldcharmer,untilshesailedtojoinherhusbandinIndia.ForherhewroteTheJournaltoEliza,discoveredin1851.
'Digressions,incontestably,arethesunshine,'wroteSterneinTristramShandy(I,22),butalongwithhisquirkishtypographicaldevicesandpunctuation,andnon
sequiturswhichareratherassociationsofideasontheprinciplesofLOCKE,theyareintegraltoauniqueconstructionbyacomicgeniusandinpartanticipatethestream
ofconsciousnesstechnique.BythetimehecametowriteASentimentalJourney,morefeelinganddecorumhadsetin,butevenifhedidintendtocompletethe
odyssey,thebook'spresentconclusionissheerperfection.SeeArthurH.Cash,LaurenceSterne:theEarlyandMiddleYearsandLaurenceSterne:theLater
Years,newedns1992.
Stevens,Wallace(18791955)
Americanpoet,wasborninReading,Pennsylvania,thesecondoffivechildrenofalawyerwhowrotesomepoetry,andwenttoschoollocally.In1897heenrolledas
aspecialstudentatHarvard,wherehepublishedseveralpoemsintheHarvardAdvocateheleftin1900topursuealiterarycareerinNewYorkCity.Afterabrief
spellasajournalist,hewentinsteadtolawschool,andwasadmittedtotheNewYorkBarin1904.Severaljobsfailedbeforehebecameamemberofthelegalstaff
oftheAmericanBondCo.In1909hemarriedElsieMoll(18861963),whomhehadmetinReadingin1904,andwhomhehadcourtedfromadistancewithpoems
andgailyphrasedletters.'CarnetdeVoyage',agroupofeightpoems,waspublishedinTrendin1914,hisfirstappearanceinprintsinceHarvard.In1916hejoined
theHartfordAccidentandIndemnityCo.asaclaimsinvestigator,andmovedtoHartford,Connecticut.In1934hebecameavicepresidentofthecompany,forwhich
hewasstillworkingshortlybeforehisdeath.Hewas44whenhisfirstvolumeofverse,Harmonium(1923),appeared.Itincludedseveralofhismostfrequently
anthologized,andmostselfcritical,poems,'SundayMorning','TheComedianastheLetterC',and'PeterQuinceattheClavier'andsomeofhismosteffective
excursionsintocomedy,suchas'CortegeforRosenbloom'and'TheEmperorofIceCream'.TherewasnofurtherbookuntilIdeasofOrder(1935),afterwhich
therewereregularcollectionsuntil1950.Justasherecognized,asin'TheIdeaofOrderatKeyWest'(1936),theroleofthepoetinmakingorderoutofchaos,so,in
thetitlepoemofTheManwiththeBlueGuitarandOtherPoems(1937)andelsewhere,hepositedtherelationshipbetweennatureandart.NotesTowarda
SupremeFiction(1942)isalongpoemdefiningtheartofpoetryhislecturesonthesubjectwerepublishedinTheNecessaryAngel:EssaysonRealityandthe
Imagination(1951).TheCollectedPoemsofWallaceStevens(1954)wontheNationalBookAwardandthePulitzerPrize.SeeLettersofWallaceStevens,ed.
HollyStevens,newedn1996JoanRichardson,WallaceStevens:theEarlyYears,18791923,1986,andWallaceStevens:theLaterYears,19231925,1988
(biography)SusanB.Weston,WallaceStevens:anIntroductiontothePoetry,1977FrankKermode,WallaceStevens,2ndrev.edn1989(criticalstudy).
Stevenson,RobertLouis(185094)
Scottishnovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,essayist,andtravelwriter,wasbornRobertLewisBalfourStevensoninEdinburgh,theonlychildofThomasStevenson
(181887)ofthefamousfamilyoflighthouseengineers,andMargaretBalfour(182997),aminister'sdaughter.Constantillnessdisruptedhiseducation,ofwhichthe
years186163werespentatEdinburghAcademy.Hisfirstpublishedwork,paidforbyhisfather,wasanovelofthelastdaysoftheCovenanters,ThePentland
Rising(1866).ThefollowingyearhewenttoEdinburghUniversitytoreadengineering,butonexplainingtohisfatherin1871thathewantedtomakewritinghis
career,hewaspersuadedatleasttostudylawforthetimebeing,andhequalifiedasanadvocatein1875.Meanwhilehehadshockedhisparentsbyexpressing
agnosticsympathies.Thereisevidencealsothathefrequentedbrothelsresearchin1996largelyconfirmsthetheoryofDAICHESinhisstudyofRLS(1947)thatKate
Drummond,anEdinburghprostitutewithwhomStevensonappearstohavehadaromanticrelationship,

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wastheinspirationforCatrionaDrummondinCatriona.
AmeetingwithHENLEYin1874resultedintheirwritingfourpoorplaystogether,butalsogaveStevensonaccesstooutletsforreviewsandessays,ofwhichhemade
severalcollections,thefirstbeingVirginibusPuerisque(1881).Foreignexpeditionsforhishealth,byunusualmeans,gavehimthematerialforAnInlandVoyage
(1878)andTravelswithaDonkeyintheCvennes(1879).In1879hewenttoCaliforniatopersuadeawomanhehadmetinFrance,FannyOsbourne(1840
1914),tenyearshisseniorandjustdivorced,tomarryhimseeAlexandraLapierre,FannyStevenson:aRomanceofDestiny,tr.CarolCosman(1995)forafully
researchedbutpartlyfictionalizedaccountofherlife.BackinEuropeandstilltravelling,hecompletedhisfirstfulllengthnovel,TreasureIsland(1883),published
initiallyinYoungFolks'Magazineandparticularlymemorableforitssubtlenarrativetechnique.InKidnapped(1886),itssequelCatriona(1893inUSAasDavid
Balfour,1893),andTheMasterofBallantrae(1889),heisconcernedwithpersonalconflicts,andScottishhistoryandtopography,aswellaswithadventure.
ConflictintheformofadualpersonalityisthethemeofStrangeCaseofDrJekyllandMrHyde(1886),accordingtohisownaccount,'conceived,written,
rewritten,rewritten,andprintedinsidetenweeks',toresolveproblemsoftradesmen'sbills.NotI,andOtherPoems(1881)containedseveralpoemsexpressingthe
anguishofyouth.AChild'sGardenofVerses(1885)isanostalgicrecapitulationofthepleasuresandfantasiesofchildhood.Onthewhole,however,hispoetryis
mildstuffbesidethesupernaturalshortstories'ThrawnJanet'(1881)and'Markheim'(1886),whichwerepublishedinTheMerryMen,andFablesandOtherTales
(1887).
In1887heandhiswifesailedforAmericaandcharteredaracingschoonertotakethemtotheSouthSeasinafinalsearchforacongenialclimateforhim.Theyfound
itinSamoa,wheretheybuiltahouseontheestateofVailima.Herehewrotewithhisstepson,LloydOsbourne(18681947),twotalesofviolentadventure,The
Wrecker(1892)andTheEbbTide(1894).HealsocompletedninechaptersofWeirofHermiston,whichfordepthofcharacter,insightintoaconfrontation
betweenfatherandsonsuchashehadhimselfexperienced,andpowerofstyle,exceedsanythingelsehewrotethefullestversionised.CatherineKerrigan,1996,
asthefirstvolumeintheCentenaryEditionoftheworks.Theunfinishedhistoricaladventure,StIves,hasbeencompleted(1897)byQUILLERCOUCHand(1990)by
JenniCalder(b.1941),theelderdaughterofDAICHES.Stevensondiedofacerebralhaemorrhage.HissignificancetoEnglishliteratureliesmoreinwhathepromisedto
achievethaninwhathewroteduringhisshortlife:intermsofScottishliterature,hewasinseveralwaysatruesuccessortoWALTERSCOTT.SeeCollectedPoems,Vol.
1,ed.JohnManningandElizabethWaterston,1996TheCompleteShortStories,ed.IanBell,1993JenniCalder,RLS:aLifeStudy,newedn1990Frank
McLynn,RobertLouisStevenson:aBiography,newedn1994R.C.Terry(ed.),RobertLouisStevenson:InterviewsandRecollections,1996RobertKiely,
RobertLouisStevensonandtheFictionofAdventure,1964J.R.Hammond,ARobertLouisStevensonCompanion:aGuidetotheNovels,Essaysand
ShortStories,1984.
Stewart,Douglas(191385)
Australianpoet,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninEltham,Taranaki,NewZealand,ofanAustralianfather,andwaseducatedatNewPlymouthBoys'HighSchooland
VictoriaUniversityCollege.WhenastaffpositionaslightversewriterontheBulletininSydneydidnotmaterialize,hereturnedtoNewZealand,whereheprivately
publishedabookofverse,GreenLions(1936).HefinallyjoinedtheBulletinin1938,andwasLiteraryEditor194061.HewasthenLiteraryAdviser(196172)to
AngusandRobertson,themainpublisherofAustralianpoetryatthattime.TwoslimvolumesofwartimeversewerefollowedbyTheDosserinSpringtime(1946),
Australianorientatedpoemsinwhichheextendedhisrangetoincludeballads.IntheballadsequenceGlencoe(1947),thegovernmentinspiredmassacreinthe
ScottishHighlandsin1692isthebasisofa'protestagainstbarbarity,crueltyandviolence'.FurtherpoeticdevelopmentswerehighlightedinSunOrchids(1952),
whichcontainedsignificantnaturepoemsandasequenceevokinganincidentduringtheAntarcticexpeditionin1914ledbySirErnestShackleton(18741922).
Discoveryofadifferentnatureinspiredthelongtitlepoemofhislastcollection,Rutherford,andOtherPoems(1962),inthecourseofwhichtheNewZealandborn
physicistappearsas'thegreatseafarerofscience'.TheFireontheSnow,hismajorversedrama,written'underblindcompulsion'withoutanyexperienceasa
dramatistorof'thetechnicalitiesofradioplaywriting',wasbroadcastin1941andpublishedin1944.Tenseandmoving,itcoversthefinalassaultontheSouthPolein
1912byCaptainScott(18681912)andthedeathsofallfivemembersoftheparty.Afolkheroofadifferentkind,thebushrangerNedKelly(185580),featuresin
NedKelly,writtenforthestagebutfirstpubliclyairedonradioin1942(published1943).FourPlays(1958)includesalsoTheGoldenLover(broadcast1943)and
Shipwreck(produced1948).ReviewsandothercriticalarticlesarecollectedinTheBroadStream:AspectsofAustralianLiterature(1975).HewasmadeOBE
in1960.SeeCollectedPoems19361967,1967SelectedPoems,1992SpringtimeinTaranaki:anAutobiographyof

Page524

Youth,newedn1991ClementSemmler,DouglasStewart:aCriticalStudy,newedn1977.
Stewart,Harold
SeeMCAULEY.
Stewart,J(ohn)I(nnes)M(ackintosh)(190694)
Scottishnovelistandcritic,wasborninEdinburgh,andeducatedatEdinburghAcademyandOrielCollege,Oxford,wherehegotadegreewithfirstclasshonorsin
English.Ameetingwith(Sir)FrancisMeynell(18911975)ledtoacommissiontoeditfortheNonesuchPressMontaigne'sEssays:JohnFlorio'sTranslation
(1931),largelyonthestrengthofwhichheobtainedalectureshipatLeedsUniversity.OnthewayouttotakeupthepostofJuryProfessorofEnglishatAdelaide
Universityin1935,hewrotehisfirstmysterystoryunderthepennameofMichaelInnes,DeathatthePresident'sLodging(1936).Tensimilarnovelsfollowed
duringhistenyearsthere,'theSouthAustralianclimate[being]justrightforauthorshipofthissort'.Wittyandofanintellectualnature,theycontinuedtocome
thereafter.HewasaFellowofChristChurch,Oxford194973,andReaderinEnglishLiterature196973.HisfirstworkoffictionunderhisownnamewasMark
Lambert'sSupper(1954),which,likeseveralofhissubsequentnovels,involvesaquestforanartisticwork.'AStaircaseinSurrey'istheoveralltitleofasequence
aboutgrowingupandOxfordlife,beginningwithTheGaudy(1974).Healsopublishedvolumesofshortstories,bothasJ.I.M.StewartandasMichaelInnes.His
criticalworks,noted,likehisnovels,fortheirwitaswellastheirerudition,includestudiesofKIPLING(1966),CONRAD(1968),andHARDY(1971),andthevolumeinthe
OxfordHistoryofEnglishLiterature,WritersoftheEarlyTwentiethCentury(1963reissued1990withthistitle).
Stewart,John,ofBaldynneis
SeeFOWLER.
Stoker,Bram[Abraham](18471912)
Irishnovelist,wasborninDublin,thesecondsonofacivilservantandofaselfstyledsocialreformerofasomewhaterraticnature.Unabletostanduprightuntilhe
wasseven,heneverthelesshadadistinguishedathleticaswellasacademiccareeratTrinityCollege,Dublin,wherehealsodevelopedapassionfortheworkand
personalityofWHITMAN.In1870hebecameacivilservantatDublinCastle,wherehewrotehisfirstbook,TheDutiesofClerksofPettySessionsinIreland(1879).
From1871hedoubledasunpaiddramacriticoftheEveningMail.HispassionforthestagewassuchthathevolunteeredtodothepublicityinDublinforthetourin
theautumnof1876oftheactor(Sir)HenryIrving(18381905).In1878hemarriedFrancesAnneBalcombe,whowassaidtobeoneofthethreemostbeautiful
womeninLondonandwhohadbeencourtedalsobyWILDE.ThehoneymoonwascutshortwhenIrvingaskedhimtobecomehismanagerandsecretary(inwhich
capacityheestimatedthatovertheyearshewrotehalfamillionletters).HeremainedwithIrvinguntiltheactordroppeddeadinaBradfordhotelafterplayingin
TENNYSON'SBeckethisPersonalReminiscencesofHenryIrving(1906)isavaluabletheatricalrecord.
Latterly,tohiswife'sdelight,hestudiedfortheBarheneverpractised,butshemadecertainthathewasalwaysreferredtoasabarristerratherthanamanofthe
theatreorofthepen.Althoughhepublishedseveralnovels,ofwhichthefirstwasUndertheSunset(1882),andnonfictionworks,includingFamousJmposters
(1910),inwhichhepostulatesthatElizabethIwasaman,heisrememberedjustforonebook,Dracula(1897).WhileowingsomethingtoastorybyLEFANU,ithas
becomethearchetypalvampirestory,withatouchoftheRuritanianaswellastheGothicaboutitsgruesomegoingson.HiswifesoldthefilmrightsofDraculain
1930for$40,000toUniversalPictures,whomadethefirstsoundversion.Therehavebeennumerousotherfilmssinceontheoccasionofthereleaseofthe1992
version,theoriginalnovelfeaturedontheAmericanbestsellerlists.SeeDanielFarson,TheManWhoWrote'Dracula':aBiographyofBrainStoker,1975
BarbaraBelford,BramStoker:aBiographyoftheAuthorof'Dracula',1996.
Stoppard,Tom(b.1937)
Britishdramatist,wasborninZlin,Czechoslovakia,takenbyhisparentstoSingaporejustbeforeWorldWarII,andthensentwithhismothertoIndiatoavoidthe
Japaneseinvasion,inwhichhisfatherdied.Afterthewar,hismothermarriedanEnglishman,whosenamehetook.HewaseducatedatPocklingtonSchool,
Yorkshire.HeworkedasanewspaperjournalistinBristolfrom1954to1960,whenhewentfreelancetowriteforthetheatre,thoughhisfirstpublishedworkswere
shortstoriesandacomicnovel,LordMalquistandMrMoon(1966).Hisfirstplay,AWalkontheWater,wasproducedontelevisionin1963,andinarevised
formasEnteraFreeManontheLondonstagein1968.ThecentralthemeofRosencrantzandGuildensternAreDead(firststagedinEdinburghin1966),asof
manyofhisplays,isthepowerlessnessofmaninthefaceoffateandexternalforces,inthiscaseseenthroughtheeyesoftwoofSHAKESPEARE'Sminorcharacters.In
Jumpers(1972),regardedashisbestplay,thepredicamentofthemoralphilosopherinapragmaticworldishighlightedbytheinvasionofhisprivacybypublicevents
onavasttelevisionscreen.Travesties(1974),acomedyofideasreflectingthecollapseofmodernismundercriticalscru

Page525

tiny,wasrevivedinarevisedformin1993.ProfessionalFoul(1978),writtenfortelevision,isaphilosophicaldramaofhumanrightssetinCzechoslovakia.
TheRealThing(1982)starredFelicityKendal(b.1946)asanactresswhofallsinlovewithaplaywrighttheymarriedin1992.InArcadia(1993),hisfirstnew
stageplayforfiveyears,theStoppardmixofelementsincorporatesthechaostheoryinscience,landscapegardening,BYRON,andliterarydetectivework.Similar
transitionsintimeandspaceareafeatureofIndianInk(1995),expandedfromaradiodramaof1991,whichoffersStoppard'sinterpretationofthelastdaysof
AngloIndia.Heusestheatricalandtechnicaldevicesaswellasverbalgymnasticstoamuse,andstartle,hisaudience,andwhatmaysometimesappearderivativeis
intentionalparody.Hisradioplays,oftenextensionsofasingle,bizarresituation,havebeenpublishedinThePlaysforRadio19641991(1994)seealsoTheReal
InspectorHound,andOtherEntertainments(1993).SeePlays,VolumeOne,newedn1996TheTelevisionPlays19651984,1993RonaldHayman,Tom
Stoppard,4thedn1982(criticalstudy)AnthonyJenkins,TheTheatreofTomStoppard,2ndedn1989.
Storey,David(b.1933)
Britishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninWakefield,Yorkshire,thethirdsonofaminer.HewaseducatedatQueenElizabethGrammarSchool,Wakefield,and
WakefieldArtSchool,afterwhichhesubsidizedhisstudiesattheSladeSchoolofFineArtinLondonbytravellingbackandforthtoplayasaprofessionalforLeeds
RugbyLeagueClub.Rugbyleaguefootballisthebackgroundofhisfirstnovel,ThisSportingLife(1960),inwhich,asinFlightintoCamden(1960),thefocusison
theconflictbetweenworkingclassoriginsandmodernaspirations,justasitisinBRAINE'SRoomattheTop,publishedafewyearsearlier.InRadcliffe(1963),the
differenceisoneofclassitself,whilePasmore(1972)andATemporaryLife(1973)exploretheconflictswhichcanleadtomentalbreakdown.Saville(1976),
whichwontheBookerprizeforfiction,isamorestraightforward,semiautobiographicalstoryofaboy'sdevelopmenttomanhoodandindependence.InAProdigal
Child(1982),variousareasofconflictinearliernovelsarebroughttogetherinone.Hisfirstplay,TheRestorationofArnoldMiddleton(1967),waswrittenin1959
fortheRoyalCourtTheatreinLondon,butfirstperformedsevenyearslaterbytheTraversecompanyinEdinburgh.Tomanycritics,itremainsthemostentertainingof
hisseveraldisturbingorfarcicalconversationpieces,someofwhichreflectelementsorincidentsinthenovelsseePlaysOne:'Home','Stages'and'Caring'(1992).
Trainedasanartist,andnowasparetimepainter,Storeyhasnoillusionsabouttheconflictswithinthewriter'scraft,asheexplainedinaninterviewin1990:'Basically
Ilikewritingsomethingeverydayevenifitisrubbish,justtoproveIcandoit.'SeealsoStorey'sLives:Poems19511991(1992).
Stow,John
SeeMUNDAY.
Stowe,HarrietBeecher(181196)
Americannovelistandwriterofshortfiction,essays,andinstructionalworks,wasborninLitchfield,Connecticut.Shewastheyoungestdaughterandtheseventhof
ninechildrenofLymanBeecher(17751863),preacherandprosewriter,andhisfirstwife,RoxanaFoote(d.1816),andsisterofCatherineBeecher(180078),
educationistandreformer,andHenryWardBeecher(181387),clergyman,prosewriter,andeditor.Shewaseducatedathersister'sschool,HartfordFemale
Seminary,andtaughtthereandatCatherine'snextfoundation,theWesternFemaleInstituteinCincinnati,wheretheirfatherwasPresidentofLaneTheological
Seminary.In1833thesisterspublishedPrimaryGeographyforChildren,describedasa'verycapitallittlebook'intheWesternMonthlyMagazine,towhich
Harrietbegancontributingstoriesanonymouslyin1834,winningaprizefor'NewEnglandSketch'.On6January1836shemarried,ashissecondwife,CalvinStowe
(180286):twingirlswerebornon29September.Duringthenext14yearsshehadfivefurtherdifficultpregnancies,butretainedameasureofindependencebytravel
andbycontributingtootherjournals,theCincinnatiChronicleandJournal,andtheNewYorkEvangelist.TheMayflower:SketchesofScenesandCharacters
amongtheDescendantsofthePilgrims(1843)wasacollectionof15suchpieces.
In1850thefamilymovedtoBrunswick,Maine,whereCalvinStowehadbeenappointedtothefacultyofBowdoinCollege.Thecumulativeeffectofitemsinthe
antislaveryNationalEra(founded1847),thedeathfromcholerain1849ofaninfantson,andthepassingoftheFugitiveSlaveAct(1850),movedhertoanultimate
gestureofresentmentagainsttherepressionsinherownlife.'UncleTom'sCabin:or,TheManthatwasaThing',beganserializationintheNationalErainJune1851.
AsUncleTom'sCabin:or,LifeamongtheLowly(1852),itfollowsalternately,inVictorianliteraryfashion,twogroupsofcharacterstomakeupacomposite
pictureofasociety.Itsold350,000copiesinitsfirstyear.StowerespondedtoinevitableattacksfromantiabolitionistsbyissuingAKeytoUncleTom'sCabin
(1853),whichwasnotsomuchajustificationofherargument,oraparadeofauthoritativesources,asadefenceofherpersonalintegrity.In1852CalvinStowewas
appointedtoAndoverTheologicalCollege,andin1853shemadethefirstofthreevisitstoEurope,duringwhichshemixed

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withtheBritisharistocracyandliterarysetseeSunnyMemoriesofForeignLands(1854).Shewentonwritingabolitionistmaterial,includingDred:aTaleofthe
GreatDismalSwamp(1856),untiltheEmancipationProclamationof1862.
HermoneymakingcareercontinuedwithouthereverrecapturingtheapocalypticvisionofUncleTom'sCabinthoughThePearlofOrr'sIsland(1862),aNew
Englandidyll,andOldtownFolks(1869),aMassachusettsmelodrama,haveliterarymerit.ShewasoneoftheoriginalcontributorstoAtlanticMonthly(founded
1857),forwhichshewrote,asChristopherCrowfield,regulararticlesonhomemakingandrelatedtopics,publishedasHouseandHomePapers(1865),Little
Foxes(1866),andTheChimneyCorner(1868).HerfascinationwiththeworkofBYRONprompted'TheTrueStoryofLadyByron'sLife'(AtlanticMonthly,1869),
thesensationaltoneofwhichcausedanimmediate12.5percentdropinthejournal'scirculation.Undeterred,sheenlargedthearticleintoLadyByronVindicated
(1870).Whileaformofpersonalemancipationbroughthersatisfaction,shewasmuchdisturbedbythedrowningin1857ofhereldestson,Henry,withouthishaving
beenformally'saved',andbytheactionforadulterybroughtagainstHenryWardBeecherin1874byhisfriend,andhersometimeeditor,TheodoreTilton(1835
1907),andthesubsequentprotractedtrial.Shebegantogosenileinabout1884.SeeJoanD.Hedrick,HarrietBeecherStowe:aLife,newedn1995JohnR.
Adams,HarrietBeecherStowe,rev.edn1989(biographical/criticalstudy).
Strachey,(Giles)Lytton(18801932)
Britishcriticandbiographer,wasbornatStoweyHouse,ClaphamCommon,London,the11thof13childrenofGeneralSirRichardStrachey(18171908)byhis
secondwife,andwaseducatedatLeamingtonCollege,atLiverpoolUniversity(fortwodistressingyears),andatTrinityCollege,Cambridge.Hewroteregular
articlesfortheSpectatorandotherliteraryjournals,andwasaprominentmemberoftheBloomsburyGroup(seeVIRGINIAWOOLF).Hisfirst(and,tosome,hismost
balanced)bookwasLandmarksinFrenchLiterature(1912).AtthetimeofWorldWarI,duringwhichhewasaconscientiousobjector,hedevisedatechniqueof
biographydemonstratedinEminentVictorians(1918),inwhichheaimsbyelegantproseandjudiciousselectionandpresentationofdetailtorevealillustriousfigures
aslessvirtuousthantheyhadseemedhitherto.Thoughheavilycriticized,thebookmadehisreputation.HisattempttorepeattheformulainQueenVictoria(1921)
founderedinthathecouldnotdenttheheroicmouldofhissubject,butresultedinafairerexposition.ElizabethandEssex:aTragicHistory(1928)containsa
greaterextentofspeculationbutisevenmorereadable.From1916StracheylivedincloserelationshipwiththepainterDoraCarrington(18931932)and,afterher
marriagein1921,withherhusbandtoo.ShecommittedsuicideafterStrachey'sdeathfromcancer.Whileunabletobringmuchunderstandingofpsychologytohis
biographicalstudies,heinventedaliteraryformwhich,forbetterorforworse,ledtothefictionalizedbiography.TheShorterStrachey(1980),selectedand
introducedbyMichaelHolroydandPaulLevy,comprises30ofhiscritical,autobiographical,andbiographicalessays.SeeMichaelHolroyd,LyttonStrachey:a
Biography,newednof2ndrev.edn,1995.
Stratemeyer,Edward
SeeALGER.
Strickland,AgnesandElizaBeth
SeeMOODIE.
Strindberg,(Johan)August(18491912)
Swedishdramatistandnovelist,wasborninStockholm,thefourthof12childrenofashippingagentandhisformermaidservant,whomarriedfourmonthsbeforehe
wasbornthefatherwentbankruptin1853andin1863,afterthedeathofhiswife,marriedhisyounghousekeeper.StrindbergwenttoUppsalaUniversityin1867
failedhisexaminationsin1869failedinhisattempttobecomeanactorandwrotetwoplaysthatwererejected.[InRome](1870)hadafewperformancesand
earnedhimabursaryfromKarlXVtoreturntouniversitytostudymodernlanguagesandpoliticalscienceheleftin1872afterthepaymentsdriedup.Henowwrote
ahistoricaldrama,[MasterOlof],whichwasnotstagedfornineyearstriedjournalism,thenlibrarianship(cataloguingChinesemanuscripts)andfellinlovewiththe
bisexualSirivonEssen,wifeofBaronWrangel,aGuardsofficer,whoinduecoursedivorcedher,ostensiblysothatshecouldgoonthestage.Strindbergmarriedher
in1877aftershehadbecomepregnant.[TheRedRoom](1879tr.EllieSchleussner,1913),anautobiographicalnovel,establishedhisnameasanauthor,butfurther
playshadonlytransitorysuccess,andhispoliticohistoricalstudiesandsatireswereattacked.In1883hetookhisfamilyabroadforsixyears,toFrance,Switzerland,
Germany,andDenmark,returningtoSwedenbrieflyin1884tofaceachargeofblasphemy(ofwhichhewasacquitted)arisingfromacollectionofautobiographical
stories,[Marriage](1884).[TheFather],thefirstofseveralhalflength,singleset,naturalisticdramas,wasfirstperformedinCopenhagenin1887,havingbeen
rejectedinSweden.Abowdlerized[MissJulie]waspublishedinSwedenin1888,buttheplaywasbannedinDenmarkthedaybeforeitwasduetoopen,itsworld
premierebeingaprivateperformanceatCopenhagenUniversityStudents'Unionon14March1889

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Strindberghimselfsawitforthefirsttimein1908,ataprivateshowingjustforhimself,G.B.SHAW,andMrsShaw.
HeandSiriweredivorcedin1891,afterwhichhewenttoGermany,wherehemetandmarriedFridaUhl,ayoungAustrianjournalist.Heleftherin1894andsettled
inParis,where,inspiteofhavingatonetimesixplaysrunningconcurrently,helapsedintopovertyandnearinsanity,conductingpseudoscientificexperimentsand
dabblinginalchemyinhislodgingsInferno(1897tr.MarySandbachwithFromanOccultDiary,1979),writteninFrench,isanaccountoftheseyears.Backin
Sweden,heembarkedonamysticaldramatrilogy,[ToDamascus](18981904),and,inspiredbySHAKESPEARE'Shistoryplays,begantobuildupacorpusofdramas
aboutSweden'spast.In1900hemet,andin1901(afterhisdivorcefromFridahadbeenformalized)married,HarrietBosse,aNorwegianactress29yearshisjunior.
Shelefthimthesameyear,withtheirbabydaughter:theyweredivorcedin1904.In1907,havingwrittennoplayforthreeyears,heestablishedinStockholmhisown
IntimateTheatre,forwhich,untilitsfailurethreeyearslater,hewrotefour'ChamberPlays',theonlyoneofwhichtohavelastedis[TheGhostSonata](1908),the
mostobscureofallhisdramas.Hediedofstomachcancer,havingbecomeengagedtoan18yearoldactress,FannyFalkner,whocouldnotbringherselftomarry
himbutwholookedafterhimwithhermotherintheflatintheirhouseintowhichhehadmoved.HeisSweden'sgreatestwriter,whoseinfluencecanbetracedinthe
playsofO'NEILLandhasbeenacknowledgedbyJOHNOSBORNE,andwhosepioneeringworkinstagingdreamworldswhicharecompatiblewithmodernpsychological
thinkingisadirectsourceoftheTheatreoftheAbsurd.SeePlays,tr.MichaelMeyer,6vols198087SelectedEssays,ed.andtr.MichaelRobinson,1996
MichaelMeyer,Strindberg:aBiography,newedn1992.
Strong,L(eonard)A(lfred)G(eorge)(18961958)
Irishnovelistandpoet,wasbornnearPlymouth,Devon.Hisfather,anagriculturalindustrialist,washalfIrishandhismotherwhollyso,andfamilyholidayswerespent
withherparentsnearDublin.HewonscholarshipstoBrightonCollegeandWadhamCollege,Oxford.AspinalconditionmadehimunfitforserviceinWorldWarI.
BeginningwithDublinDays(1921),hepublishedseveralbooksofverseandtwoofshortstoriesduringthe1920s,whileteachingattheOxfordprivateschool,
SummerFields.Thereceptionofhisfirstnovel,DewerRides(1929),astoryofDartmoor,encouragedhimtobecomeafulltimewriterin1930.Twonovels,The
Garden(1931)andSeaWall(1933),aredistinguishedevocationsoftheIrishlandscapeandofIrishlife.HisbestpoetryispolishedandepigrammaticseeThe
Body'sImperfection:theCollectedPoemsofL.A.G.Strong(1957).Amongmanynonfictionworks,hewroteabiographyofTHOMASMOORE(1937)andacritical
studyofJOYCE(1949)thereareportraitsofSYNGEandYEATSinPersonalRemarks(1953),andreflectionsonhisprofessioninTheWriter'sTrade(1953).Hewasa
directorofthepublishinghouseofMethuenfrom1938to1958,andwasbothamemberoftheIrishAcademyofLettersandaFellowoftheRoyalSocietyof
Literature.SeeGreenMemory,1961(autobiography).
Stuart,Francis(b.1902)
Irishnovelist,wasborninQueensland,Australia,thesonofanIrishsheepfarmer,onwhosedeathayearlaterhewasbroughttoIreland.HewaseducatedinEngland
atRugbySchool,andshortlyafterwards,whenhewas18,hemarriedIseultGonne(18941954),towhom,andtowhosemother,YEATShadfrequentlyand
unsuccessfullyproposed.Yeats,nowhimselfmarried,wasnotbestpleased,andlaterwrote,ratherunfairly,ofhavingknown'AgirlthatknewallDanteonce/Liveto
bearchildrentoadunce'.StuartfoughtontheRepublicansideintheIrishCivilWar,wascaptured,andwasinterneduntilNovember1923.Hisfirstbook,thevolume
ofverse,WeHaveKepttheFaith(dated1923),washighlypraised,evenbyYeats,butheturnedtofictionasamoreappropriatemediumforexperimentationand
theexpressionofhisdissidentoutlookandgeneralphilosophy.WomenandGod(1931),inwhichhedevelopedtheconnectionbetweensexandreligion,wasthefirst
of11novelswrittenbeforeWorldWarII.In1940hewenttoBerlinUniversity,wherehelecturedthroughoutthewaronEnglishandIrishliterature.Hewasarrested
bytheFrenchoccupationforcesin1945,andimprisonedforatime,thoughnoformalchargeswerelaidagainsthimlikeWODEHOUSEhehadbroadcastfromBerlinto
listenersinaneutralcountry.HelivedinGermanyandFranceuntil1951,andtheninLondonuntil1958,whenhereturnedtoIreland.Hehadbeenseparatedfrom
Iseult,onwhosedeathhemarriedaGermanwomanwhomhehadmetduringthewar.ThePillarofCloud(1948)andRedemption(1949)arespiritualreflections
onthepositionofIrishmeninwartimeGermany.BlackList,SectionH(1971inUSA1975inUK)ismoreovertlyautobiographical.Asecondvolumeofverse,We
HaveKepttheFaith:Poems19181992,waspublishedin1992.SeeGeoffreyElborn,FrancisStuart:aLife,1990.
Stukeley,Simon
SeeSAVERY.
Styron,William(b.1925)
Americannovelist,wasborninNewportNews,Virginia,thesonofamarineengineer,andwas

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educatedatChristchurchPreparatorySchoolandDavidsonCollege,fromwhichhetransferredin1943toDukeUniversityasamemberoftheMarineCorpsunit.
Therehewasencouragedtowriteshortstoriesaftergraduatingin1947,heenrolledforacourseinshortstorywritingattheNewSchoolforSocialResearch,New
York.Recalledasareservist1stlieutenantin1950duringtheKoreanWar,heparticipatedina36mileroutemarchsuchasisthesubjectofhissecondnovel,The
LongMarch,publishedinDiscoveryin1953andinvolumeformin1956.Hisfirst,LieDowninDarkness(1951),whichappearedshortlyafterhisdischarge,
focusesonaSouthernmanwhosedaughterhascommittedsuicideinNewYork.TheConfessionsofNatTurner(1967),astudyofthepsychologicaldevelopment
oftheliterateslaveleaderandpreacherwhoorganizedarebellionintheUpperSouthin1831,wonthePulitzerPrizebutmetwithsomehostilityfromthoseconcerned
aboutracerelations.InSophie'sChoice(1979),hisreflectionon'humaninstitutionshumanlycontrivedsituationswhichcausepeopletoliveinwretchedunhappiness'
centresontheHolocaust.WhileacknowledgingtheconcernofJewishintellectuals,notablythephilosopherandcriticGeorgeSteiner(b.1929),that'It'snotclearthat
thosewhowerenotthemselvesfullyinvolvedshouldtouchupontheseagoniesunscathed,'Styronjustifiedhisstanceasanartistandhiscreationofavictimwhois
PolishbutnotJewish:'IwantedtoshowthattheNaziswereouttogetthewholehumanrace.'DarknessVisible:aMemoirofMadness(1990)isan
autobiographicalstudyofhisownbrushwithchronicdepressionafterbecomingallergictoalcohol.ATidewaterMorning(1993),prefacedwithanepigramfrom
THOMASBROWNE,'Thelonghabitoflivingindisposethusfordying',comprisesthreestoriescentringonfearofpersonaldisintegrationinwhichthenarratorandthe
settingsreflecttheauthor'sownlife.ThisQuietDustandOtherWritings(1982)isacollectionofessays.
Suckling,(Sir)John(160941)
Englishpoetanddramatist,wasborninTwickenham,Middlesex,theeldestsonofawealthystatesman,SirJohnSuckling(15691627).Hewaseducatedprivately
andatTrinityCollege,Cambridge,afterwhichheservedinmilitarycapacitiesandstudiedontheContinent,beingknightedonhisreturnin1630.Theforemostwitand
poetofthecourtofCharlesI,hewasanotoriousgambler('sothat,'accordingtoAUBREY,'noshopkeeperwouldtrusthimfor6d'),andaformidableopponentinthe
bowlingalleyandatthecardtable(hewaspossiblytheinventorofthegameofcribbage).Alsoanenthusiasticbutinglorioussoldier,hefledtoFranceafter
participatinginaroyalistarmyplottofreetheKing'sadviser,theEarlofStrafford(15931641),fromjail,andprobablycommittedsuicidethere.Thathewasan
effectivewriterinproseisshownbyhispoliticalthesisadvisingtheKingonhispublicrelationsimage,intheformofaletterto'MrHenryGerman'HenryJermynMP
(d.1684),laterEarlofStAlbans,andhistractonSocianismaddressedtoEdwardSackville(15911652),4thEarlofDorsetandamemberofthePrivyCouncil,
AnAccountofReligionbyReason(writtenin1637,published1646).Hewrotefourunremarkableplays,ofwhichAglaura(1638)hasalternativetragicand
tragicomicfifthacts.Hisliteraryreputationrestsonhiscomicverse,notably'ABalladeUponaWedding',andonhislyrics,largelyunpolishedbutmemorablefortheir
inventivehessoflanguage.Hisfamoussong,'Whysopaleandwan,fondlover,/Prithee,whysopale?',occursinAglaura,IV.ii.SeeTheWorksofSirJohn
Suckling:theNonDramaticWorks,ed.ThomasClayton,1971,andThePlays,ed.L.A.Beaurline,1971.
Suetonius(GaiusSuetoniusTranquillus)(c.69c.140)
Romanbiographer,wasprobablyborninAlgeria.Hisfamilywasoftheclassofknightsandhisfatherwasaregulararmyofficer.Hestudiedandbrieflypractisedlaw,
beforeholdingasuccessionofpalaceposts,becomingdirectoroftheimperiallibrariesandthenchiefofHadrian'spersonalsecretariat,throughwhichhehadaccessto
archivematerialonearlierreigns.Itappearsthathewasoneofthosedismissedin122,onHadrian'sreturnfromBritain,forshowingdisrespecttotheempress,buthe
maylaterhavebeenreinstated.Theonlyoneofhisnumerousbiographicalandantiquarianworkswhichhavesurvivedintactishisseriesofracyandanecdotallivesof
theCaesars.WealsohavehisstudiesofHORACE,LUCAN,andTERENCE.SeeTheTwelveCaesars,tr.RobertGraves,rev.MichaelGrant,1979.
Surrey,(Howard,Henry),Earlof(c.151747)
Englishpoet,wasbornprobablyatKenninghall,Norfolk,andwasgivenhiscourtesytitlewhenhisfatherbecameDukeofNorfolkin1524.Hewaswelleducatedat
home,andin1529becamecompaniontoHenryFitzroy(151936),DukeofRichmond,whowastheillegitimatesonofHenryVIIIbyaladyinwaitingtotheQueen,
andwhomarriedSurrey'ssisterMaryin1533.Surreywasmarriedin1532toFrancesVere(d.1577),daughteroftheEarlofOxford.Hisprofessionallifecomprised
militaryserviceinEnglandandFrance(hisabilitywasquestionable,butnothisbravery)andcourtfavour(hewaselectedKnightoftheGarterin1541),interspersed
withboutsofviolenceandlawbreaking(hewastwiceimprisoned).Hewasfinallybeheadedfortreason.Hisdistinctionisinhisbeinganinnovativeand

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technicallyskilfulpoet,whoowedmuchtotheinspirationofWYATT,withwhomhesharesthecreditforintroducingintoEnglishthePetrarchansonnet,inwhichmedium
histhemesarelove,friendship,andchivalry.Therearetworevealingpoemsofpolitecomplaintabouthisincarceration:oneofthemfromWindsor,andtheothera
satireagainstthecitizensofLondonformisinterpretinghis'protest',whichtooktheformofbreakingtheirwindows.HealsotranslatedBooksIIandIVofVIRGIL'S
Aeneid,describedbytheirfirstprinter(c.1554)as'drawneintoastraungemetre',inotherwordsthefirstexampleofEnglishblankverse.Otherpoemswerefirst
publishedinSongesandSonettesbySurreyandOther(1557),editedbyRichardTottel(c.153094)knownas'Tottel'sMiscellany'.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.
DennisKeene,1985.
Surtees,RobertSmith(180364)
Britishnovelist,wasbornatHamsterleyHall,Co.Durham(whichheinheritedonhisfather'sdeathin1838),andwaseducatedatDurhamGrammarSchoolandfora
careerinthelaw,whichheabandonedin1831tobecomecofounderand,until1836,EditoroftheNewSportingMagazine.HepublishedTheHorseman's
Manual,BeingaTreatiseonSoundness,theLawofWarranty,andGenerallyontheLawsRelatingtoHorsesin1831.Hecontributedtohisownjournala
serial,publishedin1838with12illustrationsbyPhizHablotK.Browne(181582)asJorrocks'JauntsandJollities,ortheHunting,Racing,Driving,Sailing,
Eating,EccentricandExtravagantExploitsofthatRenownedSportingCitizen,MrJohnJorrocksofGreatCoramStreet.FurtheradventuresofJorrocks,
whoissaidtohavegivenDICKENStheideaforPickwickPapers,appearedinHandleyCross,orSpaHunt:aSportingTale(1843),illustratedbyJohnLeech
(181764).MorenovelsinasimilardidacticbutpredominantlysatiricalveinincludeHillingdonHall,ortheCockneySquire:aTaleofCountryLife(1845),his
bestconstructedwork,andMrSponge'sSportingTour(1853).Surteeshadaskillednovelist'sperceptionofsituationandcharacter,andafeelingforenjoyable
language.Hewasalsothefirsttowriteabouthuntinganditssocialethos.Hewasaversetoseeinghisnameinprint,andallhisnovelsappearedanonymously.Hewas
HighSheriffofDurhamin1856.SeeLeonardCooper,R.S.Surtees,1952(biography)RobertL.Collison,AJorrocksHandbook,1964NormanGash,Robert
SurteesandEarlyVictorianSociety,1993.
Sutcliff,Rosemary(192092)
Britishnovelistandchildren'swriter,wasborninWestClanden,Surrey,theonlychildofanavalofficer.Thecripplingarthriticconditionwhichshesufferedsince
childhoodandmadeprogressbetweenwheelchair,diningroomchair,andbedpainfulandexhausting,andwritingalaboriousprocess,restrictedhereducationto
homeandtoashortperiodatBidefordSchoolofArt.Justasfivesomewhatinchoatechildren'sbooksintheearly1950sgavenohintofthelastingimpactshewasto
makeonthehistoricalnovelforyoungreaders,so,aftertworomanticperiodnovels,LadyinWaiting(1957)andTheRideroftheWhiteHorse(1959),the
publicationofSwordatSunset(1964)wasarevelation,aswellasalandmarkinliteratureabouttheDarkAges.AsimilarinsightilluminatesTheMarkoftheHorse
Lord(1965),publishedforchildren,andothernovelsforthatmarket,notablyWarriorScarlet(1958)andherclutchofstoriesaboutRomanBritain,TheSilver
Branch(1957),TheLanternBearers(1959),andFrontierWolf(1981),whichdemonstratealsoherunderstandingofmilitaryhistoryandtactics,aswellasher
habitual,oftenmystical,senseofplace.Inspiteofthefactthatherconditionseriouslyaffectedthebonesofherhands,shewasamemberoftheRoyalSocietyof
MiniaturePainters.BlueRememberedHills(1983)isanautobiographicalsketchofherearlieryearswhichcastslittlelightonthenatureofhercreativeinspiration.
ShewasmadeOBEin1975andCBEin1992.
Sutherland,Efua(b.1924)
neMorgue,Ghanaiandramatist,wasborninCapeCoast,whereshegrewupwithaChristianfamilyandwaseducatedatStMonica'sSchoolandTeacherTraining
College.ShethenstudiededucationatHomertonCollege,Cambridge,andlinguisticsattheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies,LondonUniversity.Shereturned
toGhanain1951,andin1954marriedanAmerican,WilliamSutherland,withwhomshesetupaschoolintheTransvolta.AfterGhana'sindependencein1956and
theformationoftheArtsCouncilofGhana,shefoundedawriters'society,primarilytoencouragewritingforchildren,andthen,asafurtherboosttobuddingauthors,
theGhanaDramaStudio,Accra,towhoseexperimentaltheatreprogrammeshecontributedherfirsttwofulllengthplays.Edufa(published1967),isherversionof
theAlcestisstoryofEURIPIDES.Foriwa(1967),intendedforopenairperformance,exploresinaconstructiveandoptimisticmannertheimpositionofnewwaysonold
traditions.AnoutcomeoftheDramaStudiowastheestablishmentoftheSchoolofDrama,UniversityofGhana,Legon,withwhichsheandDEGRAFTbecameclosely
associated.Shealso,from1963,undertookresearchintoAfricanliteratureanddramaattheuniversity'sInstituteforAfricanStudies.Herespousaloftheplaywithin
thecommunity,andinparticularvillagetheatre,isseeninTheMarriageofAnansewa:aStorytellingDrama(1975),afolkplaywithaudienceparticipation.
Vulture!Vulture!andTahinta:TwoRhythmPlays(1968)isdramaforchildren.

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Sutherland,RobertGariOch
SeeGARIOCH.
Svevo,Italo,PenNameofEttoreSchmitz(18611928)
Italiannovelist,wasbornofJewishparentsinTrieste,andwasat12senttoacommercialschoolatSegnitzamMain.Hisfirstpublishedpiecewasanarticleina
Triestenewspaper,derivedfromHEINE,absolvingSHAKESPEAREfromantiSemitisminTheMerchantofVenice:afewweeksbefore,hehadbeenrejectedforajob
becausehewasJewish.HeworkedasabankclerkinTriestefrom1880to1899,andafterhisfirstnovel,UnaVita(1892tr.ArchibaldColquhounasALife,
1963),publishedathisownexpense,sankwithouttrace,hetaughtparttimeatthelocalcollegeofcommerceandeconomics.Asimilarfateattendedhissecondnovel,
Senilit(1898tr.BeryldeZoeteasAManGrowsOlder,1932),afurtherstudyofaman'sinabilitytocopewithhisprofessionalandpersonallives.In1899he
wentintobusinesswithhisfatherinlaw.NeedingtobrushuphisEnglish,in1907hetookprivatelessonsfromJOYCE,whowasmostimpressedbyhispupil'sliterary
endeavours.SchmitztheindustrialistprosperedduringWorldWarIasamanufacturerofpaintsforshipsonlyafterhisretirementdidSvevoreturntowriting,withLa
ConscienzadiZeno(1923tr.deZoeteasTheConfessionsofZeno,1930).Apparentlywritteninafortnight,itsignificantlyandinanoriginalfashiondevelopedhis
stockthemeofmaleinadequacyanddemonstratedtheefficacyofpsychoanalysis.Evenso,itneededsomepressurefromJoyceforthebooktobeacceptedincritical
circles,andSvevodiedinacarcrashwithoutfinishingthesequel.HealsowrotesomeshortstoriesseeLaNovelladelBuonVecchioedellaBellaFanciulla
(1930tr.L.CollisonMorleyasTheNiceOldManandthePrettyGirl,andOtherStories,1930).SeeJohnGattRutter,ItaloSvevo:aDoubleLife,1988
(biography).
Swift,Jonathan(16671745)
Irishprosewriter,poet,andcleric,wasborninDublinofEnglishparentsafterhisfather'sdeathandwaseducatedatKilkennyCollegeandTrinityCollege,Dublin.
AfterlivingwithhismotherinLeicester(herhometown),hebecamein1689secretarytoTEMPLE,withwhomtheSwiftfamilyhadconnections,atMoorPark,Surrey.
HerehemetandwastutortoeightyearoldEstherJohnson(whomhemuchlaterdubbed'Stella'),thedaughterofthecompaniontoTemple'swidowedsister.He
wasalsowritingpoetry,including'OdetotheAthenianSociety',aboutwhich(accordingtoJOHNSON)DRYDENpronounced,'CousinSwift,youwillneverbeapoet.'In
1694hetookholyordersintheAnglicanChurch,afterwhichhespenttwoyearsinIreland,returningtoMoorParkin1696.Herehewrotehisfirsttwoprosesatires,
ATaleofaTub,aburlesqueonthereligiousdisagreementsofthetimeswithdigressionsintocurrentphilosophyandlearning,andAnAccountofaBattelBetween
AntientandModernBooksinStJames'Library('TheBattleoftheBooks'),amockheroicaccountofaliterarycontroversyinvolvingTemplethetwowere
publishedtogetherin1704.
OnTemple'sdeath,hereturnedtoIrelandaschaplaintothe2ndEarlofBerkeley(d.1710),onhisappointmentasalordjusticein1701hebecameaprebendaryof
StPatrick'sCathedralandVicarofLaracor,Co.Meath,andreceivedhisDD.Athissuggestion,Esther,withherclosefriendRebeccaDingleyaschaperon,movedto
Dublin.Theymetconstantlybutneveralone,andthesuggestionthatatsomepointtheysecretlymarriedisasperplexingasthereasonwhytheymayneverhave
marriedatall.From1710to1714hewasmainlyinLondononpoliticalbusinessfortheChurch,becomingavaluedfriendofandanactivepropagandistfortheruling
Toryparty,afterabandoninghisallegiancetotheWhigsfortheirindifferencetotheinterestsofAnglicansinIrelandandtotheTestAct.ThelettershewrotetoEsther
duringthisperiod,partlyincodeandwithexcursionsintobabytalk,offerafascinating,informal,andoftenthoroughlyindiscreetinsightintoLondonsocialandpolitical
life.Theywerefirstpublishedin176668,andfrom1784havebeenknownasJournaltoStella.
QueenAnneopposedhisprefermentinEngland,butthroughthegoodofficesoftheDukeofOrmonde(16651745)hewasappointedDeanofStPatrick'sin1713.
HereconciledhimselftoDublin,andbecameanablechurchadministratorandathorninthefleshoftheBritishGovernment.Healsohadaproblemwithanother,and
younger,girlfriend,EstherVanhomrigh,whoseattentionshehadunsuccessfullytriedtodivertbyhiswittypoem,'CadenusandVanessa'(c.1712).Shepursuedhimto
Irelandandremainedthere,dyingin1723from,itissaid,shockatSwift'sreactiontoherlettertoStellaaskingpointblankwhethersheandSwiftweremarried.
UnderthepseudonymofM.B.Drapier,hepublishedin1724ALettertotheWholePeopleofIreland,inflamingthecountrytoboycottaproposednewcoinage.
TheGovernmentimprisonedtheprinterandoffered300forinformationabouttheauthor.EveryoneknewitwasSwift,butnoonecameforwardwithproof,or
claimedthereward.Thecoinagewasabandoned.Hewasacclaimedanationalhero,andhisreturntoDublinfromavisittoLondonin1726wasgreetedwithbells
andbonfires.TheoccasionforthevisithadbeenthepublicationofTravelsintoSeveralRemoteNationsoftheWorldbyLemuelGulliver('Gulliver'sTravels').
Whileitcontainsallusionstocontemporaryeventsandattitudes,itisofcontinueduniversalappealforitssatiricalinsightintohumanbehaviour.In

Page531

1727hemadehislastvisittoEngland.Hewasdeaf,anextensionofthevertigohehadlongsuffered(nowthoughttohavebeenMenire'ssyndrome),buthe
continuedtowrite.Totheseyearsbelonghismostnotoriouspieceofsatiricalpamphleteering,AModestProposalforPreventingtheChildrenofPoorPeople
fromBeingaBurthen...(1729)hisremedywastoeatthem,forwhichheofferedseveralrecipes,andsomeoccasionalversewhichisnotableforitsvigorous
useofordinarylanguage.Hisbrainbegantofailin1738,andin1740trusteestookoverhisaffairs.HewasburiedinStPatrick'snexttohisbelovedStella,whohad
diedin1728.
Apartfromthedrivingsaevaindignatio[fierceindignation]whichheattributedtohimself,andtheplayfulnesswithwhichheoftenexercisedit,Swift'sdistinctionliesin
hisprosesimple,controlled,andconcrete.Heinspiredtheloveofliteraryandpoliticalfriends(notablyPOPE),aswellasofwomen,nottheleastdevotedofwhom
wasLetitiaPilkington(171250),whoseMemoirs(1748)areavaluablesourceofinformationabouthispersonalhabits.SeeSelectedWorks,ed.AngusRossand
DavidWoolley,1984SelectedPoems,ed.PatRogers,1993SelectedPoems,ed.A.NormanJeffares,newedn1996Swift'sIrishPamphlets:anIntroductory
Selection,ed.JosephMcMinn,1991DavidNokes,JonathanSwift:aHypocriteReversed,newedn1987(criticalbiography)JosephMcMinn,JonathanSwift:
aLiteraryLife,1991.
Swinburne,AlgernonCharles(18371909)
Britishpoet,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninLondon,theeldestchildofAdmiralandLadyJaneSwinburne.HewaseducatedatEton,wherehearrivedclutchinga
bowdlerizededitionofSHAKESPEARE(apresentfromhismotherwhenhewassix),andatBalliolCollege,Oxford.Hewasrusticatedin1860,havingthatsameyear
publishedtwoverseplays(TheQueenMotherandRosamond),andwasfinallyexpelledfortimewasting.Hewasofambiguoussexualinclinations,thoughan
emotionalromancewithacousin,brokenoffbecauseoftheirconsanguinity,inspiredhisfinelyricalpoem,'TheTriumphofTime'.WhileatOxfordhebecame
associatedwiththePreRaphaelitesandhewasforatimeamemberofD.G.ROSSETTI'Smnage.In1862hehadpoetryandessayspublishedintheSpectator,including
adefenceofMEREDITH'SModernLove.ThefollowingyearhecompletedChastelard(1865),thefirstofthreedramasaboutMary,QueenofScots,ofwhichtheother
twoareboggeddownbyhistoricalfact.AtalantainCalydon(1865),aversedramastructuredlikeaGreektragedy,wonthepraiseofthecriticsandtheapplauseof
youngmenabouttown,whochantedtoeachotherthemelodicrhymingchoruses,ofwhichthemostmemorableis'Whenthehoundsofspringareonwinter'straces..
.'.PoemsandBallads(1866)causedasensationforwhatwereseenastheexpressionsof'thelibidinouslaureateofapackofsatyrs',achargeherebuttedinNotes
onPoemsandReviews(1866).Renouncingforthemomentfreedomofspeechinfavouroftheliberationofman,hefollowedhispoliticalpoem,ASongofItaly
(1867),withSongsbeforeSunrise(1871),inwhichheusedhispoetictalentandversatilitytosupportItalianrepublicanism.PoemsandBallads:SecondSeries
(1878)lackedsomeoftheexcitementofitspredecessor,butcontainedsomeofhisbestpoems,including'AForsakenGarden'and'AveAtqueVale'.Hehadbythis
timewrittenmostof'TristramofLyonesse'(publishedin1882),anunevenbutthoughtfulandsometimespowerfultreatmentofmedievalromance(composedasa
counterblasttoTENNYSON),buthisfacultieswerebeingdestroyedbyperiodsofchronicalcoholism.In1879TheodoreWatts(18321914),laterWattsDunton,a
solicitorturnedliterarycriticandnovelist,tookofficialchargeofhiminhisPutneyhouse,whereSwinburnelivedonforthirtyyears,andcontinuedtowrite,thoughina
subduedfashion.Thereisavividandsympatheticportraitofthembothathomeunderthetitle'No2ThePines'inBEERBOHM'SAndEvenNow(1920).
Swinburne'spoetryisnotableforitsemotionalappealandalmostshamelessgloryinginlanguage.Hisplays,however,lackthedramatist'sart.Hisearlystudy,William
Blake:aCriticalEssay(1868),isasignificantcontributiontotheinterpretationofBLAKE'S'PropheticBooks',andmoderncriticsgenerallyconfirmtheunderlying
soundnessofhisjudgmentsonotherpoetstoo.HealsowroteLove'sCrossCurrents,anepistolarynoveloriginallypublishedin1862inserialformasAYear's
Letters,andfragmentsofLesbiaBrandon(publishedin1952).SeeSelectedPoems,ed.LenM.Finlay,1987TheSwinburneLetters,ed.CecilY.Lang,6vols
195962JeanOvertonFuller,Swinburne:aCriticalBiography,1968JeromeJ.McGann,Swinburne:anExperimentinCriticism,1972.
Symmes,RobertEdward
SeeDUNCAN.
Symons,A.J.A.
SeeSYMONS,JULIAN.
Symons,Arthur(18651945)
Britishpoet,critic,translator,andeditor,wasborninMilfordHaven,Pembrokeshire,ofCornishparents.Hisfather,aMethodistminister,servedonninedifferent
circuitsduringtheboy'supbringing.Hewaseducateduntilhewas16atprivateschools,andat19waseditingvolumesinthe'ShakespeareQuartoFacsimiles'series.
Hisfirstbook,acriticalintroductiontoROBERTBROWNING,waspublishedin1886,andthefirstofseveralofhisvolumesofverse,DaysandNights,in1889.He
contrib

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utedcriticalarticlestotheAthenaeumandSaturdayReview,andbecameEditoroftheSavoyin1896.VisitstoFrancebroughthimintouchwithcontemporary
Europeancreativedevelopment,whichhepropoundedinTheSymbolistMovementinLiterature(1899).In1893hehadbecomeinvolvedwitha19yearoldballet
dancerknownasLydia.Theyhadapassionateaffair,whichwasbrieflyresumedafterhermarriagein1896.Symonswasstillwritingpoemstoherattheendofhis
life.HehimselfmarriedRhodaBowser(18741936),daughterofaNewcastleshippingmagnate,in1901.Overworkhadalreadycontributedtohisbeingina
disturbedstatewhentheyvisitedItalyin1908.TheyhadanargumentandshereturnedtoEngland.ShortlyafterwardshehadacompletebreakdowninFerraraand
waspickedupbythepoliceandputinjail,fromwhichhewasrescuedbytheBritishAmbassador.Heanalysedthatexperience,andthesubsequenttwoyearsof
incarcerationinasylumsinItalyandEngland,inConfessions:aStudyinPathology(1930).Whileherecapturedhisabilitytowork,hisacutecriticalsensetendedto
remaindirectedtowardswritersofthe1890sandimmediatelyafter.SeeKarlBeckson,ArthurSymons:aLife,1987.
Symons,Julian(191294)
Britishnovelistandcritic,wasborninLondon,theyoungerbrotherofA.J.A.Symons(190041),biographerofROLFEandbibliographer,whosebiographyhewrote
(1950).Thefamily'sfortunesfluctuated,andhewaseducatedatstateschools,afterwhichheworkedfrom1929to1941asashorthandtypistandsecretar),withan
engineeringfirm.DuringthistimehepublishedConfusionsaboutX(1939),thefirstofseveralbooksofverse.('Fromtheageof16Iregardedmyselfprimarilyasa
poet.Itwasonlylater,sometimeatthestartofthe1950s,thatIrealizedIwasn'tagoodone.')Healsofounded,andeditedfromJanuary1937untiltheoutbreakof
WorldWarII,themagazineTwentiethCenturyVerse,whichwasaplatformforyoungerEnglish,andAmerican,poets.Heservedinthe57thTankRegimentduring
thewar.Whileworkingafterwardsasanadvertisingcopywriter,he'dugoutofadustydraweranearcomicdetectivestory'.PublishedasTheImmaterialMurder
Case(1945),itwasthefirstofhismanycrimenovels,aformofexpressionwhichpaidthebillsandenabledhim'toshowtheviolencethatlivesbehindtheblandfaces
mostofuspresenttotheworld'PlayingHappyFamilies(1994)cameoutshortlybeforehisdeath.In1947hewasenabledtodevotehimselftowritingwhen
ORWELLpersuadedtheManchesterEveningNewstotakehimonashissuccessoronitsliterarypagesat10aweek.Hewasacofounderin1953oftheCrime
Writers'Association,andPresidentoftheDetectionClub197685.HiscriticalworksincludestudiesofDICKENS(1951),CARLYLE(1952),POE(1978),DOYLE(1979),
andHAMMETT(1985),andBloodyMurder:FromtheDetectiveStorytotheCrimeNovel(2ndrev.edn1992).
Synge,J(ohn)M(illington)(18711909)
Irishdramatistandpoet,wasborninNewtownLittle,Dublin,theyoungestoffivechildrenofabarristerwhodiedwhenSyngewasoneyearold.Hewaseducated
privatelyandatTrinityCollege,Dublin,wherehestudiedIrishandHebrew.Fromanearlyagehetookagreatinterestinnaturalhistory,anditwasreadingDARWINat
14whichledhimsoonafterwardstorenouncereligion.Hisfirstchoiceofcareerwastobeamusician,forwhichhestudiedinGermanyfortwoyears.In1895,
however,hedecidedtobecomeawriter,andforthenextsevenyearsspenteachwinterinParis.HerehemetYEATS,whointroducedhimtoMaudGonne'sYoung
IrelandSociety(fromwhichhesoonresignedonpoliticalgrounds),andwhosuggestedheshouldvisitthethenremoteAranisles(whereYeats'sgreatunclehadbeen
rector)tofurtherhisknowledgeofIrishtraditionallife.Hereturnedtheretimeandagain,recapturingitslandscapeandpeasantsocietyinhisproseaccount,TheAran
Islands(1907withhisownphotographs,1979).Hispersonalexperienceofaromanceblightedonreligiousgroundsinspiredhisfirst,rejected,play,'WhentheMoon
HasSet',andmuchofhisearlypoetry.ThereafterhisplaysareredolentoftheloreandcustomsofthecountrypeopleofAranorofWicklow,thelanguagereflecting
Gaelicsyntaxandincorporatinginanaturalwaywords,phrases,andspeechrhythmswhichhehadabsorbedonhistravels.TheShadowoftheGlen(performed
1903)andRiderstotheSea(1904)areoneacttragediesbasedonfolktales.Ataboutthesametimeashewaswritingthem,heembarkedonTheTinker's
Wedding,which(aftersixcompletedrafts)waspublishedin1907,butnotperformed.In1904hebecameacodirectorwithYeatsandGREGORYoftheAbbey
Theatre,whichstagedhisTheWellofSaints(1905),inwhichthefolklorehasasupernaturalelementandthesettinganequivalentremoteness.
ThePlayboyoftheWesternWorld(1907)openedtoanunpredicted,ifperhapspredictable,storm.Thefirstnightaudienceeruptedattheimageof'chosenfemales
standingintheirshifts',andonthesecondnightthepolicehadtobecalledintocalmrioterswhosawtheportrayalofthepeasantryasaninsuittoIrishnationalism.
Thissparklingplaygoesatagreatpace,movingeffortlesslybetweentragedy,comedy,andfarceto,attheend,pathos.Synge'srelationshipwiththe19yearold
Abbeyactress,MollyAllgood,isreflectedinsomeofthepoemshewroteatthistime,suchas'Isitamonth...'and'TheMeeting'soistheimminenceofdeath,for
he

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hadHodgkin'sdisease.WhenhediedhewasstillrevisingDeirdreoftheSorrows(1909),anenduringandintricateexcursionintoIrishmythology.Hewasa
meticulouscraftsman,whowasabletoexercisesimultaneouslyanunusuallyhighstandardofbothdramaticandpoeticexpression.SeeCollectedPlays,Poemsand
TheAranIslands,ed.AlisonSmith,1996ThePlayboyoftheWesternWorldandOtherPlays,ed.AnnSaddlemyer,newedn1995PoemsandTranslations,
newedn1972Autobiography,ed.AlanPrice,1965D.H.GreeneandE.M.Stephens,J.M.Synge18711909,1959(biography)DavidM.Kiely,J.M.Synge:
aBiography,1995RobinSkelton,TheWritingsofJ.M.Synge,1971.

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T
Tacitus,Cornelius(c.55c.117)
Romanhistorian,wasprobablyborninGaul,andstudiedlawinRome.Hewasanexcellentspeaker,andpublishedabookonthesubjectinhistwenties.Hebecame
asenator,andwasconsulin97,andgovernorofAsiain112.HemarriedthedaughterofthedistinguishedsoldierandgovernorofBritain,Agricola(3793),whomhe
believedhadbeenpoisonedontheordersoftheemperorDomitian,andofwhomhewroteanelegantandflatteringmemoir.Wehavejustafewbooksofhistwo
seriesofhistoriescoveringthereignofTiberiustothatofDomitian,whichareknownasthe'Histories'andthe'Annals'.Healsowroteagraphicreportonthelandand
peopleofGermany.Hewasaliterarystylistaswellasashrewdobserverandcommentator,andanupholderoftheancientvirtuesofhisnation.SeeTheAgricola
andTheGermania,tr.HaroldMattingley,rev.S.A.Handford,1970TheAnnalsofImperialRome,tr.MichaelGrant,rev.edn1971TheHistories,tr.Kenneth
Wellesley,rev.edn1975RonaldMellor,Tacitus,newedn1995(biographical/criticalstudy).
Tagore,Rabindranath(18611941)
Indianpoet,fictionwriter,dramatist,andphilosopher,wasborninthefamilymansionatJorasanko,Calcutta,theyoungestof14childrenofanenlightenedHindu
scholarwhorequiredhischildren,whentheyreadSHAKESPEARE'SMacbethathome,totranslateitintoBengaliverse.Hewaseducatedmainlyathomebytutors(school
irkedhim),andat16hadpublishedstories,essays,literarycriticism,anddramaticpieces,andregularlygavepublicrecitalsofhispoetry.In1880hegaveupstudying
lawatUniversityCollege,London,andreturnedhome.In1883hemarriedMrinaliniDevi(d.1902).In1890hisfatherdispatchedhimtolookafterthefamilyestates
inEastBengal,wherehecameintoclosecontactwiththe'littlepeople'whofeaturesostimulatinglyinhisstories.Havingdeterminedtoeducatehisfivechildren
himself,in1901heestablishedatSantiniketan,Bolpur,ariversidesitewhichhisfatherhadboughtasareligiousretreat,anopenplanschool,whichhekeptgoingby
sellinghiswife'sjewelleryandthecopyrightinhiscollectedworksuptothattime.(In1918herededicateditasVsivaBharatiUniversity,tobeaninternational
institutionoflearningandunderstanding.)In1912heaccompaniedhissontoLondon,partlytorecuperatefromanillness,duringwhichhehadtranslatedintofree
Englishverse(ashisfirstliteraryeffortsinEnglish)poemsfromhisBengaliGitanjali(1910).Withafewmorefromothervolumesofhislyrics,theyweretakenupby
theIndiaSocietyasitsannualpublicationfor1912.Andwitheditorialhelp(andanenthusiasticintroduction)byYEATS,thebookwaspublishedbyMacmillanin1913
asGitanjali(SongOfferings),forwhichTagorewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiterature.FurthervolumeswereTheGardener(1913),FruitGathering
(1916),andLover'sGiftandCrossing(1918).GlimpsesofBengal,sketchesoflifeextractedfromhislettersandtranslatedbyhisnephewSurendranathTagore,
appearedin1921.
DuringthelasttwentyyearsofhislifeTagoremadenineforeigntours,inspiteofillhealth,toNorthandSouthAmerica,Europe,Russia,China,andJapan,aswellas
threetripstoCeylon.In1930hetookuppaintingasahobby,andbecamesogoodatitthatexhibitionsweremountedinBerlin,Munich,Moscow,Paris,andNew
York.Hewasknightedin1915,butresignedfromtheOrderin1919inprotestattheBritishactioninAmritsarduringtheriotsinthePunjab.SeeSelectedShort
StoriesofRabindranathTagore,ed.AndrewRobinson,tr.KrishnaDuttaandMaryLago,introductionbyAnitaDesai,1991CollectedPoemsandPlays,1990
SelectedPoems,tr.WilliamRadice,newedn1990MyReminiscences,newedn(tr.AndrewRobinson)1991KrishnaDuttaandAndrewRobinson,Rabindranath
Tagore:theMyriadMindedMan,1995(biography)MaryM.Lago,RabindranathTagore,1976(criticalstudy).
TanizakiJun'ichiro(18861965)
Japanesenovelist,wasbornandbroughtupinTokyo,thegrandsonofaprinter/publisher,andwhileatprimaryschoolattendedparttimeprivateacademiestostudy
classicalChineseandEnglishsee[ChildhoodYears:aMemoir](serialized195556tr.PaulMcCarthy,1988),inwhicharethesourcesofemotionsand
sensationsthatrecurasthemesinhisfiction.Atmiddleschoolhewrotemostversatilelyfortheschoolmagazine.During

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histimeathighschoolhewasdismissedfromhispostoftutor/houseboy(toearnhiskeep)forhavinganaffairwithamaidofthehousehold.HewenttoTokyo
Universityin1908tostudyJapaneseliterature,onlytobeexpelledaftertwoyearsfornonpaymentoffees.By1911literarymagazineswereprintinghiswork,andhis
firstnovel,unconventionalinthemebutclassicalinstyle,hadappeared.HisfirstmajorworktobepublishedintheWestwas[TheMakiokaSisters](1948tr.
EdwardG.Seidensticker,1957),anupperclassfamilysagalookingbacktothepremilitarismoftheearly1930s,serializationofwhichhadbeenhaltedbythe
militaristicgovernmentduringWorldWarII.Writtenjustbeforeitwas[ACat,aMan,andTwoWomen](1937tr.McCarthy,1990),acomicvariationonthe
eternaltriangle.Theworksofhislaterperiod,suchas[TheKey](1956tr.HowardS.Hibbert,1960)and[DiaryofaMadOldMan](1962tr.Hibbert,1965),
reflectinthemetheageingoftheirauthorwhileconfirminghispenchantforwitanderoticism.[InPraiseofShadows](1933tr.ThomasJ.HarperandSeidensticker,
1991)isasequenceofmeditationsonthepassingoftheTokugawaperiod,whichendedin1868.
Tasma,pennameofJessieCouvreur(184897)
neHuybers,Australiannovelist,wasborninHighgate,London,thedaughterofaDutchmerchantwhoemigratedwithhisfamilytoHobartinabout1852.At18she
married25yearoldCharlesFraser,butsixyearslatertookoffwithhermotherandseveralbrothersandsistersonatwoyeartourofEurope.Onherreturnin1875,
relationsbetweenthemwerestrained.ShespentmostofthenextfewyearsinEnglandandontheContinent,supportingherselfbyjournalismandlecturingon
Australia.ShedivorcedFraserin1883,andin1885marriedAugusteCouvreur,amemberoftheBelgianparliamentandBrusselscorrespondentofTheTimes.The
Australasianprintedsomeofhershortstories,andbeganinJanuary1888theserializationofUnclePiperofPiper'sHill,whichonitspublicationinbookformin
1889theSpectatorcalled'onlythethirdworkoffictionpossessingremarkablemeritthathascometousfromtheAntipodes'(theothersbeingMARCUSCLARKE'SFor
theTermofHisNaturalLifeandBOLDREWOOD'SRobberyUnderArms).Itsucceedsespeciallyforitsportraitofurbansociety,itscharacterization,andthecontrast
betweenthesettledPipersandtheimmigrantCavendishes.Herfivefurthernovels,whilereflectingthetasteforthe'sexproblem'generatedbySCHREINER'STheStoryof
anAfricanFarm,arealsoreworkingsofherexperiencesasMrsFraser.Onherhusband'sdeathin1894,shetookonhisjobwithTheTimes.Shediedofheart
failureandwascrematedatherownwish,havingbeen,inanarticlein1878,oneofthefirstAustralianspubliclytoadvocatethepractice.SeePatriciaClarke,Tasma:
theLifeofJessieCouvreur,1994.
Tasso,Torquato(154495)
Italianpoet,wasborninSorrento,thethirdchildofBernardoTasso(14931569),poet,andPorziade'Rossi(d.1556).In1554,aftertwoyearsataJesuitschoolin
Naples,hejoinedhisfatherinexile,firstinRome,thenatthecourtofUrbino,andtheninVenice.HereadlawattheuniversitiesofPaduaandBologna,andthen,
havingalreadypublishedRinaldi(1562),alongromanceinverse,studiedpoetryandphilosophyforayearinPaduaattheAccademiadegliEterei.In1565he
entered,asARIOSTOhaddone,theserviceoftheEstefamily,initiallywithCardinalLuigid'Este.In1572hecamebacktoFerraraasresidentpoettotheCardinal's
brother,DukeAlfonsoII,forwhosecourthecomposedthepastoralplayAminta.Itwasperformedin1573,andpublishedin1581inapiratededition.Itwasinprint
inEnglandbefore1585inaLatinversion,whichwasthentranslatedintoEnglishin1587byAbrahamFraunce(fl.15871633),whoreviseditalongsidetheItalian
andreissueditasTheCountessofPembroke'sYvychurch(1591)SPENSERalludestoitandits'sweetPoetsverse'inTheFaerieQueen(III.vi,45).
Tassoalsoworkedonhisepicpoemoftributetohispatrons,GerusalemmeLiberata[JerusalemDelivered],whichhesetatthetimeoftheFirstCrusade,weaving
mythicalandromanticelementsintohisaccountofthereliefofJerusalembyGodfreyofBouillon(c.10601100).Regrettably,insteadofpublishingit,hesubmitteditin
manuscripttothescrutinyoffriendly,andunfriendly,critics,whosecontrary,andcontradictory,commentssoconfoundedhimthatwhilemakingrevisionshehada
nervousbreakdown,andsetoffdisguisedasapeasantforSorrento,wherehehadasister.HereturnedtoFerrarain1579,onlytobeputintothehospitalofSant'
Annaasinsane.Anincompletepiratededitionofhisepicwasprintedin1580asIlGoffredo,followedbyvariouseditionsundertheoriginaltitle.In1585hewas
releasedintothecustodyofPrinceVincenzoGonzaga,DukeofMantua,andwroteatragedyintheclassicalGreekmould,IlReTorrismondo[Torrismondothe
King](tr.MariaPastorePassaro,1996).Hethenembarkedonarestlesstouroftownsandfriends'establishments,inthecourseofwhichhepublishedahopelessly
botchedrevisionofhisepicasGerusalemmeConquistata(1593).InvitedtoRomein1594byPopeClementVIIItobecrownedlaureate,hewasregardedon
arrivalastooilltoreceivethehonourandwasadmittedtothemonasteryofSant'Onofrio,wherehedied.
Histotaloeuvrecomprisesnearlytwothousandlyricsandpoemsinotherforms,numerousletters,andabodyofprosedialoguesanddiscourses,includingseveralon

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poetryseeDiscoursesontheHeroicPoem,ed.andtr.MariellaCalvachiniandIreneSamuel(1973).AnEnglishtranslationbyRichardCarew(15551620)ofthe
firstfivecantosofGerusalemmeLiberataappearedin1594.Thecompletework,done,liketheoriginal,intoottavarimabyEdwardFairfax(15681635),
illegitimatesonofSirThomasFairfaxofDenton(d.1600),waspublishedasGodfreyofBulloigne:or,TheRecoverieofJerusalem(1600),inwhichformithas
longhelditsownasatranslation.Tasso'slifestoryisthesubjectofalostplaywhichDEKKERwaspaidforemendingin1604.SHELLEYintendedtowriteatragedyabout
himBYRON,in'TheLamentofTasso',referstohishypotheticalromancewithPrincessLeonora,whichGOETHEimmortalizedinhisplay,TorquatoTasso(1790).
Tate,(JohnOrley)Allen(18991979)
Americanpoet,biographer,andcritic,wasborninClarkeCounty,Kentucky,andhadadisruptedchildhoodandearlyeducationafterthefamilybusinessinterests
werelostin1907.In1918heenteredVanderbiltUniversitywhere,withhisteacher,RANSOM,andhisroommate,WARREN,heactivelyparticipatedinthefoundingofThe
Fugitive,towhosefirstissuein1922hecontributedtwopoemsasHenryFeathertop.In1924hemarriedCarolineGordon(18951981),novelistandshortstory
writer:theyweredivorcedin1959.ThearrangementofMrPopeandOtherPoems(1928),underthecategoriesof'Space','Time',and'History',reflectedearlyon
hispreoccupationwiththestableorderofthingsthepoems'TotheLacedemonians'and'OdetotheConfederateDead'illustratehisviewofthepresentintermsof
thepast.HisreadingofT.S.ELIOT,whomhemetinLondonin1928,addedareligiousintensitytohispoetryhebecameaRomanCatholicin1950.CollectedPoems
19191976waspublishedin1977.HetaughtEnglishattheUniversityofMinnesotafrom1951untilhisretirementin1968.Asacritic,hewasaproponentofthe
NewCriticismseeCollectedEssays(1959)andEssaysofFourDecades(1968).Hewrotetwobiographies,StonewallJackson:theGoodSoldier(1928),and
JeffersonDavis:HisRiseandFall(1929),andaCivilWarnovel,TheFathers(1938).
Tate,Nahum(16521715)
Irishpoetanddramatist,wasborninDublin,thesecondsonofaPuritanclergymancalledFaithfulTeate,andwaseducatedatTrinityCollege,Dublin.HisPoemswas
publishedinLondonin1677(enlargededn1684),andhisfirsttragedy,BrutusofAlba:or,TheEnchantedLovers,basedonthestoryofDidoandAeneas,was
performedin1678.Inallhewrotesomenineplays,includinganadaptationofSHAKESPEARE'SKingLear(1681),inwhichtheFoolmakesnoappearanceandCordelia
lives,andmarriesEdgaritwasthestandardtheatreversionforalmosttwohundredyears.Itiscustomarytodecryhiswork,butAllardyceNicollinBritishDrama
(4thedn1947)citesADukeandNoDuke(1684)andCuckoldsHaven:or,AnAldermanNoConjurer(1685)innominatingTateandEdwardRavenscroft
(16441704)asdramatiststowhom'morethananyothersweowethedevelopmentandestablishmentofEnglishfarce'.Tatewrote,withDRYDEN,thesecondpartof
AbsalomandAchitophel(1682),andin1692succeededSHADWELLasPoetLaureate.HewasreappointedontheaccessionofQueenAnnein1702,whenhewas
alsomadeHistoriographerRoyal.HisonlyoriginalpoemofanynoteisPanacea:aPoemuponTea(1700).HecollaboratedwithNicholasBrady(16591726)in
producingANewVersionofthePsalms(1696),andwrotethelibrettoforDidoandAeneas,theonlytrueoperabyHenryPurcell(165995),firstperformedata
girls'schoolinChelseain1689.Itappearsthathediedwhilehidingfromhiscreditors.SeeChristopherSpencer,NahumTate,1972(criticalstudy).
Taylor,Jeremy(161367)
Englishprosewriterandcleric,wasborninCambridge,thesonofabarber,andwaseducatedatthePerseSchoolandGonvilleandCaiusCollege,Cambridge,
becomingaFellowandtakingholyordersbeforehewas21.ArchbishopLaud(15731645)hadhimtransferredtoOxford,wherehebecameaFellowofAllSouls
andin1642wasmadeDDbyroyalmandatehewasachaplaintoCharlesI.In1645hewascapturedandimprisonedbytheParliamentaryarmy.Onhisreleasehe
wasgivenprotectionbythe2ndEarlofCarbery(c.160086),theroyalistpeer,atwhoseseat,GoldenGroveinCarmarthenshire,hespentmuchofthenexttenyears.
AftertheRestorationoftheMonarchyin1660hewasappointedBishopofDownandConnor,andViceChancellorofDublinUniversity.Aliberalchurchman,itis
forthebaroquesplendourofhisexpositionthatheisremembered,andespeciallyforhisextendedsimiles,oftenprefacedwith,'SoIhaveseen...'.Hisstylecanbe
readilyappreciatedinTheRuleandExercisesofHolyLiving(1650)andTheRuleandExercisesofHolyDying(1651),whilehisreligiousstanceisbestillustrated
byTheLibertyofProphesying(1647).MoreunusualisADiscourseoftheNature,OfficesandMeasuresofFriendship,withRulesofConductingIt(1657),
addressedtoKATHERINEPHILIPS,amongwhosecirclehewasknownasPalaemon.Taylorwastwicemarried.HediedinLisburnofafevercaughtfromapatientto
whomhewasministering.SeeC.J.Stranks,TheLifeandWritingsofJeremyTaylor,newedn1978.
Taylor,Peter(Hillsman)(191794)
Americanshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasborninTrenton,Tennessee.In192632thefamilylivedinStLouis,where

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hisfather,whohadservedasacircuitattorneygeneral,wasPresidentoftheMissouriStateLifeInsuranceCo.HewaseducatedatMemphisCentralHighSchool,
Tennessee,butafterafamilyrowwalkedoutonascholarshiptoColumbiaUniversityandworkedhispassageonaNewOrleanstransatlanticfreighter.Afterone
semesteratSouthwesternCollege,heenrolledatVanderbiltUniversity,fromwhichhedroppedoutandsoldrealestateafterRANSOMmovedtoKenyonCollege,
whereTaylorfinallysettledin1938,becominganenthusiasticmemberoftheliteraryelitethefirstpersonnarrativeof'1939'(1955)containscloseautobiographical
parallels.HehadtwostoriespublishedinRiverin1937,andin1940,theyearhegraduated,WARRENacceptedthreemoreforSouthernReview.DuringWorldWar
IIhewasatFortOglethorpe,Georgia,andTidworthCamp,Wiltshire,UK,asasergeantintheRailTransportationCorps.In1943hemarried,inTennessee,Eleanor
Ross(b.1920),whoseversecollectionWildernessofLadies(1960),hadanintroductionbytheirfriendJARRELL.
In1946hebeganhisteachingcareerattheWoman'sCollegeoftheUniversityofNorthCarolinaitfinishedwhenheretiredfromtheUniversityofVirginia,
Charlottesville,wherehebecameamemberoftheEnglishfacultyin1967.ALongFourthandOtherStories(1948),TheWidowsofThornton(1954),andHappy
FamiliesAreAllAlike:aCollectionofStories(1959),containedinall26stories.MissLeonoraWhenLastSeenandFifteenOtherStories(1963)andThe
CollectedStoriesofPeterTaylor(1969),whichhavetenstoriesincommon,arecompilationsfromtheearlierbookswithsomenewpieces.Subsequentcollections
areIntheMiroDistrictandOtherStories(1977),TheOldForestandOtherStories(1985),andTheOracleatStoneleighCourt(1993).AWomanofMeans
(1950)isanovella.HisnovelASummonstoMemphis(1986)wonthePulitzerPrize.InhisintroductiontoALongFourthandOtherStoriesWarrensuggested
thatTaylor'sbasicthemeswere'thedisintegrationoffamilies...theattritionofloyalties,thebreakdownofoldpatterns,andthecollapseofoldvalues'.Awriter
particularlyconcernedwithform,TaylorcontinuedtoexplorethesethemeswhilealsoillustratingnewaspectsofSoutherncultureintheurbancentresandamongthe
expatriatecommunitiesinthecitiesoftheMidwest.SeeJamesCurryRobison,TheShortStoriesofPeterTaylor,1988(criticalstudy).
Temple,(Sir)William(162899)
Englishessayistandstatesman,wasborninLondon,theeldestsonofSirJohnTemple(160077),MasteroftheRollsinIreland.HewaseducatedatBishop
StortfordSchoolandEmmanuelCollege,Cambridge,whichheleftin1648,withouttakingadegree,tofinishhiseducationontheContinent.Onthewaythere,hemet
DOROTHYOSBORNE,withwhomhecorrespondeduntiltheirmarriagein1655.AfterseveralyearsinIreland,duringwhichhesatintheIrishParliament,heembarkedona
careerindiplomacy,inthecourseofwhichhenegotiatedtheTripleAllianceofEngland,Holland,andSweden(1668),wastwiceAmbassadortoTheHague,and
contrivedthemarriagebetweenWilliamofOrangeandthePrincessMary.Hewasmadeabaronetin1666.HerefusedasecretaryshipofstatefromCharlesIIin
1679,andagainfrom(thenow)KingWilliamin1689,when,disillusionedby'theuncertaintyofprinces,thecapricesoffortune,thecorruptionofministers,the
violenceoffactions,theunsteadinessofcounsels,andtheinfidelityoffriends',hewentintoretirement.HemovedfromSheentothegreaterseclusionofMoorPark,
Farnham,engagedSWIFTassecretary,andappliedhimselftoliteratureandtohisgarden.HepublishedObservationsupontheUnitedProvincesofthe
Netherlands(1673)andMiscellanea(1680),whichincluded'UpontheOriginalandNatureofGovernment'andotherpoliticalandpersonalessays.Asecondpart
ofMiscellaneaappearedin1690,andathird(editedbySwift)in1701.Hisessaysaredistinctive,fortheirtime,fortheirunadorned,rhythmicalstyle,andforthe
confidencewithwhichhepursuedanytopicorlineofargumentwhichtookhisfancy,evenifthispolicyoccasionallyledhimintotroublewithacademics.
Tennant,Emma(b.1937)
Britishnovelist,wasborninLondon,theeldestchildbyhissecondmarriageofthe2ndBaronGlenconner(18991983),andgrewupinScotland.Shewaseducated
atStPaul'sGirls'SchoolandatafinishingschoolinOxford,cameoutasadebutante,andstudiedarthistoryinParis.Shepublishedherfirstnovel,TheColourof
Rain(1964),as'CatherineAydy',anamesheclaimstohavegotfromaOuijaboard.InTheTimeofCrack(1973),ageologicaldisasteristheinspirationforblack
comedyandthereversalofthegenderroles,atopictowhichshefrequentlyreturnsandwhichdominatesherwork.TheBadSister(1978)isanimaginativefeminist
reworkingofHOGC'STheConfessionsofaJustifiedSinner.InQueenofStones(1982),schoolgirlscomprisethegroupwhichis,asinBALLANTYNEandCOLDING,
isolatedfromtheadultworld.HermessageisatitsmostexplicitinSistersandStrangers:aMoralTale(1990),inwhichthefateofamodernEveisheldupasa
warningitisatitsmostextremeintheTVscreenplay,Frankenstein'sBaby(1990),inwhichamalepregnancyisengineered.PoliticalsatiremotivatesTheLastof
theCountryHouseMurders(1974)andBlackMarina(1985).Faustine(1992)isamodernfeministversionoftheFaustlegendofMARLOWEinaGothicsetting,in
whichtheconsumersocietyisremorselesslyana

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lysed.InTess(1993)sheuncoverssomeofthesidelightsonHARDY'SrelationswithandattitudestowomenwithinastructurederivedfromTessofthed'Urbervilles.
Pemberley(1993)andAnUnequalMarriage(1994)aresequelstoAUSTEN'SPrideandPrejudice,andEmmainLove(1996)tothatauthor'sEmma.Tennantwas
founderEditoroftheliterarymagazineBananas197578,andisEditoroftheViking/Penguinseries,'LivesofModernWomen'.
Tennant,Kylie(191288)
Australiannovelist,wasborninManly,NewSouthWales,andwaseducatedthereatBrightonCollege.In1932shemarriedthesocialhistorianLewisRudd(d.
1979).Herfirstnovel,Tiburon(1935),astudyofruralpovertyinNewSouthWalesduringtheDepression,waspraisedassocialrealism,ajudgmentwhichdidnot
fullytakeintoaccountthesatireandsheercomedywithwhichshecontinuedtoinvestthecircumstancesandactivitiesofthegroupsofsocietythatpeoplehernovels,
inwhichthecityoftensymbolizesdespair.Notthattheexperiencesshedescribesareundocumented:shelivedinaSydneyslumforFoveaux(1939)journeyedon
theroadandworkedwithtravellersforTheBattlers(1941),andwithitinerantbeekeepersforTheHoneyFlow(1956)builtboatsforLostHaven(1946)and
contrivedtospendaweekinjailbeforewritingTheJoyfulCondemned(1953completeversionasTellMorningThis,1968).Herplay,TetheraDragon(1952),
whichhighlightsaspectsofthelifeandcareerofthefederalPrimeMinister,AlfredDeakin(18561919),wontheCommonwealthJubileecompetition,thoughbetter
dramaticworkisinheroneactplaysforyoungpeople.Shealsowrotebiographicalandpopularhistoricalworks.ShewasmadeAOin1980.SeeTheMissingHeir,
1986(autobiography).
Tennyson,Alfred(1stBaronTennyson)(180992)
Britishpoetanddramatist,wasborninSomersby,Lincolnshire,thesixthof12childrenofaneldersonwhohadbeenpassedoverinhiswealthyfather'swillandhad
reluctantlyenteredtheChurch.TheboywaseducatedatLouthGrammarSchoolandbyhisfather,andwenttoTrinityCollege,Cambridge,in1827,aboutfiftyofhis
poemshavingalreadybeenpublishedintheanonymouscompilation,PoemsbyTwoBrothersactuallybythree,theothersbeingFrederick(180798)andCharles
(180879).Ofthebrilliantyoungmenhenowmet,hebecameespeciallyclosetoArthurHallam(181133),withwhomhespenttwoidyllicholidaysontheContinent,
andwhobecameengagedtoTennyson'ssister,Emily(181189).In1829hewontheChancellor'sGoldMedalforpoetrywithapieceonthesetsubjectof
'Timbuctoo',whichencouragedhimtopublishPoems,ChieflyLyrical(1830),whosemaininterestliesintherhythmicalanddisturbing'Mariana'andtheimpassioned
'TheBalladofOriana'.In1831MrTennysondied,andthepoetabandonedCambridgetohelplookafterthefamily.ThoughonthewholePoems,dated1833but
publishedinDecember1832,showedmorepromisethantheearliervolume,itwascoollyreceived,whichisunderstandableinthatmemorablepoemssuchas'The
LadyofShalott','TheLotusEaters',and'Oenone'werenotyetintheirdefinitiveversions.InSeptember1833HallamdiedsuddenlyinViennaofarupturedblood
vessel.TheshocktoEmilywascatastrophic:theeffectonTennysonwasprofound.Ontopoffamilyandfinancialproblems,hehadlostnotonlysomeonecloserthan
brotherormerefriend,butthepropwhoserecognitionofhisartisticgeniuswasessentialatatimewhenhisprofessionalconfidencewaswaning(as'TheTwoVoices',
writtenlargelybeforethetragedy,demonstrates).
Fortwoyearshewrotelittle,anditwasanothersevenbeforehepublishedagain,butinthemeantimehehadfoundhisownvoice.Poems(2vols1842)contained
rewrittenversionsof16earlierpoemsthememorableblankversedramaticmonologue,'Ulysses''Morted'Arthur'and'SirGalahad',hisfirstexcursionsinto
Arthurianlegend'LocksleyHall',anattemptatsocialprotestandtheclassiclament,'Break,Break,Break'.In1845hewasgrantedaCivilListpensionof200a
yearforlife,whichrelievedhisimmediatefinancialworriesandenabledhimtotravel.In1847hepublishedThePrincess:aMedley,anoveridyllicnovellainverse
supportingwomen'srights,punctuated(inthethirdeditionin1850)withsomeofhisfinestlyrics,including'Nowsleepsthecrimsonpetal...'.On1June1850In
MemoriamA.H.H.appeared.TherehadbeenatrialrunprintedforhisfriendsinMarch,andnowitwaspublishedanonymously,buttherewasnodoubtinthe
mindsofthepublicastotheauthor'sidentity.ThistributetoHallamintheformofasequenceof131poeticreminiscences,elegies,andreflections,pronounced
Tennysonnotjusttheforemostpoetofhisage,butalsoascientistandphilosopher.On13JunehemarriedEmilySellwood(181396),whomhehadknownfor
twentyyearsseeAnnThwaite,EmilyTennsyon:thePoet'sWife(1996).Theyhadbeenengagedoncebefore,butthematchhadbeenbrokenoffbecauseofhis
poorhealthandlimitedprospects.AndinNovemberhewasappointedPoetLaureateinsuccessiontoWORDSWORTH,apostheassumedwithcharacteristic
thoroughness,dignity,and(occasionally)immortality,aswithOdeontheDeathoftheDukeofWellington(1852)and'TheChargeoftheLightBrigade'(1854),
whichwas,accordingtohim,written'inafewminutes'.ThissecondperiodofpoeticoutputclosedwithMaud(1855),aseriesofdramaticmonologues(latercalleda
'mo

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nodrama')whoseviolentstoryincorporatessomeoutspokensocialcriticism.
TheIdyllsoftheKing(1859),aseriesofArthuriannarratives,wastheculminationofyearsofstudy,meditation,andpractice.Expandedversionsoftheoriginalfour
appearedatintervalsfurtherepisodeswerepublishedinTheHolyGrail,andOtherPoems(1870),andasGarethandLynette,with'TheLast
Tournament'(1872).Thefinalorderisthatofthe1889edition.Thedescriptivewritingisfineandthepoetryripplesalong,butthecharactersareunconvincingonboth
anallegoricalandarealisticplane.Thelackofadrivingdramaticsenseisevident,too,intheverseplaysthathewrotebetween1875and1892.Therewasno
slackeninginhisoutputofoccasional,lyrical,narrative,andmeditativeverse,anditistohislateryearsthat'TheRevenge','Rizpah','TheVoyage',and'Crossingthe
Bar'belong.Hewascreatedabaronin1884,becomingAlfred,LordTennyson.TheTennysonshadtwosons.Theyounger,Lionel(185486),whowantedtobean
actor,diedofmalariashortlyafterarrivinginIndia,wherehehadgoneinsteadathismother'sbehesttojointhestaffoftheViceroy.Theelder,Hallam(18521928),
2ndBaronTennyson,wroteasanitizedbiography,AlfredLordTennyson:aMemoir(2vols1897),onthecompletionofwhichheandhismotherdestroyedall
letters,journals(includingherown),andotherpaperswhichmightsuggestthatthepoetwasotherthanaChristiangentleman.SeeThePoemsofTennyson,ed.
ChristopherRicks,3vols,2ndrev.edn1987SelectedPoems,ed.ChristopherRicksandAidenDay,1991TheLettersofAlfredLordTennyson,ed.CecilY.
LangandEdgarEShannonJr,3vols198190RobertB.Martin,Tennyson:theUnquietHeart,newedn1983(biography)ChristopherRicks,Tennyson,2nd
edn1989(criticalbiography)RogerEbbatson,Tennyson,1988(introduction).
Terence(PubliusTerentiusAfer)(185159BC)
Romandramatist,wasbroughttoRomeasaslave,probablyfromAfrica,andwaseducatedbyhisowner,TerentiusLucanus,whogavehimhisfreedomandfrom
whomTerencetookhisname.Itissaidthathesubmittedhisfirstcomedy,Andria,tothecuruleaediles(intheircapacityasmunicipalentertainments'officers),who
referredhimtothedramatist,Caecilius(c.219c.166).Caecilius,whowasatdinner,wassoimpressedthatheinvitedTerencetoeatandtosharehiscouchofhonour.
Theplaywasperformedin166,andTerencewrotefivemorebeforehediedinashipwreck,orofdisease,onatriptoGreecetolookforplots.Hewasonly26,but
hisplaysarebetterconstructedthanthoseofPLAUTUSandtheoriginalsheadapted.CONGREVE,inaprefacetoTheWayoftheWorld,extols'thePurityofhisStile,the
DelicacyofhisTurns,andtheJustnessofhisCharacters'.DIDEROTsuggestedthatofallcomicdramatistsonlyTerenceandMOLIREhadthegiftofindividualizingtheir
charactersinatimelessway.SeeTheComedies,tr.BettyRadice,1976TheComedies,tr.PalmerBovie,ConstanceCarrier,andDouglassParker,1995.
Teresa(OfAvila),St(151582)
Spanishreligiousreformerandprosewriter,wasbornTeresaSanchezdeCepedayAhumada,ofmixedJewishandChristiandescent,nearAvila.Afterhermother's
deathwhenshewas11,sheconsorted,byherownaccount,withafrivolouscousin,andwasfinallysenttoboardatalocalAugustinianconvent.Shebecamea
Carmelitenunwhenshewasabouttwenty,butitwasnotuntil1555,aftermanyyearsofillness,thatherreadingofAUGUSTINE'SConfessionsencouragedherto
examineherownexperiencesand,helpedbyherintellectualandmysticalvisions,tobeginthereformoftheOrder.ThefirstconventoftheDiscalced('Barefooted'or
Reformed)CarmeliteswasthatofSanJoseinAvila,theprocessofitsfoundationin1562beingfullydescribedinVida,herautobiography,whichshehadbegunto
writeinthe1550sandwhichshecompletedin1565attherequestofherconfessors.LibrodelasFundaciones[TheFoundations]describeshersubsequent
journeysandtheestablishmentof16furtherreligioushouses.ElCastilloInterior[TheInteriorCastle],alsocalledLasMoradas[TheMansions],isananalysisofher
spirituality,writtenin1577afteramysticalvisionintheconventinToledoinwhichshehadbeenconfinedbyorthodoxCarmeliteswhowereatthetimetryingtoget
herdeportedtoSouthAmerica.From1567shehadthepracticalsupportofherprotg,JOHNOFTHECROSS.Shewascanonizedin1622,andwasin1814,atatimeof
nationalcrisis,proclaimedthepatronsaintofSpain.SeeTheLifeofSaintTeresa,tr.J.M.Cohen,newedn1987.
Tey,Josephine
seeMACKINTOSH.
Thackeray,WilliamMakepeace(181163)
Britishnovelistandjournalist,wasborninCalcutta,theonlychildoftheCollectorofAlipore,andwassentbacktoEnglandafterhisfather'sdeathin1816.Hewas
educatedatCharterhouseandTrinityCollege,Cambridge,fromwhichheremovedhimselfbecausehefelthisstudieswouldbeofnopracticaluse.Intheexpectation
ofaconsiderablelegacyunderhisfather'swill,hetravelledontheContinentandthenstudiedlaw.Whenhisinheritancedidnotmaterializeowingtothecollapseofthe
IndianBank,hebecameajournalist.In1836hemarriedIsabellaShawe(181694)inParis,wherehewascorrespondenttotheConstitutional.

Page541

Thepaperfailedsixmonthslater,andthecouplereturnedtoEngland,wherehecontributedregularlytoFraser'sMagazine,aswellastootherperiodicals.A
daughter,thenovelistAnneThackerayRitchie(18371919),wasbornthefollowingyear,butafterthebirthin1840oftheirthirdchild('Minny',firstwifeofLeslie
Stephen,thefatherofVIRGINIAWOOLF),Isabellahadamentalbreakdownfromwhichsheneverrecovered.Inavarietyofformsandunderseveralpseudonyms(of
whichFitzboodleandTitmarshwerethemostfamous),Thackeraynowworkedtowardsthenovelofrealismtoldwithironythatbecamehishallmark,ofwhichthe
firstwasTheLuckofBarryLyndon,serializedin1844.HealsowroteTheSnobsofEngland(184647)andacollectionofparodies,Punch'sPrizeNovelists
(1847).VanityFair:aNovelwithoutaHero(184748)waspublishedinPunchin20monthlypartsunderhisownnameandwithhisownillustrations.Thislong
novelofsocietylove,life,anddeathduringtheNapoleonicwarsisespeciallynotableforitstimenotonlyforitsbroadscope,butalsoforthedepthandconsistencyof
thecharacterization,qualitieswhichhaveenabledittoendureasmuchasanynovelbyhisfriendDICKENS,whosesuccesshewassoanxioustoemulate.TheHistoryof
Pendennis(184950)concentratesonasinglecharacterfromfecklessyouthtomaturity.
In1850ThackerayreceivedagenerousofferfromCHARLOTTEBRONT'Spublisherforhisnextnovel.TheHistoryofHenryEsmond(1852)isadramatichistorical
studyofayoungmanwhosemelancholyandmisfortunewerereflectedinanunhappyincidentintheauthor'sownlife,whenhewaswarnedoffthetalentedJane
Brookfield(d.1896)byherhusband,theclericandinspectorofschools,WilliamBrookfield(180974),withwhomThackerayhadbeenatCambridge.TheEnglish
HumouristsoftheEighteenthCentury(1853)andTheFourGeorges(1860)werebasedonlectureshegaveintheUSAin185253and185556.Betweenvisits
hewroteTheNewcomes(serialized185355),afamilysaga.Hislastmajornovel,TheVirginians(185759),issetinEnglandandAmerica.In1860hebecamethe
firstEditorofCornhillMagazine,inwhichappearedhistwofurthernovelsandafragmentofDenisDuval,leftunfinishedonhissuddendeathfromaspasm.He
imbuedtheEnglishnovelwithawidervisionthanithadhadbefore,piecingtogethertheactionfromthepointsofviewofseveralcharacters.SeeSelectedLettersof
WilliamMakepeaceThackeray,ed.EdgarEHarden,1996GordonN.Ray,Thackeray:theUsesofAdversity18111846,1955,andThackeray:theAgeof
Wisdom:18471863,1958(biography)AnnMonserrat,Thackeray:anUneasyVictorian,1980(biography)JohnCarey,Thackeray:ProdigalGenius,newedn
1980(criticalbiography).
Theobald,Lewis
seePOPE.
Theocritus(c.310c.250BC)
Hellenisticpastoralpoet,wasborninSyracuse,andprobablyspentseveralyearsstudyingintheislandofCosunderthepoetandcritic,Philetas.In274heappealed
toHiero,theSyracusangeneral,forpatronage(seeIdyllXVI).Unsuccessful,hewenttoAlexandria,whereforseveralyearshefoundfavouratthecourtofPtolemy
Philadelphus.PastoralpoetrybeginswithTheocritus,inthepoemsinwhichhisrusticsmeet,oftenexchangerudejokes,andviewitheachotherinthecompositionof
songs.Andthelamentfortheshepherdpoet'Daphnis',whichissungbyThyrsisinIdyllI,istheprototypeofthepastoralelegy.Theformrecursinthe1stcenturyBC
inBion'smovinglamentfor'Adonis',andMoschus'sfor'Bion',andisveryeffectivelyemployedlaterinMILTON'S'Lycidas',SHELLEY'SAdonais(forKEATS),andARNOLD'S
'Thyrsis'(forCLOUGH).
Theroux,Paul(b.1941)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,andtravelwriter,wasborninMedford,Massachusetts,theyoungerbrotherofnovelistAlexanderTheroux(b.1939)andoneof
sixotherchildrenofaFrenchCanadianleathersalesmanandanItalianbornteacher.HewaseducatedatMedfordHighSchoolandtheUniversityofMassachusetts,
afterwhichhetrainedforthePeaceCorpsatSyracuseUniversity.PostedtoNyasalandin1963,hetaughtatSocheHillCollege,wroteanodynearticlesforthe
ChristianScienceMonitor,andmorepoliticallyorientedpiecesforAtlanticMonthlyandotherjournals.Afterthecountrybecameindependentin1964asMalawi,
hewasdeportedforsubversiveactivityandexpelledfromthePeaceCorps.HereturnedtoAfricatoteachatMakerereUniversity,Uganda,wherehecameacrossV.
S.NAIPAUL,'thefirstgoodwriterIhadevermet',ofwhomhewroteacriticalstudy(1972).Waldo,anovelofadolescentrebelliousness,waspublishedin1967,when
hemarriedayoungEnglishwomaninKampala.
ENRIGHTinitiatedhisappointmentin1968toteachJacobeandramaatSingaporeUniversity,wherehewroteaboutAfricaJungleLovers(1971)reflectedpolitical
horrors,aftertheprivatenightmaresinGirlsatPlay(1969).HesettledinEnglandasafulltimewriterin1971.DoubleimagesareafeatureofPicturePlace(1978),
anddoublelivesofDoctorSlaughter(1984)andChicagoLoop(1990).Hebringsthescenebuildinganddialoguewritingtechniquesofanovelisttohistravel
books,whichhaveoftenbeenaboutjourneysbytrain('IsoughttrainsIfoundpassen

Page542

gers'),asinTheGreatRailwayBazaar:ByTrainthroughAsia(1975)andTheOldPatagonian.Express:ByTrainthroughtheAmericas(1979).TheHappy
IslesofOceania:PaddlingthePacific(1992)recordsanuncomfortableodysseyundertakenastherapy,afterwhich,havingseparatedfromhiswife,hesettledin
Hawaii.MillroytheMagician(1993),whichhecalleda'companionpiece'toTheMosquitoCoast(1982),wasfollowedbyafurthertravelbook,ThePillarsof
Hercules:aGrandTouroftheMediterranean(1995).MyOtherLife:aNovel(1996),inwhichthenarratoriscalledPaulTheroux,isintendedasariposteto
thosewhosaidofMySecretHistory(1989),'That'snotreallyanovelthat'syourautobiography.'TheCollectedStories(1997)containsHalfMoonStreet:Two
ShortNovels(1984),aselectionfromSinningwithAnnie(1972)andWorld'sEnd(1980),andfouruncollectedtales.
Thibaudeau,Colleen
seeREANEY.
Thirkell,Angela
seeMACINNES.
Thomas(OfBritain)
seeGOTTFRIED.
ThomasKempis(13801471)
Germanprosewriter,wasbornThomasHaemarkenofhumbleparentageinKempen,nearDusseldorf.Hewaseducatedatthelocalgrammarschooluntilhewas13,
whenhejoinedhiselderbrotherattheCongregationoftheCommonLife,abrotherhoodfoundedatDeventerin1376byGerhardGroote(134084).In1399he
enteredthemonasteryofMountS.Agnes,Zwolle,ofwhichhisbrotherwasnowPrior,andwhereheremainedfortherestofhislife.HewaselectedSubPriorin
1425,wasMasteroftheNovices,andkeptthemonastery'schronicle.InadditiontocopyingtheScripturesandotherholybooks,hehimselfwroteinLatinseveral
biographies,includingoneofGroote,andnumerousdevotionalworks,ofwhichDeImitationeChristi(tr.LeoSherleyPriceasTheImitationofChrist,1952),in
fourbooks,isofuniversalappealforitsliteraryqualityandthedirectnessofitsteachingaboutthephilosophiesembodiedintheLightofTruthandtheLifeofGrace.
ThefirstcompletetranslationintoEnglishwasin1556byRichardWhytford(c.1475c.1557),acanonofSyonHouse,London.
ThomasofErceldoune(orThomastheRhymer)(d.c.1297)
Scottishpoetandseer,wasbornandlivedinErceldoune(Earlston)inBerwickshire.HissecondsightisreferredtobyBARBOUR,writingshortlyafterhisdeath.Among
thenumerouspropheciesattributedtohimarethedeathofAlexanderIII,theScottishdefeatsatthebattlesofFloddenandPinkie,theaccessionandlineageofJAMES
VI,andthebridgingoftheRiverTweed.Thesourceofhisremarkableinspirationisexplainedintheballad'ThomastheRhymer'('TrueThomaslayonHuntliebank..
.'),towhichWALTERSCOTT,inMinstrelsyoftheScottishBorder,addedasecondpart'fromtheprintedpropheciesvulgarly[commonly]ascribedtotheRhymer',and
athirdpartofhisowncomposition.Scottalsoedited(1804)ametricalromance,SirTristrem,whichheclaimedistheonewhichThomas'scontemporaries
accreditedtohim.
ThomastheRhymer
seeTHOMASOFERCELDOUNE.
Thomas,Audrey(b.1935)
neCallahan,Canadiannovelist,wasbornintheUSAinBinghamton,NewYork,andhasrecordedthechargedatmosphereofherupbringinginSongsMyMother
TaughtMe,herfirstnovel(notpublisheduntil1973).ShewaseducatedataNewHampshireboardingschool,attheMaryBurnhamSchool,andatSmithCollege,
Northampton,withayearintheUKatStAndrewsUniversity.In1958shemarriedIanThomas,withwhomsheemigratedtoCanada,whereshebeganafamilyof
threedaughterswhilestudyingforafurtherdegreeinEnglishattheUniversityofBritishColumbia,Vancouver.Theyspenttheyears196466inGhana,wherehewas
teachingattheUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Kumasi.TheopeningstoryinTenGreenBottles(1967)reworksherownexperiencesinaGhanaianhospital
duringwhichshehadamiscarriage,reflectedalsointhetraumasoftheprotagonistofherfirstpublishednovel,MrsBlood(1967).Thenovellas,Munchmeyer,and
ProsperoontheIsland(1972),andtheepistolaryLatakia(1979)capturethefeelingoftheislandhomeshemadeafterseparatingfromherhusband(theywere
divorcedin1979)andofasubsequentsojourninCrete.Hernovels,inwhichthechiefcharactersareinasensereflectionsofasinglepersona,andmanyofhershort
storiesexpresswomen'sambivalencetowardsindependenceandthewishforattachment.ThecollectionTheWildBlueYonder(1990)hasanaccessibilityand
attentiontodescriptivedetailwhicharenotfeaturesofherearlier,moreexperimental,fiction.SeeBarbaraGodard,AudreyThomasandHerWorks,1994.
Thomas,D(onald)M(ichael)(b.1935)
Britishnovelist,poet,andtranslator,wasborninRedruth,Cornwall,andwaseducatedatRedruthHighSchool,UniversityHighSchool,Melbourne,andNew
College,Oxford.HetaughtatTeignmouthGrammarSchoolfrom1959to1963,andwasSeniorLecturerinEnglish,HerefordCollegeofEducation196478.His
verse,firstpublishedinvolumeforminPersonalandPossessive(1964),beganwiththeerotic,vergedintosciencefiction,anddevelopedandbroadenedinto

Page543

themesreflectingfamilyrelationships,origins,andemotionsseeThePubertyTree:NewandSelectedPoems(1992).Someofthesamepreoccupationsinformhis
novels,ofwhichthefirst,TheFlutePlayer(1979),issetinanundefinedcitywhichhasdegeneratedintototalitarianinducedchaos.TheWhiteHotel(1981)draws
foritsstartlingeffectonthesexualhysteriaofanimaginarypatientofFREUDandtheBabiYarmassacreofJewsin1941.ThefivenovelsArarat(1983),Swallow
(1984),Sphinx(1986),Summit(1987),andLyingTogether(1990),comprisethesequence'RussianNights',inwhichmodernhistoryandinternationalpolitics,and
theforcesoffantasyandtheunconscious,areintricatelylayeredintheinterestsofbittercomedy.FlyingtoLove(1992)isareworkingofthecircumstancesofthe
assassinationofPresidentJohnEKennedyin1963,constructedintheformofafantasy.AdyingFreudappearsastheunnamedprotagonistofEatingPavlova
(1994),reflectingThomas'sassertioninhismemoirs,MemoriesandHallucinations(1988),that'artistheOedipalcrossroadswheredreams,loveanddeathmeet'.
AmonghistranslationsisthepoetryofAKHMATOVA,PUSHKIN,andYEVTUSHENKO.
Thomas,Dylan(191453)
Welshpoetandprosewriter,wasborninSwansea,theonlysonoftheEnglishmasteratSwanseaGrammarSchool,wherehewaseducated.Hewasan
undistinguishedscholar,exceptinEnglish,butheeditedandcontributedtotheschoolmagazinewithsomeflair.Forayearafterleavingschoolin1931heworkedasa
reporterfortheSouthWalesDailyPost.Thenhebecameaprofessionalpoet.Hisfirstpoeminthenationalpresswaspublishedin1933bytheSundayReferee,
whichthenawardedhimitsmajorliteraryprizeandfinancedthepublicationofhisfirstbook,18Poems(1934),inwhichtheauthenticvoiceofthefrustratedteenager
speaksout.InNovember1934hemovedtoLondon,returningperiodicallytoSwansea,wherehecompletedTwentyFivePoems(1936)thesearemorederivative
andonthewholemoreobscure,but'ThisbreadIbreak...'andthesequenceoftenpoemsofwhichthefirstbegins'Altarwisebyowllight...'expresstheChristian
feelingwhichimbuesmuchofhissubsequentverse.In1937hemarriedCaitlin(191494),daughteroftheIrishwriterFrancisMacNamara(18841916)seePaul
Ferris,Caitlin:theLifeofCaitlinThomas(1993).TheysettledinLaugharneontheCarmarthenshirecoast.ThomaswasunfitforserviceinWorldWarII,whichhe
spentinWales,visitingLondontoseefriends,publishers,andtheBBC.Whathecalledhis'warwork'involvedwritingscreenplaysforgovernmentpropagandafilms,
ofwhichthemostnotablewasOurCountryhelaterwrotescriptsforGainsboroughandParamount,ofwhichthehorrorfilmTheDoctorandTheDevils(1986)
wasoneoftheveryfewevertobemadeseeTheFilmscripts,ed.JohnAckerman(1996).
PortraitoftheArtistasaYoungDog(1940)isaseriesofhumorousandcompassionateautobiographicalprosesketches.DeathsandEntrances(1946),hismost
considerablevolumeofpoetry,containedseveralpoemsofacelebratory,nostalgicnaturewhichweremoreaccessibletothegeneralreaderthanmuchofhisearlier
verseandwereofimmediatepopularappeal.Suchare'PoeminOctober'('Itwasmythirtiethyeartoheaven...'),'PoemonHisBirthday'('Inthemustardseedsun..
.'),'FernHill'('NowasIwasyoungandeasyundertheappleboughs...'),and'IntheWhiteGiant'sThigh'('Throughthroatswheremanyriversmeet,thecurlews
cry...').
Afterseveralnomadicpostwaryears,thefamilyreturnedtoLaugharne.Hewasnowamuchsoughtafterbroadcaster,someofwhoseradioscriptsarepreservedin
QuiteEarlyOneMorning(1954),thetitlepieceofwhichistheseedofUnderMilkWood.In1950hemadethefirstoffourlecturetoursintheUSAtoearn
moneyasanearnerhewasimprovidentratherthanunsuccessful.CollectedPoems(1952)containedjust89poemsthathewishedatthattimetokeep,including
oneofthelasthewrote,'DoNotGoGentleintothatGoodNight',inspiredbythetragicspectacleofhisfather'slingeringdeath.UnderMilkWood:aPlayfor
Voices,atopographicalmoodpoeminprosewithsongsinverse,wasfirstheardattheYoungMen'sHebrewAssociationinNewYorkinMay1953,withthepoet
readingFirstVoiceandRev.EliJenkins.Hediedofalcoholpoisoningonareturnvisitlaterthatyear.ThefirstbroadcastofUnderMilkWoodwasmadebytheBBC
on25January1954.ThoughThomasdidnotknowtheWelshlanguage,hispoeticmusicandverbalextravaganceareessentiallyWelsh,andathisbestheisapoetof
greatfeelingandoriginality.SeeCollectedPoems19341953,ed.DanielJones,newedn1996TheCollectedStories,ed.WalfordDavies,1993TheDylan
ThomasOmnibus:Poems,Stories,andBroadcasts,1995TheCollectedLettersed.PaulFerris,1985PaulFerris,DylanThomas:aBiography,rev.edn1985
GeorgeTremlett,DylanThomas:IntheMercyofHisMeans,newedn1993(biography)JohnAckerman,DylanThomas:HisLifeandWork,3rdrev.edn1996
WilliamYorkTindall,AReader'sGuidetoDylanThomas,1996.
Thomas,(Philip)Edward(18781917)
Britishpoetandprosewriter,wasborninLambeth,London,andeducatedatStPaul'sSchoolandLincolnCollege,Oxford.Hemarriedwhilestillanundergraduate.
Havingnoinclinationtowardsapermanentjob,andwithabook,TheWoodlandLife(1897),alreadywritten,hebecameaprofessionalau

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thor.Between1902and1915hepublished25books,allproseessays,travelandtopography,literarycriticism(includingastudyofSWINBURNE),biography,myths
andlegends,andanovel,TheHappygoLuckyMorgans(1913).Manyaresimplyliteraryhackwork,butsome,suchasTheHeartofEngland(1906)andThe
IcknieldWay(1913),containthegermsandsomeofthemainthemesofhisverse,whichhedidnotbegintocomposeuntilhewas36,andthenonlyattheexpress
encouragementofFROST.Evenso,hechosetowritepoetryunderthepseudonymofEdwardEastaway,andheonlylivedtoseeinprintwhathepublishedprivatelyas
SixPoems(1916).HewascommissionedintheArtists'RiflesinWorldWarI,andwaskilledinthebattleofArras.Thewarfeaturesonlyobliquelyinhispoems,
whichareparticularlyconcernedwiththeEnglishcountrysideandoftenhaveawry,melancholictaste,withrecurrentimagesofsearchandselfanalysis.SeeThe
CollectedPoemsofEdwardThomas,ed.R.GeorgeThomas,newedn1981SelectedLetters,ed.R.GeorgeThomas,1996R.GeorgeThomas,Edward
Thomas:aPortrait,newedn1989AndrewMotion,ThePoetryofEdwardThomas,newedn1991.
Thomas,R(onald)S(tuart)(b.1913)
Welshpoetandcritic,wasborninCardiffandeducatedinHolyheadandatUniversityCollege,Bangor,followedbyaperiodoftrainingfortheministryatSt
Michael'sCollege,Llandaff.Hewasordainedin1936andservedtheChurchofWalesasrectororvicarofcountryparishesuntilhisretirementin1978.Helearned
Welshearlyoninhiscareerinordertofulfilhisvocationproperly,andwasimpressedinthe1940sbytheexampleofMACDIARMIDandothersinattemptingtorecapture
thetrueessenceofScottishpoetry.TheexpressionofWelshliterarynationalisminhisfirsttwo(privatelypublished)volumesofversegavewayinthe1950stothe
themesofWelshpastoralcareofbothflocksandsouls.Morerecentlyhehaswrittenaboutthenatureofpoetryitself,asin'PoetryforSupper',inwhichhealso
employsoneofhisfavouritemotifs,thepersona(oftenapeasantfarmer)throughwhomhespeakstothereaderorarguestheoppositepolesofacase.Inspiteofthe
graphicbleaknessofhislandscapesandtheperfectlycharacterizedindifferenceofsomanyofhisparishioners,therearestatements,andindeedwholepoems,of
redemption,compassion,andhope,forthcomingstillinMassforHardTimes(1992).HewasawardedtheQueen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1964,andeditedThe
PenguinBookofReligiousVerse(1963),andselectionsofGEORGEHERBERT,EDWARDTHOMAS,andWORDSWORTH.SeeCollectedPoems19451990,newedn1995No
TrucewiththeFuries,1995(subsequentcollection)Autobiographies,tr.fromWelshbyJasonWalfordDavies,1997JustinWintle,FuriousInteriors:R.S.
Thomas,GodandWales,1996(biography)J.EWard,ThePoetryofR.S.Thomas,1992.
Thompson,Flora(18761947)
neTimms,Britishprosewriterandnovelist,wasborninJuniperHill,ahamletontheborderbetweenOxfordshireandNorthamptonshire,thedaughterofa
stonemason.Sheleftschoolat14toworkinthevillagepostofficeatFringford,firstofseveralsuchjobswhicheventuallytookhertoGrayshott,Surrey,in1897.She
andherhusbandbegantheirmarriedlifeinLiphook,Hampshire,wheretheyranthepostoffice,andwhereshewrote'smallsugaredlovestories'tosupplementthe
familyincome(therewerethreechildren),aswellasaccomplishednatureessays.Avolumeofverse,BogMyrtleandPeat,appearedin1921.TheymovedtoDevon
in1928.Hercelebratedautobiographicalevocationofrurallife,inwhichtheobserverandchiefprotagonist,Laura,growsupintheperiodbetweenthe1870sand
1890s,LarkRise(1939),OvertoCandleford(1941),andCandlefordGreen(1943),wasreissuedasLarkRisetoCandlefordin1945.Notonlyasensitive
studyofchildhoodtowomanhood,itisalsoarichsourceofsocialhistoryandachronicleofcommunitylife,fromhamlettovillagetomarkettown.Afictionalized
version,StillGlidestheStream,wasposthumouslypublishedin1948,andACountryCalendarandOtherWritings,ed.MargaretLane,in1979.SeeGillian
Lindsay,FloraThompson:theStoryoftheLarkRiseWriter,newedn1991.
Thompson,Francis(18591907)
Britishpoetandcritic,wasborninPreston,thesonofadoctor.HewasbroughtupintheCatholicfaith,andwaseducatedatUshawCollegeand,athisfather'swish,
asamedicalstudentatOwensCollege,Manchester.Afterfailinghisexaminationsseveraltimes,helefthomein1885totryandearnalivinginLondonasawriter
hismother'sgiftofDEQUINCEY'SConfessionsofanEnglishOpiumEatermayhaveinfluencedthisdecisionandencouragedhisaddictiontoopium.Aftertwoyears
livinghomelessinthestreets,hewastakenupbyWilfridandAliceMEYNELL,towhoseMerryEnglandhehadsubmittedtwopoemsandanarticleonscrapsofpaper.
Theycaredforhim,arrangedhis'dryingout'periodsataWelshmonastery,andorganizedhisliterarycareer.Threevolumesofhispoetrywerepublishedinhislifetime:
Poems(1893),SisterSongs(1895),andNewPoems(1897).Inhismysticalvisionandsymbolism,combinedwithornatestyleandpoeticdiction,Thompsonlooks
backtotheMetaphysicalpoets.Thisisparticularlytrueofhisgreatestpoem,'TheHoundofHeaven',whichrepresentstheconflictbetweenhumananddivinelovein
termsofCatholicdogma.Healsowrotepoemsoflyricalsimplicity,in

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cluding'CheatedElsie',thesequence'ANarrowVessel',and'AtLord's',thefinestpoemaboutcricket.HisreviewsarecollectedinLiteraryCriticismsofFrancis
Thompson,ed.T.L.Connolly(1948).SeeBrigidM.Boardman,'BetweenHeavenandCharingCross':theLifeofFrancisThompson,1988.
Thomson,Derick(RuaraidhMacthmais)(b.1921)
Gaelicpoet,wasborninStornoway,IsleofLewis,andwaseducatedthereattheNicolsonInstitute,andatAberdeenandCambridgeUniversity,andtheUniversity
CollegeofNorthWales.HetaughtattheuniversitiesofEdinburgh,Glasgow,andAberdeenbeforereturningtoGlasgowin1963asProfessorofCeltic.Hehas
explained:'IwaswritinginGaelicandEnglishfrommyearlyteens,butfinallysettleddowntousingGaeliconlyfrommymidtwenties.Buttherewasalreadysome
demandforEnglishversionsofGaelicpoems,andthishascontinued.'Hispoetryreflectstheislandlifeofhischildhoodandthemodernlifeofthetown,aswellashis
culturedandsophisticatedviewofnationalism,whichembracesEuropeandtheworldbeyond.HewasfounderEditoroftheGaelicquarterly,Gairm,in1952,and
ChairmanoftheGaelicBooksCouncil196891.HiscriticalworksincludeAnIntroductiontoGaelicPoetry(rev.edn1989).SeeCreachadhnaClrsaich/
PlunderingtheHarp:CollectedPoems19401980,1982SmeuranDchais/BrambleofHope:Poems,1992.
Thomson,James(170048)
Scottishpoet,wasborninEdnam,Roxburghshire,thesonofaministerwhodiedin1716whileexorcizingaghost.HewaseducatedinJedburghandatEdinburgh
University,whichheleftforLondonafterhisproseexerciseshadbeenadverselycriticized.HeneverreturnedtoScotland.Hislong,blankversepoems,Winter
(1726),Summer(1727),andSpring(1728),werecollectedwith'Autumn'inTheSeasons(1730),towhichheaddedadeistic'HymnontheSeasons'herevised
andenlargedthemoverthenext16years.TheSeasonsislessaforerunneroftheRomanticsthanatrendsetterinnaturepoetry,andThomson'sobservationofand
obviousdelightintheminutiaeofthenaturalworldlookbacktoanearlierScottishtradition.Hisothermajorwork,TheCastleofIndolence:anAllegoricalPoem.
WritteninImitationofSpenser(1748),containsmorepoeticinventionthanitssubtitlewouldsuggest.Itprobablybeganasapoliticalexercise,buthetooksolong
overit(contemporariesjokedthathewastooindolent)thatitspointwaslost.Amongshorterpieces,'HymnonSolitude'and'TotheMemoryofSirIsaacNewton'
arenotable.Healsowrotefivemoderatestagetragedies,andwithDavidMalloch(c.170565)Alfred:aMasque(1740),inwhichisthepoem(andthewordsofthe
song),'RuleBritannia'.HisliteraryactivitiesearnedhimthesinecuresofSecretaryofBriefsintheCourtofChancery(173237)andSecretaryGeneraloftheLeeward
Islands(174446),andapensionfromthePrinceofWales.At42hemetaladywhomhepursuedinwritingandinpersonforfouryears,untilshemarriedasailor
wholaterbecameaviceadmiral.ThomsondiedathishomeinRichmondaftercatchingachillontheThames.SeeTheSeasonsandTheCastleofIndolence,ed.
JamesSambrook,newedn1983JamesSambrook,JamesThomson17001748:aLife,1991.
Thomson,James(183482)
Scottishpoet,wasborninPortGlasgow,thesonofaseaman,whoreturnedfromavoyagein1840withparalysisofbodyandmind.ThefamilymovedtoLondon,
themotherdied,andtheboywasfoundaplaceattheRoyalCaledonianAsyluminHertfordshire.In1850heenteredtheRoyalMilitaryAsylum,Chelsea,totrainas
anarmyschoolmaster.During18months'teachingpracticeinIreland,hefellinlovewithandbecameengagedto14yearoldMatildaWeller.Shediedin1853,tobe
rememberedfortherestofhislifeinhispoems,letters,diary,andconversation.In1858hebegancontributingpoemsandcriticalarticlestotheLondonInvestigator
andTait'sEdinburghMagazine,andin1860totheradicalNationalReformer,editedbyhisfriendCharlesBradlaugh(183391),thesocialphilosopher,whowas
laterbarredfromtakinghisseatintheHouseofCommonsforsixyearsforrefusingtotaketheparliamentaryoath.From1859hesignedpieces'B.V.':'Bysshe'forP.
B.SHELLEY,and'Vanolis',ananagramof'Novalis',pseudonymoftheGermanromanticpoet,FriedrichHardenberg(17721801),anotherwhoseteenagefiancehad
died.Afterbeingdischargedfromthearmyforinsubordinationin1862,ThomsonlivedforfouryearswiththeBradlaughsincountrifiedTottenham,wherehewrote
someofhismorecheerfulverse,including'SundayatHampstead','SundayUptheRiver',andtheautobiographical'Vane'sStory',andsubsidedintoalcoholism.He
translatedworksofLEOPARDI,andwrotethenarrativepoem'WeddahandOmelBonain'(published187172),whilelivingonhisowninPimlico.Healsobeganthe
grim,episodic'CityofDreadfulNight'(1874),inwhichtherealandasymbolicLondonarethebackgroundtoahopelessspiritualquestforrelieffromdespair.
In1872abusinessventuretookhimtoAmericaonbehalfoftheChampionGoldandSilverCompany,buthewassoonrecalled.Anassignmentascorrespondentin
SpainfortheNewYorkWorldendedindisasterwhenhecollapsed.TheCityofDreadfulNight,andOtherPoemswaspublishedatlastin1880,withanother
bookofversefive

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monthslater,andEssaysandPhantasiesin1881.Latterlyhesubsistedonhackjournalism,andalcohol,indingylodgingsnearUniversityCollegeHospital,suffering
fromchronicdepressionandinsomnia,aboutwhichin1882hewrotehislastgoodpoem.SeeTomLeonard,PlacesoftheMind:theLifeandWorkofJames
Thomson('B.V.'),1993ImogenB.Walker,JamesThomson(B.V.):aCriticalStudy,newedn1970.
Thoreau,HenryDavid(181762)
Americanessayist,naturalhistorywriter,andsocialphilosopher,wasborninConcord,Massachusetts,andchristenedDavidHenry.HewaseducatedatConcord
AcademyandHarvard,andthentookateachingpostatthelocalCentreSchool.Afterafortnightamemberoftheschoolcommitteeinsistedthathefloghispupilsto
maintainorder.Thoreautookarulertosixofthem,oneofwhomwasamaidinhisownhouse,andthenresignedinprotest.Afterworkinginhisfather'spencilfactory,
whereheinventedabettermethodofprocessingthegraphite,heopenedaschoolwithhiselderbrother,John,intheformerConcordAcademybuildingtogeneral
surprisetheyranitwithoutcorporalpunishment.Duringthesummervacationin1839theytravelledinaboatoftheirowndesignandconstructionbyrivertoHooksett,
NewHampshire,andthenclimbedMountWashington.Shortlyafterwards,firstJohnandthenHenryproposedtoEllenSewall,theeldersisterofoneoftheirpupils.
Sherejectedthembothbecauseoftheirliberalprinciples.WhentheschoolhadtoclosebecauseofJohn'sillhealth,Henry,whohadnowhadessaysandpoems
publishedintheTranscendentalistjournal,theDial,acceptedaninvitationfromEMERSONtobeahandymaninhishome.In1842Johncuthimselfwhileshaving,and
diedoflockjawseveraldayslater:Henrywassoupsetthathedevelopedpsychosomaticsymptomsofthedisease.Hereturnedtothepencilfactoryin1844,andona
fishingexpeditionaccidentallysetfiretoasubstantialpartoftheConcordwoods.Toavoidpublicembarrassment,andtoachievetheprivacytowrite,hebuilthimself
alogcabinontheshoreofWaldenPond,wherehelivedfortwoyears.
Here,whileexperimentingwithselfsufficiency,hewrotetheaccountofthetripwithJohn,AWeekontheConcordandMerrimackRivers,andbeganWalden:or,
LifeintheWoods,hisphilosophicalmasterpieceofobservationofnatureandofself.In1846heoptedforthelocaljailratherthanpayhispolltax,andwasfuriousto
bereleasedafteronenightwhenananonymousdonor(probablyanaunt)paiditforhim.Theexperience,however,inspiredthemoreeffectiveprotestofhisessay
'ResistancetoCivilGovernment'(1849),inavolumepublishedbyElizabethPeabody(180494),HAWTHORNE'Ssisterinlaw.In1848hebeganacareerasalecturer,
whilealsoadvertisinghisservicesasasurveyor.HewasforcedtopublishAWeekontheConcordathisownexpensein1849,andthentobuybackmuchofthe
editionfouryearslater:'Ihavenowalibraryofnearlyninehundredvolumes,oversevenhundredofwhichIwrotemyself.'Nettledbythisfailure,heputWalden
throughsevendifferentdrafts,incorporatingthefeedbackfromlecturesatwhichhereadextracts.Publishedcommerciallyin1854,itsoldwellandestablishedhimasa
celebrity.
Thoreau'ssearchforawilderkindofnaturethanConcordcouldoffertookhimseveraltimestoMaineandtoCapeCodcollectionsofhisessays,oftenwriteninthe
formoftravelogues,wereposthumouslypublishedasTheMaineWoods(1864)andCapeCod(1865),andpoetryasPoemsofNature(1895).Alwaysafervent
abolitionist(theThoreaufamilyhomewasastagingpointontheundergroundrailroad),hewasoutragedbytheFugitiveSlaveAct(1850),butdidnotpubliclyspeak
outuntil4July1854,whenhedeliveredtheaddress'SlaveryinMassachusetts',firstpublishedon21JulyintheLiberator.Laterhedefendedtheactionsoftheanti
slaverycrusaderJohnBrown(180059),whowashangedafterthedoomedattackonHarper'sFerry.In'APleaforCaptainJohnBrown'(published1860)he
suggested:'Idonotwishtokillortobekilled,butIcanforeseecircumstancesinwhichboththesethingswouldbetomeunavoidable'(scholarlyopinionisdividedas
towhetherheknewaboutBrown'searlierexploitinKansasin1856,whenhemurderedfiveproslaverymenincoldblood).Onhisfather'sdeathin1859Thoreau
tookoverthepencilfactory,theatmosphereofwhichdamagedhisalreadysuspectlungs.Hediedofconsumptioninabedwhichhehadhimselfmade.SeePolitical
Writings,ed.NancyL.Rosenblum,1996IntheWoodsandFieldsofConcord:SelectionsfromtheJournalofHenryDavidThoreau,ed.WalterHarding,
1984FaithinaSeed:'TheDispersionofSeeds'andOtherLateNaturalHistoryWritings,ed.BradleyEDean,introductionbyRobertD.Richardson,Jr,1994
WoodNotesWild:WalkingwithThoreau,ed.MaryKullberg,1995(selection)TheDaysofHenryThoreau:aBiography,2ndrev.edn1993RichardJ.
Schneider,HenryDavidThoreau,1987(biographical/criticalstudy)JoelMyerson(ed.),TheCambridgeCompaniontoHenryDavidThoreau,1995(critical
essays).
Thucydides(c.460c.400BC)
classicalGreekhistorian,wasanAthenianwhosefamilyownedgoldminesinThrace.HeembarkedonahistoryofthePeloponnesianWar(431404),hesays,'atthe
momentthatitbrokeout,believingthatitwouldbeagreatwar,andmoreworthyofbeingdescribedthananythathadprecededit.Thisbeliefwas

Page547

notwithoutfoundation.'In430hewasamongthecountlessAtheniancitizensstruckdownwiththeplague,whosesymptomshegraphicallyrecounts.In424hewas
oneofthetengeneralselectedtogonorthandkeepAmphipolisfromfallingintoSpartanhands.Itwaslost,andhewentintoexileuntiltheendofthewar.Hisaccount
breaksoffinmidflightin411.Thucydidesisthegreatesthistorianoftheancientworld,andthefirsttostudyman'spoliticalbehaviourandtopursuetruthincontrast,
forexample,toHERODOTUS,therearenosupernaturalagencies.Hisanalysisofthecausesofthewarisscientificandhisrenderingofitscoursedispassionate.Hequotes
officialdocuments.Overonefifthoftheworkisintheformofspeeches,ofwhichhesaysthatheneverintroducesanyunlessthereisevidencethatonewasmadeat
thetime,andthathehasendeavouredineachcasetoreproduceitssubstance.
Thurber,James(18941961)
Americanhumorist,essayist,andshortstorywriter,wasborninColumbus,Ohio,andatsixlostaneyewhenhewasshotbyhiselderbrotherwhileplayingatWilliam
Tell.HewaseducatedatEastHighSchoolandOhioStateUniversity,whichheleftwithouttakinghisdegreeandworkedasacodeclerkfortheStateDepartmentin
WashingtonandParis.In1920hereturnedtoColumbus,wherehewasanewspaperreporterandwroteanddirectedmusicalcomediesattheuniversity.In1925he
wenttoFrance,attheurgingofhisfirstwife,towriteanovelabouthisschooldays,whichdidnotgetbeyondthefirstchapter.BackinNewYork,hebombarded
magazineswithstories,sketches,andpoems.In1927hetookupanintroductiontoE.B.WHITE,whosesisterhehadmetonboardship,andwenttoseehimatthe
officesoftheNewYorker.Therehemetthemagazine'sfounder,HaroldRoss(d.1952),who,thinkinghewasanoldfriendofWhite,hiredhimasmanagingeditor.
Hesoonmanagedtogethimselfreducedtomerestaffwriterhismemoir,TheYearswithRoss(1959),causedsomeoffencetoformercolleaguesseealsoThomas
Kinkel,GeniusinDisguise:HaroldRossofthe'NewYorker'(1995).IsSexNecessary?(1929),writtenwithWhite,isaskitonthepsychiatryofmarriage.Hisfirst
collectionofsketches,TheOwlintheAtticandOtherPerplexities,waspublishedin1931,whenhisfirstcartoonsappearedintheNewYorker.MyLifeandHard
Times(1933),withhisownincomparabledrawings,contained'TheNighttheBedFellIn','TheDogthatBitPeople',andotherpseudoautobiographicalexpressions
ofunworldlinesssuchasbecamehisliterarymotif.Thetablesareturnedin'TheUnicornintheGarden',inFablesforOurTime(1940)hisstory'TheSecretLifeof
WalterMitty',inMyWorldandWelcometoIt(1942),gavetothelanguageanewtermtodescribeapersonwhohasgrandiosefantasies.Aseriesofoperationson
hisremainingeyein1940lefthimwithminimalvision.Withinafewyearshewasalmostblind,thoughhecontinuedtowritebycomposingstoriesinhishead,and
playedtheroleofhimselfinAThurberCarnivalfor88performancesin1960.SeeWritingsandDrawings,1996NeilA.Grauer,RememberLaughter:aLifeof
JamesThurber,newedn1996HarrisonKinney,JamesThurber:HisLifeandTimes,1995.
Thwaite,Anthony(b.1930)
Britishpoetandcritic,wasborninChesterandeducatedatKingswoodSchool,Bath,andChristChurch,Oxford,wherehewasEditorofIsis.Hisfirstbookofverse
waspublishedwhilehewasanundergraduate,andhissecond,HomeTruths,in1957.HelecturedatTokyoUniversityfrom1955to1957.HewasaBBCradio
producer195762,LiteraryEditoroftheListener196265,AssistantProfessorofEnglish,UniversityofLibya196567,LiteraryEditoroftheNewStatesman
196872,andcoEditorofEncounter197385.HisfascinationwiththepastisparticularlyreflectedinTheStonesofEmptiness(1967),manyofthepoemsin
whichwerewritteninLibya,andinVictorianVoices(1980),aseriesofdramaticmonologuesfromthemouthsofrealorimaginary19thcenturycharacters.His
criticalworksincludePoetryToday:aCriticalGuidetoBritishPoetry19601984(1985)andTwentiethCenturyEnglishPoetry(1978),andhehascompiled
(withGeoffreyBownas)ThePenguinBookofJapaneseVerse(1964)andeditedthepoems(1988)andletters(1992)ofLARKIN.Hemetatuniversity,andmarried
in1955,AnnThwaite(b.1932),neHarrop,children'snovelistandbiographerofBURNETT,(1974),GOSSE(1984),MILNE(1990),andEmilyTENNYSON(1996).See
Poems19531988,1989TheDustoftheWorld,1994(latercollection).
Thynne,Francis
seeHOLINSHED.
TirsoDeMolina,pennameofFray(Friar)GabrielTllez(1580/11648)
Spanishdramatist,wasborninMadridandwasreceivedintotheOrderofOurLadyofMercy(Mercedarians)in1601,afterwhichhestudiedartsandtheologyat
Salamanca,Toledo,Guadalajara,andAlcala.HebegantowriteforthetheatrewhenhewasinMadridin1610.ElVergonzosoenPalacio[TheShyManatCourt],
thefirstofhiscomedieswhichcanbedated,wasperformedin1611,whenhemovedtoToledo.DonGildelasCalzasVerdes[DonGiloftheGreenBreeches]
introducedafavouritemotif,thecrossdressedheroinewooingherrivalinlovehecomplainedthatitsinitialfailurewasduetotheageandgirthoftheactressplaying
thepart.Heassumedhispennamein1616,andresumedhisliteraryactivitiesafterspendingthenexttwo

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yearsonamissionwithhisOrderinSantoDomingo(Haiti).LosCigarralesdeToledo[TheCountryHousesofToledo](1624)isamiscellanyofstories,verses,
plays,andcriticalcommentary,withinafictionalframeworkinthemannerofBOCCACCIO.In1625,mostprobablyattheinstigationofaliteraryrival,hewasaccusedby
theCommitteeforReformoftheCouncilofCastileofwriting'profaneplays',andpostedbyhisOrdertoTrujilloasCommendadorofitsmonasterythere.He
returnedin1629,topursuealargelyclericalcareer,beingappointedDefinidorintheprovinceofCastillein1632.AstheofficialchronicleroftheMercedarians,he
spentsevenyearsrewritingandcompletingtheirhistory,whichwasthensuppressedbythegeneraloftheOrderandwasnotpublisheduntil197374.Hewroteabout
fourhundredplaysofdifferentkinds,ofwhichfiveauthorizedvolumesappearedinhislifetime.WhileapersonalitywiththecharacteristicsofDonJuanexistedin
medievalliterarytradition,hisplay,ElBurladordeSeville[TheTricksterofSeville],isthesourceofthemodernrepresentationandoftheoperaDonGiovanniof
WolfgangAmadeusMozart(175691).
Tocqueville,Alexisde(180559)
Frenchpoliticalscientistandhistorian,wasborninParisofanaristocraticfamily,atwhosechateauatVerneuilhespenthischildhoodandwithhiselderbrotherswas
taughtbythefamilypriest.HeattendedthelyceatMetzandthenstudiedlaw,becoming,throughhisfather'sinfluence,amagistrateinthegovernmentcourtat
Versailleswhenhewas21.AftertheJulyRevolutionin1830hetooktheoathofloyaltytoLouisPhilippe:'Iamatwarwithmyself,'hewrotetoMaryMottley,his
Englishfiance,whomhemetatVersaillesin1828andmarriedin1836.'Howsimplethepathwouldhavebeenifdutyhadaccordedwithallthesusceptibilitiesof
honour.'Afterbeingrequiredtotaketheoathagaintwomonthslater,heandhisfriendGustavedeBeaumont(180266)appliedforofficialleavetostudyAmerican
prisonreforms.TheyarrivedinNewportinMay1831afteranuncomfortablevoyageof51/2weeks,andspentninemonthsintheUSAseeGeorgeWilsonPierson,
TocquevilleinAmerica,abridgedbyDudleyC.Lunt(revedn1996).Theirreport(1833)waspublishedonbothsidesoftheAtlantic.In1833Tocquevillevisited
EnglandandIrelandseeJourneystoEnglandandIreland,tr.GeorgeLawrenceandK.EMayer(1958),wherehewasabletoputhisthoughtsonthe
functioningofademocracyfurtherintoperspectivehealsometMILL,onwhosesubsequentphilosophyhisviewswereofsomeinfluence.Thefirsttwovolumesof
Tocqueville'sDelaDmocratieenAmriquewereissuedbyareluctantParispublisherin1835theywereimmediatelytranslatedbytheyoungEnglishmanofletters
HenryReeve(181395)forpublicationinBritainandtheUSAasDemocracyinAmerica.ForthefirsttimetheFrenchpublichadafullaccountoftheworkingofa
moderndemocracy,andAmericansaclearandnotuncriticalanalysisoftheirpoliticalandlegalsystemswhichbenefitedfromitsEuropeanperspective.Twofurther
volumesfollowedin1840seeDemocracyinAmerica,tr.Lawrence,ed.J.EMayerandMaxLerner(1966).Beaumont'scontributionwasMarie:ou,
L'EsclavageauxtatsUnisTableaudeMoeursAmericaines(1835tr.BarbaraJacksonasMarie,orSlaveryintheUnitedStates,aNovelofJacksonian
America,1958).
In1839TocquevillewaselectedtotheChamberofDeputies,inwhichherepresentedValognesuntiltheendoftheSecondRepublicin1848.Hewasthenreelected
andappointedtotheConstitutionalCommittee.ThoughheopposedLouisNapoleon'sprinciplesheservedashisForeignMinisterforfivemonthsin1849.When
LouisNapoleondissolvedtheconstitutionin1851,Tocquevilleretiredtohisestatesand,thoughsufferingfromtheonsetoftuberculosis,workedathisSouvenirs
(1893tr.LawrenceasRecollections,1970),andathisclassicstudyofpoliticalcauseandeffect,L'AncienRgimeetlaRvolution(1856tr.M.W.Patterson,
1933).
Tolkien,J(ohn)R(onald)R(euel)(18921973)
Britishnovelist,philologist,andliteraryscholar,wasborninBloemfontein,OrangeFreeState.HewasbroughttoEngland,butwasorphanedwhenhewas12andput
inthecareofaCatholicpriest.HewaseducatedatKingEdward'sSchool,Birmingham,andExeterCollege,Oxford.AfterservinginWorldWarI,inwhichhe
contractedtrenchfever,heworkedontheNewEnglishDictionary.HewasReaderinEnglishLanguageatLeedsUniversity(192025),thenProfessorofAnglo
Saxon(192545)andofEnglishLanguageandLiterature(194559)atOxford.From1917untilhisdeathheworkedonaseriesoftalesof'MiddleEarth'through
whichhesoughttoexpresshistheologicalandphilosophicalbeliefs,posthumouslycollectedintoTheSilmarillion,ed.ChristopherTolkien(1977).Hedrewonthis
imaginativestorehouseforachildren'sfantasy,TheHobbit(1937).The'sequel'forwhichthepublisherthenaskedwasnotpublishedfornearlytwentyyears,by
whichtimeithadgrownintotherichlyoriginaladventuresagaofTheLordoftheRings,comprisingTheFellowshipoftheRing(1954),TheTwoTowers(1954),
andTheReturnoftheKing(1955),forwhichhecreatedacompletemythology.HiscontributionstoliteraryscholarshiparebestillustratedbyhisessaysonBeowulf,
Gawain,andfairystoriesinTheMonstersandtheCritics,andOtherEssays,ed.

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ChristopherTolkien(1983).HewasmadeCBEin1972.SeeLetters,ed.HumphreyCarpenterandChristopherTolkien,newedn1995HumphreyCarpenter,J.R.
R.Tolkien:theAuthorizedBiography,1993C.W.R.D.Moseley,J.R.R.Tolkien,1996(criticalintroduction).
Tolstoy,Leo(CountLevNikolaevichTolstoy)(18281910)
Russiannovelist,wasbornonthefamilyestateofYasnayaPolyana,Tula,southofMoscow,andafterthedeathsofbothparentswaseducatedbyprivatetutorsin
MoscowandKazan,whereheenteredtheuniversityin1844.AfterayearhetransferredfromEasternlanguagestolaw,andthenreturnedtoYasnayaPolyanawhen
heinheriteditin1847.HesathisfinalexaminationsatStPetersburgUniversityin1849,butwithdrewafterpassingthefirsttwosubjects.In1851hevisitedthe
Caucasus,wherehisbrotherwasstationed,andthefollowingyearjoinedupasaNCO.Hewasalreadywritingstories,buthisfirstpublishedworkwasthe
autobiographicalstudy[Childhood](1852),whichhefollowedinduecoursewith[Boyhood](1854)and[Youth](1857).In1854hewaspromotedtoensignand
postedtotheCrimea,whereheservedinactionatSebastopol,andwroteaseriesofuncompromisingsketchesofthewar(185556).Havingmetleadingliterary
figuresinStPetersburg,heresignedhiscommissionin1856,andfinallysettledbackatYasnayaPolyana,wherein1859heestablishedaschoolforpeasantchildren.
In1862hefinishedhisnovel[TheCossacks](1863),whichhehadbegunsomenineyearsearlierandwhichbecamein1878(tr.E.Schuyler)hisfirstworktobe
publishedinEnglish.Alsoin1862hemarriedSonyaBehrs(18441918),thefirstoftheir13childrenbeingbornin1863seeWilliamL.Shirer,LoveandHatred:
theTroubledMarriageofLeoandSonyaTolstoy(1994).[WarandPeace](1869tr.ClaraBellfromFrench,1886tr.LouiseandAylmerMaude,ed.Henry
Gifford,1991),hismassivenovelofRussianlifeduringandaftertheNapoleonicwars,ofwhichhiswifelaboriouslywroteoutthefaircopyfromhisnumerousdrafts,
beganserializationin1863.TheseedofAnnaKarenina(1878tr.NathanHaskellDole,1886tr.RosemaryEdmonds,1954tr.LouiseandAylmerMaude,2nd
edn,ed.W.GarethJones,1995),hispenetratingstudyofayoungwife'saffairwhichleadstoherdestruction,wasthesuicideofawomanwhothrewherselfundera
trainnearhishometheinspirationtobeginwritingitwasaPUSHKINstoryinwhichthereaderisplungedinmediasres.thenovelbeganmonthlyserializationin1873,
thelastpart,dueforpublicationin1877,beingrejectedbythejournal'seditors,whodidnotagreewithitssentiments.
Aspiritualcrisiscausedbyhisquestioningthewholemoralbasisofcontemporaryexistenceledtosuchphilosophicalworksas[AConfession](187980),['What
MenLiveBy'](1881),and['WhatIBelieve'](1882),andtothenovel,[TheKreutzerSonata](1890),andtheplay,[TheDominionofDarkness](1886),the
performanceofwhichwasbannedbythecensor.In1891herenouncedallrightsinhisworksafter1881,andthefollowingyeardividedhispropertyandpossessions
amonghiswifeandchildren.Hisphilosophy,basedonnonresistancetoevil,regenerationwithoutbenefitofChurch,andabolitionofgovernment,isreflectedinhis
finalmajornovel,[Resurrection](1899tr.LouiseMaude,1901tr.Edmonds,1966).Writtentohelpfinancetheexodusofthefundamentalistpeasantsect,the
Doukhobors,toCanada,italsocausedhimtobeexcommunicatedfromtheRussianOrthodoxChurch.HismoralstanceandthinkingbroughtpilgrimstoYasnaya
Polyana,buthisasceticismcausedfamilyructions.Hefinallylefthomesecretlywithhisyoungestdaughter,butdiedofachilltendayslaterattherailwaystationat
Astoporo.SeeHenriTroyat,Tolstoy,tr.NancyAmphoux,newedn1987(biography).
Tomlinson,Charles(b.1927)
poet,critic,andtranslator,wasborninStokeonTrentandeducatedatLongtonHighSchoolandQueen'sCollege,Cambridge.AfterfurtherstudyatLondon
University,hebecamealecturerinEnglishatBristolUniversity,beingappointedReaderin1968,Professorin1982,andEmeritusProfessorofEnglishPoetryin
1992.HehasalsoheldvisitingacademicpostsatseveralAmericanuniversities.Hisexperienceasapainter(exhibitionsofhisworkshavetouredBritain)and
translatorhascontributedtothedisciplineofhisverse,inwhichhisabsorptionofFrenchandmodernAmericanpoetryisalsoreflectedandwhichisoftenconcerned
withtheevocationoflandscapesandthepassageoftime.HisoriginalmodelsincludedW.C.WILLIAMS,PAZ,andCREELEY,andheultimatelychosetowritepoetrywhere
'spacerepresentedpossibilityandwhereselfwouldhavetoembracethatpossibilitysomewhatselfforgetfully,puttingasidethemorepossessiveclaimsofpersonality'.
HisfirstcollectionwasRelationsandContraries(1951).InTheWayIn(1974)heexamineshischildhood:religionisthemainthemeofAnnunciations(1989).With
thenaturepoemsinTheDoorintheWall(1992)arereflectionsonpoliticalcommitment.HisClarklecturesatCambridgewerepublishedasPoetryand
Metamorphosis(1983).SomeAmericans(1981)includesinterviewswithandstudiesofMARIANNEMOORE,POUND,andWilliams.Heeditedandtranslatedselected
poemsofPAZ(1979),andcompiledTheOxfordBookofEnglishVerseinTranslation(1980).

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SeeCollectedPoems,expandededn1987Translations,1983.
Tone,(Theobald)Wolfe(176398)
Irishpatriotandprosewriter,wasborninDublin,thesonofacoachbuilder,whowasdeterminedthathissonshouldgotoTrinityCollege,Dublin,forwhichhe
preparedreluctantlyatRev.WilliamCraig'sschoolinStaffordStreet.At16heconcludedthatamilitary'redcoatandcockade,withapairofgoldepaulets'wouldbe
anadvantagewhenapproachingwomen,butin1785,whilestillatcollege,heelopedwithandmarried16yearoldMarthaWitherington(d.1849).Aftergraduating,
hecursorilystudiedlawinLondon,wherehesubsidizedhimselfbyjournalism,andwascalledtotheIrishBarin1789.HewasoneofthefoundersoftheUnitedIrish
Societyin1791.Thefollowingyear,thoughaProtestant,hewasappointedasecretaryoftheCatholicCommittee,inwhichcapacityhehelpedtobringabouttheact
givingthevotetoCatholics(1793).WiththeUnitedIrishmenstillbentonrevolution,anddocumentshavingbeenseizedwhichimplicatedhimasbeingin
correspondencewiththeFrench,hesailedwithhisfamilytoAmerica,wherehemadeplanstosettleasafarmer.AnimpassionedpleafromIreland,however,senthim
toFrance,wherehenegotiatedforthedispatchofafleet(withhimselfasadjutantgeneral),whichwasdispersedbyahurricane.Heembarkedwithafurther
expeditionin1798,butwascaptured,tried,andsentencedtohangasatraitor.Whenhisrequesttobeshotasasoldierwasrefused,hecuthisownthroatinprison
withapenkife,anddiedofthewoundaweeklater.Hisjournalsandreminiscences,incorporatedinLifeofTheobaldWolfeTone(1826),withtheirsharplyobserved
detailanddrywit,aretheworkofanaccomplishedwriter.SeeMarianneElliott,WolfeTone:ProphetofIrishIndependence,newedn1991.
Toomer,(Nathan)Jean(18941967)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,andpoet,wasbornEugenePinchbackToomerinWashingtonDC.HewasthesonofareputedlyrichGeorgianplanter,who
vanishedbeforethebabywasborn,andofNina(18681909),daughterofP.B.S.Pinchback(18371921),anotableblackpoliticianwhowasactingGovernorof
LouisianaduringtheSouthernreconstructionfollowingtheCivilWar.HewenttoMStreetHighSchool,Washington.Aftertryingagricultureandthenphysicaltraining,
heenrolledattheUniversityofChicagotoreadbiologyasapreludetomedicine,droppedouttostudysociologyatNewYorkUniversity,butchangedtohistoryat
theCityCollegeofNewYork.Whenhewasrejectedforwarservicein1917becauseofasports'injury,hesoldcarsinChicago,taughtphysicaleducationin
Milwaukee,andthenreturnedtoNewYorktopursuelaw.In1918hefinallydecidedthathislifelayinliterature.Hewasintroducedintoliterarysocietybythepoet
LolaRidge(18831941),aneditorofBroom,andmetthecriticWaldoFrank(18891967),whobecamealifelongfriend.Whiletemporaryheadofablackindustrial
collegeinSparta,Georgia,in1921heconceivedthebasisofaworkwhichwouldtranscendwhiteprejudiceagainstblackwriting,usingmodernliterarytechniquesto
emphasiselyricalaspectsoftheprimitivelifeandtheuniversalthemeofthesearchforandreassertionofone'sroots,inwhichhereceivedencouragementfrom
ANDERSON.
Cane(1923),acompositeworkinthreepartscomprisingstories,sketches,poems,andadramatizedpiece('Kabnis'),elementsofwhichhehadalreadypublishedin
literarymagazines,wasfavourablyreceivedbutwentoutofprintafteritsoriginaleditionandasmallreprint(1927)soldout.Whilehecontinuedtowrite,apartfrom
tworeligiouspamphletstheonlyotherbookpublishedinhislifetimewastheprivatelyprintedcollectionofaphorisms,Essentials(1931).Forsomeyears,untilscandal
overtookthegroup,hepromotedthebeliefsoftheRussianmysticGeorgeIvanovichGurdjieff(18771949).In1931,listinghimselfaswhiteonthelicence,hemarried
MargeryBodineLatimer(18991932),anovelist,whodiedinchildbirththefollowingyear.In1934hemarriedMarjorieContent,thewidowofaWallStreetbanker,
whosurvivedhim.In1939hewenttoIndiainsearchofaphilosophyoflifethefollowingyearheandandhiswifebecameQuakers.Hishealthbegantofailin1950,
andhespentmuchofhislasttenyearsinnursinghomes.Canewasfinallyreprintedin1967andinpaperbackin1969,totakeitsplaceintheHarlemRenaissanceand
tocoincidewiththeSecondRenaissanceofAfroAmericanliterature.SeeAJeanToomerReader:SelectedUnpublishedWritings,ed.FrederikL.Rusch,1995
CollectedPoems,ed.RobertB.JonesandMargeryToomerLatimer,1988NellieY.McKay,JeanToomer,Artist:aStudyofHisLiteraryLifeandWork
18941936,newedn1987BrianJosephBensonandMabelMayleDillard,JeanToomer,1980(biographical/criticalstudy).
Tottel,Richard
seeSURREYWYATT.
Tourneur,Cyril(c.15751626)
Englishpoetanddramatist,wassecretarytoSirFrancisVere(15601609),commanderintheNetherlandsintheSpanishwars,andmaywellhavebeentheauthorof
'AFunerallPoemUpontheDeathoftheMostWorthyandTrueSoldierSirFrancisVere'(1609).Hecertainlywrote'TheTransformedMetamorphosis'(1600),a
satiricalallegorywhosemeaningisobscure,andTheAtheist'sTragedy

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(printed1611),arevengedramawithghoulishgoingsoninagraveyardandanunusualdenouementD'Amville,thevillain,unwittinglybrainshimselfwiththeaxe
whileactingtheexecutioner.TheauthorshipofTheRevenger'sTragedy(1607)hasnevercategoricallybeenestablished,andbecauseitisabetterconstructedand
morepoeticplay,ithasbeenthoughtunlikelytobebythesamehandastheapparentlylaterTheAtheist'sTragedy,thoughanumberofcriticsstillassignitto
Tourneur.Thechiefcharacter,Vindice,isconcernednotjusttoavengethepoisoningofhisfiancebytheDuke,buttoeradicatetheDuke'scourtandthecorruption
itstandsfor,andishimselffinallypunishedfortakingtoofarthepracticalexpressionofhismoralpassion.In1625TourneurwasSecretarytotheCouncilofWarof
ViscountWimbledon(15721638)duringtheillfatedexpeditiontoseizeSpanishtreasureshipsoffCadiz.Thefleetturnedback,andhewasoneofthesickmenput
ashoreatKinsale,Ireland,wherehedied.
Traherne,Thomas(163774)
Englishpoetandprosewriter,wasborninHerefordshire,thesonofashoemaker.Hewasbroughtupbyhisfather'sbrother(whowastwicemayorofHereford),and
waseducatedatBrasenoseCollege,Oxford.HewasparishpriestofCredenhillfrom1661to1669,whenhebecamechaplaintoSirOrlandoBridgeman(c.1606
74),KeeperoftheSeals.TheonlyworkpublishedduringhislifetimewasRomanForgeries(1673),astudyoftheauthenticityofcertaindocumentsrelatingto
Catholicism,thoughChristianEthicks(1675)wasprobablyreadyforprinting.Hispoems,manypreparedforpressbyhisbrotherPhilip,didnotcometolightuntil
1896,whenanunsignedmanuscriptbookwasdiscoveredonaLondonbookstall.Subsequentresearchrevealedanunfinishedprosework,CenturiesofMeditations
(published1908),aseriesofspiritualguidelineswhichofferparallelswithchildhood.Theexperienceandinnocenceofchildhoodrunthroughhisverse,asin'Wonder',
'MySpirit','Dreams','Poverty',and'ShadowsintheWater',whichperfectlycapturesachild'sfascinationwithandpuzzlementatthe'otherworld'ofreflections.This
recallofachild'seyeviewofthesurroundingsandofGod,aswellasthevarietyofhisstanzaforms,giveTraherne'sverseanunusualcharmwhichoutweighshis
limitedrange,oftenabstractvocabulary,andtheinconclusiveendingsofsomanyofhispoems.SeeSelectedPoemsandProse,ed.AlanBradford,1991.
Traill,CatharineParr(180299)
neStrickland,Canadianprosewriter,children'sauthor,andnaturalist,eldersisterofmoovie,wasborninEnglandinKent,andwithTheTellTale(1818),acollection
ofpieces,wasthefirstoftheliteraryStricklandsiblingstobepublished.Severaldidacticjuvenilesfollowed,ofwhichLittleDowney:or,TheHistoryofaField
Mouse(1822)gavenoticeofherinterestinnaturalhistory,andTheYoungEmigrants:or,PicturesofCanada.CalculatedtoAmuseandInstructtheMindsof
Youth(1826)foreshadowedherfuture.In1832shemarriedaScot(andfriendofMoodie'shusband),LieutenantThomasTraill(17931859).Threemonthslaterthe
coupleemigratedtoDouro,nearPeterborough,wheretheytookuphismilitarylandgrantnexttothepropertyofherbrotherSamuel(180567),authorofTwenty
SevenYearsinCanadaWest(1853).TheymovedtoPeterboroughin1839,sheduringtheinterveningpioneeringyearshavinghadfouroftheirsevenchildren(outof
nineinall)whoreachedadulthood,andwrittenhermostsignificantwork,TheBackwoodsofCanada:BeingLettersfromtheWifeofanEmigrantOfficer
IllustrativeoftheDomesticEconomyofBritishAmerica(1836).Forthenexttwentyyears,duringwhichtheymovedin1846toRiceLake,shelargelysupported
thefamilybywritingforjournals.ShealsocompiledTheFemaleEmigrant'sGuide,andHintsonCanadianHousekeeping(1854),andwrotechildren'sbooks,
amongthemTheCanadianCrusoes:aTaleoftheRiceLakePlains(1852),inwhichthreechildrensurviveinthewildfortwoyears.Afterherhusband'sdeathshe
livedinLakeford,Ontario,whereshewrotethetextforCanadianWildFlowers(1868)andcompiledtheauthoritativeStudiesofPlantLifeinCanada:or,
GleaningsfromForest,LakeandPlain(1885),bothillustratedbyMoodie'ssecondchild,AgnesFitzgibbon(18331913).SeeIBlessYouinMyHead:Selected
Correspondence,ed.CarlBallstadt,1996.
Treece,Henry(191166)
Britishpoet,historicalnovelist,children'swriter,andcritic,wasborninWednesbury,Staffordshire,andeducatedatWednesburyHighSchoolandBirmingham
University,wherehewasuniversityboxingcaptain.ExceptforwarserviceintheRoyalAirForce,hewasfrom1938untilhisearlydeathSeniorEnglishTeacherat
BartononHumberGrammarSchool.WiththeScottishpoetJ.EHendry(191286)hefoundedinthe1930stheNewApocalypse:'Inmydefinition,thewriterwho
sensesthechaos,theturbulence,thelaughterandthetears,theorderandthepeaceoftheworldinitsentirety,isanApocalypticwriter.'InthewordsofFRASER,the
movement'inasensederivesfromSurrealism,andonemightevencallitadialecticaldevelopmentofit,thenextstageforward':italsoservedasafraternityoflike
mindedyoungpoets,mostofthemlivingoutsideLondon,whowelcomedthischancetomeetandcorrespondwitheachother.DYLANTHOMASwasdrawnintothis
group,andTreece'sDylanThomas:DogAmongtheFairies

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(1949rev.edn1956)wasthefirstcriticalstudyofhim.Treecepublishedsixvolumesofhisownverse,thelastofwhichwasTheExiles(1952).Henowembarked
onanewliterarycareerasahistoricalnovelist.Histhemesarethecrossroadsofhistoryandtheconflictsofcultures,andheisathisbestwhenwritingabouttheDark
Agesandmoreancienttimes,asinTheDarkIsland(1952),TheGoldenStrangers(1956),andElectra(1963).Heappliedthesamequalitiesandobjectivestohis
booksforchildren,bywhomhisVikingnovelsinparticulararestillwidelyread,andwhostillrespondtothelastbookhewrote,theintriguingTheDreamTime
(1967).SeeHowISeeApocalypse,1946MargeryFisher,HenryTreece,1969(mainlyonthechildren'sbooks,butincludinghis'NotesonPerceptionandVision').
Tressell,Robert,pennameofRobertNoonan(18701911)
Britishnovelist,wasborninDublin,educatedthereorinLondon,marriedin1890,lefthiswifein1893,andlivedinSouthAfricafortwoyears.From1902he
workedasahousepainterandsignwriterinHastings,Sussex,wherehediedoftuberculosis.Between1907and1910,togivehisonlydaughter,JessiePope,some
financialsecurity,hewroteanovel.TheRaggedTrouseredPhilanthropists:BeingthestoryoftwelvemonthsinHell,toldbyoneofthedamned,andwritten
downbyRobertTressellwaspublishedin1914inaversionbowdlerizedanddrasticallyeditedbyJessie.Eveninthatformitpowerfully,satirically,andgraphically
reflectstheattitudesofthe'philanthropists'(theworkingclass)towardstheircapitalistexploiters.Initsfullversion,ed.FrederickC.Ball(1955),whathadbeen
regardedasasocialdocumentaryandtheoutstandingworkingclassnovelofitstime,isseenalsoasa20thcenturyfable.SeeJackMitchell,RobertTressellandthe
RaggedTrouseredPhilanthropists,1969(criticalstudy).
Trevelyan,G.M.
seeMACAULAY,THOMASBABINGTON.
Trevor,William,pseudonymof(William)TrevorCox(b.1927)
Irishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninMitchelstown,Co.Cork,ofmixedsouth/northparentage,andspenthischildhoodthereandin'Youghalbythesea,
andSkibbereenwhichpeoplesaidwasatthebackofbeyond'.HewaseducatedatStColumba'sCollegeandTrinityCollege,Dublin,afterwhichhetaughthistoryin
NorthernIrelandandartinEngland.Forfiveyears,duringwhichhepublishedanovel,AStandardofBehaviour(1958),hewasthenaprofessionalsculptor,but
gaveupapotentiallyprofitablepracticein1960because'Icouldn'tgetthepeopleinmyheadintothesculpture.Ihadtowriteshortstoriestobringthemtolife.'To
financehiswriting,heworkedasanadvertisingcopywriter(inthesamecompanyasLUCIESMITHandEWART)until1964,whenhepublishedasecondnovel,TheOld
Boys,whichwontheHawthorndenPrizeforaliteraryworkbyanauthorunder41.
HisfirstvolumeofshortstorieswasTheDayWeGotDrunkonCakeandOtherStories(1967).LivinginDevon,hefeels,giveshimthedistanceherequiresfrom
whichtoconjureuptheessenceofhisnativeIreland,ashehasdoneinMrsEckdorfinO'Neill'sHotel(1969),FoolsofFortune(1983),andinReadingTurgenev,
thefirstofthetwocompletenovelsinTwoLives(1991)buthisforteisthecreationandmanipulationofcharacters,oftenbizarre,alwaysbelievable,andthesettingis
wherevertheycanmosteffectivelyweavetheiroddways.TwoworldschillinglycollideinFelicia'sJourney(1994),astudyofapregnantIrishgirlpreyeduponbya
pervertintheEnglishMidlands,whichwonTrevorhisthirdWhitbreadAward.
Oftheshortstory,hesaidinaninterviewin1992:'It'savery,verydifficultform....Novelscanberagbagsandgowanderingoff,butagoodshortstoryshouldnot
haveanunnecessarywordinit....Becauseofitsbrevityandcompression,astorymustleavebehindasmearordobofpaintonthemindfromwhichthereaderhas
todotherestofthework'seeCollectedStories(1992),SelectedStories(1995),andAfterRain(1996).Hehasalsowrittenplaysforthestage,forradio,andfor
television,forwhichhehasadaptedhisownstories.AmemberoftheIrishAcademyofLetters,hewasmadeHonoraryCBEin1977.SeeExcursionsintheReal
World,1994(autobiographicalessays)GregoryA.Schirmer,WilliamTrevor:aStudyofHisFiction,1990KristinMorrison,WilliamTrevor,1993(critical
study).
Trilling,Lionel(190575)
Americancriticandnovelist,wasborninNewYorkCityofJewishimmigrantparents,andwaseducatedthereatpublicschoolsandatColumbiaUniversity.After
teachingatHunterCollege,hereturnedin1932toColumbia,wherehebecameWoodberryProfessorofLiteratureandCriticismin1965andUniversityProfessorin
1970.HisfirstpublishedworkwasastoryinMenorahJournalin1925hisfirstbookwashisdoctoraldissertationonARNOLD(1939rev.edn1949).Subsequently
hepublishedastudyofFORSTER(1943rev.edn1965).ThereemergenceofthePartisanReviewin1937gavehimacriticaloutletinwhichbothmodernismand
leftismwerefused.Hefoundednoschoolofcriticism,buthisbeliefinthepowerofliteratureto'transform,elevateanddamage'(NewRepublic,March1976)
influencedmany.SignificantbooksareTheLiberalImagination:EssaysonLiteratureandSociety(1950)andBeyondCulture:EssaysonLiteratureand
Learning(1965),

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inwhichhedrawsparticularlyonthethinkingofFREUD,onwhomhewroteFreudandtheCrisisofOurCulture(1955).Hisnovel,TheMiddleoftheJourney
(1947),reflectedthecommunist/liberalliterarysplitofthe1930sandanticipatedthepoliticalcontroversyinthe1950s.HiswifeDiana,neRubin(190596),essayist
andcritic,whomhemarriedin1929,wroteanaccountoftheirlives:TheBeginningoftheJourney:theMarriageofDianaandLionelTrilling(1993).See
WilliamM.Chace,LionelTrilling:CriticismandPolitics,1980(criticalstudy).
Trollope,Anthony(181582)
Britishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninLondon,thefourthsonofanimprovidentandirasciblebarrister,andwaseducatedatHarrow,WinchesterCollege,
andthenHarrowagainwhenthefamilyfortunesbegantofail.Hismother,FrancesTrollope(17801863),neMilton,returningfromAmericaafterthecollapseofone
ofherhusband'smadderfinancialschemes,determinedtosupportthefamilybywriting,andproducedDomesticMannersoftheAmericans(1832)andmanymore
travelbooks,aswellasnovelsseeTeresaRansom,FannyTrollope:aRemarkableLife(1995).Whenherhusbandwasdeclaredbankruptin1834,shetookthe
familytoBelgium,havingobtainedforthe19yearoldTrollopeapositionasclerkwiththePostOfficeinLondon.Aftersevenunhappyyearshevolunteeredfora
transfertoIreland,wherehebecameagoodadministrator,tookuphunting,andin1844marriedRoseHeseltine(18211917),thedaughterofaYorkshirebank
managerafterwhoseretirementin1852itwasdiscoveredthathehadbeenfiddlingthebooks.
InIreland,Trollopebeganalsotowrite.TheMacDermotsofBallycloran(1847)wasfollowedbyasecondIrishnovel,andthenbyLaVende:anHistorical
Romance(1850).Allfailed.From1851to1853hewaschargedwithreorganizingpostalservicesinsouthwestEnglandandtheChannelIsles,inthecourseofwhich
heinventedthepillarboxin1854hewasappointedSurveyorofMailCoaches.Heresignedin1867,havingmadeseveralforeigntoursonbusiness,andbecomea
leadingliteraryfigure.HeeditedStPaul'sMagazinefrom1867to1870,andin1868,asaLiberal,camebottominthepollfortheparliamentaryconstituencyof
Beverley,thoughtheelectionwaslaterdeclaredinvalidbecauseofbriberyandtheboroughdisenfranchised.Hisownreckoningwasthatby1879hehadearneda
totalof68,959.17s.6dfromhisbooks.HesettledinaHampshirevillagein1880,anddiedofaseizurewhichstruckhimwhilelaughingatabookduringafamily
dinnerpartyinLondon.Forthepast22yearshehadnursedaromanticattachmentfortheAmericanactress,journalist,andfeminist,KateField(183896)herother
literaryadmirersincludedROBERTBROWNINGandLANDOR,whoat83undertooktoteachherLatinandwroteapoemaboutbeingkissedbyher.
Trollopewasaprolificbutsubtlewriter.Hisfourthnovel,TheWarden(1855),wasasuccessandinauguratedthe'Barsetshire'sequenceofsocialcomedies,the
othersbeingBarchesterTowers(1857),DoctorThorne(1858),FramleyParsonage(1861),TheSmallHouseatAllington(1864),andTheLastChronicleof
Barset(1867).Setinanimaginarycountyinthewestcountry,theydealwiththeinterplaybetweenmainlyecclesiasticalfiguresandwithdomesticeventsandissues.
Hisstrengthisthedelineationanddevelopmentofcharacter,whichheemployswithequaleffectinthe'Palliser'seriesofnovelsofpoliticiansandaristocrats:CanYou
ForgiveHer?(186465),PhineasFinn,theIrishMember(1869),TheEustaceDiamonds(1873),PhineasRedux(1874),ThePrimeMinister(1876),andThe
Duke'sChildren(1880).Ofhismanyothernovels,thelovetangledTheClaverings(1867)andthesatiricalTheWayWeLiveNow(1875)areofmostinterest
today.Hepublishedfivevolumesofshortstories,manyofwhicharesetinforeignpartsseeTheCollectedShorterFiction,ed.JulianThompson(1992),and
EarlyShortStoriesandLaterShortStories,ed.JohnSutherland(1995),severalbooksonhistravels,andlivesofTHACKERAY(1879),CICERO(1880),andLord
Palmerston(1882).SeeAnAutobiography,ed.JohnSkilton,1996RichardMullen,AnthonyTrollope:aVictorianinHisWorld,newedn1992(biography)N.
JohnHall,Trollope:aBiography,newedn1993VictoriaGlendinning,Trollope,newedn1993(biography)RichardMullen,ThePenguinCompanionto
Trollope,1996.
Trollope,Frances
seeTROLLOPE.
Tsvetaeva,MarinaIvanovna(18921941)
Russianpoetandcritic,wasborninMoscow,thedaughterofaphilologistandartcriticwhofoundedwhatisnowthePushkinMuseumofFineArts.Hermother,a
musician,havingcontractedtuberculosisin1902,tookhertwodaughterswithherthroughEuropeinhersearchfortreatment,anddiedin1906.Tsvetaevathenwent
toschoolinMoscow,didaninformalcourseinOldFrenchattheSorbonne,andin1910privatelypublishedavolumeofoverahundredlyrics.Atanartistic
communityintheCrimeashemetSergeyEfron(18931939),whomshemarriedin1912,theyearhersecondvolumeofversewascommerciallypublished.Sergey
volunteeredforthearmyatthebeginningofWorldWarI,andwasanofficerin1917whenattheonsetoftheRevolutionhewenttofightfortheWhiteArmy.In
1922,nothavingseenorheardfromhimforfiveyears,duringwhichshehadsubsistedinMoscowlargelyonthecharityoffriends,shegotpermission

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tojoinhiminBerlinfromtheretheymovedtoPrague,andthenin1925toParis.Thoughshecontinuedtowritepoetry,andalsoprose,thecollectionpublishedin
Parisin1928,[AfterRussia],washerlastbooktoappearduringherlifetime.In1937SergeywasinvolvedintheassassinationnearLausanneofaSovietdefectorand
wasspiritedbacktoMoscow,whereshejoinedhimin1939.Afewmonthslaterbothheandtheirdaughterwerearrested.Sheneversawthemagain.Shunnedbythe
literaryestablishmentandeffectivelyhomeless,shechosein1941tobeevacuatedwithher16yearoldson,andtookaVolgasteamshipforKazan.Theywere
refusedpermissiontodisembarkuntiltheboatreachedYelabuga,intheTatarRepublic,where,afterfailingtofindanywork,shehangedherself.
DeeplyaffectedbuttotallyrepelledbytheRevolution,andduringherlifetimeunabletoreachadedicatedreadershipeitherinRussiaoroutside,shehasonlylatterly
beenrecognizedasapoetofpassionateinsightandlinguisticinnovation.HersisterAnastasia,whodiedinMoscowin1993attheageof98,dedicatedherself,onher
releaseinthe1950sfromovertwentyyearsinStalinistprisoncamps,toretrievingMarina'swork,whichhadbeenbanned.Selectionsofthepoetryhavebeen
translatedbyFEINSTEIN(1971rev.edn1993)andDavidMcDuff(19872ndedn1991)criticismisinACaptiveSpirit:SelectedProse,tr.J.MarinKing(1980).
SeeViktoriaSchweitzer,Tsvetaeva,ed.AngelaLivingstone,tr.H.T.WillettsandRobertChandler,poetrytr.PeterNorman,newedn1995(biography)LilyFeiler,
MarinaTsvetaeva:theDoubleBeatofHeavenandHell,1995(biography)MarinaRazumovsky,MarinaTsvetayeva:aCriticalBiography,tr.AlekseyGibson,
1995.
TuFu
seeLIPO.
Turberville,George(c.1544c.1597)
Englishpoetandprosewriter,wasthesecondsonofabranchoftheancientDorsetfamily,theD'UrbervillesofHARDY'STess.HewaseducatedatWinchesterCollege
andNewCollege,Oxford,whichheleftin1562withouttakingadegree.HeenteredtheInnsofCourttostudylaw,andbecameamemberofalivelysetofminor
literaryfigures.In1567hepublishedtranslationsofHeroidesofOVID(somepartsinthenewmetreofblankverse)andtheLatinEcloguesofMantuanBaptista
Mantuanus(14481516)andacollectionofshort,unremarkableversesofhisown,Epitaphes,Epigrams,SongsandSonets.In1568hewasappointedsecretary
toThomasRandolph(152390),whomheaccompaniedtoRussiaonhismissiontothecourtofIvantheTerribletosecureprivilegesforEnglishmerchants.Three
epistlesindoggerelverse,writtentofriendsfromMoscow,appearedinEpitaphesandSonnettes(c.1574),andwerereprinted(withoutthelinesrecountingthe
Russianpenchantforhomosexuality)byHAKLUYT.AlsoinEpitaphesandSonnettesisanepistleannouncinghismarriage,throughwhichheappearstohaveacquired
propertyatShapwickinDorset.EpitaphesandSonnetteswaspublishedasanannextoTragicalTales(earliestpublicationunknown,reissuedin1587),whichhe
translatedfromtheItalian(chieflyofBOCCACCIO),accordingtothetitlepage'intimeofhistroubles',areferencetoanattackonhislife.Itwasdedicatedtohiselder
brother,whowashimselfmurderedin1580.Turbervillealsowroteprosetreatisesonfalconryandonhunting,bothpublishedin1575,afterwhichheseemstohave
ceasedtowrite.SeeJohnE.Hanking,TheLifeandWorksofGeorgeTurberville,newedn1973.
Turgenev,Ivan(181883)
Russiannovelist,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninOrelandbroughtuponthefamilyestateofSpasskoeandtheninMoscow.HeenteredMoscow
Universityin1833,transferringtoStPetersburgin1834,theyearhisfatherdied.Aftergraduatingin1837,hespentthreeyearsinEurope,whereheattended
philosophylecturesatBerlinUniversityandmixedwithradicalthinkers.In1842hepassedhisexaminationsforMAatStPetersburg,butdidnotcompletehis
dissertation.Heworkedbrieflyforthecivilservice,buthavingin1843publishedanarrativepoemandaromanticdramasetinSpain,hegaveupemploymentfor
literature.HealsobecameinfatuatedwithPaulineViardot(18211910),neGarcia,themezzosopranoandcomposer,andaccompaniedherandherhusbandto
France.Allthisdispleasedhismother,whocutoffhisallowance,whichuntilherdeathin1850forcedhimtowriteforaliving,mainlyverseandplayshisone
dramaticmasterpiece,[AMonthintheCountry](tr.RichardFreeborn,1991),thefirstnotableRussiandramainwhichtheconflictisinternal,waswrittenin1850,
publishedin1855,butnotperformeduntil1872.With[ASportsman'sSketches](1852),aseriesofruralobservationsandspeculationswhichhebelievedwas
instrumentalintheabolitionofserfdomin1863,hefoundaneffectivefictionalformandvoice,whichwassilencedwhenhewasarrestedforapoliticallyincorrect
obituaryofGOGOL.HespentamonthinjailandwasthenexiledtoSpasskoeunderpolicesupervision.
From1856,whenhepublishedRudin,thefirstofthreenovelsexploringcontemporarysociety,ofwhich[HomeoftheGentry](1859tr.W.R.S.RalstonasLiza,
1869tr.Freeborn,1970)and[OntheEve](1860tr.C.E.Turner,1871)areinterestingalsoasdescriptionsofRussianliberalism,hespentanincreasingamountof
timeabroad.[FirstLove](1860inFirstLoveandOtherStories,tr.Freeborn,1989,andFirstLoveandOtherStories,tr.IsaiahBer

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linandLeonardShapiro,1994),themostpassionateofhisworks,wasinspiredbyanincidentinhisyouth,whenhefellforanoldergirl,onlytodiscoverthatshewas
hisfather'smistress.Inhisfinestnovel,[FathersandSons](1862tr.1867tr.Freeborn,1991),hepresentedanihilistascapableofhumanfeelingandsubjecttothe
workingsoffate,areadingwhichappealedneithertoconservativesnorradicals.TheensuingcontroversydrovehimfinallytosettleabroadwiththeViardots,with
whomhejointlyboughtanestatenearParisin1875.ThoughnowoutoftouchwithRussianlifeandthusnolongerawriterofthetimes,hecontinuedtoproduce
novelswhich,toquoteHENRYJAMES,'beganalmostalwayswiththevisionofsomepersonorpersons,whohoveredbeforehim,solicitinghim,astheactiveorpassive
figures,interestinghimandappealingtohim,justastheywereandbywhattheywere'.Hediedofcancer,theagoniesofhisfinaldaysbeingsuchthathethrewan
inkwellatPauline.SeeHenriTroyat,Turgenev:aBiography,tr.NancyAmphoux,newedn1991.
Turner,Ethel(18721958)
Australianchildren'snovelist,wasborninEnglandinDoncaster,theyoungerdaughterofGeorgeBurwellandsisterofLilianTurner(18701956),alsoachildren's
writer.Burwelldiedshortlyafterwards,andtheirmothermarriedHenryTurner,whosenametheyassumed.In1881,afterhisdeath,MrsTurnertookthemto
Australia,whereshemarriedagain.HerdaughterswereeducatedatSydneyGirls'HighSchoolsoonafterleavingtheyeditedtogetheramagazineforschoolgirls,Iris.
Ethelwrotemanynovelsandstoriesforyoungpeople,ofwhichSevenLittleAustralians(1894)hasachievedthestatusofaclassicforitscharacterizationandforits
philosophy:'InAustraliaamodelchildisIsayitnotwithoutthankfulnessanunknownquantity....Thereisalurkingspiritofjoyousnessandrebellionandmischief
innaturehere,andthereforeinchildren.'(Notthatingeniouspranksandhorseplayonthepartofthesixchildrenofanarmyofficerandhisdeadfirstwife,andtheone
ofhisnewgirlwife,gowithoutfatherlyretribution.)TheFamilyatMisrule(1895)isasequelinLittleMotherMeg(1902)theeldestgirl,nowmarried,hasnew
problemstoface,asdoesthesecondgirl.TurnermarriedHerbertC.Curlewis,laterajudgeoftheDistrictCourtofNewSouthWales,in1896.Theirdaughter,Jean
Curlewis(18991930),wasachildren'snovelistofamoreromanticnaturethanhermother,withwhomshewroteTheSunshineFamily:aBookofNonsensefor
BoysandGirls(1923).Afterherdaughter'sdeathfromtuberculosis,Turnerwrotenomore.
Tutuola,Amos(b.1920)
Nigerianstorywriter,wasborninAbeokuta,andatsevenwasputouttoworkasaservantinreturnforbeingsenttoschool.HewenttoLagosHighSchool,and
then,havingrefusedtoreturntohismasterbecauseofthewife'sbrutality,totheAnglicanCentralSchool,Abeokuta,untilthefeesdrieduponhisfather'sdeathin
1939.Havingfailedtoearnenoughfromthefamilyfarmtocontinuehiseducation,hetrainedasablacksmith,aswhichheservedwiththeRoyalAirForceinLagos
from1943to1946.WhileamessengerintheDepartmentofLabour,and'stillinhardshipandpoverty',herespondedtoamagazineadvertisementandwroteanovel
'withinafewdayssuccessfullybecauseIwasastorytellerwhenIwasinschool',whichhesenttotheUnitedSocietyforChristianLiterature,whopasseditontothe
LondonhouseofFaber&Faber.ThePalmWineDrinkardandHisDeadPalmWineTapsterintheDeads'Town(1952),aseeminglyartlessblendofYoruba
folkloreandrudimentaryEnglish,washailedbyDYLANTHOMASintheObserveras'brief,thronged,grislyandbewitching....Nothingistooprodigiousortootrivialto
putdowninthistall,devilishstory.'WhileBritishandAmericanreaderssawhimasoneofthefirstblackAfricanwriterstoachieveinternationalrecognition,inWest
AfricahewascriticizedforhispoorEnglishandforretellingtalesthatwerewellknown.In1956hebecameastoresofficerwiththeNigerianBroadcasting
Corporation,Ibadan,fromwhichheretiredinthelate1970sandestablishedabakery.Hecontinuedtowriteinthesamevein,withagapbetweenAjaiyiandHis
InheritedPoverty(1967)andTheWitchHerbalistoftheRemoteTown(1981),becomingrecognizedevenbyhisfellowNigeriansforhisuniquecontributionto
thepreservationoftheYorubaoraltraditionbyemployingthecoloniallanguagewhichhadthreatenedtodestroyit.
Tuwhare,Hone(b.1922)
NewZealandpoet,wasborninKaikohe,andeducatedatBeresfordStreetSchoolandSeddonMemorialTechnicalCollege,Auckland.HeservedintheMaori
Battalionin1945,andthenintheNewZealandSecondDivisionalCavalry.Heworkedasaboilermaker,andwasactiveintheaffairsofseveraltradesunions,aswell
asbeingamemberofhisdistrictexecutiveoftheCommunistPartyofNewZealand.ThroughNoOrdinarySun(1964),publishedwhenhewasinhisforties,and
furthercollectionsin1970,1972,1974,1978,and1982,hebecamethefirstMaoriwritinginEnglishtogainanationalreputationasapoet.Itisnotjustfortheir
authenticity,butalsofortheirnaturalintensity,thatpoemswhichreflecthisgeographicalandsocialroots,suchas'Burial','TimeandtheChild','NotbyWind
Ravaged',andtheironic'ToaMaoriFigureCastinBronze...',areregardedashismostsignificant.Hehasalsopublishedshortstoriesandaplay.See

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Mihi:CollectedPoems,1987DeepRiverTalk:CollectedPoems,1994.
Twain,Mark,PseudonymofSamuelLanghorneClemens(18351910)
Americanhumorist,novelist,children'swriter,andjournalist,wasborninFlorida,Missouri,thefifthchildofJohnMarshallClemens(d.1847),ofVirginia,andJane
Lampton(d.1890),ofKentucky.TheymovedtoHannibal,onthewestbankoftheMississippi,in1839.Hehadaliteraryand,fromhismother,Calvinistic
upbringing,andfromtheageof4attendedprivateschools,latterlyJ.D.Dawson'sschoolforyoungladiesandafewboysof'goodmorals'.Hisfatherwent
bankruptshortlybeforedyingofpneumonia,andin1848hestartedworkforalocalprinter.In1851hewastakenonbyhisbrotherOrion(182598),publisherofthe
WesternUnion(latertheJournal),intowhosecolumnsoftypesettingheintroduceditemsofhisowncomposition,especiallywhenOrionwasaway.Hethenworked
inStLouisandKeokuk,fromwhere,havingfortuitouslydiscovereda$50billinthestreet,hesetoutfortheAmazon,makingadealwiththeKeokukPosttowritea
seriesofhumorouslettersonhistravels.EnrouteontheMississippi,hechangedhismindandgothimselfapprenticedasapilot.Hewaslicensedin1859,and
operatedontheStLouistoNewOrleansstretchuntilitwasclosedin1861attheoutbreakoftheCivilWar.Afterafewweeksplayingatsoldiers,hewentwestwith
Orion,whohadbeenappointedsecretaryoftheterritoryofNevada.Afterlosinghissavingsintimberclaimsandsilverprospecting,hestruckluckywhentheVirginia
CityTerritorialEnterprise,towhichhehadsubmittedhumorousletters,offeredhimajob.Hefirstsignedhimself'MarkTwain'(probablyareferencetotheriver
boatleadsman'scall,'Bythemark,twain',i.e.twofathoms,signifying'safewaterbelow')in1863,inthecourseofatwoyearstintduringwhichhewrotenearlytwo
thousandlocalitems.Manywerehoaxes,andafteraparticularlyscandalousonehequietlylefttown.Attherequestofthecomiclecturerandhumorouswriter
ArtemusWardCharlesFarrarBrowne(183467)hewrote'JimSmileyandHisJumpingFrog',animaginativerenderingofafolktalewhich'setallNewYorkina
roar'whenpublishedintheSaturdayPress(1865).Itbecamethetitlestoryofhisfirstbook,TheCelebratedJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty,andOther
Sketches(1867),andthemainstayofhisowninitialreputationasapublicperformer.
LetterswrittenasrovingcorrespondentfortheSanFranciscoAltaCaliforniaonaMediterraneanexcursiontoEuropeandtheHolyLand,bolsteredbyother
material,werethebasisofTheInnocentsAbroad(1869)hewisely,ontheadviceofSTOWE'Sbrother,HenryWardBeecher,negotiateda5percentroyaltyinstead
ofa$10,000outrightpayment.In1870hemarriedOliviaLangdon(18451904),'themostbeautifulgirlIeversaw...&thebest'.ShewasthedaughterofaNew
Yorkcoalandlumberdealer,whoboughtandfurnishedforthemahouseinBuffalo,whereuntil1871Twainwasaneditorand,withaloanfromhisfatherinlaw,
partowneroftheExpress.Theyhadason,whodiedininfancy,andthreedaughters.
NowAmerica'sleadinghumorist,heaccepteda7.5percentroyaltyforRoughingIt(1872),anautobiographycumtravelbookonhisexperiencesintheWestand
onasubsequentvisittotheSandwichIslands.HegavelecturesbasedonittopackedhousesinLondonfortwomonths.In1874thefamilymovedintothe'part
cathedral,partcuckooclock'inHartford,designedfromhisownsketches.Hehadalreadybegun,butputaside,TheAdventuresofTomSawyer(1876)whenhe
wroteaseriesofnostalgicsketchesforAtlanticMonthly,'OldTimesontheMississippi',whicheventuallybecamechapters417ofLifeontheMississippi(1883).
EncouragedbyHOWELLS,hewentbacktoit,butrestrictedtheactiontoTom'sboyhood,thoughheoriginallymaintainedthat'itisonlywrittenforadults'.Itwasissued
asabookforboysitschiefsignificanceisthatitisthesourceoftheprotagonistofTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn(London,1884NewYork,1885),on
whichheworkedonandoffforeightyears.Writtenentirelyinacarefullyfashionedvernacular,itstandsuptocriticismasaclassicrepresentativeofanyofthegenres
offictionwhichhavebeenattributedtoit.
In1894,Webster,thepublishingfirmhehadestablishedforhiswife'snephew,wentbankrupt,andthefollowingyearhehadtoadmitthatthetypsettingmachinein
whosedevelopmenthehadbeeninvestingsince1880wasunmarketable.Over$100,000indebt,heturnedtopotboilersTheTragedyofPudd'nheadWilson
(1894)beinganhonourableexceptionandtoaroundtheworldlecturetour,toretrievehisfortunesandhisrespect.Hereturnedwithbothrestored,buttheeffort
hadexhaustedhim.Hepredicted:'IcameinwithHalley'scometin1835.Itiscomingnextyear....TheAlmightyhassaid,nodoubt:''Nowherearethesetwo
unaccountablefreakstheycameintogether,theymustgoouttogether."'Truetothemercurialcharacterofitsauthor,towhomartwaseverything,The
AutobiographyofMarkTwain,ed.CharlesNeider(1959),begunin1877,containsfictionaswellasfact.SeeBernarddeVoto,ThePortableMarkTwain,
1977SelectedWritingsofanAmericanSkeptic,ed.VictorDoyno,1995Tales,Speeches,EssaysandSketches,ed.TomQuirk,1995TheComplete
HumorousSketchesandTalesofMarkTwain,ed.CharlesNeider,newedn1996JohnC.Gerber,MarkTwain,1988(biographical/criticalstudy)HenryB.
Wonham,MarkTwainand

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theArtoftheTallTale,1993(criticalstudy)ShelleyFisherFishkin,LightingOutfortheTerritory:ReflectionsonMarkTwainandAmericanCulture,1996R.
KentRasmussen,MarkTwainAtoZ:theEssentialReferencetoHisLifeandWritings,1996.
Tyler,Anne(b.1941)
Americannovelist,wasborninMinneapolisandeducatedatDukeUniversity,fromwhichshegraduatedin1961.Havingmarriedin1963(shehastwodaughters),
sheworkedasauniversitylibrarianuntil1965,whenthefamilysettledinBaltimore,thesettingofmanyofhernovels.Beginningwithherfirst,IfMorningEverComes
(1964),arecurringmotifisthesympathetictreatmentoftheeccentric,rebellious,noncommunicative,orsimplyindependentlymindedindividualinthecontextof
traditionalfamilyconventions.Tylerherselfhasnominatedherfifth,CelestialNavigation(1974),ableakaccountofabrilliantbutpathologicallyshyartistwhobrings
himselftoproposemarriagebutthenfailsasahusband,asherearliestworkofgenuinequality.Unfulfilledbelongingisoneofthemanifoldfeaturesofherninth,Dinner
attheHomesickRestaurant(1982),which,withitsseveralnarrativestrains,markedahighpointinherdevelopmentoftheseriocomicnovel.Subsequentnovels
havebeenmoreaccessible:TheAccidentalTourist(1985),inwhichatragedyaccentuatesafamilyriftandhelplessnessprevailsBreathingLessons(1988),winner
ofthePulitzerPrizeSaintMaybe(1991),atangleofbirthsanddeathseventuallyresolvedandLadderofYears(1995),her13th,inwhichaboredmotherand
housewifesuccessfullymanufacturesherdisappearance.Shortstorieshaveappearedinvariousjournals,includingtheNewYorker.SeeAliceHallPetry,
UnderstandingAnnTyler,1990(criticalstudy)DaleSalwak(ed.),AnneTylerasNovelist,1995.
Tynan,Katharine(18611931)
Irishpoet,novelist,andjournalist,wasborninCo.Dublin,oneofthe11childrenwholivedpastinfancyofagentlemandairyfarmer,andwasbroughtupinthe
comfortablesurroundingsofWhitehall,Clondalkin.Anulceratedeyeinfectionasachildleftherwithapermanentconditionwhichshereferredtoas'purblind'.She
waseducatedattheDominicanConventofStCatherineofSienaatDroghedauntilshewas14,shortlyafterwhichshebecameherfather'sofficialcompanionand
hostess.In1885shepublishedLouisedelaVallireandOtherPoems,mainlyconventionalandfashionable,butexpressingherCatholicismandfeminineoutlook.
ShealsometYEATS,whowasinfluentialinfurtheringhercareer,andshehis.In1893shemarriedHenryA.Hinkson,abarristerwhoalsowrotenovels,andsettledin
London.ShecontributedliteraryreviewsandcrusadingarticlestoIrish,English,andAmericanjournals,andwrotehistoricalromancesandsensational(butdecorously
expressed)novelsofprotest,oftenwithIrishsettings.Inseveralvolumesofverse,culminatingwithInnocencies(1905),sheconfirmedherstatusasasignificantpoet
oftheIrishLiteraryRevival,especiallywithherpoemsofnatureandofmotherhood.TheHolyWar(1916)andHerbO'Grace(1918)wereextremelypopularfor
theirreflectionsfromanunusualangleonWorldWarI,inwhichtwoofhersonswerefighting.ThefamilyhadreturnedtoIrelandin1911whenHinksonwas
appointedResidentMagistrateforCo.Mayo.Afterhisdeathin1919shebecameevenmoredependentonherliteraryefforts,whileatthesametimetravelling
extensivelyinBritainandwesternEurope,withherdaughterasguide.ThepoliticalchaoswhichshewitnessedduringthreelongstaysinCologneisdescribedinLifein
theOccupiedArea(1925),oneofseveralvolumesofmemoirstheothersareTwentyFiveYears(1913),TheMiddleYears(1916),TheYearsoftheShadow
(1919),TheWanderingYears(1922),andMemories(1924).Herdaughter,PamelaHinkson(190082),wasanovelistunderherownnameandthatof'Peter
Deane',aswhomshewroteanotablenovelofWorldWarI,TheVictors(1925).SeePoems,ed.MonkGibbon,1963MarilynGaddisRose,KatharineTynan,
1974(criticalstudy).
Tynan,Kenneth(192780)
Britishdramaticcritic,wasborninBirmingham,theillegitimatesonofSirPeterPeacock(18721948),sixtimesmayorofWarrington,andRoseTynan(18881961),
withwhomSirPeterlivedasPeterTynanforfivedaysoftheweek.HewaseducatedatKingEdward'sSchool,Birmingham,andMagdalenCollege,Oxford.He
startedwritingsophisticateddramacriticismwhenhewas17,andpublishedhisfirstcollectionofpieces,HethatPlaystheKing,in1950.Whenhecamedownfrom
Oxfordin1951hewasbothactoranddirectorbeforebecomingDramaCriticoftheSpectator(195152),EveningStandard(195253),andDailySketch(1953
54).Ofhisstandingin1954,whenhejoinedtheObserver,LordOlivier(190789)wroteinConfessionsofanActor(1982):'Hisdestructiveweaponsweredeadly,
strengthenedbythescintillatingqualityofhiswriting.Hispraisewasequallyimpressive.'In1963heacceptedOlivier'sinvitationtobeLiteraryManageroftheNational
Theatre,inwhichcapacityhebroughtSTOPPARDtotheLondonstage,andpersuadedthemanagementtocommission,advertise,andsellticketsforSHAFFER'sBlack
Comedybeforeawordofithadbeenwritten.Heresignedin1969,afteradisputewiththegovernorsoverSoldiers,aplaybyRolfHochhuth(b.1931)inwhich
allegationsaremadeaboutWINSTONCHURCHILL'SactionsduringWorldWarII.HewasjointproducerofSol

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dierswhenitwasstagedatanotherLondontheatrein1968.Hedevisedandpartlywrotethepopular,butcriticallydisparaged,'eveningofeleganterotica',Oh!
Calcutta!(1969,published1988).HiscollectedcriticismisinAViewoftheEnglishStage19441963(newedn1984).Profiles,ed.KathleenTynanandEddie
Eban(1990)contains50tellingstudiesofperformersandperformances.In1951hemarriedtheAmericannovelistElaineDundy(b.1927),inwhoseTheDud
Avocado(1958)heappearsthinlydisguisedasaphotographer.Hissecondwife,Kathleen(19381995),whomhemarriedin1967,becamehisbiographer.See
KathleenTynan,TheLifeofKennethTynan,newedn1995TheKennethTynanLetters,ed.KathleenTynan,1996.

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U
Udall,Nicolas
seePLAUTUS.
Ungaretti,Giuseppe(18881970)
Italianpoet,wasborninEgyptinAlexandria,andeducatedinParisatCollgedeFranceandtheSorbonne.AfterservingintheinfantryinWorldWarI,hewasa
journalistbeforebeingProfessorofItalianLiterature,SaoPauloUniversity193642,andProfessorofModernItalianLiterature,RomeUniversity194259.IlPorto
Sepolto[TheBuriedPort](1916)effectivelyestablishedthehermeticmodeofpoetry,distinctivefortheabsenceofconventionalpunctuationandmetre,whichhe
employedcompellinglyintheearliervolumesof'LaVitad'unUomo'[TheLifeofaMan]sequence,notablyIlDolore[Sorrow](1947).HealsotranslatedintoItalian
sonnetsofSHAKESPEAREandthe'Visions'ofBLAKE.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.andtr.PatrickCreagh,1971.
Unsworth,Barry
seeONDAATJE.
Updike,John(b.1932)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,andcritic,wasborninShillington,Pennsylvania.Hisfather,ahighschoolmathematicsteacherofmodestmeans,wasof
DutchAmericandescent:hismother,awouldbewriter,ofGermanancestry.Ofhimselfwhenyoung:'Hesawartbetweendrawingandwritingheignorantlymade
nodistinctionasamethodofridingathinpenciloutofShillington,outoftimealtogether,intoaninfinityofunseenandevenunbornhearts.Hepicturedthisinfinityas
radiant.Howinnocent!'HewaseducatedatlocalpublicschoolsandHarvard.In1954hegraduatedsummacurelaude,andhadastory,'FriendsfromPhiladelphia',
publishedintheNewYorker'Theacceptancereachedmeatmyparents'farm,wheremymotherandIhadbothsooftenploddedouttothetinmailboxtoreapour
rejectionslips.'AfterayearinEnglandattheRuskinSchoolofArt,Oxford,hewasaNewYorkerstaffwriteruntil1957,whenhesettledwithhisfirstwifeandfamily
inIpswich,Massachusetts,whereherentedanofficeabovearestaurantinwhichtowrite.TheCarpenteredHenandOtherTameCreations(1958inUKas
HopingforaHoopoe,1959)wasacollectionofverse,aformofexpressionbymeansofwhich,throughMidpointandOtherPoems(1969)toFacingNature
(1985),hehasdemonstratedaneattouchandareflectiveconsciousnessseealsoCollectedPoems19531993(1993),intwosections:poetryandlightverse.
TheSameDoor(1959)comprisedNewYorkerstories,someofthemrevisedThePoorhouseFair(1959),hisfirstnovel,isafuturisticstudyofelderlypeopleina
settingrememberedfromhischildhood.WithRabbit,Run(1960),writtenduringapersonalreligiouscrisis,heembarkedonachronicleofrevelationsofAmerican
fearsanddreamsthroughfourdecades,followedbyRabbitRedux(1971),RabbitisRich(1981),whichwonthePulitzerPrize,asdidRabbitatRest(1990).InThe
Centaur(1963),whichwontheNationalBookAward,themesfromGreekmythologyhavetheirparallelsinincidentswhichreflecthisownfamilylifeinthe1940s.
Couples(1968)focusesonsuburbansexualrelationships,atopicwhichrecursinMarryMe(1976).IssuesofboththeologyandsexualityareexploredinAMonthof
Sundays(1975),Roger'sVersion(1986),andS(1988),threelinkednovelsinwhichsituationsinHAWTHORNE'STheScarletLetterarerecreatedincontemporary
Americanterms.JamesBuchanan(17911868),USPresidentfrom1857to1861,duringwhichthefirstsecessionfromtheUnionoccurred,isthesubjectofUpdike's
play,BuchananDying(1974),andalsoofabiographybeingwrittenbythesexuallyhyperactiveprotagonistofMemoriesoftheFordAdministration:aNovel
(1992),inwhichtheearlierandlateradministrationscounterpointoneanotherandbackupafurtherstylishexplorationofmodernmores.Updikecombinedhistalents
asacriticofLatinAmericanfictionandhisexperienceoftravelinBrazil(1994),anexcursionintomagicrealism.IntheBeautyoftheLilies(1996)isasaga,linked
withthehistoryofthemovies,offourgenerationsofafamily,whichalsoreflectshisreligiousbeliefs.
Hehaspublished,accordingtohisownaccount,abouttwohundredshortstories:'Morecloselythanmynovels,morecircumstantiallythanmypoems,theseefforts
eachholdmylife'sincidents,predicaments,crises,joys.'TheAfterlifeandOtherStories(1994)isarecentcollectionofpieceswrittenbetween1986and1994.
SelfConsciousness:Memoirs(1989),writteninhis57thyear,containsauto

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biographicalessaysandreflections.OthercollectionsareJustLooking:EssaysonArt(1990),OddJobs:EssaysandCriticism(1991),andGolfDreams:
WritingsonGolf(1996).SeeRobertDetweiler,JohnUpdike,rev.edn1984(criticalstudy)DonaldJ.Grenier,JohnUpdike'sNovels,1984JudieNewman,
JohnUpdike,1988(criticalstudy).
Upward,Edward
seeISHERWOOD.
Urquhart,(Sir)Thomas,ofCromarty(16111660)
Scottishprosewriterandtranslator,ChiefofClanUrquhart,wastheeldestsonofSirThomasUrquhart(15821642).HewaseducatedatKing'sCollege,Aberdeen,
whichheenteredattheageof11andleftwithoutadegreetogoabroad.In1637heandayoungerbrotherwereaccusedoflockinguptheirfather,whowasclearly
losingcontrolofhisfinancialaffairs.UrquhartandhisclantookpartintheroyalistvictoryovertheCovenantersatTurriffin1639,thefirstbattleoftheCivilWar.In
Londonin1641hewasknightedbyCharlesI,andpublishedauniformlydullvolumeofverses,Epigrams:DivineandMoral.Hereturnedhomeonhisfather's
death,assignedsomeofhisrentstothecreditorsoftheestates,andwentabroad.Whenhegotbackin1645,thecreditorswerestillthere,andcontinuedtohound
himinhis15thcenturyfortress.HehadinthemeantimepublishedTheTrissotetras(dated1645),alargelyimpenetrablethesisontrigonometry.Ontheexecutionof
CharlesIin1649,UrquhartwasoneofthosewhoraisedthestandardforCharlesIIandcapturedInverness.AfterCharles'sScottishcoronationatSconein1651,he
accompaniedtheroyalistarmy,withtherankofcolonel,toWorcester.Hewascapturedinthetotalrout,andlostmostofhismanuscripts,whichhehadbroughtwith
himinthreevast'portmantles'.HewasreleasedonparoleafteramonthintheTowerofLondonandtheninWindsorCastle,oneofthosewhoweretoforfeittheir
estatesunlesstheycouldprovethattheirserviceswereintheinterestsofthecommonweal.Herespondedbypublishingthreeremarkableworkswithfancifulpseudo
Greektitles.InPantochronochanon:or,APeculiarPromptuaryofTime(1652),hetracedhisancestrybackthrough152generationstoAdam.Ekskubalauron:
or,TheDiscoveryofaMostExquisiteJewel(1652)isalivelypleaforauniversallanguage,withdigressions,oneofwhichcompriseshisfamouscharactersketchof
the'AdmirableCrichton',JamesCrichton(156082).InLogopandekteision(1653)hedetailedhisproposalsforhisuniversallanguage.Hismostlastingwork,
however,ishisversionoftheGargantuaandPantagruelofRABELAIS(books1and2,1653book3,1694),oneofthegreattranslationsintermsofrenderingthe
spiritoftheoriginal.LatterlyUrquhartlivedabroad,whereitissaidhediedoflaughterafterhearingoftheRestorationofCharlesII.ThechiefshipofClanUrquhart
passedtohisbrother,onwhosedeathitdevolvedontheUrquhartsofCraigfintry.SeeTireAdmirableUrquhart:SelectedWritings,ed.RichardBoston,1975
TheJewel,ed.R.D.S.JackandR.J.Lyall,1983.

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V
Valry,Paul(Ambroise)(18711945)
Frenchpoetandcritic,wasborninCette(Ste)ofaCorsicanfatherandanItalianmother.HewaseducatedatCollgedeSte(nowCollgePaulValry),thelyce
inMontpellier,towhichthefamilyhadmoved,andMontpellierUniversity,wherehereadlaw.WiththeencouragementofMALLARMhebegantopublishversein'little
magazines'in1890.InOctober1892hewentthroughsomekindofintellectualcrisisduringastormynightinGenoa,andrenouncedliteratureforthecultivationofhis
mind.Hefinallybroke25years'silence,duringwhichhehadworkedintheWarOffice,becomein1900secretarytotheDirectorofAgenceHavas,thepress
association,andpublishedonlyprose,withLaJeuneParque(1917),anobscure,500linepoemwithechoesofRACINE.TheappearanceofCharmes:ouPomes
(1922),writtenafter1917,establishedhimastheultimateSymbolist.HewasappointedtothenewlyestablishedchairofpoeticsatCollgedeFrancein1937.Heis
buriedintheseasidecemeteryatStewhichisthesubjectofhisbestknownpoem,'CimitireMarin'.HiscollectedworkshavebeenissuedinEnglishtranslation,ed.
JacksonMathews,15vols195675.
Vanbrugh,(Sir)John(16641726)
Britishdramatistandarchitect,wasborninLondon,thesonofasugarbakerandgrandsonofGillisVanBrugg(d.1646),arefugeeFlemishmerchant,andwas
probablyeducatedatChesterGrammarSchool.HehadsomearchitecturaltraininginFrancebetween1683and1685,andwascommissionedintheEarlof
Huntingdon'sregimentin1786.In1790hewasimprisonedinFrancefortwoyears(apparentlyfortravellingwithoutapassport),afterwhichheresumedhismilitary
career,achievingtherankofcaptain.Twoofhisearliestplays,TheRelapse:orVirtueinDanger(1697)andTheProvok'dWife(1697),arealsohismostoriginal.
ThoughtheformercontainswithintwoplotsthestandarddevicesofRestorationcomedy(temptation,seduction,impersonation,andreconciliation),thelatterisofone
pieceandhasagenuinely,andstillattheendunresolved,unhappymarriagemotivatingtheplot.Morethanotherwritersofhistime,hecametorelyonthe
developmentofcomicsituationsratherthanondialogueortheexpressionoffancifulhumours,ashedemonstratedinTheCountryHouse(1704),adaptedfromaplay
bytheFrenchdramatist,FlorentCartonDancourt(16611725).TheProvok'dHusbandwasleftunfinishedandwascompletedbyCIBBER.Vanbrughwasappointed
ComptrolleroftheRoyalWorksin1702,andwasknightedin1714.HedesignedCastleHowardandBlenheimPalace,thecostofwhichsoappalledtheDuchessof
Marlboroughthatatonepointsherefusedtopaythesuppliers'bills.SeeLaurenceWhistler,Vanbrugh:ArchitectandDramatist,newedn1978.
VanDerPost,(Sir)Laurens(190696)
SouthAfricannovelist,explorer,andanthropologist,wasbornnearPhilippolis,the13thof15childrenofparentsofDutchdescent,andwaseducatedatGrey
College,Bloemfontein.Heservedinawhalingship,theexperienceofwhichisrecapturedinhisnovel,TheHunterandtheWhale:aTaleofAfrica(1967).He
workedonVoorslagwithROYCAMPBELLandPLOMER,hurriedlywenttoJapanseeYetBeingSomeoneOther(1982)andwasthenvariouslyajournalistandfarmer
inSouthAfricaandEngland.Hisonlyprewarbook,thenovelInaProvince(1934),wassignificantforitstimeinseriouslyquestioningtheruleofwhitelawinSouth
Africa.HeenlistedintheBritishArmyin1939,andwastakenprisonerin1942whilecommandingasmallguerrillaunitintheFarEastseehisaccount,TheNightof
theNewMoon(1970),inUSAasThePrisonerandtheBomb.HestayedintheEastin1945,beingMilitaryAttach,withtherankofcolonel,totheBritish
MinisterinBataviauntil1947,whenhewasmadeCBE.ABarofShadow(1956)wasreprintedinTheSeedandtheSower(1963),threestoriesreflectinghis
experiencesinactionandasaprisonerofwar.InothernovelshehasexaminedthepositionoftheexiledartistTheFaceBesidetheFire(1953)andcreatedan
extendedsagaofsurvivalwhichbeginswiththedestructionofaSouthAfricanfarmAStoryLiketheWind(1972)andAFarOffPlace(1974).
VenturetotheInterior(1952)ishisaccount,enhancedbyreflectivepassages,ofhismissiononbehalfoftheBritishGovernmentto

Page562

exploretheregionofMountMlanje(theinspirationofHAGGARD'SPeopleoftheMist).SubsequentexpeditionsprovidedthebasisofTheLostWorldoftheKalahari
(1958)andTheHeartoftheHunter(1961),asdistinguishedfortheirinsightintothecivilization,andmind,oftheBushmanasfortheircontributiontotheliteratureof
travelandadventure.JourneyintoRussia(1964)describeswhathecalls'perhapsthelongestsinglejourneythroughtheSovietUnionundertakensincethewarby
someonewhoisnotacommunist'.Hewasknightedin1981.SeeFeatherFall:anAnthology,ed.JeanMarcPottiez,newedn1995TheAdmiral'sBaby,1996
(postwarmemoir).
VanDruten,John
seeISHERWOOD.
VanVechten,Carl
seeHUGHES,LANGSTON.
VargasLlosa,Marlo(b.1936)
Peruviannovelist,wasborninArequipahisfather,havingabandonedhiswifewhenshewasfivemonths'pregnantandremainedincommunicadofor11years,
reappearedaftertheboyhadallthetimebeenledtobelievehewasdead.In1952,whenhisfatherdiscoveredthathewaswritingversesinsteadofattendingtohis
schoolwork,hewassenttoLeoncioPradoMilitaryAcademy,inthecourtyardofwhichcopiesofhisfirstnovelwerelaterpubliclyburned.Hewentontothe
UniversityofSanMarcos,Lima.In1955heelopedwithhisauntbymarriageJulia,tenyearshissenior.Aspectsofhiscourtshipareinterwovenintothefictionalplot
ofLaTaJuliayelEscribidor(1977tr.HelenR.LaneasAuntJuliaandtheScriptwriter,1982).Forhisaunt'sversionofthestoryoftheirmarriage,seeJulia
UrquidiIllanes,MyLifewithMarioVargasLlosa,tr.C.R.Petricone(1988)theydivorcedin1964sothathecouldmarryherniece(andhisfirstcousin).Hedid
furtherstudyattheUniversityofMadrid,afterwhichhewasajournalistandbroadcasterinFrance,andtaughtatQueenMaryandKing'scolleges,London
University,andatuniversitiesintheUSAandPuertoRico.HereturnedpermanentlytoPeruin1974,andunsuccessfullycontestedthepresidentialelectionin1990
ElPesenelAgua(1993tr.LaneasAFishintheWater,1994)isarecordofhispoliticalcampaign,interspersedwithtellingaccountsofhisearlierlife.
HepublishedabookofshortstoriesinSpainin1959,followedbythenovelLaCiudadylosPerros(1963tr.LysanderKempasTheTimeoftheHero,1966),in
whichthemixedsocialbackgroundsandwildbehaviourofcadetsandstaffatthemilitaryacademyatwhichhestudiedrepresentamicrocosmofPeruviansociety.
WithLaCasaVerde(1965tr.GregoryRabassaasTheGreenHouse,1968)itrevealsaconsistentscepticismatatimewhenheadvocatedMarxism.Similarly
texturedinnarrativetechniqueisConversacinenlaCatedral(1969tr.RabassaasConversationintheCathedral,1975),astudyofpoliticalstrifeinPeruinthe
1950s.InElHablador(1987tr.LaneasTheStoryteller,1990)thestrandsofnarrativearemixedtobringanancientcultureinconflictwiththepresent,andto
unravelthemysteryofthefateofacharismaticfriendofthewriter.InLitumaenlosAndes(1993tr.EdithGrossmanasDeathintheAndes,1996)heoffersa
metaphorforavisionofPeruviansocietywhichispartmystery,partpoliticalallegory.VargasLlosahasalsowrittenmajorcriticalstudiesinSpanishofGARCAMARQUEZ
(1971)andFLAUBERT(1975).AWriter'sReality,introductionbyMyronLichtblau(1991),isaseriesofpersonalessaysonhiscraft,inEnglish.Afurtherselection,
rangingfrom1962to1994,isMakingWaves,ed.andtr.JohnKing(1996),whichincludesjournalismontopicalandpoliticalissuesaswellascriticalessays.
Vaughan,Henry(162295)
Welshpoet(hecalledhimself'Silurist',i.e.,manofsouthWales),acousinofAUBREY,wasborninLlansaintffraed,Breconshire.Withhistwinbrother,Thomas(d.
1666),hewaseducatedbyalocalrectorandatJesusCollege,Oxford,afterwhichhestudiedlawandthenmedicine.TheybothfoughtfortheroyalistsintheCivil
War,andwerecapturedandimprisoned.Afterwards,HenrypractisedasaphysicianatNewtonbyUskThomasstudiedandwrotetreatisesonmagicand
mysticism.Henry'sfirstbook,Poems,withtheTenthSatyreofJuvenalEnglished(1646),isinthesecularmodeofthetavernpoets,notablyDONNEandJONSON,and
theformisrepeatedinOlorIscanus[SwanofUsk]:SelectPoemsandTranslations(1651),whichwaspublishedwithouthisconsent.Forinthemeantime,
followingtheinspirationofGEORGEHERBERT,hehadturnedtoreligiouspoetry,publishedinSilexScintillans[SparksfromtheFlint]:SacredPoemsandPrivate
Ejaculations(1650enlargededition1655).Thebestofthesepoems,whichinclude'TheRetreat','Peace'('Mysoulthereisacountry...'),'TheWorld'('Isaw
eternitytheothernight...'),and'Man',sparklewithbrilliantlines,andhaveamysticaldepthandanunderstandingofthenaturalworld.TheMountofOlives:or
SolitaryDevotions(1652)comprisesmeditationsinprose.SeeTheCompletePoems,ed.AlanRudrum,1981StevieDavies,HenryVaughan,1995(critical
biography).
VegaCarpio,Lopede(15621635)
Spanishdramatist,poet,andnovelist,wasborninMadrid,andstudiedLatinandSpanishunderthenovelistVicenteEspinel(15501624)from1572to1574,when
hewenttoaJesuitschool.From1576to1578hewasinthehouseholdofBishopMansiquedeLaraandattendedAlcalaUniversity.Hethenentered

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theserviceoftheMarquisofLasNavas,studiedatSalamancaUniversity,andin1583enlistedintheexpeditionsenttoputdownarebellionintheAzores.Alreadyan
upandcomingplaywright,heembarkedonhisreturnonatorridaffairwithElenaOsorio,marriedsince1576toastrollingactor.WhensheleftVegaCarpioforthe
wealthynephewofacardinal,herespondedbycirculatingtworibaldpoemsaboutherandherfamily,forwhichhewasjailedforlibelandexiledforsevenyears.(He
recordedthecourseoftheaffairinLaDorotea,anovelinproseandverse,writtensoonafterwardsbutnotpublisheduntil1632.)
HesettledinValencia,marriedin1588(byproxy)17yearoldIsabeldeUrbino,ofaprominentMadridfamily,andimmediatelyleftwiththeSpanishArmadaonits
disastrousexpeditionagainstEngland,whichheandhisshipsurvived.Isabeldiedinchildbirthin1594.AfterhisreturntoMadridhesetuphousewithMicaelade
Lujn,anactor'swife,the'Lucinda'ofhispoetry,bywhomhehadseveralchildrenwhosepaternitywasascribedtoherhusbanduntilhisdeathin1603,afterwhich
theywerebaptizedas'parentsunknown'.In1598hepublishedLaDragontea,anepicintencantosvilifyingtheEnglishherooftheArmadafiasco,SirFrancisDrake
(c.154096),andmarriedJuanadeGuardo,thedaughterofawealthybutcher/fishmonger.In1604,bywhichtimehewassaidtohavewrittenthreehundredplays,he
publishedthefirstof25volumesofhiscollectedworks,LasComedias,andsetuptwohouseholdsinToledo,onewithhiswifeandonewithMicaela,whowenther
ownwayin1607.Juanadiedin1613,andhewaslivingwithJernimadeBurgos,amarriedactress,whenin1614hebecameapriest.Thelastofhisnumerousloves
wasMartadeNevares('Amarilis'),theunhappyyoungwifeofabusinessman,afterwhosedeaththeylivedtogetheruntilshedied,blindandinsane,in1632.In1634,
their17yearolddaughter,whohadbecomeVegaCarpio'ssecretary/companion,wasseducedandabductedbyaMadridhidalgo,andheneversawheragain.He
tooktorepentingdailyforhismisdeedsandtoscourginghimselfeveryFriday.Duringthecourseofhisstatefuneral,whichlastedninedays,thereweremorethana
hundredandfiftyorations.
VegaCarpio'stotaloutputofplayshasbeenestimatedatoverfifteenhundred,ofwhichheclaimedtohavewrittenahundredinlessthanadayeach.Aboutfive
hundredsurvive,justifyinghispositionasthefounderofaSpanishnationaltheatreandcreatorofthecomedia(athreeactverseplay)hewasalsoalyricpoetof
considerableskillandfeeling.FuenteOvejuna,hiscompellingportrayalofapeasantuprising,waspresented(tr.AdrianMitchell)inLondonin1989bytheNational
Theatre,andrevivedin1992.ArteNuevodeHacerComedias[TheNewArtofWritingPlays],theamusingversetreatisewhichhereadtoaliterarysocietyin
Madridin1609,is(tr.W.T.Brewster)inBranderMatthews(ed.),PapersonPlaymaking(1957).SeeFivePlays,tr.JillBooty,introductionbyR.ED.Pring
Mill,1961TwoPlays:MadnessinValencia,TheIdiotLady,tr.DavidJohnston,1995.
Verga,Giovanni(18401922)
Italiannovelist,wasborninCataniaofaSicilianlandowningfamily,andwaseducatedprivatelyandatCataniaUniversity,wherehereadlaw.HelivedinFlorence
from1865to1870,andtheninMilan,writingromanticnovelsofwhathelatercalled'eleganceandadultery'.ThedistinctiveexceptionwasNedda(1874),ataleofan
unmarriedmotheroftheSicilianpeasantry,therealismofwhichpresagedhisinitiatingthemodeofverismo.EvenbeforeheabandonedMilanforSicilyin1885hehad
spentmoreandmoreofhistimethere,findinghissubjectmatterinthedailylivesandtemperamentofthepeasantsandfishermen,andrepresentingtheSiciliandialect
byadaptingstandardItalianusage.HismostnotableworksinthisveinaretwovolumesofstorieswhichD.H.LAWRENCEtranslatedasLittleNovelsofSicily(1925)and
CavalleriaRusticana,andOtherTalesofSicilianLife(1928),andthenovelsIMalavoglia(1881tr.M.A.CraigasTheHousebytheMedlarTree,1890)and
MastrodonGesualdo(1889tr.Craig,1893tr.D.H.Lawrence,1923).Vergawasmadealifesenatoronhis80thbirthday.
Verlaine,Paul(184496)
Frenchpoet,wasborninMetz,thesonofacaptainintheEngineers,andwaseducatedattheInstitutionLandryandtheLyceBonaparteinParis,afterwhichhe
workedasacivilservantintheHteldeVille,asourceofincomeofwhichmanyyoungpoetsavailedthemselves.PomesSaturniens(1866),amelancholy,musical
reflectionoftheParnassiancredo,andcollectionsin1869and1870,containmostofwhatislastinginhiswork.In1870hemarriedthe17yearoldMathildeMaut.
In1871hegotinvolvedwiththeinsurrectionistCommunards,andRIMBAUDarrivedinhislife.Theirassociationledtohisbeingsentencedtotwoyears'hardlabourafter
hehadshotRimbaudinthehand.WhileinprisonhereadSHAKESPEARE,brusheduphisEnglishgenerally,andwroteandarrangedthepublicationofthecurious
RomancesSansParoles(1874),ofwhichnotonecopyoftheeditionwassold.Mathildeobtainedajudicialseparationin1874(shewasoneofthefirsttotake
advantageofthelegalizationofdivorcetenyearslater),whichledtohisreturntotheCatholicfaith.Inthedoublestateofemotionwhichensued,hewrotesomefine
religiousverse,andvowedtogiveupabsinthe.Onhisreleasefromjailin1875hewenttoEngland,wherehetaughtinavillageschoolinStick

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ley,Lincolnshire,andthenatStAloysiusCollege,Bournemouth.AttemptsatfarminginFrancefailed,andthedeathfromtyphoidofLucienLtinois(186183)
promptedthegradualdeteriorationofhisexistence.Hereturnedtoabsintheandwasin1884sentencedtoamonthinjailandafineof500francsformakingviolent
threatstohismother.Muchofwhathenowwrotewasrecycledfromearlierwork,publishedinordertomaintainabizarrelifestylebetweenthreedifferentwomen.
SeeSelectedPoems,ed.andtr.JoannaRichardson,1974.
Verne,Jules(18281905)
Frenchnovelist,wasbornonIleFeydeauintheLoireatNantes,thesonofalawyer,andbecameaboarderattheseminaryofStDonatianin1837.Thwartedinan
unpremeditatedattempttorunawaytoseawhenhewas11,hecommented:'AfterthisIshalltravelonlyinmyimagination.'Heleftschoolat16,andafterworkingin
hisfather'sofficewenttoParistofurtherhislawstudies.Hepassedhisexaminationswhilealsotryingtoestablishhimselfasawriter,atwhichhehadsomeminor
successwithpiecesforthestage.In1856hesetupasastockbroker,andthefollowingyearmarriedayoungwidow.AtriptoScotlandin1859inspiredatastefor
romanceandforspectacularlandscapes.At34,stillwithoutanypositionasamanofletters,hecombinedtheprevailingpreoccupationswithballooningandAfricainto
anadventurestory.Afterbeingrejectedbyseveralpublishers,CinqSemainesenBallon(1863tr.asFiveWeeksinaBalloon,1869)wasenthusiastically
accepted,subjecttorevisions,asachildren'sstory.Itwasthefirstofastreamofsimilaramalgamsoffactandimaginativeandscientificfiction,ofwhichVoyageau
CentredelaTerre(1864:tr.asAJourneytotheCentreoftheEarth,1873),VingtMillesLieuessouslesMers(1870tr.asTwentyThousandLeaguesunder
theSea,1874),andLeTourduMondeenQuatreVingtsJours(1873tr.G.M.TowleasAroundtheWorldinEightyDays,1874)stillhavethepowerto
excite.In1872hewasawardedaprizebytheAcadmieFranaise.Fameandwealthenabledhimtoentertainlavishly,tohaveaseagoingyacht,andtotravel:untilin
1886hewasforcedintoretirementwhenhewasshot,fornoreason,byadementednephew,thebulletpermanentlylodginginhisleg.ComparingVerne'sworkwith
his,WELLSwrote(1933):'Hehelpedthereadertoimagine[actualpossibilitiesofinventionanddiscovery]doneandtorealizewhatfun,excitementormischiefwould
ensue.Manyofhisinventionshave"cometrue".But[mystories]donotpretendtodealwithpossiblethingstheyareexercisesoftheimaginationinaquitedifferent
field.'Writtenin1863,rejectedbyhispublisherthatyearorin1864,andneverpublisheduntil1994isVerne'sParisauXXeSicle,ed.PieroGondolodellaRiva,tr.
RichardHowardasParisintheTwentiethCentury(1997),partsatireonthestateofsocietyatthetime,partculturalautobiography,andpartastonishingforesight
intothetechnologyandsociologyofthe1960s.SeeBrianTavesandStephenMichaluk,Jr,TheJulesVerneEncyclopaedia,1996.
Vicente,Gil(c.1465c.1537)
Portuguesedramatist,wasborninruralPortugal,possiblynearSerradaEstrela,andwasattachedtothecourtasgoldsmithinabout1490,becomingnational
overseerofgoldandsilvercraftin1509,andbeingMasteroftheRoyalMint151317.From1502hewasalsocourtdramatist,writinginSpanishaswellasin
Portuguese,andsometimesbothinthesameplay.Inspiteofthefactthatmostofhisplayswerewrittenforcourtandstateoccasions,hewasabletoinvesthis
comedieswithlyricismanddepthofcharacterization,andeffectivelytoestablishaPortuguesetraditioninreligiousdrama,whileblendingelementsfromavarietyof
sources.Luis,hissonborninabout1520ofasecondmarriage,wasresponsibleforthecompilationofhiscollectedworks,publishedinLisbonin1562,inwhichstage
directionsareincluded.
Vidal,Gore(b.1925)
Americannovelist,dramatist,andessayist,wasbornatWestPoint,NewYork,wherehisfatherwasaninstructorinaeronauticshismotherwasadaughterofthe
blindSenatorThomasPryorGore(18701949).AftergoingtoPhillipsExeterAcademy,heservedintheUSArmyduringWorldWarII,becomingawarrantofficer
andfindinghimselfactingasfirstmateinasupplyshipintheAleutianIslands.AtseahewroteWilliwaw(1946),awarnovelsetinanarmysupplyshipintheAleutian
Islands.Bentonbecomingamanofletters,hewrotehisthirdnovel,TheCityandthePillar(1948rev.edn1965newednwithintroductionandsevenshortstories,
1995),inGuatemala.AfterthepublicationofthisexplorationofanallAmericanlad'shomosexuality,helefttheUSAagain,tospendtwoyearsinNorthAfricaand
Europe(hisfamilyhadcomefromVeniceinthe1860s).TheSeasonofComfort(1949),aportraitofayoungmanandhismother,representsafurtherventureinto
fictionalizedautobiography.ASearchforaKing:aTwelfthCenturyLegend(1950)initiatedasignificanthistoricalphase,whichincludedJulian(1964),astudyof
theRomanemperorknownasthe'Apostate',whoruledfrom361to363.ThephasecontinuedwithWashingtonD.C.(1967),thefirstofaseriesofsixnovels
culminatingwithHollywood(1990),inwhichheoffersapanoramaofAmericanhistory.Amoreacid,wittytasteinformsMyraBreckenridge(1968)andMyron
(1974),whoseprotagonistundergoesasexchangeandareversal,andthenexperiencesfantasiesinbothroles.LivefromGolgotha(1992),toldwithasenseof

Page565

historyandaplethoraofjokes,transplantsbiblicaleventsintothetelevisionage.HehaswrittendetectivenovelsasEdgarBox.Therehavebeenseveralcollectionsof
hiselegant,erudite,savage,andwittyessaysonliterary,historical,andpoliticalsubjects,includingAViewfromtheDiner'sClub:Essays19871991(1991)the
titleisareferencetohisdecliningmembershipoftheNationalInstituteofArtsandLettersonthegroundsthathewasalreadyamemberoftheDinersClub.United
States:Essays19521992(1993)wontheNationalBookAward.Palimpsest(1995)isananecdotal,discursiveautobiography.SeeJayParini(ed.),GoreVidal:
WriteragainsttheGrain,newedn1994(criticalstudy).
Vlgny,Alfredde(17971863)
Frenchpoet,wasborninLochesandeducatedattheLyceBonaparte,Paris,afterwhichhebecameasublieutenantintheGendarmesduRoi.Heleftthearmyin
1827asacaptain,havingspentmostofhisserviceongarrisonduty.InthemeantimehehadpublishedCinqMars(1826),ahistoricalnovelofthe17thcenturyin
whichsymbolismplaysalargepartPomes(1822),reflectingclassicalandbiblicalthemesEloa:ou,LaSoeurdesAnges[TheSisteroftheAngels](1824),averse
mysteryplayoftheredemptionofSatan,involvingafemaleangelanddrawingonMILTON,BYRON,andTHOMASMOOREandPomesAntiquesetModernes(1826),
effectivelyhiscollectedverse,whosefinal(1837)editioncomprisedjust20poems,illustratingaromanticbutpessimisticmoralphilosophyaposthumousvolume
appearedin1864.In1825,inPau,hemarriedanEnglishwoman,LydiaBunbury(d.1862).Hewasadevotedifnotdutifulhusband.FortheactressMarieDorval
(17981850),withwhomhehadasevenyearaffair,hewrotehisthreeoriginalplays,whichincludeChatterton(1835),inwhichsheplayedtheyoungpoet'sfictional
mistresswhocomestoaspectacularend.HealsoadaptedfortheFrenchstageSNAKESPEARE'SOthello(1829)andTheMerchantofVenice(1839).Servitudeet
GrandeurMilitaires(1835tr.MargueriteBarnettasTheMilitaryCondition,1964)comprisesthreestoriesindifferentmoods,inwhichvaluesareexploredin
militarycontexts.
Villon,Franois(1431after1462)
Frenchpoet,wasbornFranoisdeMontcorbierinParis,andtookhissurnamefromhisguardian,GuillaumedeVillon,chaplainofSaintBenoitleBtournanda
teacheratParisUniversity,fromwhichVillongraduatedasMAin1452.In1455hekilledapriestinabrawl.Pardonedin1456,hethenparticipatedinarobberyof
goldcoinsfromtheChapeloftheCollegeofNavarre,andleftParisinahurrywhenanaccompliceconfessed.Attheendofafairlywildodysseythroughvarious
towns,hewasin1462imprisonedforthetheft,butreleasedwhenheundertooktorepaythemoney.Hewasrearrestedfortakingpartinyetanotherstreetbrawl,
andcondemnedtodeath:thesentencewascommutedtobanishment,butnotbeforehehadcomposedhisown'Epitaph',inwhichhegraphicallydescribedwhat
wouldhappentohiscorpseandthoseof'fiveorsix'othersalongsidewhomheexpectedtobehanged.Autobiographicaldetailsoccurthroughout'LeLais'[The
Legacy],writtenin1456beforehewentontherun,and'LeTestament',asequenceorcollectionofpoemsinavarietyofmoods(includingbawdyandsatirical),
probablyfinalizedin146162,inwhichappearsthefamousballadewiththerefrain,'Maisosontlesneigesd'antan'.D.G.ROSSETTI,SWINBURNE,andROBERT
LOWELLareamongthosewhohavetranslatedindividualpoemsintoEnglishverse.SeeSelectedPoems,ed.andtr.PeterDale,newedn1978.
Vine,Barbara
SeeRENDELLl.
Virgil(PubliusVergiliusMaro)(7019Bc)
Romanepic,pastoral,anddidacticpoet,wasbornnearMantuainCisalpineGaul.HewaseducatedinCremonaandMilan,andwentontohighereducation,
probablyinNaplesandRome.Hewasneververyfit,whichmaybewhyhethenreturnedtothefamilyfarmtowrite.Afterthecivilunrestin41,duringwhichthefarm
wasconfiscatedbutthenrestoredtohimonappeal,hewenttoliveinCampania.HisEclogues,aseriesofbucolicepisodesinthemannerofTHEOCRITUS,was
publishedin37.HispatronMaecenas(c.708BC)encouragedhimtowritetheGeorgics,onwhichhespentthenextsevenyears.Thesefourbooksofdidacticverse
describetheactivitiesofafarmingyear,withemphasisontraditionalagriculturalindustries,onareturntotheoldformsofworship,andoncommunalworking.
Augustus,nowemperorinallbuttitleandname,feltthatanepicpoemglorifyinghisachievementswouldbeappropriate.Maecenas(ashonoraryministerofarts)
approachedseveralwriters,allofwhomturneddowntheidea.Virgilaccepteditonhisownterms,andwasstillworkingonhisaccountofthemythological
antecedentsofRomeintheyear19,whenhemetAugustusinAthens.InsteadofgoingonatourofGreeceandtheeastashehadintended,heaccompaniedthe
emperorbacktoItaly.Ontheway,hecaughtafever,anddiedatBrundisiumafewdaysafterlanding,havingaskedhisfriendstoburnthemanuscript.With
commendablesense,theydidnosuchthing.TheAeneidisunfinishedinthatitwastoberevisedandpolished.Thestoryiscompleteandendsonadramaticclimax.It
isthenationalepicoftheRomanempire,andthemostfamousandinfluentialpoemoftheRomanera.Virgilalwayswroteinhexameters,aformheperfected,andhis

Page566

masteryofwhichnooneeverequalled.InDANTE'sDivineComedy,Virgil,personifyingHumanReason,isthepoet'sguidetotheGatesofParadise.TENNYSON,in'To
Virgil',callshim'Wielderofthestateliestmeasure/evermouldedbythelipsofman'.SeeTheAeneid,tr.RobertFitzgerald,newedn1993(verse),tr.DavidWest,
1991(prose)TheEcloguesandGeorgics,tr.C.DayLewis,newedn1983,introductionandnotesbyR.O.A.M.Lyne(verse)VirgilinEnglish,ed.K.W.
Gransden,1996JasperGriffin,Virgil,1986(introductiontotheworks).
Vittorini,Elio(190866)
Italiannovelist,translator,andcritic,wasborninSicilyinSyracuse,thesonofarailwaystationemployeewholivedonthejob.Heleftschoolat17afterfiveyearsof
primaryeducationandthreeatabusinessschool,andworkedonaroadbuildinggang.Hewasalsowritingstories,avolumeofwhichwaspublishedin1931.While
workingasaproofreaderonaFlorentinedaily,helearnedEnglish,andwhenhewasforcedtogiveuphisjobbecauseofleadpoisoning,earnedaprecariouslivingby
translatingD.H.LAWRENCE,POE,FAULKNER,andSTEINBECK.ConversazioneinSicilia(1941tr.WilfridDavidasConversationinSicily,1948),apoeticnovelofasearch
forameaningfulrealitythrougharecallofchildhood,causedhimtofalloutwiththeFascistparty(ofwhichhewasnotamember),andin1943hewasimprisoneduntil
theGermanoccupation,duringwhichhewentunderground.AsimilarliterarystyleinformsIlGarofanoRossi(1948tr.AnthonyBowerasTheRedCarnation,
1953),anexplorationofadolescentreactiontoFascism,severalchaptersofwhichhadbeenpublishedin193334inSolaria,asmallFlorentinecooperativeventure.
PostwarsocialproblemsfeatureinIlSempioneStrizzal'OcchioalFrjus(1949tr.CininaBresciaasTheTwilightoftheElephant,1951).Vittorinifoundedthe
criticaljournalsIlPolitecnico(194547)andIlMenab(195967)forthestudyofculturaldirectionsinthecurrentenvironment.AsliteraryadvisertoMondadori,he
rejectedthedyingLAMPEDUSA'smanuscriptas'ratheroldfashioned','essayish',and'unbalanced'.
Voltaire,PseudonymofFranoisMarieArouet(16941778)
Frenchnovelist,dramatist,poet,prosewriter,andphilosopher,wasborninParis,thesonofanotary,andwaseducatedasaboarderattheJesuitCollegeofLouis
leGrand.Hisirresponsibleattitudetostudyinglawoffendednotonlyhisfather,whotriedtoobtainalettredecachetagainsthim,butalsotheauthorities,who
consignedhimbrieflytotheBastillein1717forwritingscurrilousverses.Whilethere,hecomposedLaLigue(1723asLaHenriade,1728tr.JohnLockmanas
Henriade,1732),anepicpoemonthereligiousconflictsassociatedwiththeaccessionofHenryIV,thefirstBourbonKingofFrance.Oedipe,adaptedfromthe
Greeklegend,thefirstofhisnumerousversetragedies,ranexceptionallyfor45performancesin1718.WithapensionfromtheRegent,athirdofhisfather'sfortune,
andtheprofitsfromhisbusinessdeals,Voltairewasnowonthewaytobeingrich.Insultedbyanoblemanforhismiddleclassbackground,andthenbeatenupbythe
man'sservants,hemadenoisesthreateningaduel,andwasin1726arrestedandputoncemoreintheBastille,fromwhichtheauthoritiesreleasedhimwhenhe
expressedawishtovisitEngland.ThemosttangibleoutcomeofhisthreeyearstayisLettresPhilosophiques(1734tr.Lockman,1733tr.LeonardTancockas
LettersonEngland,1980)hisdepictionofEngland(forallitsamusinglydescribedfoibles)asalandoffreedom,toleration,andprogresswastakenbytheFrenchas
criticismoftheirinstitutionsseeLettersConcerningtheEnglishNation,ed.NicholasCrook(1994)forVoltaire'sEnglishtext,inwhichhelargelywrotethebook.
InZae(1732tr.asTheTragedyofZara,1736),reminiscentofSHAKESPEARE'SOthello,loveovercomesthetenetsofreligion,athemetowhichheoftenreturned.In
1733hebegananaffairwiththeMarquiseduChatelet(170649),whichwascondonedbyherhusband,inwhosechateauinLorraine,remodelledbyVoltairetosuit
hisconvenience,theyalllivedtogether.
In1736hestartedhiscelebratedcorrespondencewithFredericktheGreatofPrussia,atwhosecourthespenttheyears175053(hewasnowhavinganaffairwith
hiswidowedniece,whomFrederickrefusedtoallowtoaccompanyhim).Hishistoricalwork,LeSicledeLouisXIV(1751tr.asTheAgeofLewisXIV,1752)
wasfirstpublishedinBerlin.StillpersonanongratainParis,andhavingquarrelledwithFrederick,in1755heboughtanestatenearGeneva,wherehepublished
Candide(1759tr.asCandid,1759tr.JohnButtasCandide,1947),hissatiricalfableintheformofapicaresquenovel,inwhichhisphilosophicalmessage
underliestheagonyandfarce.In1759hemovedtoFerney,asmallerestateinLorraine,andfirstproclaimedhisbattlecryof'crasezl'infme'[crushinfamy],with
whichhecampaignedvigorouslyagainsttheevilsandatrocitiesundertakeninthenameofreligion,andagainsttravestiesofjustice.UnderhisstewardshipFerney
becameanindustrialtownfamousforSwisswatchesandsilkstockings.HefinallyreturnedtoParisintriumphattheageof83,buttheexcitementandthestreamof
distinguishedvisitorstooktheirtoll.Hediedthreemonthslater,hismummifiedbodybeingsmuggledoutofParistothemonasteryofScellires,whosepriorhad
agreedtogiveitaChristianburial.SeeSelectedWritings,ed.Christopher

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Thacker,1995A.J.Ayer,Voltaire,1986(biographical/criticalstudy).
Vonnegut,Kurt,Jr(b.1922)
Americannovelist,dramatist,andessayist,wasborninIndianapolisofGermandescent.Hisfatherwasanarchitectandhismothertooktowritingstoriesafterher
family'sbrewingfortunedisappearedduringtheDepression:'Shewasagoodwriter,butshehadnotalentforthevulgaritytheslickmagazinesrequired.Fortunately,I
wasloadedwithvulgarity,so,whenIgrewup,Iwasabletomakeherdreamcometrue.'HewenttoShortridgeHighSchoolandCornellUniversity,fromwhichhe
wenttoserveintheUSArmyInfantryinWorldWarII.CapturedbytheGermans,hewasincarceratedinanundergroundmeatlockerduringtheAlliedbombardment
whichdestroyedDresdenin1945.WhathappenedtothecitythatnightaffectedhisviewofhumanityandwasrecreatedinhisnovelSlaughterhouseFive:or,The
Children'sCrusade(1969).AfterthewarheenrolledatChicagoUniversitytoreadanthropology('Itconfirmedmyatheisim'),keepinghimselfasapolicereporterfor
theChicagoCityNewsBureau.HetooknodegreeitwasmailedtohimtwentyyearslaterwhenhisdepartmentreadCat'sCradle(1963).Afterworkinginpublic
relationsforGeneralElectric,hebecameafreelancewriterin1950.Heisapessimistwhosejokesareawayofcombatingdespair,andwhosefirsttwonovels,
PlayerPiano(1952)andTheSirensofTitan(1959),resemblesciencefiction.FromBreakfastofChampions:or,Goodbye,BlueMonday(1973),hehasoffered
anunderlyingformofmoralinstruction.InHocusPocus(1990),theawfulimageofanAmericaofthenearfutureisthesettingforanautobiographicalnarrative,ina
varietyofoutrageousforms,ofanextraterrestriallymanipulatedexistence.FatesWorsethanDeath:anAutobiographicalCollageofthe1980s(1991)isanon
fictionalreflectionofhisattitudestowardsmodernsociety.SeeStanleySchatt,KurtVonnegut,1976(criticalstudy).

Page569

W
Wace,Robert
seeGEOFFREYOFMONMOUTH.
Waddell,Helen(18891965)
Irishscholarandnovelist,wasborninTokyo,theyoungestoftenchildrenofaPresbyterianmissionary.Hermotherdiedwhenshewastwo.Herfathersubsequently
marriedacousin,andbroughtthefamilybacktoUlster,wherehediedsoonafterwards.ShewaseducatedatVictoriaCollegeandQueen'sUniversity,Belfast.Until
herstepmother'sdeathin1919shelookedafterher,writingbiblestoriesforaweeklyjournalandaplay,TheSpoiledBuddha(performed1915),andpublishing
LyricsfromtheChinese(1913).In1920shewenttoSomervilleCollege,Oxford,todoaresearchdegree,andalsolecturedonmedievalmimeatStHilda'sCollege.
AtravellingscholarshiptookhertoParisfortwoyears,afterwhichshepublishedTheWanderingScholars(1927),astudyoftheFrenchmedievalculturewhich
inspired'CarminaBurana',forwhichshebecamethefirstwomanFellowoftheRoyalSocietyofLiterature.MedievalLatinLyrics(1929)isasmuchaworkof
poeticcreationasoftranslation.Heronlynovel,PeterAbelard(1933),isapoetic,spare,scholarlyretellingoftheloveofthe12thcenturytheologianforHlose(see
ABELARD).Inthe1930sWaddellwasmuchindemandasalecturerandwasshoweredwithhonorarydegrees,whilepublishingfurthertranslationsandeducationaland
scholarlyworks.DuringWorldWarIIshewasAssistantEditorofTheNineteenthCentury,andsufferedinthebombing.Herlastcontributiontoliteraturewasa
lectureatGlasgow,PoetryintheDarkAges(1948).Soonafteritspublicationshedeclinedintomentalparalysis,asaresultofwhichforthelastyearsofherlifeshe
couldrecognizenooneandnothing.SeeDameFelicitasCorrigan,HelenWaddell:aBiography,newedn1990.
Wain,John(192594)
Britishnovelist,poet,andcritic,wasborninStokeonTrentandeducatedattheHighSchool,NewcastleunderLyme,and(duringWorldWarII,inwhichhewas
unfittoserve)atStJohn'sCollege,Oxford,wherehewasapupilofC.S.LEWIS.In1947hebecamealecturerinEnglishatReadingUniversity,whoseSchoolof
Artpublishedhisfirstbook,MixedFeelings:NineteenPoems(1951).Afurthervolumeofverse,AWordCarvedonaSill,waspublishedcommerciallyin1956.
HegaveupteachingforwritingafterthepublicationofHurryonDown(1953),apicaresquecomicnovelreflectingthesocialconflictsofthetimes.StriketheFather
Dead(1962)isanelaborationofasimilartheme,toldinturnbythreedifferentprotagonists.ThecontemporarysagawhichbeginsatOxfordinthe1930swithWhere
theRiversMeet(1988)iscontinued,stillatOxford,inthe1950swithComedies(1990)andHungryGenerations(1994).Frombeingoriginallyassociatedwiththe
Movement(seeCONQUEST),hispoetrydiversifiedalongepigrammaticandthenmoreadventurouslinesseePoems19491979(1981).HisnonfictionincludesA
HousefortheTruth:CriticalEssays(1972),TheLivingWorldofShakespeare:aPlaygoer'sGuide(rev.edn1979),andabiographyofJOHNSON(rev.edn
1980).HeeditedselectionsofJohnsonandHARDY,andcompiledmanyanthologies,includingTheOxfordLibraryofEnglishPoetry(1988).HewasProfessorof
PoetryatOxford197378,andwasmadeCBEin1984.SeeSprightlyRunning:PartofanAutobiography,1962.
Walcott,Derek(b.1930)
StLucianpoetanddramatist,borninCastries,haswritten,'Tobebornonasmallisland,acolonialbackwater,meantaprecociousresignationtofate.'Hisfather,a
seniorcivilservantwithartisticleanings,diedwhenhewasone,andheandhistwinbrotherwerebroughtupbytheirmother,aninfantschoolheadmistresswhotook
insewingtokeepthematschool.Partwhite,andfromanearlyageimpressedbytheEnglishlanguage,whereasthecommonspeechoftheislandwasaFrenchpatois,
hewasfurther'estranged...fromthecommonlifeoftheisland'bybeingaMethodistinapredominantlyCatholiccommunity.HewaseducatedatStMary'sCollege,
theadministrationofwhichwasduringhistimetakenoverbythePresentationBrothersofCork,throughwhomhewasintroducedtotheworkofMANGAN,SYNGE,
YEATS,andevenJOYCE.AnotherinfluencewasHaroldSimmons(191466),aprofessionalartistwhorecognizedthatWalcott'stalentasapainterwasasecondary
considerationbesidehis

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hugepotentialasapoet,andwhoreadGEORGECAMPBELL'sFirstPoemsaloudtohim.Walcott's25Poems(1948)wasprivatelypublishedbutwentintoasecond
editionhisfirstplay,HenriChristophe,wasperformedin1950.Thatyear,havingbeenawardedascholarshiptotheUniversityoftheWestIndies,Jamaica,bythe
BritishgovernmentorganizationassistingintherehabilitationoftheislandafterfiredestroyedCastriesin1948,hefinallyleftStLucia.In1959hefoundedtheTrinidad
TheatreWorkshop,whichhedirecteduntil1976seeBruceKing,DerekWalcottandWestIndianDrama:NotOnlyaPlaywrightbutaCompanyThe
TrinidadTheatreWorkshop19591993(1995).HenowdivideshistimebetweenTrinidad,wherehelives,andtheUSA,wherehewasappointedVisiting
ProfessoratBostonUniversityin1985.
InaGreenNight:Poems19481960(1962),SelectedPoems(1964),TheCastawayandOtherPoems(1965),andTheGulfandOtherPoems(1969)
representacontinuousprocessofabsorptionratherthanrejectionofliteraryinfluences,ofdevelopmentofmetreandform,ofexperimentwithdialect,andofrevision
theyevoke,inparticular,historyandtheCaribbeanlandscape,thecreativeprocess,love,andfriendship.ThecommissioningbyALANROSSofanarticle,'Leaving
School'(LondonMagazine,September1965),inspiredhimtoextendthepieceintoaStLucianautobiography,whichbecameinsteadtheautobiographicalpoem,
AnotherLife(1973)seeEdwardBaugh'scriticalstudyofit,DerekWalcott:MemoryasVision(1978).InSeaGrapes(1976),TheStarAppleKingdom
(1979),andsubsequentcollections,hehasattainedapoeticstrengthandamaturityofvision,withoutjeopardizinghisconscioussearchforsimplicity.Omeros(1990),
whichwontheW.H.SmithLiteraryAward,initsreexaminationofthethemesofidentity,exile,andsuffering,itsfusionofsources,anditscritical,oftenselfcritical,
attitudetotheobligationsoftheartist,isfarmorethanaparadeofHomericmaterialsinaCaribbeansetting.ThecollectionBounty(1997)isanelegyforhismother,
forCLARE,andforhiscolonialbackground.
Inthe1960sGRAVESwrotethatWalcott'handlesEnglishwithacloserunderstandingofitsinnermagicthanmost(ifnotany)ofhisEnglishborncontemporaries'.In
1987BRODSKYcalledhim'thebestpoettheEnglishlanguagehastoday'.In1988hebecamethefirstCommonwealthwritertobeawardedtheQueen'sGoldMedalfor
Poetry,andin1992hewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteratureforhispoeticworks'ofgreatluminosity,sustainedbyahistoricalvision,theoutcomeofa
multiculturalcommitment'.
Whilehismanyplaysincludenaturalisticdramas,notablyRemembrance(1978),hismainthemesstemfromthefolkloreofStLucia,oftenexpressedintermsofGod
andjustice,aswellasofgoodandevil.InTheOdyssey(1992),commissionedbytheRoyalShakespeareCompanyandstagedinStratfordinanexcitingproduction,
hepresentstheessenceofHOMER'sepicinhexameters,transposingsomeofthesituationsintowhatheseesastheirmodernequivalents.DreamonMonkeyMountain
andOtherPlays(1971)isprefacedbyanessayontheWestIndiancreativeimagination,inwhichhepostulates,'ThefutureofWestIndianmilitancyliesinart.'See
CollectedPoems19481984,newedn1990RobertD.Hammer,DerekWalcott,1981(criticalstudy).
Walker,Alice(b.1944)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,andpoet,wasborninEatonton,Georgia,theeighthchildofasharecropper,andwaseducatedatSpelmanCollege,Atlanta,
fromwhichshetransferredtoSarahLawrenceCollege,NewYork.PoemsofreflectiononAfrica,whichshehadvisited,andhernativeGeorgia,writtenatatimeof
acutepersonaldistress,werepassedontoanagentbyherteacher,MurielRukeyser(191380),thepoetandpoliticalactivist,andpublishedinOnce(1968),thefirst
ofherseveralbooksofverseseeHerBlueBodyEverythingWeKnow:EarthlingPoems19651990Complete(2ndrev.edn1992).Shegraduatedin1965
and,insteadoftakingupafellowshiptowriteinAfrica,becameasocialworkerandthenparticipatedinthevoterregistrationdriveinMississippi.In1967shemarried
MelvynLeventhal,awhiteactivistcivilrightslawyer(divorced1976).Afterteachingatseveralcolleges,shewasappointedaprofessorofEnglishatYalein1977.Her
firstnovel,TheThirdLifeofGrangeCopeland(1970),writtenwhileshewasatcollege,isanexplorationofblackresponsibilityinawhitesociety.Meridian(1976)
focusesonactivism.InTheColorPurple(1982),whichwonthePulitzerPrize,anepistolaryvernaculartechniqueisthemediumforaquestforidentity.Oneofits
charactersreappearsastheprotagonistofPossessingtheSecretofJoy(1992),apolemicalnovelexposingtheiniquitiesoffemalecircumcision.TheComplete
ShortStories(1994)comprisesthecollectionsInLoveandTrouble(1973)andYouCan'tKeepaGoodWomanDown(1979).InSearchofOurMothers'
Gardens:WomanistProse(1983)andLivingBytheWord(1988)includeautobiographicalessaysandliterarycriticismTheSameRiverTwice:Honoringthe
Difficult(1996)isanautobiographicalstudyofrecentyears.
Walker,Kath(OodgerooNoonuccal)(192093)
Australianpoet,wasbornKathleenJeanMaryRuska,thedaughterofamemberoftheNoonuccaltribe,andgrewupinStradbrokeIslandinMcretonBay,
Queensland.Shewaseducatedatprimarylevelandat13wentintodomestic

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serviceinBrisbane.RejectedfortrainingasanursebecauseshewasAboriginal,sheservedintheAustralianWomen'sArmyService.ShemarriedBruceWalker,a
BrisbanedockerofAboriginaldescent,in1942.Shebeganwritingverseinthe1950s,whenshewasbecomingincreasinglyinvolvedinactivitiesforAboriginalrights
andprogress.ThetitleandtitlepoemofWeAreGoing(1964)strikeanoteofwarning:'...Theycameheretotheplaceoftheiroldboraground/Wherenowthe
manywhitemenhurryaboutlikeants./Noticeofestateagentreads:''RubbishMayBeTippedHere".'DedicatedtotheFederalCouncilfortheAdvancementof
AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanders,ofwhichshewasstatesecretary,itisthefirstbookbyanAboriginalwoman,andthefirstexampleofcontemporaryblack
Australianwritingtobepublished.ItwasfollowedbyTheDawnisatHand(1966).MyPeople:aKathWalkerCollection(1970)includespoemsfromboth
books.StradbrokeDreamtime(1972)isacollectionofstoriesforchildren.In1988sherenouncedherawardofMBEandhernameinrevulsionatthecelebrations
ofthebicentenaryofwhitesettlement,becomingOodgeroo,'paperbarktree'.SeeUlliBeier,Quandamooka:theArtofKathWalker,1985.
Wallace,Edgar(18751932)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,dramatist,andjournalist,wasborninGreenwich,London,theillegitimatesonofawidow,PollyRichards(18431903),neBlair,
anactress.Neitherthefather,RichardHoratioEdgar,norhismother,MissAliceMarriott(18241900),thetheatricalmanagerandcelebratedfemaleHamlet,who
wasPolly'semployer,everknewofthebirth.HewasbroughtupbyafamilycalledFreeman,andwenttoReddinsRoadSchool,Camberwell,playingtruanttosell
newspapersinLudgateCircus,ataspotwhereamemorialplaquetohimwaslatermounted.Heleftschoolat12,andworkedinaprintinghouse,ashoeshop,anda
rubbercompany,andasaship'scookandmilkdeliveryboy,beforeenlistingintheRoyalWestKentRegiment.HetransferredtotheMedicalStaffCorpsin1896,
andservedinSouthAfrica,wherehebecameknownasthe'SoldierPoet'.Heboughthisdischargein1899,andbecamewarcorrespondentoftheDailyMail,and
thenEditorofthenewRandDailyMail.Afterquarrellingwithhisproprietorin1903hereturnedtoLondonandrejoinedtheDailyMailasareporter.In1905he
wrote,andhimselfpublished,TheFourJustMen,thefirstofanastonishingoutputofpopularnovelsandvolumesofstorieswhichappearedatanaverageofbetween
fiveandsixayear.AmongthrillersthestoriesinTheMindofMrJ.G.Reeder(1925),andamongadventuresthoseinSandersoftheRiver(1911)andsequels,
havesomelastingmerit.Hewasalsoasuccessfuldramatist,whosecrimeplayTheRinger,basedonhisownnovel,TheGauntStranger(1925),ranfor410
performancesin1926.Aseditor,reporter,andracingcolumnistseeWinningColours:SelectedRacingWritingsofEdgarWallace,ed.JohnWelcome(1991)
heremainedallhislifecloselyassociatedwithjournalism.Withthehelpoftwosecretaries,adictaphone,andnumerouscigarettesandcupsofsweet,milkytea,he
wouldturnoutfortythousandwordsaweek,allhisownworkinthecourseofalibelactionagainstanauthorwhohadaccusedhimofplagiarismhepubliclypledged
5000toanyonewhocouldproveheusedotherwriters.HediedinNewYork,wherehehadbeenwritingthescriptwhichwasfilmedasKingKong.SeePeople:a
ShortAutobiography,1926MargaretLane,EdgarWallace,FleetStreet'sShallowGenius:ReinventingtheThriller,newedn1992ofEdgarWallace:the
BiographyofaPhenomenon,rev.edn1964.
WallaceCrabbe,Chris(topher)(b.1934)
Australianpoetandcritic,wasborninRichmond,Victoria,andeducatedatScotchCollegeandMelbourneUniversity.HewasHarknessFellowatYalefrom1965to
1967,andbecameaseniorlecturerinEnglishatMelbourneUniversityin1968,subsequentlybeingappointedtoapersonalchair.HebecameDirectorofthe
university'sAustralianCentrein1989.Hehassummeduphispoeticphilosophyasbeing'resistanttofashionablenotionsofdefeatism''Somewheredeepdown,Ido
believethatagainstalloddsonecanmake,build,dothattheburdenisfinallyandabsolutelyonone'sownshoulders.'Sincehisearlybooksofverse,NoGlass
Houses(1956)andTheMusicofDivision(1959),hehascome'toseekmoresupplerhythmsandmoreautonomousimages....Andapoetrywhichquestionedthe
Englishlanguage.'LatervolumesincludeSelectedPoems:19551972(1973),I'mDeadlySerious(1988)ActionShots(1988),prosepoemsForCryingOut
Loud(1990)andRungsofTime(1993),inwhichhespeculatesinareasofscienceandphilosophy.HiscriticalworksincludeMelbourneortheBush:Essayson
AustralianLiteratureandSociety(1973),ThreeAbsencesinAustralianWriting(1983),andFallingintoLanguage(1990),essays.Amonghisseveral
anthologiesis(withPeterPierce)ClubbingoftheGunfire:101AustralianWarPoems(1984),onthegeneraltopicofwhichhisown'TheShapesofGallipoli'isa
significantcontribution.
Waller,Edmund(160687)
Englishpoet,wasbornatthemanorhouseofColeshill,Hertfordshire.Hisfatherdiedin1616,leavinghimafortune.HewaseducatedatEtonandKing'sCollege,
Cambridge,buttooknodegree.WhenheenteredLincoln'sInnin1622,hewasalreadyaMemberofParliament.In1631hemarriedarichheiress,

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whodiedinchildbirthin1634.ShortlyafterthishemetLadyDorothySidney(161784),laterCountessofSunderland,whoinhisaffectionsandhispoetry
progressedfrombeingaddressedbyherownname('OnmyLadyDorothySidneyesPicture')tothatof'Sacharissa'.Itwasprobablyatthistime,too,thathewrote
'OnaGirdle'andthesong'GolovelyRose...'.ThoughamemberoftheLongParliament,andacousinofJohnHampden(15941643),hewasin1643involvedin
theplottoseizeLondonforCharlesI,whowassittingthingsoutinOxford.CalledupontopleadforhislifeattheBaroftheHouseofCommons,heimplicatedothers
whowereintheplot.HewasbannedfromParliamentforlifeandimprisoned,awaitingtrial,intheTowerofLondon,fromwhichhewroteofferingtopayafineof
10,000.Itwasaccepted,andhewasbanished.In1651hewaspardoned,andreturnedfromFrancetohishomeinBeaconsfieldandtohissecondwife,whomhe
hadmarriedjustbeforehewentaway.HewasreelectedtoParliamentaftertheRestorationoftheMonarchyin1660.Ateetotaller,hehadalongiflargelyuninspired
poeticalcareer,duringwhichhehappilywrotepanegyricsbothtoCromwellandtoCharlesII.HiscelebrationoftheescapefromdrowningatseaofCharlesIwhen
PrinceofWalesisoneoftheearliestusesoftheheroiccouplet.Poems&c.waspublishedin1645,andTheSecondPartofMrWaller'sPoemsin1690.
Walpole,Horace(orHoratio)(171797)
novelistandprosewriter,wasborninLondon,theyoungestsonby11yearsofSirRobertWalpole(16761745PrimeMinister172142)andhisfirstwife.Hewas
educatedatEtonandKing'sCollege,Cambridge,andthentouredEuropefortwoyearswithGRAY.HewasaMemberofParliamentfrom1741to1767.In1748he
boughtahouseontheThamesatTwickenham,whichherefashionedinsideandoutintoaGothiccastleandnamedStrawberryHill.Hereheestablishedaprivate
press,whosefirstproductwasGray'sOdes(1757),followedbyWalpole'sowngossipycompilation,ACatalogueoftheRoyalandNobleAuthorsofEngland
(1758).HealsoprintedhisAnecdotesofPaintinginEngland(176271),apioneeramonghistoriesofBritishart.In1746hewasmovedbythelonelyandromantic
atmosphereofhishousetowriteTheCastleofOtranto(1765),initiallypublishedanonymouslyasatranslationofanItalianbookprintedin1529.This,thefirst
Gothicnovel,isfullofterriblesightsandsounds,withatleastonetremendousclimaxineachchapter.Walpole'smemoirswereathisrequestkeptsealedfor20years
afterhisdeath,butitishisvoluminouscorrespondence,largelywrittenforpublication,whichbestrevealshimandhistimes.Onthedeathofhisnephewin1791,he
became4thEarlofOrford.Henevermarried,butinhislatteryearsmuchenjoyedthecompanyofwomen,especiallythatoftheliterarysistersMary,(17631852)
andAgnes(17641852)Berry,'thebestinformedandmostperfectcreaturesIeversawattheirage',whomhefirstmetin1788seetheircorrespondence,The
GraceofFriendship:HoraceWalpoleandtheMissesBerry,ed.VirginiaSurtees(1995).InTimothyMowl,HoraceWalpole:theGreatOutsider(1996)itis
suggestedthatonhisyouthfulEuropeantourhehadahomosexualaffairwithHenryFiennesClinton,9thEarlofLincoln(172094).SeeSelectedLetters,ed.W.S.
Lewis,1973(thefullcorrespondencewaspublishedin48vols,193783)R.W.KettonCremer,HoraceWalpole:aBiography,3rdedn1964.
Walpole,(Sir)Hugh(18841941)
Britishnovelist,wasborninAuckland,NewZealand,theeldestchildoftheCanonofStMary'sCathedral(laterBishopofEdinburgh).HewaseducatedatKing's
School,Canterbury,andEmmanuelCollege,Cambridge.AfterrealizingthathehadavocationneitherforthekindofworkheexperiencedattheMercyMissionto
Seamennorforteaching,whichhetriedbrieflyatEpsomCollege,hebecameafulltimewriterinLondon,wherehepublishedhisfirstnovel,TheWoodenHorse
(1909),writtenwhenhewasanundergraduate.WithhisreputationboostedbyalongarticleinTheTimesLiterarySupplementbyHENRYJAMES,whowasaclose
friend,hepublishedfivemorenovelsbeforeWorldWarI,includingMrPerrinandMrTraill:aTragiComedy(1911),astrongstoryofobsessioninapublic(i.e.
independent)schoolstaffroom.DuringthewarheservedwiththeRedCrossinRussia,beingawardedtheOrderofStGeorgeforhisrescueofawoundedman
underfire,andthenintheBritishpropagandabureauinPetrogradoutoftheseexperienceshewroteTheDarkForest(1916)andTheGreenMirror(1918).Asa
popularnovelist,hewasacompleteallrounder.Jeremy(1919),JeremyandHamlet(1923),andJeremyatCrale(1927)compriseasemiautobiographicaltrilogy
fromchildhoodtoschooldays.PortraitofaManwithRedHair:aRomanticMacabre(1925)isoneofhispsychologicalthrillers.'TheHerriesChronicle'ofsix
novels(193043)isalong,romanticfamilysaga,setintheLakeDistrict,wherehehadhisbachelorcountryhouse.Hefoundedtheinfluential,butinformal,booktrade
fraternity,theSocietyofBookmen,in1921.HewasmadeCBEin1918andwasknightedin1937.SeeRupertHartDavis,HughWalpole:aBiography,newedn
1985.
Walton,Isaak(15931683)
prosewriterandbiographer,wasborninStaffordandapprenticedtoaLondonironmonger,beingmadeafreemanoftheIronmongers'Companyin1618.Asa
memberofthecon

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gregationofStDunstan'sintheWest,ofwhichDONNEwasmadeVicarin1624asanadditionalappointment,hegottoknowthepoetand,throughhim,SirHenry
Wotton(15681639),ProvostofEtonandapoetinhisownright.OnDonne'sdeathin1631,Wottonundertooktowritehisbiography,buthediedwithoutmaking
muchprogress.Walton,whohadactedashisresearcher,wasappalledatthethoughtofthegreat1640editionofDonne'ssermonslackingabiographical
introduction,andwroteithimselfitwasalsopublishedseparatelyinanenlargedversionasTheLifeandDeathofDrDonne(1658).Hissimplepietyandhislucid,
unadornedprosemadesuchanappealthathewasprevailedupontowritelivesofWotton(1651),HOOKER(1665),andGEORGEHERBERT(1670).Inthemeantime,
probablyinfluencedbythedefeatatMarstonMoorin1644oftheroyalists,towhomhewaswhollysympathetic,hehadtakenearlyretirement,toindulgeinhishobby
ofcoarsefishingthoughafterthefinaldefeatofCharlesIIatWorcesterin1651,hewasentrustedwithoneofthecrownjewels,whichhesafelydeliveredtoLondon.
Hisbestknownwork,TheCompleatAngler,ortheContemplativeMan'sRecreation(1653),aleisurelyguide,aswellasaliteraryexperience,intheformofa
dialogueinterspersedwithverse,anecdotes,andfolklore,wasreissuedin1676asTheUniversalAngler,withasectiononflyfishingbyhisfriendCharlesCotton
(163087).Waltonwastwicemarried:in1626toRachelFloud(d.1640),whosesevenchildrenalldiedininfancy,andinabout1646toAnneKen(d.1662)their
survivingsonIsaac(16511719)becameaprebendaryofthedioceseofSalisbury.
Ward,(Mary),MrsHumphry(18511920)
neArnold,Britishnovelistandsocialcampaigner,wasthegranddaughterof'ArnoldofRugby'andtheNieceofArnold.ShewasborninHobart,Tasmania,where
herfather,aschooladministrator,madeaspectacularconversiontoCatholicismhereturnedwithhisfamilytoBritainin1856.Oneofeightchildren,shewas
educatedattheAmblesideschoolofJemimaClough(182092),theyoungersisterofCLOUGH,andatotherboardingschoolsuntilshewas16,whenherfather's
reconversiontoAnglicanismenabledhimtoobtainateachingpostatOxford,wherethefamilyreconvened.In1872shemarriedThomasHumphryWard(1845
1926),FellowofBrasenoseCollegeandlateranartcritic,bywhomshehadthreecarefullyspacedchildren.In1881theymovedtoLondon,whereshepublishedher
firstnovel,MissBretherton(1884).ShewasalongtimewritingandfindingapublisherforRobertElsmere(1888),whichexpressesaswellasreflectstheideological
confusionsofthetimes.Arguablythemostpopularnovelofthecentury,itsoldoverhalfamillioncopiesintheUSA,fromwhichsheearned100.FortheAmerican
rightsofhernext,TheHistoryofDavidGrieve(1892),shewaspaid7000,theUSAhavingin1891becomeapartytointernationalcopyright.
Shenowbought,asasecondhome,ahouseandestateinHertfordshire.Shedevelopedtheworkingpeople'scentreshehadestablishedinGordonSquare,
Bloomsbury,in1890intothePassmoreEdwardsSettlement(1897),nowtheMaryWardCentre,whereshepioneeredspecialschoolingforhandicappedchildren.
Crippledbyaconglomerationofphysicalandneurologicaldisorders,shecontinuedtowritenovelsreflectingsocialandreligiousissues.Thoughtheywerereviledat
thetimebyyoungercriticssuchasBENNETT,STRACHEY,VIRGINIAWOOLF,andREBECCAWEST(whodescribedherliterarycareeras'onelongspecializationinthemotin
juste'),someofthemhavemeritasnovelsoftheVictorianera.OnalecturetourintheUSAin1908shemetTheodoreRoosevelt(18581919).Athisinstigationand
withthesupportoftheBritishGovernmentshewroteEngland'sEffort:SixLetterstoanAmericanFriend(1916)thefirsthandresearchtookherintothe
trenchesinFrance,andthebookwassaidtohavehastenedAmericaninterventioninWorldWarI.Shewasanactivecampaigneragainstvotesforwomen,and
foundedtheWomen'sNationalAntiSuffrageLeaguein1908.Twomonthsbeforeherdeathshewasappointedoneofthefirstsevenwomenmagistrates.SeeJohn
Sutherland,MrsHumphryWard:EminentVictorian,PreEminentEdwardian,newedn1991.
Warner,Rex(190586)
Britishnovelist,poet,andtranslator,wasborninBirmingham,thesonofaclergyman,andwasbroughtupintheGloucestershirecountryside.HewaseducatedatSt
George'sSchool,Harpenden,andWadhamCollege,Oxford,wherehereadclassicsandEnglish.Hethenbecameateacher,leavingapostinEngland,aftera
disagreementofprinciplewiththeHead,togotoEgypt,fromwhichhereturnedtoFrenshamHeightsSchool,Farnham.Poems(1937)wasreissuedinarevised
editionasPoemsandContradictions(1945).Whilecontemporariestendedtousepoetryasthemediumofexpressingtheirpoliticalconcern,Warner,asORWELLwas
todo,usedfiction.Ofhisthreeallegoricalnovels,TheWildGooseChase(1937),TheProfessor(1938),andTheAerodrome(1941),thelastisparticularly
impressiveforitssubtlepictureofthedestructionofasocietyinthenamesoffreedomandefficiency.HewasDirectoroftheBritishInstituteinAthens194547,anda
professorofEnglish,UniversityofConnecticut196474.Hishistoricalnovels,TheYoungCaesar(1958),ImperialCaesar(1960),Pericles,theAthenian(1963),
andTheConverts(1967)areworksalsoofclassicalscholarship.HisversionsofGreek

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mythology,MenandGods(1950)andGreeksandTrojans(1951),haveaseamlessaswellasatimelessquality.HistranslationsincludeworksofAESCHYLUS,
EURIPIDES,PLUTARCH,THUCYDIDES,andXENOPHON.
Warner,SylviaTownsend(18931978)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,andpoet,wasborninHarrow,theonlychildofamasterattheschool,andwaseducatedathome.Sheworkedinamunitions
factoryduringWorldWarI,afterwhichshewasuntil1928amemberoftheeditorialteamresponsibleforthetenvolumeTudorChurchMusic.TheEspalier
(1925)wasthefirstofseveralvolumesofverseseeCollectedPoems,introductionbyClaireHarman(1982).Herfirstnovel,LollyWillowes(1926),ablendof
fantasyandlightrealityaboutaliberatedwomanwhobecomesawitch,wasthefirstAmerican'BookoftheMonth'.In1927shewenttoNewYorkasguestcriticof
theNewYorkHeraldTribune.MrFortune'sMaggot(1927)isastudyofhomosexualpassion.Whenshewas36,havinghadalongandsecretaffairwiththemuch
olderandmarriedmusicologist,PercyBuck(18711947),shewasintroducedbyT.F.POWYStoValentineAckland(190668),apoetandshortstorywriter,with
whomshehadanintenseandpermanentlesbianrelationship,whichsurvivedAckland'sfaithlessnessinthe1940sandconversiontoCatholicismintheearly1950s
WhetheraDoveorSeagull:Poems(1934)istheworkofthemboth.TheywenttogethertoSpainin1930toworkfortheRedCross,andin1935theyjoinedthe
CommunistParty,towhichWarnerremainedcommittedallherlife.Shewasaversatilenovelist,whoseoeuvrealsoincludesthefancifulTheTrueHeart(1929),the
satiricalAftertheDeathofDonJuan(1938),andthehistoricalnovelsTheCornerThatHeldThem(1948),aboutlifeinamedievalnunnery,andTheFlint
Anchor(1954),basedonagenealogicalmysteryinherownfamily.Hershortstories,ofwhichmorethan140firstappearedintheNewYorker,illustrateherdelicate
touch.ThoughsheneverfinishedthebiographyofPowysonwhichsheworkedformanyyears,shewroteoneofT.H.WHITE(1967),whomshenevermet.SeeClaire
Harman,SylviaTownsendWarner:aBiography,1995TheDiariesofSylviaTownsendWarner,ed.ClaireHarman,newedn1995.
Warren,RobertPenn(190589)
Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,andcritic,wasborninGuthrie,Kentucky,ofbookishparents,andwaseducatedatClarksvilleHighSchool,Tennessee,
and,afteraneyeaccidentwhilehuntingmadehimphysicallyunfitforanavalcareer,atVanderbiltUniversity,where'allkindsofpeoplewrotepoems...[and]
freshmenwerebuyingtheNewRepublicortheNation,togetthenewpoembyYeatsorHartCrane'.Describedbyhisteacheras'aprodigywhomatbirththeMuse
hadapparentlyinvestedwithacompleteliteraryequipment',hesharedroomswithALLENTATE,andhadpoemspublishedinTheFugitive.Hedidpostgraduatestudy
attheUniversityofCalifornia,atYale,and(asaRhodesScholar)atOxford.Hereceivedacommissiontowritehisfirstbook,JohnBrown:theMakingofaMartyr
(1929),andalsothestory'PrimeLeaf'(1931),aboutthetobaccowarsintheSouth,whichhelaterdevelopedintohisfirstnovel,NightRider(1939).Inthemeantime
hetaughtEnglishatVanderbiltandatLouisianaStateUniversitypublishedThirtySixPoems(1935)andfoundedin1935,asaforumfortheNewCriticism,the
quarterlySouthernReview,withCleanthBrooks(190694),withwhomhealsowrotethetextbooksUnderstandingPoetry(1938)andUnderstandingFiction
(1943)seealsoMarkRoydenWinchell,CleanthBrooksandtheRiseofModernCriticism(1996).HetaughtEnglishattheUniversityofMinnesota(194250)
andwasaprofessorofplaywriting(195056),andofEnglish(196173)atYale.
Hefirstconceived,andwrote,AlltheKing'sMen(1946),histhirdnovel,asaverseplay,ProudFlesh(produced1946).ThispowerfulstudyofSouthernpolitical
powerandcorruptionwonthePulitzerPrize,andwasstagedinhisownadaptationin1959.Ofhissubsequentnovels,WorldEnoughandTime(1950),Bandof
Angels(1955),andWilderness:aTaleoftheCivilWar(1961)areimaginativehistoricalreconstructionsofSouthernhistoryTheCave(1959),Flood:aRomance
ofOurTime(1964),andMeetMeintheGreenGlen(1971)reflecttheexperienceofhispartoftheSouthfromthe1940sonwards.APlacetoComeTo(1977)
transcendshisusualunitiesoftime,setting,andthemetorecordtheragstorichesriseofanAlabamaladtointernationalacademicrenownandtorecountthenatural
historyofaloveaffair.AfterSelectedPoems19231943(1944),hewrote,andpublished,littleverseuntilPromises:Poems19541956(1957),whichwonboththe
PulitzerPrizeandtheNationalBookAward.Audubon:aVision(1969),along,significantpoemlooselybasedonaviolentincidentinthelifeofthe19thcentury
naturalist,expressesthepoet'spreoccupationwithidentityandhisyearningfortruthandserenity.HecontinuedtopublishcollectionsofverseuptoNewandSelected
Poems19231985(1985),whichincludesAudubon.Hiscriticalstudiesaddresshistoricalandpoliticalissues,asinSegregation:theInnerConflictintheSouth
(1956),TheLegacyoftheCivilWar(1961),andWhoSpeaksfortheNegro?(1965),aswellasliterature,asinDemocracyandPoetry(1975).Hewasin1985
appointedtheUSA'sfirstPoetLaureate.In1952hemarried,ashissecondwife,thenovelistEleanorClark(b.1913).SeeJosephBlotner,RobertPennWarren:a
Biography,1996

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CharlesBohner,RobertPennWarren,rev.edn1981(criticalstudy).
Warton,Thomas(172890)
Britishpoetandcritic,wasthesonofThomasWarton(16881745),ProfessorofPoetryatOxford171828,andtheyoungerbrotherofJosephWarton(1722
1800),poetandHeadmasterofWinchesterCollege.HewasborninBasingstoke,Hampshire,andeducatedatWinchesterCollegeandTrinityCollege,Oxford,of
whichhebecameaFellowin1751,andwhereheremainedallhislife.In1757hewaselectedProfessorofPoetry,anofficehehelduntil1767.Hewasthe
anonymouseditorofthemiscellanyofuniversitywit,TheOxfordSausage(1764and1772).ThePleasuresofMelancholy(1747),apleasingderivativepoemin
blankverse,waswrittenwhenhewas17.Poems(1777),largelylyricsandnaturepoems,wentthroughthreefurthereditionsinhislifetime.In1785hewasappointed
CamdenProfessorofAncientHistory,andon14Aprilofthatyear,onthedeathofWilliamWhitehead(171585),hewasmadePoetLaureate.Hisgreatest
contributionwasasacritic.HeeditedMilton'sPoemsuponSeveralOccasions(1785),andwroteTheHistoryofEnglishPoetry,fromtheCloseofthe
EleventhCenturytotheCommencementoftheEighteenthCentury(3vols177481),completedupto1600itwasthefirststudyofitskind,whichalso
illuminatescontemporarymannersaswellascontemporycriticalcriteria.BURNEY,whometthebrothersWartonatadinnerpartyin1783,commented:'Dr[Joseph]
Wartonmademeamostobsequiousbow....HeiswhatDrJohnsoncallsarapturist,andIplainlysawhemeanttopourforthmuchcivilityintomyears....MrTom
Warton,thepoetryhistoriographer,looksunformedinhismanners,andawkwardinhisgestures.Hejoinednotonewordinthegeneraltalk,and,butformyfather,
whowashisneighbouratdinner...hewouldneverhaveopenedhismouthaftertheremovalofthesecondcourse.'
Warung,Price,penname,acombinationofhismother'smaidenname(Price)andtheAboriginalwordforSydney,ofWilliamAstley(18551911)
Australianshortstorywriter.HewasborninLiverpoolandbroughtbyhisparentstoMelbournewhenhewasfour.HewaseducatedatMelbourneModelSchool,
wherehewasencouragedinhisambitiontobeawriter.Afterworkingasabookseller,hewasafoundingeditoroftheRichmondGuardian,andtheneditedthe
RiverineHerald,afterwhichhehadanervousbreakdown.Onhisrecoveryin1880hereturnedtojournalism.Inabout1890hemovedtoSydney,wherehewasa
regularcontributortotheBulletin,whoseeditorialpolicyatthetimewassympathetictohissocialistprinciplesandantiBritishsentiments.Inparticularhewroteabout
ninetyhighlycolouredstoriesofconvictlife,inwhichthewholerangeofconvictsispresentedasmoresinnedagainstthanhavingsinned.Someofthemwerepublished
inTalesoftheConvictSystem(1892)andTalesoftheEarlyDays(1894),inwhichheintroducestheRing,aconvictMafiadedicatedtocircumventingthe
'System'.HefelloutwiththeBulletinin1893,andwasthenbrieflyEditoroftheAustralianWorkman,afterwhichhelapsedintoperiodsofmentalinstabilityand
drugaddiction.HepublishedtwofurthervolumesofconvicttalesandoneofsketchesbasedonhisearlyexperiencesontheRiverMurrayatEchuca,HalfCrown
BobandTalesoftheRiverine(1898).SeeBarryAndrews,PriceWarung(WilliamAstley),1976(biographical/criticalstudy).
Washington,BookerT(Aliaferro)(18561915)
Americansocialreformerandprosewriter,wasborninHale'sFord,Virginia,thesonofanunknownwhitemanandaslave,andwasbroughtupinMalden,West
Virginia,takinghisstepfather'sfirstnameashissurname.Heattendedmakeshiftnightschoolswhileworkingasasaltpacker,coalminer,andhouseboy,andin1872
madethe500milejourneytoHamptonNormalandAgriculturalInstitute,throughwhichheworkedhisway(asajanitor)tohonours.Hereturnedtheretorunan
experimentalprogrammefornativeAmericanstudents,andwasin1881appointedthefirstPrincipalofTuskegeeInstitute,Alabama,totrainblackpeoplefortrades
andasteachers.InvitedtospeaktoanaudienceoftwothousandattheAtlantaExpositionin1895,hedeliveredanaddressadvocatingopportunityforblacksand
peacefulcoexistenceinreturnforthesurrenderofcertaincivilrights.Itwasreprintedinhisautobiography,UpfromSlavery(1901),assignificantadocumentinits
argumentasinthesimplicityofitslanguage.In1901heorganizedtheNationalNegroBusinessLeagueinBoston,andthroughpublicappearances,andprivate
consultations,exertedinfluenceasathinkeraswellasanorator,thoughhisconciliatorytoneoffendedDUBOLS.HisbiographyofDOUGLASS(1906)isapioneeringwork
inthatfield.SeeLouisR.Harlan,BookerT.Washington:theMakingofaBlackLeader,18561901,1972andBookerT.Washington:theWizardofTuskegee,
19011915,newedn1987.
Waten,Judah(191185)
Australiannovelist,wasbornofaJewishfamilyinOdessaandbroughtbythemtoasmalltowninWesternAustraliain1914.HewaseducatedattheChristian
BrothersCollege,Perth,andUniversityHighSchoolinMelbourne,towhichthefamilymovedin1926.In1930heeditedtheavantgardemagazine,Strife,which
expressedtheintentionoftheproletariannovelistto'workwithfacts'.During

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the1930shespentsometimeinEngland,wherehetookpartinoneofthehungermarches,andwasimprisonedforthreemonthsforpoliticalactivism.Writingtook
secondplaceatthistimetopolitics,anditwasonlywhenhedeterminedto'writeaboutpeopleIknew,realpeopleasitwere,notchangingthemintootherpeople',
thathiscareerasanovelistwaslaunched.FromAlienSon(1952),acollectionofsketchesbasedonhischildhoodexperiences,whichisunusualinitsdepictionofan
immigrantJewishcommunityinanAustraliancountrytown,heproceededtoTheUnbending(1954),adocumentarynovelwhichfeaturescommunistpolitical
aspirationsaswelltheproblemsofJewishassimilation.OthernovelswithJewishthemesincludeDistantLand(1964),setatthetimeofWorldWarII,andSoFar
NoFurther(1971)ScenesfromRevolutionaryLife(1982),setinthe1930s,ispartlyautobiographical.FurtherautobiographicalstoriesandsketchesareinLove
andRebellion(1978).FromOdessatoOdessa:theJourneyofanAustralianWriter(1969)isanaccountofavisittotheUSSRinwhichhealsoexploreshis
familyroots.HewasmadeAMin1979.
Watkins,Vernon(190667)
Welshpoet,wasborninMaesteg,ofWelshspeakingparents,andwaseducatedatReptonSchoolandMagdaleneCollege,Cambridge.Apartfromthewaryears,
duringwhichheservedintheRoyalAirForce,heworkedasabankclerkinSwanseafrom1925to1965.ThepoetryofYEATSwasaguidinginfluence,aswasthe
personalencouragementofDYLANTHOMASseeDylanThomas:LetterstoVernonWatkins(1957).Hisfirstvolumeofverse,BalladoftheMariLwyd,and
OtherPoems(1941),containedmanysimpleevocationsofWelshchildhood.Ineightfurthersignificantcollections,hedevelopedhisvisionofthenatureoftime
(imagesofthesea,fountains,andtreesrecur)andofartisticinspiration(whichhesawasareligiousgift),particularlyinthepoemsinwhichheusesthepersonaofthe
WelshmythicalbardTaliesin.Watkinscalledhimself'aWelshpoetwritinginEnglish',usingwhatheregardedastherichsatisfactionofthelanguageinawaythat
frequentlyresoundswithmusicalrhythmsandWelshintonations,whichareespeciallyevidentinhisballads.Histranslations,notablyfromtheGermanofHEINEand
HLDERLIN,wereforhimanaturalexpressionofhispoeticcraft,andarecollectedinSelectedVerseTranslations,withanEssayontheTranslationofPoetry,ed.
RuthPryor(1977).SeeCollectedPoems,1986LeslieNorris(ed.),VernonWatkins190667,1970(essaysandtributesbyvarioushands).
Watson,James
seeSEMPILL.
Watson,Sheila(b.1909)
neDoherty,Canadiannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninNewWestminster,BritishColumbia,wherethefamilylivedinthegroundsoftheProvincialMental
Hospital,ofwhichherfatherwasSuperintendent.ShewaseducatedattheconventschoolsoftheSistersofSainteAnne,theConventoftheSacredHeart,
Vancouver,andtheUniversityofBritishColumbia,whereshequalifiedasateacher.Duringthe1930sshetaughtinelementaryschools,includingaoneroom
establishmentatDogCreek,whoseambiencesherecapturedlaterinhernovel.In1941shemarriedtheexperimentalpoetanddramatist,WilfredWatson(b.1911).
Afterfurtherteachingassignments,shewroteTheDoubleHook(1959),anellipticallypresentedworkwithdramaticactionandchangesoffortune,whichisregarded
asaforerunnerofthemodernistCanadiannovel.In1965shecompletedforTorontoUniversitythePhDthesisonWYNDHAMLEWISwhichshehadbegunin1957.She
wasamemberoftheEnglishdepartmentofAlbertaUniversityfrom1961to1975,andwithherhusbandandotherspublishedtheliteraryjournal,WhitePelican,
from1971to1978.HershorterfictionhasbeenpublishedasFourStories(1979).
Watts,Isaac(16741748)
Britishpoetandhymnwriter,wasborninSouthampton,theeldestofninechildrenofashoemakerwhowasatthetimeofthebirthinthelocaljailforhisreligious
opinions,butwholaterranaflourishingboardingschool.HewaseducatedatSouthamptonGrammarSchoolandStokeNewingtonDissentingAcademy.Aftertwo
yearsstudyingandwritingathome,heworkedasaprivatetutor,andin1702becamePastoroftheIndependentCongregationatMarkLane,London.In1712,after
recurrentboutsofillness,hewasofferedhouseroombyamemberofthecongregation,SirThomasAbney(16401722).Wattslivedwithhim,andthenhiswidow,for
therestofhislife,firstatTheobalds,Hertfordshire,andthenatAbneyHouse,StokeNewington,fromwhichhewouldbedrivenintopreachonSundayswhenhis
healthallowed.HisversewaspublishedinHoraeLyricae:PoemsChieflyoftheLyricKind(1706'muchenlarged'edn1709)HymnsandSpiritualSongs(1707
'correctedandmuchenlarged'edn1709)DivineSongsAttemptedinEasyLanguagefortheUseofChildren(1715),someofwhichCARROLLparodiedinAlice's
AdventuresinWonderlandandThePsalmsofDavidImitated(1719).Hewasnotsimplythewriterofsuchfamoushymnsas'OurGod,ourhelpinagespast'and
'Jesusshallreign...'.Hewastheadventurouspoetof'TheDayofJudgement',andanauthorityon,andexpertin,themetreofblankverse.Healsowrote
philosophicalandsociological,aswellastheological,worksinprose.OftheawardofhonorarydegreeofDDbyEdinburghUniversityin1728,JOHNSONcommentedin
Lives

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ofthePoets:'Academicalhonourswouldhavemorevalue,iftheywerealwaysbestowedwithequaljudgement.'
Wahgh,Evelyn(190366)
Britishnovelist,biographer,journalist,andtravelwriter,theyoungerbrotherofthenovelistAlecWaugh(18981981),wasborninHampstead,London,ofparentsof
Scottishdescent.HewaseducatedatLancingCollegehisbrother'snovelabouthisschooldays,TheLoomofYouth(1917),makingitimpossibletofollowhimat
SherborneandHertfordCollege,Oxford.Hetaughtinthreeprivateschoolsinasmanyyearsbeforedecidingthathewouldratherstudycarpentry.Afterhisfirst
book,Rossetti:HisLifeandWorks(1928),hewroteanoveltoearnmoneywithwhichtogetmarriedthemarriage,toEvelynGardner(190393),lastedbarelya
year.DeclineandFall(1928),whichdrawsonhisexperiencesatOxfordandafter,wasanimmediatesuccessforitsironic,oftenbitter,treatmentofquiteserious
matters.InVileBodies(1930),hesatirizedthecontemporarymannersofyoungpeopleinarecognizablebutequallyfantasizedsetting.Acruisein1929wasthebasis
ofLabels:aMediterraneanJournal(1930)attendanceasareporteratthecoronationofHaileSelassiegavehimthematerialforRemotePeople(1931)andthe
backgroundofafurthernovel,BlackMischief(1932).Similarly,atoughsafariproducedNinetyTwoDays:theAccountofaTropicalJourneythroughBritish
GuianaandPartofBrazil(1934)andthetropicalsequencesinAHandfulofDust(1934)anassignmenttocovertheItalianAbyssinianwarfortheDailyMail
resultedinWaughinAbyssinia(1936)andScoop:aNovelaboutJournalists(1938).
WaughbecameaCatholicin1930,andin1937,hisfirstmarriagehavingbeenannulled,hemarriedLauraHerbert(d.1973).HesawactiveservicewiththeRoyal
MarinesandtheCommandosinDakarandCretein194041,andfinishedWorldWarIIasamemberoftheBritishMissioninYugoslavia.BridesheadRevisited:
theSacredandProfaneMemoriesofCaptainCharlesRyder(1945)isbothhismostsubstantialnovelandthefirstinwhichthecharactersaredrawnasrealpeople
ratherthanasfiguresoffunorpity.TheLovedOne:anAngloAmericanTragedy(1948)isanexcursionintothemacabre.MenatArms(1952),Ofricersand
Gentlemen(1955),andUnconditionalSurrender(1961),republishedtogetherasSwordofHonour(1965),drawheavilyonhiswartimeexperiencesasthe
backgroundtodarkmilitaryandsocialsatire.
TheOrdealofGilbertPinfold(1957)islessanovelthanasurrealistnarrative,inwhichitsdisturbedhero,whobearsanuncannyresemblancetotheauthor,comes
throughselfrevelatoryhallucinationstocomparativepeaceofmind.Evenathismostdisturbing,Waughisessentiallyacomicwriter,tryingtocometotermswiththe
contradictionshefoundinlife.AndthroughouthisnovelstheCatholicChurchoftenappearssymbolicallyasanoasisinprevailingchaos.Otherbiographiesare
EdmundCampion:JesuitandMartyr(1935)andRonaldKnox(1959).EvelynWaugh:aLittleOrder,ed.DonatGallagher(1977)isaselectionfromhis
journalism.HisfriendshipwithNANCYMITFORDisrecordedinTheLettersofNancyMitfordandEvelynWaugh,ed.CharlotteMosley(1996).Hehadsixchildren,of
whom,whentheywereyoung,hewrotetohiswife:'Ican'taffordtowasteonthemanytimewhichcouldbespentonmyownpleasures.Ihavesentthemsome
kippersascompensation.'AuberonWaugh(b.1939),thenovelist,journalist,andcritic,ishiseldestson.SeeALittleLearning,newedn1983(earlyautobiography)
TheDiariesofEvelynWaugh,ed.MichaelDavie,newedn1995TheLettersofEvelynWaugh,ed.MarkAmory,newedn1995MartinStannard,Evelyn
Waugh:theEarlyYears19031939,newedn1988,andNoAbidingCity:EvelynWaugh19391966,newedn1993SelinaHastings,EvelynWaugh:a
Biography,newedn1995JacquelineMcDonnell,EvelynWaugh,1988(criticalstudy).
Weamys,Anna
seeSIDNEY.
Webb,(Martha)Beatrice(18581943)
nePotter,Britisheconomist,wasbornatStandishHouse,Gloucestershire,theeighthofninedaughtersofanindustrialist,andwaseducatedathome.Areluctant
socialite,shebecameasocialistthroughherfriendshipwithSPENCER,whichledhertoinvestigateconditionsinLondon'sEastEnd(sometimesdisguisedasaworking
girl),andtowriteupherfindingsinarticlesandreports.ThroughtheFabianSocietyshemetSidneyWebb(18591947),whomshemarriedin1892.Theirfirst
biographer,MaryAgnesHamilton(18841962),records:'Atthetime,tomanyofherfriendsandhis,therewassomethingstrangeintheallianceofthetall,handsome,
brilliantlygiftedwoman,whowaspreeminentlyamemberofthegoverningclass,andtheundersizedlittlemanwho,althoughpurelyEnglish,looked,withhisbeard
andeyeglasses,likeaforeigner,andspokelikeacockney.Thosewhosawitso,sawthesurfaceonly.''ThefirmofWebb',asBeatricecalledit,travelledtheworldin
theinterestsofresearchintopoliticalandsocialsystems,servedonnumerousroyalcommissions(shewasthedominantforcebehind,andon,thatwhichinvestigated
thePoorLawsin190509),andwasinstrumentalinfoundingtheLondonSchoolofEconomics.Thoughtheirjointwritingscanhardlybereviewedasliterature,books
suchasTheHistoryofTradeUnionism(1894),IndustrialDemocracy(1897),andTheDecayofCapitalistCivilization(1923)haveinfluencedcreative

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writerswhoseworksbearonsociology.ForreasonsofpoliticalexpediencySidneyWebbwascreatedBaronPassfieldin1929,butBeatricerefusedtobeknownas
LadyPassfield.Herdiaries,ed.NormanandJeanneMackenzie(4vols198285)areavaluablesourceofsocialandeconomichistory.
Webb,Francis(192574)
Australianpoet,wasbornFrancisCharlesWebbWagginAdelaide,andwasbroughtupbyhisfather'sparentsafterhismother'sdeathwhenhewastwo.Hewas
educatedatChristianBrothers'schoolsinChatswoodandLewisham,andtrainedinCanadaasawirelessairgunnerduringWorldWarII(see'TheGunner').Aftera
yearatSydneyUniversity,duringwhichhewontheuniversitymile(anexperiencereflectedin'TheRunner'),hereturnedtoCanada,whereheworkedasapublisher's
reader.ADrumforBenBoyd(1948),apoemin15sectionsinwhichtheScottishmerchantadventurerisviewedthroughtheeyesofdifferentcharacters,hadbeen
publishedintheBulletinin1946.Thevoyagertheme,throughtheexploitsofthePrussianexplorer,LudwigLeichhardt(whodisappearedin1848),recursin
'LeichhardtPantomime',ananalysisofcharactersandmotivation,publishedintheBulletinin1947,andrevisedandincludedwithsomeshorterpoemsinLeichhardt
inTheatre(1952).In1950hereturnedtoAustraliaviaEngland,wherehehadthefirstofhisrecurrentmentalbreakdowns.Hespenttheyears195359inEngland,
mainlyinNorfolkorinaBirminghampsychiatrichospital,theexperienceofwhichisrecreatedin'ADeathatWinsonGreen'and'HospitalNight'.Hestillmanagedto
writeanotherheroicvoyagersequence,'EyreAllAlone',publishedinSocratesandOtherPoems(1961)alongwithsomefinelyrics,including'BellsofStPeter
Mancroft'andtheNativitypoem,'FiveDaysOld',expressinghiswondermentatbeingallowedtoholdatinychild.ThepoemsinTheGhostoftheCock(1964)
werelargelycomposedbeforethefirstofseveralspellsinCallanParkmentalhospital,wherehedied.Theyinclude'WardTwo',aneightpartsequencewhich
incorporates'Harry'('It'sthedayforwritingthatletter,ifoneisable...')and'AroundCostessey',inwhichthefocusofhissearchforartistic,mental,andspiritual
salvationisaNorfolkvillage.SeeCollectedPoems,1969CapandBells:thePoetryofFrancisWebb,ed.MichaelGriffithandJamesMcGlade,1991(annotated
collection)MichaelGriffith,God'sFool:theLifeandPoetryofFrancisWebb,1991.
Webb,Mary(18811927)
neMeredith,Britishnovelist,wasborninLeightonundertheWrekin,Shropshire,thedaughterofaschoolmaster.Shewasbroughtupamongswarmsofbees,
whichrecurinherbestknownnovel,PreciousBane(1924),asdoes,intheformoftheheroine'sharelip,thedisfigurementsheherselfsufferedasaresultofGraves's
disease.ShewaseducatedathomeandfortwoyearsatafinishingschoolinSouthport.In1912shemarriedaschoolmaster,withwhomshelived,notaltogether
happily,inWestonsuperMare,LythHillnearShrewsbury(wheretheyhadamarketgarden),and,from1921,Hampstead(London).Shewroteessays,poetry,and
shortstoriesseeCollectedProseandPoems,ed.GladysMaryColes(1977)inadditiontothefivenovelspublishedduringherlifetime,ofwhichthefirstwas
TheGoldenArrow(1916).Intense,passionate,andpredominantlysimplisticevocationsofrurallife,theywentlargelyunremarkeduntilthePrimeMinister,Stanley
Baldwin(18671947),sangtheirposthumouspraisesataRoyalLiteraryFunddinnerin1928.Tomeettheresultingdemand,allfivewerereprintedinauniform
edition,withavolumeofessaysandpoems(introducedbyDELAMARE),TheSpringofJoy,andanunfinishedhistoricalromance,ArmourWhereinHeTrusted,in
1929.Theappearance,andcontinuedpopularitywithamorediscerningreadership,ofColdComfortFarm(1932)byStellaGibbons(190289),aruralparody
suggestedbyPreciousBane,wasonlyatemporarysetbacktoWebb'sreputation.SeeGladysMaryColes,MaryWebb,1990(biography).
Webb,Phyllis(b.1927)
Canadianpoet,wasborninVictoria,BritishColumbia,andat22,intheyearshegraduatedfromtheUniversityofBritishColumbia,stoodunsuccessfullyasaCo
operativeCommonwealthFederationcandidatefortheprovincialparliament.ShewentontodofurtherstudyinEnglishatMcGillUniversity,andlivedinLondonand
ParisbeforeteachingattheUniversityofBritishColumbiafrom1961to1964.ContactPress(seeDUDEK)publishedaselectionofherverse,withthatofLAYTONand
theScottishbornGaelTurnbull(b.1928),inTrio(1954).Avolumeofherown,EvenYourRightEye,largelywrittenonhertravels,followedin1956.Shewasa
programmeorganizerandproducerfortheCanadianBroadcastingCorporationfrom1964to1969.AfteraspellofisolationinSaltspringIsland,BritishColumbia,
sheemergedtoteachagainattheUniversityofBritishColumbia,andthentolectureincreativewritingatVictoriaUniversity.Herpoeticpreoccupationswithdistress,
death,andsuicidebecamesubsumedintothesparefeministlyricsofNakedPoems(1965)interestintheRussiananarchistmovementledtotheunfinishedsequence,
'TheKropotkinPoems'.Latterlyshehasexperimentedwith,whileredefiningthedirectionof,thePersianlyricform,theghazalseeHAFIZ,publishedinWaterand
Light:GhazalsandAntiGhazals(1985).TheVisionTree:SelectedPoems,ed.SharonThesen(1982)wontheGovernorGeneral'sAward.Asubsequent
collectionis

Page579

HangingFire(1990).Talking(1982)isacollectionofcriticalessaysandbroadcasts.SeeJohnEHulcoop,PhyllisWebbandHerWorks,1994.
Webster,Jean
seeCRAPSEY.
Webster,John(c.15801638)
Englishdramatist,issaidtohavebeenbyvirtueofhisbirthafreemanoftheMerchantTaylors'Company,butthefirstreferencepropertohimisin1602,asa
playwrightfortheAdmiral'sMen.AfterworkingwithDEKKER,HEYWOOD,andothersonsomelargelylostplays,hesurfacesasDekker'scollaboratorintwocity
comediesfortheboyactorsofStPaul's,WestWardHoeandNorthWardHoe(bothpublished1607).TheWhiteDevilTheWhiteDivel,ortheTragedyof
PauloGiordanoUrsini,DukeofBrachiano,withtheLife,andDeath,ofVittoriaCorombona,theFamousVenetianCurtizan(1612)isbasedonhistorical
eventssomethirtyyearsearlier.Afteranarrestingopeningitmovesthroughscenesofhorror,gore,andghostlyappearancestoanimprobableend,enlivenedbysome
splendidlinesofpoetry.TheDuchessofMalfipublishedasTheTragedyoftheDutchesseofMalfy(1623)wasfirstperformedin1614,andisbasedonan
EnglishtranslationofastoryofMatteoBandello(c.14901561).LesswellconstructedthanTheWhiteDevil,andwithanevenmoreimprobableplot,itnevertheless
haspassagesofprofoundtheatre,notablythedeathoftheDuchesswhichoccupiesActIV,andlineswhoseeffectisheightenedbyirregularmetre,suchas'Iamthe
DuchessofMalfistill'and'Coverherfacemineeyesdazzleshediedyoung'.InhislaterplaysWebsterneitherattemptednorachievedanythinglikethis.SeeThe
DuchessofMalfiandOtherPlays,ed.RenWeiss,newedn1996CliffordLeech,Webster:aCriticalStudy,newedn1982.
Wedde,Ian(b.1946)
NewZealandpoet,novelist,andshortstorywriter,wasborninBlenheim,andspentpartofhischildhoodinEastPakistanandEngland.HewenttoAuckland
University,afterwhichhetravelledwidely,spending196970asaBritishCouncilteacherinAmman,Jordan,thesourceofseveralstarkpoems,including'Landmine
Casualty...'.Hesubsequentlyworkedinavarietyoflowlypaidoutdoorandfactoryjobs,butalsoasanartcritic.Hehassuggestedthat'whatcreatestheartist
writerisnottheideas(experiences,perceptions)hehas...butthefactthathegivesthemaforminwriting....Thebutcher,thebaker,andthecandlestickmaker
(afterall)haveideasandexperiencestoo.'HisfirstsubstantialbookofversewasEarthly:SonnetsforCarlos(1975),addressedtohisfirstbornchild,and
comprisingasequenceofunrhymedsonnetswhosemovementandflowareenhancedbyjudicioustypographyandtheoriginalityofhisverbalapproach.Hehasalso
writtenanovella,DickSeddon'sGreatDive(1976),andthenovelsSymme'sHole(1986)andSurvivalArts(1988),aswellasforradio,thetheatre,andcabaret.
SeeDrivingintotheStorm:SelectedPoems,1988Tendering:NewPoems,1989TheDrummer,1994(subsequentcollection).
Wedderburn,Robert(c.151057)
Scottishpoetandprosewriter,thesonofaDundeemerchant,waseducatedatStLeonard'sCollege,StAndrewsUniversity.Hetookholyordersasapriest,
embracedProtestantdoctrines,andbecameVicarofDundee.Histwoillegitimatesonswerelegitimizedbyroyalfavourin1553.Hehadtwoolderbrothers.James(d.
1553)workedfortheirfather,andwrotedramaticentertainments,amongwhich,accordingtothehistorian,DavidCalderwood(15751650),wereatragedyabout
thebeheadingofJohntheBaptistandacomedy,HistorieofDionysiustheTyranne,'whereinhelikewisenippedthePapists'.ForhisassaultsontheCatholicChurch
JameswasdeclaredahereticandbanishedtoFrance,wherehedied.John(d.1556),whoenteredthepriesthoodin1528,wasalsoexiledforhisbeliefs.Together,
thethreecompiled,rewrote,ortranslatedfromGermanthecontentsofAneCompendiousbuikofgodliePsalmesandspiritualSangis,anotableandlively
collectioncelebratingtheProtestantReformation,'withdiverisotherisBallatischangeitoutofprophaneSangisingodliesangis,foravoydingofsinandharlatrie'.More
commonlyknownasTheGudeandGodlieBallatis,itwasfirstpublishedanonymouslyin1567,afterallthreeweredead,butthenameofWedderburnwassoon
associatedwithitbypopularreport.TheauthorshipofTheComplayntofScotland(1549),ascholarlyproseallegoryoftheconditionofScotland,wasfirstfirmly
attributedtoRobertWedderburnbyDavidLaing(17931878),inhisintroductiontothereprint(1868)ofthe1578editionofTheGudeandGodlieBallatis.
Weldon,Fay(b.1931)
neBirkinshaw,Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninAlvechurch,Worcestershire,andgrewupinNewZealand,towhichherparents
hadmigratedherfatherwasadoctor.HerearlyeducationwasattheGirls'HighSchool,Christchurch.Afterherparents'divorce,sheandhersisterwerebrought
backbytheirmothertoEngland,whereshewenttoHampsteadGirls'HighSchool,London,andStAndrewsUniversity,readingeconomicsandpsychology.Sheleft
theForeignOfficehavinghadababy,andsubsequentlybecameajournalistandanadvertisingcopywriter.ShemarriedRonWeldon,jazzmusician,in1963their
divorcebecameofficialeighthoursafterhisdeathin1994.Herfirstnovel,TheFatWoman'sJoke(1967),beganasatelevisionplay,transmitted

Page580

in1966.Avarietyofformsandidiosyncraticdevicesmarkherpursuitofthefemininepointofviewfromdifferentangles.ThereisthestorywithinastoryofWordsof
Advice(1977),Praxis(1978),ThePresident'sChild(1983),andDarcy'sUtopia(1990).DiabolicalbutstraightrevengeisthemovingforceofTheLifeand
LovesofaSheDevil(1983),andsupernaturalrevengeofRememberMe(1976).TheconflagrationinLifeForce(1992)constitutesyetanotheractofarson
committedbyavengefulheroine.ThereproductiveprocessandthepsychologyofpregnancyfeatureinPuffball(1980)andTheCloningofJoannaMay(1989)
therapistsarethemaintargetinAffliction(1994).ThroughouthernovelsandshortstoriesseeWickedWomen:aCollectionofShortStories(1995)woman
maybepitchedagainstwoman,butthemenwhoexploitthemareusuallyworsted.HercriticalworksincludeLetterstoAlice:OnFirstReadingJaneAusten
(1984)andastudyofREBECCAWEST(1985).
Wells,H(erbert)G(eorge)(18661946)
novelist,Britishshortstorywriter,andhistorian,wasborninBromley,Kent,thethirdsonandyoungestchildofashopkeeper(andprofessionalcricketer)andalady's
maid.HewaseducatedatBromleyAcademy,whichheleftat14tobecomeadraper'sassistantlater,athisowninitiative,hestudiedattheNormalSchoolof
ScienceofLondonUniversity.In188990hetaughtatHenleyHouse,theschoolownedbyMILNE'Sfather.Hepublishedtwoscientifictextbooksin1893,andin1894
lefthiswifeofthreeyearsandelopedwithoneofhisstudentsattheUniversityTutorialCollege,whomhesubsequentlymarried(shediedin1927).Hisfirstnovel,The
TimeMachine:anInvention(1895),isafantasyofthefutureTheIslandofDoctorMoreau(1896),TheInvisibleMall(1897),andTheWaroftheWorlds
(1898)equatemoretothemoderngenreofsciencefiction,withtheadditionofsomeimpliedsocialcomment.Atthesametimehewaswritingshortstorieswitha
varietyofthemesandmoods.ThesocialmilieuofhisyouthisreflectedinthelightnovelsLoveandMrLewisham(1900),Kipps:theStoryofaSimpleSoul
(1905),andTheHistoryofMrPolly(1910).TonoBungay(1908)exposesthebrittlenessofsociety,exemplifiedalsobytheaccusationof'immorality'levelledat
AnnVeronica:aModernLoveStory(1909).Themodelforthisnovelaboutanearly20thcenturyfeministwasAmberReeves(18871981),lateranovelistand
prosewriter,bywhomhehadanillegitimatechild,ashedidfiveyearslaterbyREBECCAWEST.Hisadvocacyoffreelove,worldgovernment,andgenocideisrehearsed
inMichaelCoren,TheInvisibleMan:theLifeandLibertiesofH.G.Wells(1993),thoughsomeofhismoreextremeviewsweresharedbyotherintellectualsofthe
times.Hewasaboveall,however,aremarkablestoryteller,whosevisionandpopularappealareevidentalsoinTheOutlineofHistory:BeingaPlainHistoryof
LifeandMankind(191920).SeeTheCompleteShortStories,newedn1987ExperimentinAutobiography,2volsnewedn1984NormanandJeanne
MacKenzie,TheTimeTraveller:theLifeofH.G.Wells,rev.edn1987MichaelFoot,H.G.:theHistoryofMrWells,newedn1996PeterKemp,H.G.Wells
andtheCulminatingApe,newedn1996(criticalstudy).
Welty,Eudora(b.1909)
Americanshortstorywriterandnovelist,wasborninJackson,Mississippi,ofafamilywhichwassuccessfulintheinsurancebusiness,andwaseducatedattheCentral
HighSchool,Jackson,MississippiStateCollegeforWomen,andtheUniversityofWisconsin.AfterstudyingadvertisingforayearatColumbiaBusinessSchool,and
findingnoworkinNewYork,shereturnedhomeanddidavarietyofpublicityandjournalisticjobs,includingtakingphotographsroundthestate.ANewYorkgallery
exhibitedherunposedstudiesofblackpeoplein1936,andinhercollectionofthese,OneTime,OnePlace:MississippiintheDepression(1971)sheexplainsthe
linkbetweenthemandherdevelopmentasawriter.Herfirstpublishedstorywas'DeathofaTravellingSalesman'(1936)othersappearedintheSouthernReview
(seeWARREN)andAtlanticMonthly,withacollection,ACurtainofGreenandOtherStories,in1941.Ashortnovelintheformofafantasy,TheRobber
Bridegroom(1942),wasfollowedbyTheWideNetandOtherStories(1943),byDeltaWedding(1946),astudyofthebreakingdownofSouthernsociety
barriers,andbyTheGoldenApples(1949),ashortstorycyclesetinafictitiousMississippicommunity.ThePonderHeart(1954),withitshilariouscourtroom
scene,isalongstorywhichfirstappearedintheNewYorker.
LosingBattles(1970),15yearsinthewriting,isherlongestandmostcomplexwork,andwasthefirsttofeatureonthebestsellerlists.Thenarrative,whichexplores
theclanfeudsandhometruthsofahillcountryfamilyduringtheDepression,ismeticulouslystructuredinchoralformalmostentirelyindialogue,withepisodesofsheer
farcepredominating.TheOptimist'sDaughter(1972),ashort,essentiallytragic,novel,wonthePulitzerPrize.OneWriter'sBeginnings(1984)isasearchforher
literarypersona,reflectingeventsnotchronologicallybutasa'continuousthreadofrevelation'.
AregionalwriterinthathersettingsandcharactersareSouthern,asarethoseofFAULKNER,K.A.PORTER,andWarren,sheismorereadilyidentifiedwithfictionwriters
whoseconcerniswithrevealingtheinnerself.Herbookreviews,writtenbetween1942and1984mainlyfortheNewYorkTimesBookReview,areinAWriter's
Eye:CollectedBookRe

Page581

views,ed.PearlAmeliaMcHaney(1994).SeeTheCollectedStoriesofEudoraWelty,newedn1996SelectedStoriesofEudoraWelty:aCurtainofGreen
andOtherStories,newedn1992PaulBinding,TheStillMoment:EudoraWelty,PortraitofaWriter,1994RuthM.VandeKieft,EudoraWelty,rev.edn
1987(criticalstudy).
Wendt,Albert(b.1939)
Samoannovelistandpoet,wasborninApia,WesternSamoa,wherehewenttoprimaryschool.'IamSamoanwitha''dash"ofGerman...NewZealandisasecond
homewhichItreasure.'Hewonagovernmentscholarshiptherein1952,andwaseducatedatNewPlymouthBoys'HighSchool,ArdmoreTeachers'College,and
VictoriaUniversity.HewontheLandfallshortstorycompetitionforwritersunder25in1963.HereturnedtoWesternSamoain1965,andwasPrincipalofSamoa
College196973.In1974hejoinedtheteachingstaffoftheUniversityoftheSouthPacific,becomingProfessorofPacificLiteratureand,in1978,Directorofthe
SouthPacificCentreinWesternSamoa.HewasappointedProfessorofNewZealandandPacificLiterature,AucklandUniversity,in1988.OfSonsfortheReturn
Home(1973),thefirstpublishednovelbyaSamoan,hewrote:'IsupposeinsomewaysitisanattempttowriteoutofmysystempartofmyNewZealand
experiencetoshowwhatitislikebeingSamoanandbeingSamoaninanotherculture.'Thebookhadbeenwrittensomeyearsearlier,andbythetimehecameto
writePouliuli(1977)andLeavesoftheBanyanTree(1979),powerfulstudiesofSamoancultureandsociety,hehadalsowrittenandpublishedabodyofverse
seeInsideUstheDead:Poems1961to1974(1976),andalsoShamanofVisions(1984).Afterseveralyearsofvirtualsilencehebroughtoutanambitiousnovel,
Ola(1991),whichhadamixedreception.FlyingFoxinaFreedomTree(1974)andTheBirthandDeathoftheMiracleMan(1986)arecollectionsofshort
stories.
Wesker,Arnold(b.1932)
Britishdramatistandshortstorywriter,wasborninLondon'sEastEndofJewishimmigrantparents,andwaseducatedatUptonHouseSchool,Hackney.After
NationalServiceintheRoyalAirForce,hedidmanydifferentjobsbeforehavingthreelinkedplaysperformedinCoventryChickenSoupwithBarley(1959),
Roots(1959),andI'mTalkingaboutJerusalem(1960),whichwerestagedinLondonin1960asthe'WeskerTrilogy'(published1960asTheWeskerTrilogy).
TherearepoliticalundertonesinthemasordinaryfamiliesfacetherealitiesoflifeinpostwarBritainandgravitatebetweenextremesofhopeanddespair.Themain
charactersarefromcontrastingworkingclassbackgrounds(metropolitanJewishandruralNorfolk),andthedialoguecapturesexactlytheappropriateaccentsand
dialects.TheKitchen(1959),writtenoriginallyfortelevision,isaplayofconflictssetinarestaurantkitchenwhich,toWesker,alsorepresentstheworld.InChips
withEverything(1962)confrontationsbetweenNationalServicemenandregularRAFofficersareusedasamicrocosmofwhathesawasgrowingpoliticalcontrol
overfreedomofthought.Laterplayshavewonlessrecognition,butincludeTheMerchant(1976),inwhichSHAKESPEARE'STheMerchantofVeniceisrepresentedas
anexerciseinracialintegration.In1960Wesker'scommitmentsawtheestablishmentofCentre42,whichaimedduringitsshortlifetoexploittradesunionsupportfor
thearts.CollectionsofshortstoriesincludeLoveLettersonBluePaper(1974),thetitlestoryofwhichwaspublishedasaplayin1978.SeePlays,3volsnewedns
197680WildSpringandOtherPlays,1995AsMuchasIDare:anAutobiography(19231959),newedn1995GlendaLeeming,WeskerthePlaywright,
1983.
Wesley,John(170391)
Britishtheologiananddiarist,thefounderoftheMethodistChurch,wasbornatEpworthRectory,Lincolnshire,the15thchildandsecondsurvivingsonoftherector.
HewaseducatedatCharterhouseandChristChurch,Oxford,andwasordainedpriestin1728.In1729hereturnedtoOxfordasaFellowofLincolnCollege,and
joinedhisbrotherCharles(170788),laterthehymnwriter,inagroupforreligiousstudyandhelptoothers,whosesystematic('methodic')approachearnedits
membersthename'Methodists'.In1735,whenhisJournalbegins,heembarkedonamissiontoGeorgia,andwasbrieflyassociatedwiththeMoravians.Afterhis
return,heestablishedthefirstMethodistchapelinBristolin1739.Hejourneyedunceasinglyforthenextfiftyyears,duringwhichhetravelled250,000miles,preached
fortythousandsermons,andorganizedinnumerablesocietieswithintheChurchofEngland.Healsowrotecopiously:commentaries,histories,treatises,translations,as
wellashymns.Thestarkstyleoftheentriesinhisjournal,whichhekeptuntil1790,vividlyreflectsthepainaswellasthepassionofhistriumphantbutoftendangerous
progress.SeeTheJournalofJohnWesley,ed.ElisabethJay,1987.
West,Morris(b.1916)
Australiannovelist,wasborninStKilda,Melbourne,andeducatedatStMary'sCollegeandMelbourneUniversity.AmemberoftheChristianBrothers,hetaughtin
schoolsinNewSouthWalesandTasmania,butlefttheOrderin1939beforetakinghisfinalvows.HewasacipherofficerintheSouthPacificduringWorldWarII,
afterwhichhewasforatimesecretarytotheformerPrimeMinister,WilliamMorrisHughes(18621952).Hethenworkedinradio,andfoundedandbecame

Page582

ManagingDirectorofAustralianRadioProductions.In1955heleftAustraliatobeafreelancefilm,dramatic,andfeaturewriter,subsidizinghimselfbywritingnovels,
havingalready,asJulianMorris,publishedthesemiautobiographicalMooninMyPocket(1945).ChildrenoftheSun(1957),afactualstudyofthestreetchildren
ofNaples,broughthimworldwideattention.TheDevil'sAdvocate(1959),hisseventhnovelifonewrittenasMichaelEastisalsoincluded,launchedhimintothe
internationalbestsellerlistsTheShoesoftheFisherman(1963)isafurthernovelfeaturingVaticanpolitics.InmuchthesamewayasGRAHAMGREENE,Westhasan
instinctforthetreatmentofnewsworthyinternationalissues,suchasthoseinTheAmbassador(1965)andTheTowerofBabel(1968),andforuniversalthemes.The
WorldisMadeofGlass(1983)isadifferentkindofdocumentary,beingapsychologicalcasestudyofthepsychoanalystCarlJung(18751961)andapatient.The
effectsofmanicdepressionareexploredinVanishingPoint(1996),asafinanciermanipulatesothersandishimselfmanipulatedintobleakchaos.Westreturnedto
Australiain1983,andwasmadeAOin1985.
West,Nathanael(190440)
Americannovelist,wasbornNathanWeinsteininNewYorkCityofLithuanianJewishimmigrants,hisfatherbeingasuccessfulbuildingcontractor.Havingattended
DeWittClintonHighSchoolirregularly,hegotintoTuftsCollegeonaforgedschoolrecord,droppedoutduringhisfirstterm,andtransferredtoBrownUniversity,
usingsomeoneelse'sgrades.HegraduatedinEnglishin1924,workeddesultorilyforhisfather,legallychangedhisname,andspentthreemonthsinParis.In1927
relativesgothimajobasnightmanagerofasmallManhattanhotel.Hisyoungestsister,towhomhewasveryclose,marriedPERELMANin1929.Heheavilyreviseda
burlesqueconfessionalnovel,writtenduringhiscollegedays,whichwaspublishedasTheDreamLifeorBalsoSnell(1931).In1930,againthroughfamilyinfluence,
hewasappointedmanageroftheSuttonHotel,NewYork,wherehestayedfortwoyears.PreliminarydraftsforMissLonelyhearts(1933),asavagesocialsatire
centringontheeffortsofanadvicecolumnisttolivehismasquerade,werepublishedin1932inashortlivedrevivalofContact,whichheeditedwithw.c.WILLIAMS.A
CoolMillion:theDismantlingofLemuelPitkin(1934)isacomicstudyoffailureinthecontextofAmericanidealism.From1936hewasemployedonandoffasa
Hollywoodscriptwriter,amilieuheremorselesslyparodiedinTheDayoftheLocust(1939).In1940hemarriedEileenMcKenney,a27yearolddivorceeof
bohemiantendencies.ReturningfromahuntingtripinMexico,hedrovethroughastopsigninCalifornia.Bothdiedinthecollisionwithanothervehicle.MySister
Eileen,thedramatizationofthefamilymemoir(1938)byEileen'ssister,RuthMcKenney(191172),openedonBroadwayafewdayslater.TheCompleteWorksof
NathanaelWest(1957)hasalongintroductoryessaybyALANROSS.
West,Rebecca,pseudonymofCicilyFairfield(18921983)
Britishnovelist,critic,andjournalist,wasborninPaddington,London,thethirddaughterofanIrishjournalistandentrepreneur,whoabandonedhisfamilyin1901.
Shewaseducatedinhermother'snativeEdinburghatGeorgeWatson'sCollege,afterwhichshespentayearattheRoyalAcademyofDramaticArt.In1911she
joinedthejournalisticstaffoftheFreewoman,choosingasapseudonymthenameofthestrongwilledheroineofIBSEN'SRosmersholm.Shewassoonalsowriting
politicalarticlesandreviewsfortheClarionandotherperiodicalsseeTheYoungRebecca:WritingsofRebeccaWest19111917,ed.JaneMarcus(1982).A
provocativereviewin1912ofWELLS'SMarriageledtoameeting,andtoastormytenyearaffair,duringwhichshegavebirthtoason,thenovelistAnthonyWest
(191487)seehisoutspokenH.G.Wells:AspectsofaLife(1984).HerfirstbookwasacriticalstudyofHENRYJAMES(1916).Herfirstnovel,TheReturnofthe
Soldier(1918),astoryofthewarwiththeemphasisonthewoman'sangle,wasfollowedbythemelodramaticfeministcautionarytale,TheJudge(1922).
In1930shemarriedHenryAndrews(d.1968),withwhomshemadeseveralvisitstoYugoslavia,whichinspiredherwiderangingstudyofthecountryanditspeople,
BlackLambandGrayFalcon(1942).Attendanceasareporteratwarcrimes'andtreasontrialsafterWorldWarIIledtoTheMeaningofTreason(1947):the
firsteditionwas'togivethepublicinformationwhichwouldotherwisenothavereachedit',andasecond(1951)'toprotectthepublicfrommisinformationwhichwas
beinggivenitbybothhands'.ItwasrepublishedasTheNewMeaningofTreason(1964),afurtherrevisededition(1956)havingbeenwithdrawn.Thelasttwo
novelspublishedduringherlifetime,TheFountainOverflows(1957)andTheBirdsFallDown(1966),bothmaturestudiesofgrowingupbeforeWorldWarI,are
regardedasherbest.Anunfinishednovel,onwhichsheworkedsporadicallyfortwentyyears,isthetitlepieceofTheOnlyPoetandOtherStories,ed.AntoniaTill
(1992).ShewasmadeCBEin1949,andDBEin1959.SeeFamilyMemories:anAutobiographicalJourney,ed.FaithEvans,newedn1992Victoria
Glendinning,RebeccaWest:aLife,newedn1996CarlRollyson,RebeccaWest:aSagaoftheCentury,1996(biography).

Page583

Westmacott,Mary
seeCHRISTIE.
Wharton,Edith(18621937),
neJones,Americannovelist,shortstorywriter,poet,andtravelwriter,wasborninNewYorkCity,thethirdchildandonlydaughterofaprominentcitylandowner,
whoin1866tookhisfamilytoFranceforsixyears.Shewaseducatedathomebygovernesses.At14shewroteanovel,'FastandLoose'whenshewas16a
selectionof29ofherverseswereprivatelypublishedasVerses(1878)HOWELLSprintedoneoftheminAtlanticMonthlyin1879.Andat17'Pussy'Jonesmade
hersocialdebut.Herfatherdiedin1882in1885,afterabrokenengagementandabriefromanticattachment,shemarriedEdwardWharton(18491928),aBoston
socialite.WhennotinNewYorkortravellinginEurope,theylivedinitiallyinacottageonhermother'sestateinNewport,RhodeIsland,withanentouragewhich
includedanAlsatianhousekeeper,anEnglishbutler,andaswarmofsmalldogs.AnAegeancruisewasaninspirationalexperiencealegacyfromadistantcousin
madeherfinanciallysecure.Scribner'sMagazineacceptedherpoem,'TheLastGiustiniani'(1889),andastory,'MrsManstey'sView'(1890).In1893Scribner's
proposedacollectedvolumeofstories,whichinthelightofsociety's,andhermother's,distrustofprofessionalwriters,precipitatedanidentitycrisisandanervous
breakdown,towhichhertroubledmarriagealsocontributed.HerfirstbookafterherrecoverywasTheDecorationofHouses(1897),writtenwithayoungarchitect,
OgdenCodman.ThestoriesfinallyappearedasTheGreaterInclination(1899),followedbyanovella,TheTouchstone(1900),andafurthercollectionofstories,
CrucialInstances(1901).
HerfirstmeetingwithHENRYJAMES,whomshehadlongadmiredfromadistance,tookplaceinEnglandin1904andwasthebeginningofafirmfriendshipseeHenry
JamesandEdithWharton:Letters19001915,ed.LyallPowers(1990).TheHouseofMirth(1905)affirmedherinthepubliceyeasanovelistoftheconflictsof
socialmanners,particularlyinthesettingofNewYork.
In1907shesetupahomeinParis,wherein1909herhusbandconfessedtohavingspeculatedwithhercapital,andalsotousingittobuyanapartmentinBostonfor
hismistressWhartonfinallydivorcedhimin1913.InthemeantimeshehadbeenhavinganaffairwithanAmericanjournalist,MortonFullerton(18651952),an
experiencereflectedin'Life'andthesonnetsequence'TheMortalLease',whichwereincludedinArtemistoActaeon,andOtherVerse(1909).InEthanFrome
(1911),aNewEnglandnovelwrittenaftertheendoftheaffair,abotchedsuicideleavestheloversinthecareandatthemercyofthewomanfromwhomtheyhad
triedtoescape.ThereareechoesofherownantiselfintheruthlessheroineofTheCustomoftheCountry(1913),whosailsthroughseveralmarriagesbefore
returningtoherfirsthusband,nowabillionaire,inaprogressionwhichisacommentaryontheeffectofthenewvaluesontheold.ShewonthePulitzerPrizeforThe
AgeofInnocence(1920),amellowersatirethanearlierworks,inwhichconventiontriumphsoverdesire,andwhichisthelastofhermajornovels,thoughbyno
meansthelastofall.ForherworkinFranceduringWorldWarI,especiallytowardsthereliefoftuberculosisamongthemilitaryandcivilians,shewasin1916
appointedChevalieroftheLegionofHonourin1919,aftergivingheronlyaminorawardduringthewar,theKingofBelgiummadeherChevalieroftheOrderof
LeopoldseeAlanPrice,TheEndoftheAgeofInnocence:EdithWhartonandtheFirstWorldWar(1996).EdithWhartonAbroad:SelectedTravel
Writings,18881920,ed.SarahBirdWright,prefacebyShariBenstock(1995)covershertravelsinEuropeinacustombuiltchaufferedcar,mainlywithJamesas
companion,andcruisesinacharteredyachtalongthecoastofNorthAfrica.Anautobiography,ABackwardGlance(1934),isasuitablyselectiveaccountofherlife
andhercreativeprocess.SeeR.W.B.Lewis,EdithWharton:aBiography,newedn1993ShariBenstock,NoGiftsfromChance:aBiographyofEdith
Wharton,newedn1995CynthiaGriffinWolff,AFeastofWords:theTriumphofEdithWharton,1977(criticalstudy)MillicentBell(ed.),TheCambridge
CompaniontoEdithWharton,1995(criticalessays).
Wheatley,Phillis(c.17531784)
Americanpoet,wasborninWestAfrica,probablyinSenegal,andwasshippedtoBostonasaslavein1761.Shewasboughtbyawelltodotailor,JohnWheatley
(d.1778),forhiswifeSusannah(d.1773).Accordingtohermaster,'WithoutanyassistancefromSchoolEducationandbyonlywhatshewastaughtinthe
Family'(theWheatleyshadtwochildren),'she,insixteenMonthsTime...attainedtheEnglishLanguage...tosuchadegreeastoreadthemostDifficultPartsofthe
SacredWritings.'Shebeganwritingverseatabout13,bywhichtimeshehadalso,itisclearfromherwritings,imbibedfromclassicalmythologyandthepoetryof
MILTON,POPE,andTHOMASGRAY.Shewrote'TotheUniversityofCambridge,inNewEngland',comprising15heroiccouplets,theverseformsheusuallyemployed,in
1768.Whenshewas16,shejoinedtheOldSouthChurchofBoston:herelegyonthedeathoftheEnglishrevivalistpreacherRev.GeorgeWhitefieldseealso
EDWARDSwasherfirstpoemtobepublished(1770).In1770,partlyforreasonsofherhealth,shewastakentoEngland,whereamongthosewhowarmlyreceived

Page584

her,andadmiredhercharmandconversation,wasSelinaHastings(170791),CountessofHuntingdon,whosechaplainWhitefieldhadbeen.PoemsonVarious
Subjects,ReligiousandMoral(1773),'ByPhillisWheatley,NegroServanttoMrJohnWheatley',withaprefatorynotebytheGovernorofMassachusettstestifying
totheirauthenticity,andaportraitoftheauthor,waspublishedinLondonwhileshewasthere,anddistributedalsobyabooksellerinBostonthefirstAmerican
editionwasin1777.
ShewascalledbacktoBostonbytheillnessofMrsWheatley,whodiedshortlyafterwards.AfterthedeathofJohnWheatley,Phillis,nowfreed,marriedanother
freedslave,JohnPeters,whoappearstohavebeenwellreadandtohavestudiedlaw.HewasdisapprovedofbytheWheatleyfamilyhemayhavebeenablack
activist.Certainlyhewasunabletoprovideforhiswifeandtwochildrenwhodiedininfancy.Hewasimprisonedfordebtin1784,probablyatthesametimeasPhillis
died,ingreatpoverty,withtheirthirdchildlyingillbesideher.Poemsofherlatteryearsincluded'ToHisExcellencyGeneralWashington'(1776)andLibertyand
Peace(1784),printedasapamphletunderhermarriednameofPeters.MemoirandPoemsofPhillisWheatleywaspublishedin1834,andherlettersin1864.See
TheCollectedWorksofPhillisWheatley,ed.JohnC.Shields,newedn1990.
White,E(lwyn)B(rooks)(18991985)
Americanhumorist,essayist,andchildren'swriter,wasborninMountVernon,NewYork,andeducatedatMountVernonHighSchoolandCornellUniversity,where
heeditedtheCornellDailySun.AfterturningdownateachingpostattheUniversityofMinnesota,hetriedafewjournalisticjobs,andthenwithafriendsetout
acrosscountryinhisModelTFord.SixmonthslatertheyendedupinSeattle,Washington,wherehebecameareporterontheSeattleTimes.Concludingthathe
'wasnotquickenoughoralertenoughIwasalwaystakingthewrongtraingoinginthewrongdirection',heboardedasteamertoAlaska,voluntarilygivinguphis
firstclasspassengerstatustoworkasacrewmember.HisfirstpiecefortheNewYorker,'DefenseoftheBronxRiver',appearedin1925,andfrom1927until1938
hewasafulltimememberofstaff,writing'NotesandComments',poems,stories,captions,andreviews.Mostofhisadultworksarecollections:TheLadyisCold
(1929),hisfirstbook,oflightverseHoHum(1931),oftheinimitabletaglineswithwhichheembellishednewsbreaks,aNewYorkerspecialityQuoVadimus?
(1939),ofsketchesandOneMan'sMeat(1942,enlargededn1944)andThePointsoftheCompass(1962),ofarticlesandessayswrittenafterhehadleftNew
YorktoliveonhisfarminMaine.In1945hecoveredfortheNewYorkertheSanFranciscoConferenceatwhichtheUnitedNationswasbornseeTheWildFlag
(1946).StuartLittle(1945),aboutamousewhoseparentsarehumans,andCharlotte'sWeb(1952),whoseprotagonistisaspider,arechildren'sfantasiesofrare
imaginationandwit.SeeWritingsfromtheNewYorker19271976,ed.RebeccaDale,1992.
White,Gilbert(172093)
Britishnaturalist,theeldestsonofabarrister,wasborninhisgrandfather'shouse,SelborneVicarage,Hampshire,andwasbroughtupin'Wakes',ahouseonthe
oppositesideofthevillagesquare(nowtheGilbertWhiteMuseum).HewaseducatedatthegrammarschoolinBasingstokeandatOrielCollege,Oxford.Afterbeing
awardedhisdegree,whenhewaspresentedwithanautographedcopyofPOPE'SIliad,hewaselectedaFellowofthecollege,andtookholyorders.Hewasa
temporarycurateinseveralparishes,andin1755settledinSelborne,fromwhichheadministeredthecuracyofFaringdon.HefinallybecameCurateofSelbornein
1784hecouldneverbethevicarbecausethelivingwasinthehandsofMagdalenCollege,Oxford,andhewasanOrielman.In1767hewrotethefirstofhis
publishedletterstotheWelshtravellerandnaturalist,ThomasPennant(172698),andtwoyearslaterhewascorrespondingalsowiththeHon.DainesBarrington
(17271800),RecorderofBristol,whohaddevisedasystemofrecordingdatacalled'TheNaturalist'sJournal'.Thesevividlettersofaselftrained,acuteobserverof
nature,enlivenedbyversesandshrewdandoftenamusingcomment,werepublishedbyhisbrotherBenjamin(172594)inTheNaturalHistoryandAntiquitiesof
Selborne(dated1789)the'Antiquities',aseriesofhistoricalreportswhichareoftenomittedfrommoderneditions,lackthespontaneityofhisletterstofellow
naturalists.Attheageof72hewastakenseriouslyillafterofficiatingatthefuneralofayounggirl,anddiedafortnightlater.Themodernenvironmentalmovementis
basedonthesamebalancebetweenmanandnaturewhichhepioneered.SeeTheNaturalHistoryofSelborne,ed.PaulFoster,1993RichardMabey,Gilbert
White,newedn1993(biography).
White,Patrick(191290)
Australiannovelistanddramatist,thesonofawealthygrazierwhosegrandfatherhadsettledinHunterValleyin1826,wasborninLondon,wherehisparents
happenedtobeonholiday.HespenthisearlyyearsonstationsinNewSouthWales,ofwhichhewroteinanautobiographicalsketch,'TheProdigalSon'(1958):
'Whateverhascomesince,Ifeelthattheinfluencesandimpressionsofthisstrange,deadlandscapepredominate.'HewassenttoEnglandtoCheltenhamCollege,
whichheloathed,especiallytheteamgames.

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Hethenspentthreeyearsasajackarooonsheepstations,andwrotesome'immature'novels,aswellasadrawingroomcomedyandaoneactplaywhichhelater
suppressed,butwhichwereproducedatthePlayhouse,Sydney,in1933.In1932hewenttoKing'sCollege,Cambridge,toreadhistory,butswitchedtomodern
languages.In1935hepublishedThePloughmanandOtherPoems,andwenttoLondon,wherehewrotesketchesandlyricsforrevues,andhadhisfirststory,'The
TwitchingColonel',printedintheLondonMercury(1937).Ofhisfirstnovel,HappyValley(1939),asagainanAustralianmountaintown,theAdelaideMail
commented:'Surelyalittlehope,alittlelookingtowardthefuture,mightbeadvisable.'Ofhissecond,TheLivingandtheDead(1941),aharshEnglishnovelofthe
1910sto1930s,MUIRwroteintheListener:'MrWhitehasapassionatespiritofexploration,inhisdealingwithexperience,whichisgivenonlytowriterstowhom
imaginationisacalling.'DuringWorldWarIIWhiteservedwiththeRoyalAirForceintheMiddleEastandGreeceasanintelligenceofficer.Afterwards,notwithout
vacillation,hereturnedtoAustralia,andwithhismalepartner,ManolyLascaris,settledonaformerduckfarmoutsideSydney,wheretheygrewolivesandcitrusfruit,
andbredSaanengoatsandSchnauzerdogs.
TheAunt'sStory(1948),theodysseyofaspinsterinsearchofreality,establishedhimasamajornovelist.TheTreeofMan(1955),thestrugglesofasmallfarmer
toldnotwithouthumour,andVoss(1957),amysticalepicofthepioneerdaysofexploration,werequicklyacknowledgedasAustralianclassics(thelatterwinningthe
W.H.SmithLiteraryAwardaswellastheMILESFRANKLINAward).ThespiritualandphysicaljourneysofaGermanJew,anEnglishhousewife,andanAboriginalartist
endinthegardenofanAustralianwomaninRidersintheChariot(1961).ItbroughthimhissecondMilesFranklinAward,inayearinwhichhewasthesubjectofa
dramaticparochialfurore.TheBoardoftheAdelaideFestivalofArtsoverruleditsadvisersandrejectedhispowerful,idealisticplay,TheHamFuneral,whichhehad
developedinLondonin1947fromapaintingandanideaof(Sir)WilliamDobell(18991970).ItwasstagedinsteadbytheAdelaideUniversityTheatreGuildso
wereTheSeasonatSarsaparilla(1962)andNightonBaldMountain(1964),bothwritten,aswasACheerySoul(1963),withinthenextyearseeCollected
Plays,Vol.1(1985)Vol.2waspublishedin1994.ThefictionalsuburbofSarsaparillareappearsasthesettingofTheSolidMandala(1966),aversionoftheCain
andAbelstory,whichwashisownfavouriteamonghisnovels.TheVivisector(1970)andTheEyeoftheStorm(1973)reflectthecityofSydneyitself,intowhich
WhiteandLascarismovedin1964,'wet,boiling,superficial,brash,beautiful,uglySydney,developingduringmylifetimefromasunlitvillageintothispresentday
parvenubastard'.AFringeofLeaves(1976)isastudyofredemptionthroughunderstanding,basedonthesurvivalofawhitewomanamongAboriginesaftera
shipwreckin1836.TheTwybornAffair(1979)isanexplorationoftheproblemsofambiguoussexuality.Whitehimselfobtrudesintohislastnovel,Memoirsof
ManyinOne,byAlexXenophonDemirjian(1986),anotherstudyofindefinitegenderroles,butalsoofoldage.
Latterlyhewrotefurtherplaysfortheexperimentaltheatre,BigToys(published1978),SignalDriver(1983),andNetherwood(1983).HisshortfictionisinThe
BurntOnes(1964),TheCockatoos(1974),andThreeUneasyPieces(1981).PatrickWhiteSpeaks(1990),acollectionofutterancesonvariousissues,illustrates
theobligationhefelttospeakoutonmattersofpublicanxiety.Hisnotoriouscantankerousnesshasbeenidentifiedasatheatricalprotectivecloak,andhisforbidding
expressionwithareluctancetorevealhisfalseteeth.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1973:withtheproceedsheestablishedtheannualPatrick
WhiteAwardforanolderAustralianauthorwhoseworkmaynothavereceivedtheacclaimorfinancialreturnthatitdeserves(thefirstwinnerwasCHRISTINASTEAD).
HewasmadeACin1975,butresignedfromtheOrderthefollowingyearinprotestatgovernmentalpolicies.SeeFlawsintheGlass:aSelfPortrait,newedn
1983PatrickWhiteLetters,ed.DavidMarr,newedn1996DavidMarr,PatrickWhite:aLife,newedn1992MartinGray(ed.)PatrickWhite,Lifeand
Writings:FiveEssays,1991BrianKiernan,PatrickWhite,1980(criticalstudy)SimonDuring(ed.),PatrickWhite,1996(criticalstudy).
White,T(erence)H(anbury)(190664)
Britishnovelist,wasborninBombay,thesonofadistrictsuperintendent.From1911hewasbroughtupinamoresettledfamilyatmospherebyhisgrandparentsin
England.HewaseducatedatCheltenhamCollegeandQueen'sCollege,Cambridge,where,afterayearoff(subsidizedbyagroupofdons)torecoverfrom
tuberculosis,hegotabrilliantfirstinEnglish.Afterteachingfortwoyearsatapreparatoryschool,andin1929publishingtwobooksofverse,hewasin1932
appointedHeadofEnglishatStoweSchool.Havingnowpublishedseveralunproductivenovels,heresignedin1936andwenttoliveinagamekeeper'scottageonthe
Stoweestate.EnglandHaveMyBones(1936),a'scissorsandpaste'jobcompiledfromhishunting,shooting,andflyingdiaries,withhisownwoodcuts,soldwell
enoughforitspublishertoofferhim200ayearagainstabookayear.HerespondedwithTheSwordintheStone(1938),a'BookoftheMonth'intheUSAand
thefirstofwhatbecameaquartet

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ofnovels,finallypublishedasTheOnceandFutureKing(1958),thoughthelastbook,CandleintheWind,hadbeenfinishedin1941afifth,TheBookofMerlyn,
whichwasdeliveredatthesametime,didnotappearuntil1977.SelectivelybasedonMALORY,inwhomWhitesawasacentraltheme'tofindanantidotetowar',itisa
superblyinventive,andfunny,Arthuriansaga,whoseunderlyingpurposeistocelebratetheland,people,andmythologyofBritain.HelivedinIrelandduringWorld
WarII,andthenintheChannelIslands.OthernotablenovelsareMistressMasham'sRepose(1946),inwhichagirllivinginStowefindsdescendantsofSWIFT'S
Lilliputians,andTheMaster:aAdventureStory(1957).SeeSylviaTownsendWarner,TH.White,newedn1989(biography).
White,WilliamHale
seeRUTHERFORD.
Whitman,Walt(er)(181992)
Americanpoetandjournalist,wasborninWestHills,NewYork,oneofninechildrenofEnglishDutchdescentofWalterWhitman(d.1855),acarpenter/builderand
smalltimefarmer,andLouisaVanVelsor(d.1873),whowasbarelyliterate.In1823thefamilymovedtoBrooklyn,whereheattendedpublicschoolsuntilhewas
11,whenhewenttoworkasalawyer'sofficeboy(theproprietorpaidforhimtojoinacirculatinglibrary)andthenasaprinter'sapprentice(hewasallowedto
contribute'sentimentalbits'tothepaper).Havingqualifiedasajourneyman,hereturnedtoLongIslandin1836,didsomeschoolteaching,foundedandforayear
wrote,printed,anddistributedhisownweeklypaper,andthenworkedfortheLongIslandDemocrat.BackinNewYorkin1841,heeditedandcontributedto
newspapersandjournals,hadstoriespublishedintheDemocraticReview,andwroteatemperancenovel,FranklinEvans:or,TheInebriate(1842).Hethen
editedtheBrooklynDailyEagle,andwroteitsliterarypages,untilhisresignationonpoliticalgrounds.HefoundajobonanewdailypaperinNewOrleans,wherehe
spentthreesteamymonthsandgottheinspirationfortheevocativepoem'ISawinLouisianaaLiveOakGrowing'(1860).HethenbrieflyeditedtheBrooklyn
WeeklyFreeman,beforespendingfivemysteriousyearsinthebuildingtrade,studyingandforgingroughfriendships(healsousedtovisitsickhorsebusdriversin
hospital)fromthisexperienceheemergedasapoetofoutstandingoriginality.
Theprivatelypublished('fortheconvenienceofprivatereadingonly')LeavesofGrass(1855),a96pagevolumewithnoauthor'snameonthetitlepage(though
therewasafrontispieceengravingofhimselfinworkingmen'sclothes),comprised12untitledpoemsinunrhymed,freeverse(thefirstbeingcalled'SongofMyself'in
the1881edition).Itcarriedan8000word,eccentricallypunctuatedprefaceinwhichhesetouthisliterarycredosandofferedavisionofanAmericannationalpoetry.
Intoitsnineeditions,thelastofwhich(1891),438pages,hecorrectedshortlybeforehisdeath,heworkedallhisversetheprefacewasdroppedafterthefirst
edition,butbecameasourceofseveralsubsequentpoems.Thereceptionoftheoriginaleditiondidnotmatchthestartlingnatureofthecontents,thoughEMERSONsent
himanenthusiasticletter,andtherewerecomplimentaryanonymousorpseudonymousreviews,someofthemwrittenbyWhitmanhimself.Thesecondedition(1857),
containingEmerson'sletterandareply,wasafinancialdisaster.HenowgotajobasEditoroftheBrooklynDailyTimes,whichheheldfortwoyears.Thingslooked
upinotherdirections,too.ItseemsthathehadnowcometotermswithhishomosexualitytheSaturdayPressprinted'AChild'sReminiscence'('OutoftheCradle
EndlesslyRocking')initsChristmasissue1859aBostonpublisherofferedtobringoutthethirdeditionofLeavesofGrass(1860),inwhichWhitman,inspiteof
Emerson'sadmonitions,insistedonincludingthesexuallyoutspokensequencelaterknownas'ChildrenofAdam'.
In1862,readingthathisyoungerbrotherGeorgehadbeenwoundedinactioninVirginiaintheCivilWar,hesetouttofindhim.Theinjuryturnedouttobeslight,but
thesightofthemoreseverelywoundedmovedhimtotakeaclericaljobinthePaymaster'sofficeinWashington,wherehespenttherestofhistimeuntiltheendofthe
warin1865visitingandhelpingthem.Theexperienceinspired'TheWoundDresser'andotherpoemsinDrumTaps(1865),towhich,aftertheassassinationof
PresidentAbrahamLincoln(180965),headdedasanappendixtheelegy'WhenLilacsLastintheDooryardBloom'd'.Havingtransferredtotheofficeofthe
DepartmentoftheInterior,hewasdismissedwhenitwasrealizedthathewasauthorofthe'obscene'LeavesofGrass,buthisfriendsgothimasimilarpostthenext
dayintheAttorneyGeneral'soffice.Twoofthemalsoralliedroundwithbooksinhisdefence:W.D.O'Connor,TheGoodGrayPoet:aVindication(1866)and
JohnBurroughs,NotesonWaltWhitmanasPoetandPerson(1867).PoemsofWaitWhitman,aselectionmadebyWilliamMichaelRossetti(18291919),
youngerbrotherofD.G.ROSSETTI,waspublishedinBritainin1868.ItgeneratedaseriesoffanlettersfromAnneGilchrist(182885),thewidowofthebiographerof
BLAKEandherselfaminorwriterandliterarycritic,whoofferedmarriagebuthadtosettleforfriendship,whichin1876shecametoAmericatoenjoyinperson,
accompaniedbyherchildren.InDemocraticVistas(1871),essayson'Democracy','Personalism',and'Literature',Whitmandevelopedsomeofthearguments

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inthe1855Preface.Thesuppressionoftheseventh(1881)editionofLeavesofGrassinBostonwasgoodforsaleselsewhere:publicationwastransferredto
Philadelphia.HewasnowabletobuyamodesthouseinCamden,NewJersey,wherehewasvisitedbythegreat,BritishaswellasAmerican,andtendedbya
housekeeperandapersonalBOSWELL,HoraceTraubel(18581919),whorecordedhiseverywordforposterity,andpublishedthreevolumesofWithWaltWhitman
inCamden(190614).Whitmanhadastrokein1873,andanotherin1888.SeeGayWilsonAllen,TheSolitarySinger:aCriticalBiographyofWaltWhitman,
newedn1985,andAReader'sGuidetoWaltWhitman,newedn1991BettinaKnapp,WaltWhitman,1994(criticalbiography)DavidS.Reynolds,Walt
Whitman'sAmerica:aCulturalBiography,newedn1996GayWilsonAllenandEdFolsom(eds),WaltWhitmanandtheWorld,1995EzraGreenspan(ed.),
TheCambridgeCompaniontoWaltWhitman,1995(criticalessays).
Whittier,JohnGreenleaf(180792)
Americanpoetandjournalist,thesecondchildandeldestsoninaQuakerfamily,wasborninthefarmhousenearHaverhill,intheMerrimackvalley,Massachusetts,
whichhisgreatgreatgrandfatherbuilt.Heattendeddistrictschools,wasearlyonenthusedbytheworkofBURNS,andin1826hadtwopoemsacceptedforthe
NewburyportFreePressbyWilliamLloydGarrison(180579),whopersuadedWhittier'sparentsthatheshouldgotocollege.In1827heenrolledinHaverhill
Academy,butwithdrewduringhissecondyearandwenttoBoston,unwillingtobeeducated'onthecharitiesofothers'.WhileeditingsuccessivelytheAmerican
Manufacturer,HaverhillGazette,andNewEnglandWeeklyReview,heturnedoutalotofjournalismhimself,andpublishedLegendsofNewEngland(1831),
whichhelatersuppressed.Backathomeafteranervousbreakdown,hewascaredforbyhismotherandhissister,Elizabeth(181564),someofwhoseverseswere
laterincludedincollectededitionsofhisworkhealsowrotealongpoem,MollPitcher(1832rev.edn,including'TheMinstrelGirl',1840).
HewaselectedadelegatetotheAntiSlaveryConventioninPhiladelphiain1833,andasamemberoftheMassachusettsLegislaturefrom1835to1837was
subjectedtopublicviolence.Hewasalsowritingabolitionistverses,andeditedthePennsylvaniaFreemanfrom1837to1839,afterwhichhesettledinacottagein
Amesbury.LaysofMyHome,andOtherPoems(1843),thefirstauthorizedcollectionofhisverse,waspublished,asweresucceedingones,inBostonBalladsand
Poems(1844)wasissuedinLondon.LeavesfromMargaretSmith'sJournalintheProvinceofMassachusettsBay,16781679(1849)isanimaginative
reconstructionofthetimesinprose,asseenthroughtheeyesofanEnglishvisitor.HisattitudetotheCivilWar(186165)wasthatofasadpatriotawaitingthe
triumphofrightwhichwould'mouldanewthenation':withtheexceptionof'BarbaraFrietchie'therewaslittletostirthebloodinWarTimeandOtherPoems(1864).
In1856,J.R.LOWELL,aseditorofAtlanticMonthly,hadwrittentohim:'IshallnotletyourestuntilIhavegotaNewEnglandpastoraloutofyou.'SnowBound:a
WinterIdylwasfinallywrittenin186465,andpublishedinvolumeformin1866,whenitmatchedthesuccessofLONGFELLOW'SHiawatha.Whittierwasseriouslyillin
1867,buthelivedon,writingandreceivinghonours.TherespectinwhichhewasheldwasmarkedbyanAtlanticMonthlydinnerforhis70thbirthday,andhis
popularitybynationalcelebrationsonhis80th.
Wiebe,Rudy(b.1934)
Canadiannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninaoneroomlogcabininasmallMennonitecommunityinFairholme,Saskatchewan,ofLowGermanspeaking
parentswhohademigratedfromtheUSSRin1930,anddidnotspeakEnglishuntilhewenttoschool.AfterWorldWarIIhisparentsmovedtoanothercommunityat
Coaldale,Alberta.HewaseducatedatAlbertaMennoniteHighSchoolandtheUniversityofAlberta,fromwhichhewonaRotaryscholarshiptostudyforayearat
TubingenUniversity,WestGermany.HethentookatheologydegreeattheMennoniteBrethrenBibleCollege,Winnipeg,wherehewasthefirstEditorofthe
MennoniteBrethrenHeraldheresignedafter18monthsduringwhathecallsthe'fantasticruckus'followingthepublicationofhisfirstnovel.AfterteachingEnglishat
GoshenCollege,Indiana,forfouryears,hewentbacktotheUniversityofAlberta,becamingaprofessorofEnglishin1977.InaninterviewwithMANDELin1974he
said:'Ifyoudon'tknowwhereyouareandwhereyoucomefromyou'remoreorlesslikeananimalthathasnomemory.'Inhisfiction,whichbeganwiththe
Bildungsroman,PeaceShallDestroyMany(1962),hehasbroughthisMennonitebackground,strongChristianfaith,andinstinctiveknowledgeofwhatitisliketo
beastrangerinalandtobearonhisinvestigationoftherootsoftheCanadianexperience.Heoftenrecreateshistoricaleventsandpersonages,asinTheBlue
MountainsofChina(1970),TheTemptationsofBigBear(1973),TheScorchedWoodPeople(1977),andTheMadTrapper(1980).Affinitiesbetween
MennoniteandIndianenablehimtowritewithespecialunderstandingoftheattitudesandproblemsofacultureinconflictwithmodernsociety,whichhehasalsodone
inshortstories,inWhereIstheVoiceComingFrom(1974)andAlberta:aCelebration(1979).SeeW.J.Keith,EpicFiction:theArtofRudyWiebe,1981.

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Wiesel,Elie(b.1928)
novelistandhistorian,wasbornofJewishparentageinSighet,Transylvania,andwasat16transportedtoAuschwitz,wherehismotherandsisterweregassed,and
thentoBuchenwald,wherehisfatherdiedofstarvationanddysentery.HecontractedbloodpoisoningfromfoodgiventohimbytheAmericanswholiberatedthe
campin1945.HeattendedtheSorbonneinParisfrom1948to1951,afterwhichheworkedasaninternationaljournalist.OfwritingabouttheHolocaust,hehassaid:
'Ontheonehand,[asurvivor]feelshemust.Ontheotherhand,hefeels...ifonlyIdidn'thaveto.'Hecutdownhis900pageaccount('it'stestimony'),originally
writteninYiddish,to160pages.ItwastranslatedintoFrenchandthen(byStellaRodway)intoEnglishasthenovelNight(1960)publishedinonevolume(1974)
withL'Aube(1960Dawn,1961)andLeJour(1961TheAccident,1962).Subsequentlyhehaswritten'allkindsofnovelsandbooksonallkindsofsubjectsin
ordernottowriteabouttheHolocaust...abouttheBible,Hasidism,RussianJews'.HiswifeMarionhastranslatedmuchofhisworkintoEnglishfromtheoriginal
French.AfteranearfatalaccidentwhenhewashitbyataxiinNewYorkwhilereportingontheUnitedNations,hestayedintheUSA,ofwhichhebecameacitizen
in1963.HewasappointedAndrewW.MellonProfessorintheHumanitiesatBostonUniversityin1976,andwasawardedtheNobelPeacePrizein1986.
InJanuary1995hespokeatAuschwitzontheoccasionofthe50thanniversaryofthecamp'sliberation:'Ispeaktoyouasamanwhofiftyyearsagohadnoname,no
hope,nofutureandwasknownonlybyanumber....Closeyoureyes,myfriends,andlisten,listentothesilentscreamsofterrifiedmothers,listentotheprayersof
anguishedoldmenandwomen,listentothetearsofchildren....Lookandlistenasthevictimsquietlywalktowardsdarkflamessogiganticthattheplanetitself
seemedindanger...'SeeFromtheKingdomofMemory:Reminiscences,newedn1995AllRiversRuntotheSea:MemoirsVol.119281969,(France1994)
1996.
Wigglesworth,Michael(16311705)
AmericanpoetandPuritandivine,wasborninEnglandinYorkshire,andemigratedin1638withhisfamily,whosettledinNewHaven,Connecticut.At16,he
enteredHarvardCollegetostudymedicine.Hegraduatedfirstinhisclassin1651,andstayedontoteachundergraduateswhilestudyingforMA.In1656hewas
calledtothechurchofMalden,Massachusetts,whereheministeredtosoulsandbodiesfortherestofhislonglife,plaguedbyrealillnessesandimaginaryones
(includingsyphilis),andbeingmarriedthreetimes,onthesecondoccasiontohisteenageservinggirl.Tooffsethisunpopularityinthepulpithewrotedidacticverse,of
whichTheDayofDoom:or,ADescriptionoftheGreatandLastJudgment(1662)isregardedasthefirstAmericanbestseller.TheepitomeofPuritanbelief,its
224eightlinestanzasincommonhymnmetrewerecommittedtomemorybythosewhorespondedtoitsfearful,comforting,andstirringimages,andbytheirchildren.
Aneweditionofhisdiary(ed.EdmundS.Morgan)waspublishedin1970.
Wilbur,Richard(b.1921)
Americanpoetandtranslator,wasborninNewYorkCityhisfatherwasapainterandhismaternalgrandfatherandgreatgrandfatherwerenewspapereditors.He
hadaruralchildhoodinahouseonanestateinNewJersey.AtAmherstCollege(193842)hetoyedwithbeingajournalistandspentsummervacationstouring'most
ofthe48statesbyfreightcar'.Hemarriedin1942.Hebeganseriouslytowritepoetrywhileservingasasergeantinthe36thInfantryDivisioninEurope:'Onedoes
notusepoetryforitsmajorpurposes,asameansoforganizingoneselfandtheworld,untilone'sworldsomehowgetsoutofhand.'Sevenpoemsinhisfirstbook,The
BeautifulChangesandOtherPoems(1947),andseveralmoreinhissecond,CeremonyandOtherPoems(1950),reflecthiswarserviceothersdealwithnature,
thesenses,andoddexperiences.Atthistimehesaidofhiscraft:'Rhymeseemstomeaninvaluableaidincomposition.Itcreatesdifficultieswhichtheutterancemust
surmountbyincreasedresourcefulness....Theuseofstrictpoeticforms,traditionalorinvented,isliketheuseofframingandcompositioninpainting...Limitation
makesforpower:thestrengthofthegeniecomesofhisbeingconfinedinabottle.'ThePoemsofRichardWilbur(1963)wasaselectionfromhisfirstfour
collections,ofwhichThingsoftheWorld(1956)wonthePulitzerPrize.Hehasfurtherexploitedhisnaturalprecisionoflanguageandhiswittotranslatefromthe
FrenchpoemsofLAFONTAINE,ADAM,BAUDELAIRE,andVALRY,andseveralcomediesofMOLIRE,notablyTheMisanthrope(1955)andTartuffe(1963)seealso
Molire:FourComedies(1982).Apoetwhoaimstobeintouchwithpeople,hetaughtEnglishatHarvard(194754),WellesleyCollege(195557),andWesleyan
University(195557),andwasWriterinResidenceatSmithCollege197786.In1958hewasappointedGeneralEditoroftheDellLaurelPoetrySeries.Hewas
USPoetLaureate198788.SeeNewandCollectedPoems,newedn1989Responses:ProsePieces19531976,1976OnMyOwnWork,1983Rodney
StenningEdgecombe,AReader'sGuidetothePoetryofRichardWilbur,1995.
Wilde,Oscar(FingalO'FlahertieWills)(18541900)
Irishdramatist,novelist,shortstorywriter,critic,andpoet,wasborninDublin,theyoungersonof

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thesurgeonandwriteronIrisharchaeologyandtopography,SirWilliamWilde(181576),andJane,neElgee(182696),whoranaliterarysalonandwrote
revolutionaryverseunderthenameof'Speranza'seeJoyMelville,MotherofOscar:theLifeofJaneFrancescaWilde(1994).HewaseducatedatPortora
RoyalSchool,TrinityCollege,Dublin,andMagdalenCollege,Oxford,wherehewontheNewdigatePrizeforpoetrywithRavenna(1878),cameundertheartistic
influenceofRUSKINandPATER,andgotafirstinGreats,havinginthemeantimetouredItalyandGreece.HeburstintoLondonsociety,towhichhepreachedthe
doctrineofaestheticismwithwitandconversationalskill.Poems(1881)ismainlyderivative,butafewlaterversesstandout,suchas'TheHarlot'sHouse','Onthe
SalebyAuctionofKeats'LoveLetters',and'SymphonyinYellow'seeSelectedPoems,ed.MalcolmHicks(1992).
AfteralecturetouroftheUSAin1882,hemarriedConstanceLloyd(d.1896),bywhomhehadtwosons.HewroteTheHappyPrince,andOtherTales(1888),
acollectionofwittyandcompassionatefairystoriesforchildren(andtheirparents),andcriticalessays,ofwhich'TheDecayofLying'(1889)and'TheCriticas
Artist'(1890)arenotable.Morefictionfollowedin1891:LordArthurSavile'sCrime,andOtherStoriesandThePictureofDorianGray,hisonlynovel,astudy
ofdecadenceandselfdestruction.Hisearlyworksforthetheatreweresombre:Vera,ortheNihilists(producedintheUSA1882)aversetragedy,TheDuchess
ofPadua(1883)andtheuncomfortableSalom(writteninFrenchin1891,published1893,performedinParis1896,butbannedinBritainuntil1905English
translationbyLordAlfredDouglaspublished1894).Nowcameastringofsuccessfulsocialcomedies.LadyWindermere'sFan(produced1892,published1893),A
WomanofNoImportance(produced1893,published1894),andAnIdealHusband(produced1895,published1899)arebeneaththeirveneerofwitconcerned
withhumannatureandtingedwithsentiment.TheImportanceofBeingEarnest(produced1895,published1899),however,continuestodelightasacomedyof
mannerswhoselightnessofstyle,brilliantdialogue,andskilledconstructioncarryalongaseriesofabsurdparadoxes.
In1895thelibelactionWildebroughtagainsttheMarquisofQueensberryfatherofLordAlfredDouglas(18701945),whohadaccusedhimofbeinga
homosexual,failed.Wildewasthenhimselfarrested,tried,andsentencedtotwoyears'hardlabour.InprisonhewroteDeProfundis(notpublishedinfulluntil1949),
aproseapologiaforhisconduct.HispoeticreputationlargelyrestsonTheBalladofReadingGaol(1898),anunderstandablyoverwroughtbutmovingaccountof
prisonexperience.Shunnedbysociety,heleftEnglandafterhisrelease.UnderthenameofSebastianMelmoth(afterMATURIN'Scharacter),helivedwretchedlyonthe
ContinentforthreeyearsuntilhisdeathinParis,havinglosthisabilitytowrite.SeePlays,ProseWritingsandPoems,ed.AnthonyFothergill,newedn1996The
ImportanceofBeingEarnestandOtherPlays(LadyWindermere'sFan,Salome,AWomanofNoImportance,AnIdealHusband),ed.PeterRaby,1995The
Writings,ed.IsobelMurray,1989(selection)CompleteShorterFiction,ed.IsobelMurray,1980SelectedLetters,ed.RupertHartDavis,newedn1989
RichardEllmann,OscarWilde,newedn1988(biography).
Wilder,Thornton(18971975)
Americannovelistanddramatist,wasborninMadison,Wisconsin,thesonofanewspapermanwhowasAmericanConsulGeneraltoShanghaiandHongKongfrom
1905to1909,whenthefamilyreturnedtoBerkeley,California.HewaseducatedatThacherSchool,Ojai,OberlinCollege,wherehereadclassics,andYale.Ofthe
16ofhisthreeminuteplayspublishedasTheAngelThatTroubledtheWaters(1928),somewerewrittenasearlyas1915hisfirstfulllengthplay,TheTrumpet
ShallSound,wasserializedintheYaleLiteraryMagazinein191920.Aftergraduating,hespentayearstudyingarchaeologyattheAmericanAcademyinRome,
andin1922wenttoteachFrenchatLawrencevilleSchool,NewJersey.TheCabala(1926),hisfirstnovel,isanonrealisticrevelationofItalianartisticsociety.In
TheBridgeofSanLuisRey(1927),whichwonthePulitzerPrize,thecollapseofaPeruvianbridgein1714isthebackgroundtoaninvestigationofthefivepeople
whowentdownwithit,andofthefatethatchosethemtodie.Histhird,TheWomanofAndros(1930),isbasedonaplotofTERENCE.Havingnowstarted'withthe
purelyfantastictwentiethcenturyRome,thenPeru,thenHellenisticGreece,Ibegan,firstwithHeaven'sMyDestination[(1934)]toapproachtheAmericanscene'.
Inthissatiricalnovel,anotsoinnocentBaptistpreacherbrusheswithvariousfacetsofsociety.
Hegaveupschoolmasteringin1928towrite.In1931heacceptedaninvitationtoteachatChicagoUniversity,wherehestayedforfiveyears,andinvitedSTEINtogive
aseriesoflecturesin1935.Sheconvincedhimofthesuperiorityofdramaoverfictionasanartform,becausetheaudiencecanactuallysee'pureexisting'.OurTown
(1938)wonthePulitzerPrize.Playedentirelywithoutscenery,itcentresonordinarylife,andnaturaldeath,inasmalltown,andonthetragedyinherentinthefailureto
seethehumanconditioninthecontextofallotherhumanbeings.TheMerchantofYonkers(1939),revivedasTheMatchmakerattheEdinburghFestivalin1954
itlaterbecamethehitmusical,HelloDolly!(1963),isafarcicalsatiresetinthe1880s.TheSkinofOurTeeth(1942),forwhich

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hewonathirdPulitzerPrize,drawsonJOYCE'SFinnegansWaketoexpress,withcomedyandsatire,Wilder'stheoryofthesurvivalofmaninthefaceofcatastrophe.
DuringWorldWarIIheservedinNorthAfricaandItalyintheIntelligenceCorpsoftheUSAirForce,inwhichherosetolieutenantcolonel.Hisfirstbook
afterwardswasTheIdesofMarch(1948),afictionalstudyofdictatorshipthroughthecharacterofCAESAR.TheEighthDay(1967),inwhichthe'enormoustapestry'
ofhistoryisbroughttobearonaneventinthepresent,wontheNationalBookAward.
Wilding,Michael(b.1942)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,andcritic,wasborninWorcester,andeducatedatRoyalGrammarSchool,Worcester,andLincolnCollege,Oxford.Having
brieflybeenaprimaryschoolteacher,hewenttoAustraliawhere,exceptfortheyears196972,whenhewasaseniorlectureratBirminghamUniversity,hehas
taughteversinceatSydneyUniversity,beingappointedReaderinEnglishin1972andProfessorofEnglishin1993.Heisanexperimentalwriterwhosecollectionof
shortstories,AspectsoftheDyingProcess(1972),andLivingTogether(1974),hisfirstnovel,were,likehissubsequentfiction,publishedfirstinAustralia.They
enshrinehisvisionoftheurbancultureofthe1970s,duringwhich,asacharacterobservesinhissecondnovel,TheShortStoryEmbassy(1975),thecomingofthe
Pillprovided'awholedifferentanthropology'forthewriter.InhisshortstoriesinparticularseeTheManofSlowFeeling:SelectedShortStories(1985)and
GreatClimate(1990)theonusofconstructingmeaningfromthecombinationofhighlyvisualimagesisonthereader.HiscriticalworksincludePoliticalFictions
(1980),Dragon'sTeeth:LiteratureintheEnglishRevolution(1987),SocialVisions(1994),criticalessays,andstudiesofMARCUSCLARKE.HeeditedTabloid
Story,aningeniouslymarketedforumfornewshortfiction,fromitsinceptionin1972to1976.Hewasacofounder,withPatWoolley(b.1947),andadirector
(197479)ofthealternativepublishinghouse,WildandWoolley,andin1971becameAustralianEditorofStand(seeSILKIN).
Wilkes,John
seeCHURCHILL,CHARLES.
Wilkinson,Anne(191061)
neGibbons,Canadianpoet,wasborninToronto,andwas(onhermother'sside)amemberofthenotableOsierfamily,whosestoryandcontributiontoCanada's
developmentshelatertracedinLionsintheWay:aDiscursiveHistoryoftheOslers(1956).HerchildhoodwasspentbetweenLondon,Ontariohergrandfather's
mansionofCraigleigh,TorontoasummerhomeonLakeSimcoeandaseasidehouseinSantaBarbara,California,wherehermotherwentforthewinters.Shewas
educatedathomebytutorsandatprogressiveschoolsintheUSA,England,andFrance.ShemarriedER.Wilkinson,asurgeon,in1932:theyhadthreechildren,and
weredivorcedin1952.Shepublishedjusttwovolumesofverse,CounterpointtoSleep(1951)andTheHangmanandtheHolly(1955),comprising94pagesin
all.Neverthelessshemadealastingimpactfortheintellectualandsensualqualityofherpoetry,andforitsrange,fromthereminiscent,throughthedescriptive,tothe
philosophical.Shewas,fromitsestablishmentin1956untilherdeathfromcancer,amemberoftheeditorialboardandapatronoftheTamarackReview.See
CollectedPoems,andaProseMemoir,ed.A.J.M.Smith,1968.
Wilkinson,IrisGuiver
seeHYDE,ROBIN.
Williams,Charles(18861945)
Britishpoet,novelist,andcritic,wasborninHolloway,London,theonlysonofaclerk,andwasbroughtupinStAlbans,wherehewenttotheAbbeySchool.In
1902hewonacountyscholarshiptoUniversityCollege,London,fromwhichhewithdrewtwoyearslaterforfinancialreasons.HetookajobwiththeMethodist
Bookshop,Holborn,enrolledattheWorkingMen'sCollege,andin1908joinedOxfordUniversityPressinLondonasaproofreader,fromwhichheprogressedto
editorandliteraryadviser.HisfirstbookwasTheSilverStair(1912),asonnetsequenceinspiredbymeetinghisfuturewife,whomhemarriedin1917.Lectureshe
gaveattheCityofLondonLiteraryInstitutewerethebasisoftwocriticalworks,TheEnglishPoeticMind(1932)andReasonandBeautyinthePoeticMind
(1932).Hisallegoricalfantasy,ThePlaceoftheLion(1931),wastohaveaprofoundinfluenceonC.S.LEWIS,whoreaditatthesametimeasWilliams,aseditor,was
readingthemanuscriptofLewis'sTheAllegoryofLove.AttheoutbreakofWorldWarII,WilliamsmovedtoOxfordwiththeLondonstaffofthePress,leavinghis
wifeinLondon.HewasdraftedinasauniversitylecturerinEnglish,andbecameamemberoftheexclusiveliterarydrinkingcircle,theInklings,towhichLewisand
TOLKIENbelonged.Havingconcentratedonwritingtheologyforseveralyears,hecombinedboththeologicalandpoeticintelligenceinhisstudyofDANTE,TheFigureof
Beatrice(1943).HewasalsoahistoricalbiographerandaversedramatistseeCollectedPlays,introductionbyJohnHeathStubbs(1963).Hismostlastingwork
islikelytobethetwopoeticsequencesinwhichheusesArthurianlegendasabasisforhisownexplorationofthe'MatterofBritain',TaliessinThroughLogres
(1938)andTheRegionoftheSummerStars(1944).SeeGlenCavaliero,

Page591

CharlesWilliams:PoetofTheology,1983(criticalstudyofhiswholeoeuvre).
Williams,(George)Emlyn(190587)
Welshdramatistandactor,wasborninMostyn,Flintshire,thesonofanironworkerwhobecameaninnkeeper,andofastrictPuritanwhoregardedayouthwho
studiedasadrudgeonthehousekeepingpurse.HespokeWelshuntilhewenttoschoolateight,andhardlyheardEnglishspokenuntilhewas11.AtHolywellCounty
SchoolhisFrenchteacher,YorkshirebornMissSarahCooke,then33,spottedhisability,gavehimnewboots,hadhimcoachedinlanguageswithaviewtohis
becomingateacher,andlater,asmentaltherapy,lenthimhergolfclubstherelationshipisrecreatedinhismostlastingplay,TheCornisGreen(1938).Withher
encouragementhewonascholarshiptoChristChurch,Oxford,wherehewasaleadingmemberoftheOxfordUniversityDramaticSocietyanddecidedinsteadon
thetheatreasacareer.HemadehisLondonstagedebutin1927,andhisnameasadramatistwithAMurderHasBeenArranged(1930),athrillersetonastage
whichispresumedtobehaunted.HeplayedthekeyroleofthesinisterhouseboyinhisNightMustFall(1935).OfhisWelshplaysinadditiontoTheCornis
Green,TheDruid'sRest(1944)hasalighterthemeandisrichinlocalcolour,andTheWindofHeaven(1945)isa19thcenturyparableofthebirthofChrist.
Eclipsedasadramatistinthepostwartrendawayfromorthodoxdrama,heresuscitatedtheVictorianartoftheonemanrecital,whichhelaunchedin1951asEmlyn
WilliamsasCharlesDickens.SubsequentlyheperformedadramaticreadingofDYLANTHOMAS,ABoyGrowsUp(1955).HewasmadeCBEin1962.SeeThe
CollectedPlays,1961George:anEarlyAutobiography19051927,newedn1976Emlyn:anEarlyAutobiography19271935,newedn1982James
Harding,EmlynWilliams:aLife,newedn1996.
Williams,Raymond(192188)
Welshnovelistandcritic,wasborninLlanfihangelCrocorney,thesonofarailwaysignalman,andwaseducatedatHenryVIIIGrammarSchool,Abergavenny,and
(withanintervalforWorldWarII,whenheservedasanantitankcaptainintheGuardsArmouredDivision)atTrinityCollege,Cambridge.Afterteachingliterature
fortheOxfordUniversityDelegacyforExtraMuralStudies,hewaselectedaFellowofJesusCollege,Cambridge,in1961,becomingReaderin1967,andbeing
ProfessorofDrama197483.InhistrilogyofWelshnovels,theworkingclassdomesticityofBorderCountry(1960)giveswaytoshopfloorpoliticsandbroader
socialistissuesinSecondGeneration(1964),andtointernationaleconomicsinTheFightforManod(1979).Inabout1980hebeganworkon'anunusualkindof
historicalnovelinwhichthecontinuityisnotofpeoplebutofplace'.PosthumouslypublishedasThePeopleoftheBlackMountains:Vol.1,TheBeginning(1989),
Vol.2,TheEggsoftheEagle(1990),itsstoriesillustratehiscommitmenttotheviewthatthoughwalls,orgeographicalborders,restrictculturaldevelopment,they
alsoencouragethereassessmentofreadingsofthepast.Ofmanycriticalworks,themostinfluentialhaveprovedtobeCultureandSociety17801950(1958),in
whichhechallengesLEAVIS'Sviewofcultureandarguesthecaseforwritersbeingapartofhistory,notitsgovernors,DramafromIbsentoEliot(1952republished
asDramafromIbsentoBrecht,rev.edn1987)andMarxismandLiterature(1977),anexaminationoftheplaceofliteraturewithinMarxistculturaltheory.See
FredInglis,RaymondWilliams:HisLifeandTimes,1995StephenRegan,RaymondWilliams,1995(criticalstudy).
Williams,Tennessee(191183)
Americandramatist,novelist,andshortstorywriter,wasbornThomasLanierWilliamsinColumbus,Mississippi,thesonofatravellingsalesmanandofthedaughter
ofanEpiscopalianminister.ThefamilymovedtoStLouisin1918.HeattendedtheUniversityofMissouri,butleftwhenhisfatherwithdrewhisfinancialsupport,and
workedinashoewarehouse,writingatnight.Afteranervousbreakdown,towhichhismother'spuritanismandhisfather'styrannycontributed,herecuperatedatthe
homeofhisgrandparents.Then,withareneweddeterminationtowrite,hetookhimselftoWashingtonUniversity,StLouis,fromwhichhetransferredtotheplay
writingcourseattheUniversityofIowa,wherehegraduatedin1938.ThesourceofTheGlassMenagerie(1944),hisfirstdramaticsuccess,isastory,'Portraitofa
GirlinGlass',which'grewoutoftheintenseemotionsIfelt[atthattime]seeingmysister'smindbegintogo'Roselaterhadaprefrontallobotomy,andspentmostof
therestofherlifeininstitutions.In1939hewasinNewOrleans,hadhadsixplaysproducedinprovincialtheatres(thefirstinMemphisin1936),andhadacquired
thename'Tennessee'.Itwasa'happyperiod...Icameoutinthegayworld.Ididn'tthinkofitascomingout.Ithoughtofitasanewworld.'TheGlassMenagerie,
a'memoryplay'inwhichafamilyofmisfitssufferacollapseevenoftheirmostgrotesquefantasies,'endedthatperiodandnewproblemsdevelopedwithsuccess'.
ThedestructionofthefadedSouthernbelle,Blanche,inAStreetcarNamedDesire(1947)isphysicalandbrutal,yetshemaintainsherfantasiestotheend.Theplay
shockedwithitspower,andwonthePulitzerPrize.ForthenexttwodecadesWilliamsregularlyturnedoutnewplays,ofwhichsomehavelastedparticularlywell.
LovereturnstothegrievingheroineofTheRoseTattoo(1948),

Page592

whoeruptsatanysuggestionthatherhusband,shotdeadbyrivaldrugrunners,waseverunfaithful.InCatonaHotTinRoof(1955),hisotherPulitzerPrizewinner,
'MaggietheCat'manipulatesaMississippiplantationfamilytoheradvantageandtoapossiblereconciliationwithherfecklesshusband.ThesettingofTheNightof
theIguana(1961)isadingyhotelontheMexicancoast.Thecharactersareintransitorarerunningawayfromsomethingthethemeisthepermanenceofpain.
Duringthe1960sWilliams'sdependenceondrinkanddrugsincreased,untilin1969,afteranaccidentinanewkitchenwhichwasbeingbuiltinhishomeinKeyWest,
hisbrotherhadhim'immediatelyconvertedtoRomanCatholicism'andcommittedtoahospitalpsychiatricward.Thereafterhestillmanagedtokeepwriting,though
hisattemptsatexperimentationwerelessappreciatedthanhisformerwork.HediedaloneinaNewYorkhotel,chokingtodeathonthecapofanasalspraythathe
wasusingasacupforpills.Healsopublishedtwovolumesofpoetry,andseveralofshortstoriesseeCollectedStories,ed.GoreVidal(1985).ForhisnovelThe
RomanSpringofMrsStone(1950)hereceivedthroughthepostin1981anItalianliteraryprize,whichpuzzledhim,aswhenthebook(andthefilm)appeared,the
ItalianshadbeenupsetbythisstoryofaRomangigoloandanolderwoman.Memoirswaspublishedin1975,andWhereILive:SelectedEssays,ed.ChristineR.
DayandBobWoods,in1978.SeeTheTheatreofTennesseeWilliams,7vols197181(plays)LyleLeverich,Tom:theUnknownTennesseeWilliams,newedn
1996(biographyto1945)SigniL.Falk,TennesseeWilliams,newedn1985(criticalstudy).
Williams,WilliamCarlos(18831963)
Americanpoet,novelist,shortstorywriter,dramatist,andcritic,wasborninRutherford,NewJersey,ofanEnglishbornfatherandamotherofBasqueandDutch
JewishdescentwhohadgrownupinPuertoRico.In1898,afterbeingatlocalpublicschoolsinRutherford,heandhisyoungerbrotherwentwiththeirmotherfortwo
yearstoEurope,whereheattendedtheChateaudeLancy,Geneva,andtheLyceCondorcet,Paris.FromHoraceMannHighSchool,NewYorkCity,hewentto
theUniversityofPennsylvania,graduatinginmedicine,towhichhehadswitchedfromdentistry.HerehemetDOOLITTLE,withwhomhediscovered'thewonderof
AucassinandNicolette',andPOUND,whobecameaclosefriendandpoeticmentor.HedidhisinternshipinNewYorkCityatFrenchHospitalandattheNurseryand
Child'sHospital,fromwhichheresignedafterfindingskulduggeryintheaccounts.In1909heprivatelyprintedPoems('badKeats,nothingelseohwell,bad
Whitmantoo'),proposedtoandwasacceptedbyFlorence(Floss)Herman,thesisterofhisbrother'sformerfiance,andwenttoEuropetostudypaediatricsin
Leipzig.Hemarriedin1912,andin1913thecouplemovedinto9RidgeRoad,Rutherford,hishomefortherestofhislife,andtheplacewhereheheldhisgeneral
practice.TheexperimentalpoemsinAlQueQuiere!(1917)andproseinKorainHell:Improvisations(1920)developed,inSpringandAll(1923),intoavoice
distinctlyAmericaninitscontexts,whichhefurtherexploredinthehistoricalcharactersketchesIntheAmericanGrain(1925).
Hisactivitywasasastonishingashisinventiveness.Whilekeepinguphispracticeuntilthe1950s,whenafteraseriesofstrokeshehandeditovertohiselderson,and
holdingaconsultancyinpaediatricsatthePassaicGeneralHospital,heproduced36furtherbooksandtwotranslations.CollectedPoems19211931(1934),which
hadaprefacebySTEVENS,wasfollowedbyTheCompleteCollectedPoems19061938(1938),TheCollectedLaterPoems(1950rev.edn1963),andThe
CollectedEarlierPoems(1951).Hislongpoem,Paterson,anautobiographicalepicexploringtheessenceofAmerica,inwhichhecarriedtoitsultimatedegreehis
searchfortheidealpoeticline,remainedunfinishedafterthepublicationoffivebooks(194658inonevolume,ed.C.J.MacGowan,1992).Forhislastcollection,
andfinalbook,PicturesfromBrueghelandOtherPoems(1962),hewasposthumouslyawardedthePulitzerPrize.Hisnovelsincludethetrilogy,begunin1927,
WhiteMule(1937),IntheMoney(1940),andTheBuildUp(1952),whichfollowsafamilyfromthebirthofadaughter(Floss)to1917,whenAmericaentered
WorldWarI.TheFarmers'Daughters(1961)isacollectionofstories,andManyLoves(1961)ofhisplays.TheSelectedEssays(1954)incorporatessomeofhis
criticism.TheAutobiographyofWilliamCarlosWilliams(1951)isaselectiveaccount,complementedbyYes,MrsWilliams(1959),amemoirofhisunusual
mother.SeeCollectedPoems,Vol.119091939,Vol.219391962,ed.A.W.LitzandC.J.MacGowan,newedns1992SelectedPoems,ed.Charles
Tomlinson,newedn1990TheCollectedStories,introductionbySherwinB.Nuland,newedn1996JamesLaughlin,RememberingWilliamCarlosWilliams,
1996JamesE.B.Breslin,WilliamCarlosWilliams:anAmericanArtist,newedn1986(criticalstudy).
Williamson,David(b.1942)
Australiandramatist,wasborninMelbourne,theeldersonofabankofficial,andwasbroughtupinBairnsdale.HegraduatedinmechanicalengineeringatMonash
University,andwasadesignerengineerwithGeneralMotorsbeforebeingateacherofthermodynamicsandsocialpsychologyatSwinburneCollegeofTechnology
from1966to1972.Hisfirstplay,TheComingofStorkwasperformedat

Page593

theLaMamaTheatre,Carlton,in1970itwaspublishedin1974withtwootherplaysexamining'thecollisionscausedbyinescapabledifferencesbetweenindividuals
playingthemselvesoutwithinatightsocialcontext',JugglersThree(1972)andWhatIfYouDiedTomorrow(1973).Asillustrationsofwhathedescribedinan
interviewin1972asan'awfulAustralianuniqueness',theyandDon'sParty(1971),acomicconversationpiece,presentamiddleclasseducated,butsomewhatfoul
mouthedandpromiscuous,societyinunusualandamusingsituations.TheRemovalists(1971)exploresanuglyincidentinwhichtwopolicemenkillawifebeaterin
hisownhome.TheDepartment(published1976)andTheClub(1978)arestudiesofpowerstrugglesinanacademicdepartmentandthecommitteeroomofan
AustralianRulesfootballclubrespectively.Maritaldifferences,neverfullyresolvedbutatleastairedandultimatelytolerated,arethesubjectofThePerfectionist
(1983).InEmeraldCity(1987),asitwaswithTravellingNorth(1979),climaticdifferenceshaveasymbolicbearingonthespiritualjourneysundertakenbythe
maincharacters.Sex,power,andgreed,inthefamily,atwork,orinsocietyasawhole,arevariouslytreatedinTopSilk(1989),Siren(1991),MoneyandFriends
(1992),andBrilliantLies(1993),whileinDeadWhiteMen(performedinUK1996)Williamsonreturnstoacademiawithabitingsatireoncontemporaryliterary
studies.SeeCollectedPlays,2vols1986,1993BrianKiernan,DavidWilliamson:aWriter'sCareer,1990.
Williamson,Henry(18951977)
Britishnovelist,wasborninBrockley,Kent,thesonofabankclerk,andwaseducatedatColfe'sGrammarSchool,Lewisham,afterwhichheservedasanofficerin
theBedfordshireRegimentatthefrontinWorldWarI.ThespontaneousChristmastrucein1914,afterwhichthetroopswhohadfraternizedinNoMan'sLandwent
backtokillingeachother,affectedhimforlife.Afterthewar,only23,heekedouthiswarpensionbybeingamotorcyclecorrespondent,untilareadingofJEFFERIES
encouragedhimtoretiretoanExmoorcottage,andwrite.Thefournovelswhichcomprisethe'FlaxofDream'sequence,TheBeautifulYears(1921rev.edn1929),
DandelionDays(1922rev.edn1930),TheDreamofFairWomen(1924rev.edn1931),andThePathzvay(1928),recount,throughthepersonaofWillie
Madison,aspectsofandidealisticreflectionsonhisownchildhood,boyhood,youth,andearlymanhood.TarkatheOtter:HisJoyfulWaterLifeandDeathinthe
TwoRivers(1927),whichwontheHawthorndenPrizeforanovelbyanauthorunder41,wasinspiredbythelossofarealotterwhichhehadreared.Salarthe
Salmon(1935)revealsasimilarexpertiseasanaturalistandcommitmentasaconservationist.Hisfearoftheoutcomeofarecurrenceofinternationalhostiliesledhim
tosupportthefascismofSirOswaldMosley(18961980)andevenopenlytopraiseHitler'ssocialpolicies,asaresultofwhichhewasbrieflyinternedatthe
beginningofWorldWarII,andthenallowedtoreturntohisNorfolkfarm.His15bookpostwarsequence,'AChronicleofAncientSunlight',beginsinlateVictorian
LondonwithTheDarkLantern(1951),andtracesthelifeofWillie'scousin,Phillip.Inasenseboththesenovelsequencesareautobiographical,buthealsowrote
threevolumesofautobiography,TheChildrenofShallowford(rev.edn1959),TheStoryofaNorfolkFarm(1941),andAClearWaterStream(1958).Hedied
inaLondonhospital,ontheverydaythatthedeathsceneofTarkawasbeingfilmedattheexactspotwhichhedescribesinthenovel.SeeCollectedNatureStories,
1995NotebooksofaNatureLover,1996AnneWilliamson,HenryWilliamson:TarkaandtheLastRomantic,1995(biography).
Wilson,A(ndrew)N(orman)(b.1950)
Britishnovelist,biographer,critic,andjournalist,wasborninStone,Staffordshire,intoahomewhichhasbeensaidtobeidentifiedwiththatinhisnovel,InclineOur
Hearts(1989),which,withABottleintheSmoke(1990),DaughtersofAlbion(1991),HearingVoices(1995),andAWatchintheNight(1996),constitutethe
'LampittPapers'sequencefollowingthesagaofanintellectualandaristocraticdynasty.HewaseducatedatRugbySchoolandNewCollege,Oxford,wherein1971
hewontheChancellor'sEssayPrizeandmarriedoneofhistutors.HestudiedforthepriesthoodatStStephen'sCollege,Oxford,fromwhichhewithdrewaftera
year.HetaughtforayearatMerchantTaylors'School,London,beforereturningtoOxfordtobealecturerinEnglishatStHugh'sCollege(andalsoNewCollege)
from1976to1982.HewasLiteraryEditoroftheSpectator19813.TheHealingArt(1980)andWiseVirgin(1983)arethemorehighlyregardedofhissatirical
novels,inwhichobservationsareoftenacerbicandsometimesarch,butwhichdemonstratealsoacompassionateunderstandingofacharacter'spredicament.To
somereaders,betterworkistobefoundinhiscriticalbiographiesofWALTERSCOTT(1980),MILTON(1983),BELLOC(1984),TOLSTOY(1988),forwhichhefirstlearned
Russian,andC.S.LEWIS(1990),inwhichheprovesthattobeiconoclasticitisnotnecessaryalsotobeunsympathetic.InJesus(1992)heattemptstoreconcileNew
TestamenttheologywithChristianscholarship.Heisaprolificandprovocativejournalist,whoseworkhasappearedinjournalsandnewspapersasvariedasThe
TimesLiterarySupplement,NewStatesman,DailyMail,andLondonEveningStandardseePenfriendsfromPorlock:EssaysandReviews19771986
(1988).

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Wilson,(Sir)Angus(191391)
Britishnovelist,shortstorywriter,andcritic,wasborninBexhill,Sussex,thesixthandverymuchtheyoungestsonofaScotwhospentmostofhistime,andhis
income,gambling.Asaresultmuchofhischildhoodwasspentingenteelpovertyinhotelsorboardinghouses.HewaseducatedatWestminsterSchoolandMerton
College,Oxford.DuringWorldWarIIhewasengagedinsecretworkintheForeignOffice.HewasDeputySuperintendentoftheReadingRoom,BritishMuseum
194955,andProfessorofEnglishLiterature,UniversityofEastAnglia196678,whereheestablishedwithMALCOLMBRADBURYtheMAcourseincreativewriting
amongwhosestudentshavebeenMCEWANandKazuoIshiguro(b.1954),whoseTheRemainsoftheDay(1989)wontheBookerprizeforfiction.
In1946,astherapyforcripplingattacksofnervousanxiety,Wilsonbegantowriteshortstories.Inhisfirsttwobooks,TheWrongSetandOtherStories(1949)and
SuchDarlingDodosandOtherStories(1950),arealisticsituationoftenvergestowardsfarceorabizarreactofviolence.Inthattheyareusuallyepisodic,he
carriedovertheshortstorytechniquetohisnovels,thefirstthreeofwhich,HemlockandAfter(1952),AngloSaxonAttitudes(1956),andTheMiddleAgeof
MrsEliot(1958),areotherwisetraditionalinform.Hisanalysisofcharacterisdeftandsatirical,anddonewithablendofcrueltyandcompassion,whileheisoften
concernedwithlayingbaretheprivateguiltbehindthepublicappearance.InTheOldMenattheZoo(1961),whichmarksthebeginningofaperiodinwhichhe
experimentedwithpastiche,heprojectsintothefuturethemoralpredicamentofaconscientiouspublicservantinasocietyatwarandthenindefeat.LateCall
(1964),NoLaughingMatter(1967),andSettingtheWorldonFire(1980)aremoreconcernedwithfamilyrelationshipsandattitudes.Hiscriticalworksinclude
studiesofZOLA(1952),DICKENS(1970),andKIPLING(1977)DiversityandDepthinFiction:SelectedCriticalWritings(1983)andTheWildGarden:or,
SpeakingofWriting(1963),inwhichhedescribesthebackgroundtohisfiction.HewasmadeCBEin1968andwasknightedin1980.SeeMargaretDrabble,
AngusWilson:aBiography,1996JayHaliv,AngusWilson,1964(criticalstudy).
Wilson,Colin(b.1931)
Britishnovelistandcritic,wasborninLeicesterandeducatedatGatewaySecondaryTechnicalSchool.AfterNationalServiceintheRoyalAirForce,andvarious
jobsinLondonandParis,hebecameafulltimewriterin1954.Hisfirstbook,TheOutsider(1956),astudyofalienationintermsofcreativegenius,withexamples
frombothartandliterature,instigatedaformof'newexistentialism',uponwhichheenlargedinanumberofsubsequentphilosophicalworks.TheCraftoftheNovel
(newedn1986)isbasedonaseriesoflectureshegaveatRutgersUniversity,NewJersey.Hisnovels,ofwhichthefirstwasRitualintheDark(1960),basedonthe
exploitsof'JacktheRipper',embracevariousgenres,andinthemainexplorefurtherthedarknessesofthemindandsoul.Amanwhoseeswritingprimarilyasa
mediumtoclarifyhisphilosophyaboutthebusinessoflivingandhehaswrittenmorethanninetybooks,heexpressedhisconfidenceinaninterviewin1996:'It's
thejobofwritersandthinkerstotrytocreateasynthesisfortherestofthehumanrace,whetherit'sasteamengineoraphilosophicalidea.Mysteamengineisalmost
ready.'SeeNicolasTredell,TheNovelsofColinWilson,1982.
Wilson,Edmund(18951972)
Americancritic,novelist,poet,dramatist,andjournalist,wasborninRedBank,NewJersey,andeducatedattheHillSchool,Pottstown,Pennsylvania,andPrinceton,
wherehebecameafriendofF.S.FITZGERALD.AfterayearasareporterontheNewYorkEveningSun,heservedinFranceduringWorldWarI,firstinabase
hospital,andthenasasergeantintheUSArmyIntelligenceCorps.HavingeditedVanityFairforayear,hebecamein1921DramaCriticfortheNewRepublic,
withwhichhewasassociatedfortwentyyears.In1923hemadethefirstoffourmarriages,ofwhichthethird(193846)wastoMCCARTHY.Hisfirstplay,TheCrime
intheWhistlerRoom,wasperformedbytheProvincetownPlayersin1924seeinFivePlays(1954).In1929hepublishedabookofverse,Poets,Farewell!,
andanovelofGreenwichVillage,IThoughtofDaisy,inwhichMILLAYappearsasRita.Asubsequentexcursionintofiction,MemoirsofHecateCounty(1946),a
sequenceofsixstories,wasbannedfortheeroticismofoneofthem.TheUSSupremeCourtfinallyupheldthepublisher'sconvictionaftera44tiedvote,andthe
bookwasnotreissueduntil1959.
Wilson'smostinfluentialworkwasdoneasaliterarycritic,insuchbooksasAxel'sCastle(1931),essaysmainlyaboutsymbolismandasapoliticalandhistorical
philosopher,inTotheFinlandStation(1940)andPatrioticGore:StudiesintheLiteratureoftheAmericanCivilWar(1962).Thebreadthofhisscholarshipis
evidentalsoinTheScrollsoftheDeadSea(1955).Hepublishedseveralvolumesofessaysandreviews,includingTheBitbetweenMyTeeth:aLiterary
Chronicleof19501965(1965),andacollectionofpersonalessays,APieceofMyMind:ReflectionsatSixty(1956).
HismeticulouslykeptjournalsandrecollectionshavebeenpublishedasUpstate,Prelude,TheTwenties,TheThirties,TheForties,TheFifties(196775),ed.
LeonEdel,andTheSixties:theLastJournal19601972,ed.LewisM.Dabney(1993).TheNabokovWilsonLetters:

Page595

theCorrespondenceBetweenVladimirNabokovandEdmundWilson19401971,ed.SimonKarlinsky(1979)recordsaliteraryfriendshipwhichatonepoint
degeneratedintoanunseemlywrangleoverthetranslationofPUSHKIN.SeeFromtheUncollectedEdmundWilson,ed.JanetGrothandDavidCastronovo,1995
(essaysonaspectsofcontemporaryliterature)JeffreyMeyers,EdmundWilson:aBiography,1995JanetGroth,EdmundWilson:aCriticforOurTime,1989.
Wilson,Ethel(18881980)
neBryant,Canadiannovelist,wasborninSouthAfrica,theonlychildofaBritishMethodistmissionary.Afterthedeathofhermotherin1889andherfatherin1898,
shelivedwithhermaternalgrandmotherinVancouver,beingeducatedataMethodistboardingschoolinEnglandandatVancouverNormalSchool,whereshe
obtainedateacher'scertificate.ShetaughtinschoolsinVancouveruntil1920,andin1921marriedDrWallaceWilson(d.1966),laterPresidentoftheCanadian
MedicalAssociation.ThoughshehadshortstoriesprintedinBritainintheNewStatesmanandNationinthe1930sseeMrsGolightlyandOtherStories
(1961),shedidnotpublishherfirstnovel,HettyDorval,astudyofyouthfulinnocenceandexperience,until1947.SheusedsomeofherownfamilyhistoryinThe
InnocentTraveller(1949),whichfollowsthelifeofacentenarianfromtheEnglishMidlandstoVancouver.TheEquationsofLove:TuesdayandWednesday,
Lilly'sStory(1952)comprisestwonovellasofsituationinalowermiddleclassenvironment.Thethemeofescapetoanewlifeamongthenaturallandscapesof
BritishColumbiadistinguishesSwampAngel(1954).LoveandSaltWater(1956)darklyexploresaspectsofemotionalandphysicalpain.
Wilson,John(17851854)
Scottishessayist,critic,andpoet,wasborninPaisley,theeldestsonofawealthygauzemanufacturer,andwaseducatedatthegrammarschoolinPaisley,privatelyby
theMinisterofMearns,andatGlasgowUniversity.Hewentonin1803toMagdalenCollege,Oxford,wherehewasknownasaprodigiouslongjumperanddrinker,
andwontheNewdigatePrizeforpoetry.Withhisinheritancefromhisfather,heboughttheestateofEllerayintheLakeDistrict,andin1809tookWORDSWORTHofffor
aweek'sfishing.In1810hewrotetohisGlasgowUniversitycontemporary,JohnSmith(17841849),thebookseller,offeringavolumeofpoems.Hisproposal
havingbeenaccepted,hewroteagaininApril1811toaskifSmithwouldbuypartofhislibrary,ashewasabouttomarryandwasshortofreadymoney.TheIsleof
PalmsandOtherPoems,largelyturgidandobscure,waspublishedin1812.Asecondvolume,TheCityofthePlague,whichSmithwiselydeclined,wasfinally
publishedin1816byArchibaldConstable(17741827),whowentbankruptintherecessionof1826.
In1815badstewardshiponthepartofanunclecausedthelossofmostofWilson'scapital.HegaveupEllerayandwithhiswifejoinedhismother'sextended
householdinEdinburgh,wheretheyremainedforseveralyears.In1817he,HOGG,andJ.G.Lockhart(17941854)tookovertheeditorshipoftheEdinburgh
MonthlyMagazine.Thefirstissue(inOctober)ofthenewjournal,renamedBlackwood'sEdinburghMagazine,wasalsonearlythelast,asitcontainedavicious
attackonCOLERIDGEandanevenmorescurrilousassaultonHUNT,aswellasthenotorious'ChaldeeMS',adevastatingskitonEdinburghsociety.Wilsoncontinuedto
writeforBlackwood'sforovertwentyyears,duringwhichhecontributedessaysandreviews,aseriesofstories,publishedinvolumeformasLightsandShadowsof
ScottishLife(1822),andfrom1822to1835,underthenameofChristopherNorth,thewittyandsatiricaldialogues,'NoctesAmbrosianae'seeTheNoctes
Ambrosianae,ed.J.H.Alexander(1992),acriticalselection.In1820,afterwhathedescribedas'acontestofamostsavagenature',hewaselectedbytheTory
dominatedTownCounciltothevacantchairofMoralPhilosophyatEdinburghUniversity,forwhichhewashardlyqualifiedacademically.Withthehelpoffriends,he
managedtocompileandsafelytonegotiatehisfirstcourseoflectures,afterwhich,untilhisresignationonhealthgroundsin1851,hisabilityasanaturalcommunicator
stoodhimingoodstead.
Wodehouse,(Sir)P(elham)G(renville)(18811975)
novelist,shortstorywriter,anddramatist,wasborninGuildford,Surrey,thethirdsonofaHongKongmagistratehewasofancientEnglishfamiliesonbothsides,
andwaseducatedatDulwichCollege.HespenttwoyearsinHongKongasabankclerk,whichhegaveupforjournalismwhileatthesametimewritingboys'school
stories,inwhichfeatureswhichdistinguishhislaternovelsarealreadyapparent.From1904onwardshewasfrequentlyinNewYork,whereonthedayWorldWarI
brokeouthemarriedthetwicewidowed,butstillyoung,EthelRowley(d.1984)headoptedherdaughterLeonora(19041944),whomheaddressedinlettersas
'Snorkles'.HewasmadeHon.DLittatOxfordin1939,butsettledintheUSAafterWorldWarII,duringwhichhewasinternedinEuropeandwhileinGerman
handsagreedtobroadcasttoAmerica,causingmuchoffenceinBritainthetextsareinPerformingFlea,ed.WilliamTownsend(1953).HebecameaUScitizenin
1955,hisfinalrehabilitationinofficialBritishcirclescomingwithhisbeingmadeKBEin1975.

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Whileunfairlyovershadowedbyhisabilitytoamuseandentertain,hisskillatconstructingplots,creatingandsustainingcharacters(andacompleteworldwithinwhich
tomanipulatethem),andproducingvisualandverbaleffectswithastonishingeconomyoflanguageandinjectionsofliteraryandclassicalallusions,hasneverbeenin
doubt.Theaccusationofrepeatinghimselfinhisnovelscanbeoffsetagainstthesubtletywithwhichhevariesthepaceandthesituationsinhismanyshortstories,and
thoughhischaracterspeopleasemimythicaluppercrustofsociety,thedifferencesbetweentheAmericanandBritishethosarelovinglyrecordedandsatirized.The
inaneBertieWoosterandtheimperturbableJeeves,andmanyoftheirdicta,havepassedintoEnglishliterarytradition.OnlymarginallylessmemorableareUkridge
andPsmith,AuntAgathaandLordEmsworth,andtheparadeofrichcharacterswhohack,bludgeon,finesse,orcleave,asthecasemaybe,theirwayroundthe
courseinhisinimitablegolfingstoriesseenumerousomnibusvolumes.Wodehousealsowrote,onhisownaccountandwithothers,overthirtyplaysandmusical
comedies.SeeWodehouseonWodehouse,newedn1981(containsBringontheGirls,PerformingFlea,OverSeventy)Yours,Plum:theLettersofP.G.
Wodehouse,ed.FrancesDonaldson,newedn1992BarryPhelps,P.G.Wodehouse:ManandMyth,1992(biography)R.B.D.French,P.G.Wodehouse,
1966(criticalstudy).
Wolfe,Thomas(190038)
Americannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninAsheville,NorthCarolina,theyoungestofeightchildrenofastonecutter,whowasagreatreader,andhisthird
wife,whofirstmethimwhenshecalledonhimasabookagent.HewaseducatedatNorthState(aprivateschool),andattheUniversityofNorthCarolina,wherehe
didaplaywritingcourse,starredinhisownplay,TheReturnofBlackGavin,editedthestudentnewspaper,andwonaphilosophicalessayprize.Afterdoing
postgraduatestudyindramaandliteratureatHarvard,hegotateachingpostatWashingtonSquareCollege,NewYorkUniversity,whichapparentlyenabledhimto
taketimeofftowriteandtotravel.ReturningfromEuropein1925,hemet,astheboatwaslanding,AlineBernstein(18811955),rich,beautiful,married,anda
talentedstageandcostumedesigner,whohadreadoneofhisplays.HejoinedherinEnglandin1926,whenhedecidedtoabandondramaforfiction.Withher
encouragement,financialsupport,andprovisionofaplaceinwhichtoliveandwork,hecompleteda1000pagemanuscriptin1928.MaxwellPerkins(18841947),
EditorinChiefatScribner's,showedinterestwithhishelpitwasreorganizedandcutbyathird,andpublishedasLookHomeward,Angel(1929),alyricalaccount
ofyouthinwhichEugeneGantisWolfehimself.Withanadvanceonasecondnovel,Wolfegaveuphisteachingpostand,hisfinancesboostedalsobyaGuggenheim
grant,wenttoEurope,wherehewaspursuedbycablesandlettersfromMrsBernstein,threateningsuicideseeMyOtherLoneliness:LettersofThomasWolfe
andAlineBernstein,ed.SuzanneStutman(1983).
Induecoursehedeliveredanenormousmanuscript,'TheOctoberFair',ofwhichareworkedpart,takingEugene'slifeuptohismeetingwithEstherJack/Aline
Bernstein,waspublishedasOfTimeandtheRiver(1935).AcontinuationofthestorywasshelvedwhenAlinethreatenedlegalactionWolfewasproneto
lawsuits,themostdamagingofwhichwasbroughtagainsthimin1936forallegedlibelinastoryinFromDeathtoMorning(1935),whichwassettledoutofcourt.A
breachwithScribner's(thoughheappointedPerkinsadministratorofhisestate)ledinMay1938tohisdepositingwiththefirmofHarper,whohadofferedan
advanceof$10,000unconditionally,whatwasbyoneaccountaneightfoothighpileofmanuscript.InJuly,afteracartripthroughtheNationalParks,hecontracted
pneumoniainSeattle.On12SeptemberhewasadmittedtotheJohnsHopkinsHospitalinBaltimore,wherehediedthreedayslater,anoperationhavingrevealed
incurablemiliarytuberculosisofthebrain.Themanuscript,whichcontainedseveralversionsofmanyincidents,wasmadeintotwonovels,TheWebandtheRock
(1939)andYouCan'tGoHomeAgain(1940),inwhichGanthasbecomeGeorgeWebber,butEstherretainshernameandheridentityseeLeslieField,Thomas
WolfeandHisEditors:EstablishingaTrueTextforthePosthumousPublications(1987).Furtherportionswereincludedinacollectionofshortpieces,The
HillsBeyond(1941)seealsoTheCompleteShortStoriesofThomasWolfe,ed.FrancisE.Skipp(1987).Wolfewasahugeman,whosevoraciousappetitefor
experiencereflectedthevastsweepsoflanguagewithwhichheevokedhispersonalvisionofhistimes.SeeTheAutobiographyofanAmericanNovelist,ed.Leslie
Field,1983DavidHerbertDonald,LookHomeward:aLifeofThomasWolfe,1987JohnLaneIdol,AThomasWolfeCompanion,1987.
Wolfe,Tom(ThomasKennerlyWolfe,Jr)(b.1931)
Americannovelistandjournalist,wasborninRichmond,Virginia,editedhislocalhighschoolnewspaper,readEnglish(andpitchedforthebaseballteam)at
WashingtonandLeeUniversity,andthendidfiveyears'postgraduatestudyinAmericanstudiesatYale.Hewentintojournalism,workingontheWashingtonPost
andthentheNewYorkHeraldTribune,forwhoseweekendmagazine,andlaterinEsquireandHarper'sBazaar,hedevelopedhisversionofthe'NewJournalism',
investinghardfactwithpersonalemotion,expressed

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inspectaculargraphicstyle.TheKandyKoloredTangerineFlakeStreamlineBaby(1965),withhisowndrawings,wasthefirstofhiscollectionsofapocalyptic
piecessubsequentoneshavehadequallypyschedelictitles.TheElectricKoolAidAcidTest(1968)isaweirdtravelogue.TheRightStuff(1980)isnearerthe
nonfictionnovelinitsdepictionoftheworldoftheUSastronaut.TheBonfireofVanities(1987),hisfirstnovelproper,isarichlytexturedrompofNewYorkCity.
Hisaccountofhowheprospected,researched,andwroteitisinhiscontroversialarticleinHarper's(1989),'StalkingtheBillionFootedBeast:aLiteraryManifesto
fortheNewSocialNovel'.SeeWilliamMcKeen,TomWolfe,1995(criticalstudy).
WolframvonEschenbach(fl.c.11951225)
Germanpoet,wasarovingknightwhoalludestohimselfasBavarian,andprobablyoperatedoverabroadareawithEschenbachatitscentre.The25,000linesof
Parzival(tr.A.T.Hatto,1980)comprisearetelling,withanending,ofthe'Perceval'ofCHRTIEN,inwhichtheGrailisnowastone.TheunfinishedWillehalm(tr.
MarionE.GibbsandSidneyM.Johnson,1984),alsoinrhymingcouplets,describestwogreatbattlesbetweentheFranksandtheSaracens,andtheoutcomesofthe
carnage.Healsoleftsomelyricverseandafragmentof'Titurel',anelaborationofthelovestoryoftwoofthecharactersinParzival.
Wollstonecraft,Mary(175997)
Britishprosewriterandjournalist,wasborninSpitalfields,London,thesecondofsevenchildrenofthesonofaprosperoushandkerchiefweaverandhisIrishwife,
whomhehadmetwhenhewasanapprenticeinthefamilybusiness.In1765thefamilymovedintothecountry,thentoBeverley,Yorkshire,whereWollstonecraft
attendedalocaldayschool,andin1774backtotheLondonsuburbofHoxton,whereshereceivedaneducationfromneighbours,inwhosehouseshemetFanny
Blood(175785).In1781shegaveupherjobasalady'smaidtolookafterhermother,afterwhosedeathshelivedforatimewiththeBloodssheleftthemtohelp
hersisterElizaescape(leavingherbabybehind)fromanunacceptablemarriage.Sheranaschool(withhersistersandFanny)inIslingtonandtheninNewington
Green,whereshefoundcongenialthecompanyandoutlookofthelocalRationalDissenters(Unitarians).FannywenttoLisbonin1785tomarryWollstonecraft
sailedtoseeherlaterintheyearandfoundherdyinginchildbirth.Theschoolfailedinherabsence,andshegladlyacceptedanadvanceof10fromtheradical
publisher,JosephJohnson(17381809),towriteabook.
ThoughtsontheEducationofDaughters(1787),likeallherwritingsdoneatgreatspeed,establishedthefactsaboutfemaleemployment.Shebecamegovernessto
theexpandingfamilyoftheIrishpeerRobertKing(175499),EarlofKingsborough,andhiswifeCaroline,butwasdismissed.SheexactedretributioninMary
(1788),arealisticnovel('IhavedrawnfromNature'),inwhichromanticloveandfeelingasaguidetobehaviourareemphasizedbutadulteryisnever(quite)
condoned,andtheCountessofKingsboroughisrecognizableastheunhappymaterfamilias.Johnsonnowsetherupinahouseofherownandpaidherkeepinreturn
forherundertakingtoworkforhim,inparticularasaneditorofandcontributortothefirstBritishliteraryandscientificjournalforthegeneralpublic,themonthly
AnalyticalReview,whichconsistedalmostentirelyofbookreviews.AVindicationoftheRightsofMen(1790),publishedanonymously,was(inspiteofitstitle)
thefirstrefutationofBURKE'SReflectionsontheRevolutioninFrancetobepublishedasecondeditioncarriedhername,whichnowbecamewellknown.In
November1791,atoneofJohnson'sdinnerparties,shemetGODWIN,whohadnotreadanyofherworks.AlsopresentwasPAINE,whomayhaveencouragedherto
embarkonAVindicationoftheRightsofWoman:withStricturesonPoliticalandMoralSubjects(1792),acrusadingjournalisticworkwhosepassion
outweighsitslackofstructure.
InNovember1792,whentheartistandcritic,HenryFuseli(17411825),andhisnewwife,anartists'model,bothrejectedheroffertomakeupamnagetrois,
shewenttoParis.ShortlyafterthedeclarationofhostilitiesbetweentheFrenchRepublicandBritain,shemetandwasseducedbyGilbertImlay(c.17541826),an
Americansoldierandadventurer,andauthorofTopographicalDescriptionoftheWesternTerritoryofNorthAmerica(1792)theirchild,FannyImlay(1794
1816),wasborninLeHavre.AfterpublishingAnHistoricalandMoralViewoftheOriginandProgressoftheFrenchRevolution(1794),Wollstonecraft
returnedtoLondon,attemptedsuicidebyswallowing(notquiteenough)laudanum,andthenagreedtogotoScandinavia,withbabyandamaid,toattendtoImlay's
businessinterests.InOctober1795,havingdiscoveredthatImlayhadanothergirlfriend,shejumpedoffPutneyBridgeintotheThames,butwasfishedoutand
revived.
SixmonthslatershecalledonGodwinuninvitedtoseekprofessionalhelpinduecoursetheybecamelovers.TheirmarriageinMarch1797wasagainsttheprinciples
ofboth,butwithinafewdaystheysettledintodomesticityinanewhousehehadboughtforthem,withseparateroomsinwhichtowork.Shediedsixmonthslater,
aftergivingbirthtoMARYSHELLEY.SeeTheWorksofMaryWollstonecraft,ed.JanetToddandMarilynButler,7vols1989SelectedLetters,ed.BettyBennett,
1995PoliticalWritings,ed.Janet

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Todd,1994ClaireTomalin,TheLifeandDeathofMaryWollstonecraft,2ndrev.edn1992JaneMoore,MartyWollstonecraft1996(criticalintroduction).
Wood(orWood),Anthony
SeeAUBREY.
Wood,Ellen(MrsHenryWood)(181487)
nePrice,novelist,wasborninWorcester,theeldestdaughterofaglovemanufacturer,butlivedasachildwithhermaternalgrandmother.Herretentivememoryis
legendary,andsheissaidtohavebeenableat13torepeatmostofSHAKESPEARE'Splaysbyheart.In1836shemarriedHenryWood(d.1866),abankerandshipping
magnate,withwhomshespentmuchofthenexttwentyyearsinFrance.DanesburyHouse(1860),writteninamonth,wonaprizeof100fromtheScottish
TemperanceSocietyforanovelextollingitsprinciples.Shehadsufferedfromcurvatureofthespinefromchildhoodparalysisofthehands,fromwhichsheneverfully
recovered,setinwhileshewaswritingEastLynne(1861).Thisnovelofbothsensationandsituationistheoneforwhichsheisrememberedeveniftheimmortal
words,'DeadandnevercalledmeMother',belongnottothebookitselfbuttooneofthemanystageadaptationswhichimmediatelyfollowed(forwhichshe
receivednothing).MrsHalliburton'sTroubles(1862)andTheChannings(1862)havelessfreshnessandmoresententiousgloom.In1867shefollowedthe
exampleofBRADDON,andbecameEditorandproprietorofArgosy,inwhichmuchofhersubsequentworkfirstappeared.Itwasnotuntil1879thatsheadmittedtothe
authorshipofthe'JohnnyLudlow'stories(based,inthemannerofGASKELL,ontheWorcesterofheryouth),whichbegantoappearin1868andwerepublishedintwo
seriesofthreevolumes(187480).Forallitsmelodramaandimplausibleplotting,EastLynneisacontributiontotheregionalnovelofrealism,andinthisand
subsequentnovelsWoodcolourfullydepictedastratumofsocietyinwhichlegalmachinationsfeatureprominently.
Woodcock,George(191295)
Canadianpoet,critic,editor,andprosewriter,wasborninWinnipegofunsuccessfulBritishimmigrantparents,whoreturnedtoShropshire,England,afewmonths
afterhisbirth.HewenttoSirWilliamBorlase'sSchool,Marlow.UnabletotakeupahalffeesscholarshipatOxford,untilWorldWarII,duringwhichhewasa
conscientiousobjectorandeditedaradicalliteraryjournal,Now,heworkedinLondonasaclerkfortheGreatWesternRailwayexpressedanarchisttendencies
infiltratedtheliterarycoterieofROYCAMPBELL,ORWELL,READ,andDYLANTHOMASandwroteyouthfulversewhichreflectedSQUIRE'S'Georgianorientatedanthologies',a
collectionofwhichhepublishedasTheWhiteIsland(1940).Afterthewarhebecameafreelancewriter,returningtoCanadain1949,theyearinwhichforreasons
inherentin'BlackRose'(1976)helargelygaveupwritingpoetryuntilthe1960s,whenhepublishedSelectedPoems(1967).From1956to1963hetaughtEnglishat
theUniversityofBritishColumbia,wherein1959hefounded(andediteduntil1977)CanadianLiteratureasaforumforcriticaldiscussion.Heistheauthoroftravel
booksofadiscursivebutinformativenatureonhisjourneystoAsiaandSouthAmerica,aswellasofhistoricalandsociologicalworksonCanada.Hewrotecritical
andbiographicalstudiesofGODWIN(1946),BEHN(1948),WILDE(1950),ORWELLTheCrystalSpirit(1966),whichwontheGovernorGeneral'sAwardMACLENNAN
(1969),RICHLER(1970),ALDOUSHUXLEY(1972),andREAD(1972),aswellas,amongmoregeneralworks,OdysseusEverReturning:EssaysonCanadianWriters
andWriting(1970),NorthernSpring:theFloweringofCanadianLiterature(1987),andGeorgeWoodcock'sIntroductiontoCanadianFictionand...to
CanadianPoetry(both1994).CollectedPoems(1983),whichisdividedintotenwiderangingthematicgroups,withanadditionalsectionoftranslations,he
describedas'nearertoanautobiographythanitistoanordinarycollectionofverse'.TakingItTotheLetter(1981)isaselectionofcorrespondencewhichillustrates
therelationshipbetweeneditorandauthor.LettertothePast(1983)isanautobiographyseealsoWalkingthroughtheValley:anAutobiography(1994).
Woodforde,(Rev.)James(17401803)
Britishdiarist,wasborninAnsford,Somerset,thesonoftherectoroftheparish,andwaseducatedatWinchesterCollegeandNewCollege,Oxford,beingelecteda
Fellowin1761,andordainedin1764.HeheldseveralcuraciesbeforereturningtoNewCollegein1773asSubWarden.Hewasappointedanassistantproctor
(universitydisciplinaryofricer)thefollowingyear,attheendofwhichhewaselectedrectorofacollegeliving,WestonLongeville,Norfolk,thoughhecontinuedto
liveincollegeuntil1776.ThereafterheremainedatWestonLongevilleparsonageuntilhisdeath.Henevermarried,thoughin1774heproposedtoBetsyWhite,of
SheptonMallet.'Shewasnotaversetoitatall,'herecords,butshortlyafterwardsshejiltedhimfor'aGentlemanofDevonshirebynameWebster,amanreputedto
have500Pdperannum,10,000PdintheStocks,besideexpectationfromhisFather'.HisnieceNancyWoodforde(17571830)cametolivewithhimin1779,and
stayedfortherestofhislife.Theinventoryofhiswillshowsassetsof437,againstdebtsof250.Hisdiaryrunsfromhisundergraduatedaystotenweeksbeforehis
death.

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Itispreciselybecausehewasanobscurecountryparsonwhoselifewasoutwardlytranquilthatitissuchatreasurehouseoflocalandsociallore,andoftheminutest
detailofthedailyroutine,gargantuanmeals,andhouseholdandotherexpensesofamaninhisposition,whileobjectivelyillustratingthenationalcharacterduringan
almostcontinuousstateofinternationalcrisis.Itisequallyrevealingaboutindividualcharacteristics:'HadbutanindifferentnightofSleep,MrsDavieandNancymade
meupanApplePyeBed...'(3February1781).SeeTheDiaryofaCountryParson17581802,ed.JohnBeresford,1981RoyWinstanley,Parson
Woodforde:theLifeandTimesofaCountryDiarist,1996.
Woolf,Leonard(18801969)
Britishnovelist,prosewriter,andpublisher,thehusbandofVIRGINIAWOOLF,wasborninKensington,London,thesecondsonofReformJewishparents.Hisfather,
SidneyWoolfQC,diedin1892leavingawidowandninechildren.TheboywonscholarshipstoStPaul'sSchoolandTrinityCollege,Cambridge,afterwhichhe
joinedtheColonialService.HewaspostedtoCeylonin1904,andin1908wasappointedadministrativeandjudicialofficeroftheregionofHambantotahisnovel
TheVillageintheJungle(1913)isanunderstandingandadmirablyevokedrepresentationofthelocalexperience.In1912hismarriageanddoubtsabouttheethics
ofimperialismledtohisresignationfromtheservice.HebecameasocialistandamemberoftheFabianSocietyin1913,and,beingunfitforwarservice,threwhimself
energeticallyintostudyingandwritingaboutinternationalaffairs,besidesestablishingandmastermindingtheactivitiesoftheHogarthPressseeJ.H.WillisJr,
LeonardandVirginiaWoolfasPublishers:theHogarthPress19171941(1992).HewasjointEditorofthePoliticalQuarterly193159andLiteraryEditorof
theNation192330.AmonghispoliticalworksareTheIntelligentMan'sWaytoPreventWar(1933)andBarbariansattheGate(1939).Hismemorial,
however,especiallynowthattheHogarthPresshasbeenseveraltimessubsumed,ishisfivevolumeautobiography:Sowing(1960),Growing(1961),Beginning
Again(1964),DownhillAlltheWay(1967),andTheJourneyNottheArrivalMatters(1969).Elegantlywritten,wrylyhumorous,andbrimmingwithacutely
observedportraitsofliteraryfiguresofhistime,itwasreissuedintwovolumes,ed.QuentinBell,in1980.
Woolf,(Adeline)Virginia(18821941)
NovelistandCritic,WasBorninLondon,thethirdchildof(Sir)LeslieStephen(18321904),EditoroftheDictionaryofNationalBiography,andhissecondwife,
whodiedin1895.Shewaseducatedathomebyherparentsandtutors.Onherfather'sdeath,she,hereldersisterVanessa(18791961),latermarriedtotheart
critic,CliveBell(18811962),andhertwobrothers,setuphouseinGordonSquareWC1,whichbecamethecentreoftheBloomsburyGroup,aninformal
associationofintellectualswishingtofreeartandsocietyfromVictorianrestrictionsseeTheBloomsburyGroup:aCollectionofMemoirsandCommentary,ed.
S.PRosenbaum(1994).In1905shebegantocontributereviewsandarticlestoTheTimesLiterarySupplementandotherjournals,whileteachingeveningclasses
ofworkingmenandwomenatMorleyCollege.ShemarriedLEONARDWOOLFin1912.TheymovedtoHogarthHouse,Richmond,in1915,theyearofhermostviolent
recurrenceofmentalinstabilityandofthepublicationofherfirstnovel,TheVoyageOut,conventionalinpattern,whichshehadwrittenbetween1906and1913.In
1917thecoupleboughtahandpress,onwhichtheyprinted,asthefirstpublicationoftheHogarthPress,TwoStories'TheMarkontheWall'byVirginiaand
'ThreeJews'byLeonard.NightandDay(1919),writtenmainlyasarecuperativeexercise,wasdeliberatelyalessintensenovelthanherfirst.Jacob'sRoom(1922),
inwhichshefirstdemonstratedherdistinctiveimpressionistictechnique,waspublishedbytheHogarthPress,whichhadnowbecomeacommercialoperation.In1924
thefirm,andtheWoolfs,movedtoTavistockSquare,BloomsburyseeRichardKennedy,ABoyattheHogarthPress(1972)forafirsthand,illustratedaccountof
workingthere.
Inheressays,'ModernFiction'(1919)and'MrBennettandMrsBrown'(1924),Woolfpropoundedanewnovelisticgenrewhichbecametheliteraryelementof
Modernismandherownmediumofexpression.Shefirstusedthestreamofconsciousnesstechnique(pioneeredbyJOYCEandDOROTHYRICHARDSON)inMrsDalloway
(1925).InTotheLighthouse(1927),herexplorationofvariousthemesthroughpsychologicalinsightintothemindsofhercharactersisatitsmostassuredand
poetic.WithTheWaves(1931),TheYears(1937),andBetweentheActs(1941)shetookinnovationandexperimentevenfurther.Herslighternovels,Orlando:a
Biography(1928),aliteraryfantasywhosebisexualprotagonistisSACKVILLEWESTseeSuzanneRaitt,VitaandVirginia:theWorkandFriendshipofV.Sackville
WestandVirginiaWoolf(1993),andFlush:aBiography(1933),aboutE.B.BROWNING'Sdog,werewritteninbetweentimesasameansofrestoringhermental
equilibrium.ShortlyafterfinishingBetweentheActs(1941),originallycalled'PointzHall',shedrownedherselfintheriverbytheircountrycottage,Monk'sHouse,
Sussex,fearfulthathermentalconditionwasirreversible.
ARoomofOne'sOwn(1929)isatrenchantandwittypleafortherecognitionofwomenwriters.Twovolumesofherenlighteningliterarycriticismwerepublishedin
herlifetime,

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TheCommonReader,FirstSeries(1925),andSecondSeries(1932).SeeCollectedEssays,ed.LeonardWoolf,196667Essays,4vols,ed.Andrew
McNeillie,198694SelectedEssays,2vols,ed.RachelBowlby,199293SelectedShortStories,ed.SandraKemp,1993AMoment'sLiberty:theShorter
DiaryofVirginiaWoolf,ed.AnneOlivierBell,1990CongenialSpirits:theSelectedLettersofVirginiaWoolf,ed.JoanneTrautmannBanks,newedn1993
QuentinBell,VirginiaWoolf:aBiography,newedn1996of2ndrev.edn1990LyndallGordon,VirginiaWoolf:aWriter'sLife,newedn1986JamesKing,
VirginiaWoolf,newedn1995(biography)HermioneLee,VirginiaWoolf:aBiography,1996JoanBennett,VirginiaWoolf:HerArtasaNovelist,rev.edn
1975HermioneLee,TheNovelsofVirginiaWoolf,1977.
Wordsworth,Dorothy
SeeWORDSWORTH.
Wordsworth,William(17701850)
Britishpoet,wasborninCockermouth,Cumberland,thesecondsonofthebusinessmanagertothelocalmagnate.Afterhismother'sdeathin1778(hisfatherdiedin
1783)hewassenttoHawksheadGrammarSchool,boardingwithafamily,whereheindulgedfreelyintheoutdoorlifeandbegantowritepoetry.In1787hewentas
asizartoStJohn'sCollege,Cambridge.HislackofenthusiasmforacareerasanacademicorintheChurchgavehimadetachedattitudetohisstudieshewasmore
interestedinwalkingtoursinFrance,Switzerland,Germany,andWales.AftergraduatingasBA(withouthonours)in1791,hespentseveralmonthsabsorbingthe
atmosphereofLondonbeforebeingattractedtoFranceinthethroesoftheRevolution.TherehewasconvertedtorepublicanismandhadaloveaffairwithAnnette
Vallon(17661841),buthadtoreturntoLondoninDecember1792becausehismoneyhadrunoutandhisguardianswouldnotadvancehimanymore.Afewdays
laterhisdaughterCarolinewasborninOrleans.In1793hepublished,inseparatevolumes,AnEveningWalk,addressedto'aYoungLady'hissisterDorothy
(17711855)andDescriptiveSketchesTakenDuringaPedestrianTourintheAlps,regardedbythecriticsasshowingpromiseandbyCOLERIDGE,whoheard
themreadaloudataliteraryclubmeeting,astheworkof'anoriginalpoeticgenius'.
FortwoyearshemoveduneasilyaboutEngland,stayingwithfriends,disturbedbyhisseparationfromFrance,bytheexcessesoftheRevolution,andbythe
declarationofwarbetweenthetwocountries.Hismentalstateandimmediatefutureweresavedbyalegacyfroma21yearoldfriendwiththeinstructionsthatit
shouldbeusedtofurtherhispoeticcareer.HeandDorothywerenowofferedarentfreecottageinRacedown,Dorset.In1797theyrentedAlfoxdenHouse,near
Stowey,tobenearColeridge,whomWordsworthhadmetin1795.Freefromworries,inspiredbytheproximitytonature,andencouragedbyColeridge,hewas
ablebothtothinkaboutpoetryandtowriteit.In1798heandColeridgepublishedjointly,butanonymously,LyricalBallads,withaFewOtherPoems,ofwhich
Wordsworthwroteinashort'Advertisement'that'themajority...aretoberegardedasexperiments'inusingconversationallanguageinpoetry.Inthesecond,
enlargededition,publishedinJanuary1801,thishadgrownintoaprefaceinwhichhejustifiestheemploymentinpoetryof'languagereallyusedbymen'anddiscusses
thenatureofpoetryandthecreativeprocessbywhichitisproducedinathirdedition(1802)heextendedhisargumentsaboutmetreandpoeticdictionand
developedhisdefinitionofapoetas'amanspeakingtomen'.
Ontheirreturnin1799fromastayinGermany,theWordsworthssettledintheLakeDistrictparishofGrasmere,atDoveCottage(to1808)seeDorothy
Wordsworth,TheGrasmereJournals,ed.PamelaWoof(1993),AllanBank(to1811),andtheRectory(to1813).InAugust1802theyspentfourweekswith
AnnetteandCarolineinCalaisCarolinemarriedin1816andhadthreedaughters,theeldestofwhomwascalledDorothe.InOctober1802Wordsworthmarried
MaryHutchinson,anoldfriend,whomovedintothecottagewithhernewhusbandandsisterinlawtheyhadfivechildren,ofwhomtwodiedin1812,andathird,
thepoet'sbelovedeldestdaughter,Dora,in1847.PoemsinTwoVolumes(1807),theculminationofWordsworth'spoeticdevelopmentandoffivefruitfulyearsof
writing,included'OdeonIntimationsofImmortality','ResolutionandIndependence'(originallycalled'TheLeechGatherer'),'OdetoDuty','SonnetsDedicatedto
LibertyandOrder',andsomegoodpoemsinspiredbyatourofScotlandin1803withDorothy,duringwhichtheymetWALTERSCOTTseeDorothyWordsworth,
RecollectionsofaTourMadeinScotland,ed.J.C.Shairp(1874newedn1974).
In1813thefamilymovedtoRydalMount,andfromthenuntil1842WordsworthheldthepostofDistributorofStampsforWestmoreland,whichinvolvedthe
collectionofInlandRevenueduties.HewasappointedPoetLaureatein1843.Athisdeath,hiscreativeandspiritualautobiography,themostsustainedandoriginal
featofEnglishpoetrysinceMILTON'SParadiseLost,remainedunpublished.ThePrelude(1850),ofwhichhewrotetwo'parts'beforetheendof1799,andafurther
11booksbetween1801and1805,wasoriginallyintendedasanintroductionto'TheRecluse',anunfinishedphilosophicalpoem,partofwhichwaspublishedin1814
asTheExcursion.Hereviseditatintervalsuntil1839thefinalversion,in14books,was

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publishedbyhisexecutorsthreemonthsafterhisdeath.Thetitlewasgiventoitbyhiswidow,whodiedin1859attheageof89.Dorothy,whohadlivedwiththem
throughouttheirmarriagebutwhosemindhadgivenwayin1835,survivedherbrotherbyfiveyears.HerJournals(firstpublishedin1897)areavaluablesourceof
informationaboutthepoet'screativeinstinctsandpersonality,aswellasbeingexcellentliteraryrecordsofsociallife,people,andplaces.SeePoeticalWorks,ed.
ThomasHutchinson,rev.ErnestdeSelincourt,newedn1969PoeticalWorks,ed.PaulD.Sheats,1978SelectedPoems,ed.SandraAnstey,1990[Selected
Verse]ed.StephenGillandDuncanWu,1994ThePrelude:FourTexts(1798,1799,1805,1850),ed.JonathonWordsworth,rev.edn1995TheLetters,ed.
AlanG.Hill,1984TheLettersofDorothyWordsworth,ed.AlanG.Hill,newedn1991TheJournalsofDorothyWordsworth,ed.PaulHamilton,1992
StephenGill,WilliamWordsworth:aLife,newedn1990RobertGittingsandJoManton,DorothyWordsworth,newedn1988(biography)JohnPurkis,A
PrefacetoWordsworth,rev.edn1986JonathonWordsworth,WilliamWordsworth:theBordersofVision,rev.edn1984(criticalstudy).
Wouk,Herman(b.1915)
Americannovelistanddramatist,wasbornofJewishparentageinNewYork,wherehewaseducatedatTownsendHarrisHallandColumbiaUniversity,afterwhich
hewasforsixyearsaradioscriptwriter,mainlyforthecomedianFredAllen(18941956).DuringWorldWarIIheservedintheUSNavy,spendingthreeyearsat
seainthePacific,latterlyasexecutiveofficerinadestroyerminesweeper.AuroraDawn(1947),hisfirstnovel,isasatirecentringontheadvertisingbusinessThe
CityBoy(1948)isastoryofyouth.TheCaineMutiny(1951),forwhichhewonthePulitzerPrize,isoneofthemostinterestingnovelsofWorldWarIIinthatthe
actionatseaisthemeansbywhichtheultimateclimaxisapproached,notanendinitself.InMarjorieMorningstar(1955),astudyofthemoraldevelopmentofan
ambitiousJewess,traditionalvaluesaresomehowupheldyetagain.TheWindsofWar(1971)anditssequel,WarandRemembrance(1978),followthefortunesof
anavalofficerandhisfamilythroughWorldWarII.Inside,Outside(1986),whichdepictsadifferentkindofcareerprogress,isfunnyandveryJewish.TheHope
(1993)isanovelizedaccountofthefirsttwentyyearsoftheStateofIsraelTheGlory(1994)coversthenexttwenty.HisplaysincludeTheTraitor(1949),astudy
ofatomicespionage,andTheCaineMutinyCourtMartial(1954).HehasalsowrittenThisIsMyGod:theJewishWayofLife(rev.edn1973).
Wright,David(192094)
Britishpoet,wasborninJohannesburg,SouthAfrica,withwhichhemaintainedculturallinks.Deaffromtheageofsevenafterscarletfever,hewaseducatedin
EnglandatNorthamptonSchoolfortheDealfromwhichhewentontoOrielCollege,Oxford.In1942hetookaflatinLondon,joinedthestaffoftheSundayTimes,
andbecameamemberofthebohemiandrinkingsettowhichROYCAMPBELL,PATRICKKAVANAGH,andDYLANTHOMASbelonged.In1948hewentintoisolationinCornwall
afterhisreturnhepublishedPoems(1949).'Deafnesscanbeastimulus.IdonotnoticemorebutInoticedifferently....Likeaneccentricallysitedcamerataking
angleshotsthatdistortbutmayoftenrevealotherwisemaskedlineamentsoftruth,thedeafpersonwatchesfromtheunexpectedandunguardedquarter.'Whilesome
ofhisversereflectedhisattitudetohisdisability,asinMonologueofaDeafMan(1958),hewasalsoasensitivepoetofromantic,andmoremundane,places,andof
animalsandbirds,andacomposerofconversationalepistlesandpoeticjournals.Elegies(1990)isacollectionofgracefulandrhythmicalpoemsforoldfriends.In
1959hefoundedanduntilitsdemisein1962editedtheinfluentialundergroundliteraryandartsjournalXwithhisfriend,thepainterPatrickSwift,whosewidowhe
marriedin1987,afterthedeathin1985ofhisfirstwifehecompiledAnAnthologyfromX(1988).Heeditedseveralanthologiesofproseandverse,andpublished
prosetranslationsofBeowulf(1957)andCHAUCER'STheCanterburyTales(1964),ofwhichhedidafurthertranslation,inverse,withintroductionandnotes(1985).
SeeSelectedPoems,1988Deafness:anAutobiography,newedn1994of2ndrev.edn1990.
Wright,James(Arlington)(192780)
Americanpoetandtranslator,wasbornjustbeforetheDepressioninMartinsFerry,Ohio,'whereoneslave/ToHazelAtlasGlassbecamemyfather./Hetriedto
teachmekindness'('AttheExecutedMurderer'sGrave').HewenttoMartinsFerrySeniorHighSchool,whereanimaginativeteacherrescuedhimfromavocational
courseandintroducedhimtotheRussianwritersandtoclassicalLatinpoetryHORACEwasanespecialinfluenceonhim.Hethendidtwoyearsarmyservice,partofit
withtheoccupationalforcesinJapan.In1948,ontheGIBill,hewasacceptedbyKenyonCollege(accordingtohimtheonlyonewhichdidnotrejecthis
application)hewasthefirstmemberofhisfamilytogotocollege.TherehewastaughtbyRANSOMandwontheRobertFROSTPoetryPrize.In1952hegraduated,had
hisfirstpoempublished,wasawardedaFulbrightscholarshipattheUniversityofVienna,andgotmarriedthereweretwosons,bornin1953and1958.Hethendid
apostgraduateEnglishcourseattheUniversityofWashington,Seattle,wherehiscreativewrit

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ingtutorwasROETHKEhesubsequentlywroteaPhDthesisonDICKENS.HewasappointedtotheEnglishDepartmentoftheUniversityofMinnesotain1957,andlater
taughtatMacalesterCollege(196365)andHunterCollege,NewYork(196680).
HisfirsttwocollectionsofversewereTheGreenWall(1957)andSaintJudas(1959).Therefollowedanunsettledperiod,compoundedofjobdissatisfaction,
marriagebreakup(therewasdivorcein1962),andartisticfrustration.HereceivedencouragementfromthepoetRobertBly(b.1926),withwhomhetranslated
(1962)theAustriansurrealistpoetGeorgTrakl(18871914)and(1968)NERUDAseealsoNerudaandVallejo:SelectedPoems(1993).Thecollectionthatfinally
emerged,TheBranchWillNotBreak(1963),wasabreakthroughintermsofform,vision,andoriginality.In1967hemarried(Edith)AnneRunk,anurseryschool
educationistwhosesupportandinspirationarecelebratedespeciallyinTwoCitizens(1974)TheSummersofJamesandAnnieWright(1980)comprises11
prosepiecesofwhichshewrotefour.
CollectedPoems(1971),whichwonthePulitzerPrize,comprised,inadditionto33newpoems,mostofTheGreenWall,andallofhisotherthreecollections.The
latestofthesewasShallWeGatherattheRiver(1968),whichwasalmostfinishedwhenhemetAnneandincludesthe'JennyPoems'Jennyhasbeenidentified
variouslyasanOhioprostituteandacompositefictionalmuse.HavingalreadytranslatedthepoetryofHESSE(1970),heexorcizedsomeoftheconflictwithhiselder
sonFranzbytranslatingwithhimHesse'sphilosophicalworkinverseandprose,Wandering(1972).Thedeathofhismotherin1974ayearafterthatofhisfather,
whohaddroppedoutofschooltobeawageearnerandhadworked,exceptwhenlaidoff,forfiftyyearsfortheglassfactory,precipitatedanervousbreakdown.He
andhiswifevisitedEurope,especiallyItaly,severaltimesinthe1970s.Wrightdiedofcancerofthetongue.Thelastvolumeofpoetrypublishedduringhislifetimewas
ToaBlossomingPear(1977),lessbitterandmoresubtlethanearliercollections,andmarkingamoreambivalentandoptimisticattitudetothecountryofhisbirth.
ThisJourney(1982)wasfinishedinmanuscriptjustbeforeheenteredhospitalforthelasttime.SeeAbovetheRiver:theCompletePoems,newedn1992
CollectedProse,ed.AnneWright,1983DavidC.Dougherty,JamesWright,forewordbyAnneWright,1987(biographical/criticalstudy).
Wright,Judith(b.1915)
Australianpoetandcritic,wasborninArmidale,NewSouthWales,theeldestchildofapastoralistwhosefamilyhadarrivedinAustraliain1828andestablishedthe
propertyofDalwoodintheHunterValley.Shestudiedbycorrespondenceand,afterhermother'sdeathwhenshewas12,boardedatNewEnglandGirls'School,
Armidale,whereanEnglishteacherencouragedherpoetrywriting.AfterherfirstyearatSydneyUniversitysheabandonedtheformalcourseinEnglishtoreadmore
eclectically.At22,sheandacousinwentonaseriesofwalkingtoursinAustria,Germany,Hungary,andScotland,fromwhichaJacobiteancestorhadescapedto
Franceafterthe'45Rebellion(thefamilysubsequentlysettledinCornwall,changingitsnamefromtheclanappellationofMacGregor,whichhadbeenproscribed,to
Wright).OnherreturnshelivedinSydney,subsidizingherwriting,muchofwhichsheimmediatelydestroyed,bytakingtemporarysecretarialjobs.DuringWorldWar
IIshewentbackforatimetoherfather'spropertyofWallamumbitohelpout.Fromthisexperience,whichencouragedhertorecapturethecircumstancesofher
childhood,shewrotethemetaphysical'TheMovingImage',andothernotablepoemswhosestartingpointisthelandoritspeople,suchas'SouthofMyDays','For
NewEngland','NorthernRiver',and'Bullocky'.Duringtheyears194446sheworkedasaclerkfortheAustralianUniversitiesCommission,Brisbane,andinthe
eveningsassistedineditingMeanjinPapers,whoseEditor,ClemChristesen(b.1911),havingtakenthejournaltoMelbourne,publishedherfirstbookofpoetry,The
MovingImage(1946).ShewasastatisticalofficerattheUniversityofQueenslandfrom1946to1949,duringwhichtimeshemetandmarriedthenovelist,dramatist,
andphilosopher,JackMcKinney(18911966).LatterlytheylivedontheplateauofMountTamborine.
Shehassaid:'Istartedoffbeingcalleda''naturepoet",asillyclassificationbecauseafterallyouareaperson,notapieceofnature.AnythingIhaveeverwrittenhas
haditshumanmeaningevenifitstartedfromthenatural.'Supportersofthe'naturepoet'theory,especiallymalereaders,werestartledbypoemsinWomantoMan
(1949),suchas'WomantoMan','Woman'sSong',and'WomantoChild',inwhichtheloveact,reproduction,andthephysicalprocessofbirtharefranklyexplored
andpreciselyrealized.Toher,'Languageisthecreativeelementinman,andpoetsworkinthismaterialthatisalmostimpossibletoworkinbecauseeverywordyou
useisapoeminitself.'Thispreoccupation,andthesearchforitssatisfactoryresolution,alsoinformpoemscelebratingherloveforherhusbandandforherdaughter,
Meredith,poemsontheenvironment(asanactiveconservationistshehastrampedthroughthecorridorsofpoweraswellasalongtheroutesofprotestmarches),and
thefineexplorerpoem,'TwoSidesofaStory'theyareevident,too,inthejollyrhymesandvividlyexpressedobservationsofBirds(1962),writtenforMeredith.

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Shehaspublishedabookofshortstories,TheNatureofLove(1966),andseveralnovelsforchildren.InTheGenerationsofMen(1959)shetracesthelives,
times,andstruggleswiththelandofhergrandparents,MayandAlbertWright,whosediariesshealsousedasthebasisofTheCryfortheDead(1981),an
indictmentofthosewhodestroyedthelandandoppressedtheAborigines.HercriticalworksincludethesignificantPreoccupationsinAustralianPoetry(1965)
BecauseIWasInvited(1975),essaysandreviewsandstudiesofindividualAustralianpoets.SheisHon.DLittoffiveAustralianuniversities,andwasawardedthe
Queen'sGoldMedalforPoetryin1992,thefirstAustraliantobesohonoured.SeeCollectedPoems19421985,1994ShirleyWalker,FlameandShadow:a
StudyofJudithWright'sPoetry,newedn1996JenniferStrauss,JudithWright,1996(criticalstudy).
Wright,Richard(190860)
Americannovelist,wasbornnearNatchez,Mississippi,theeldersonofanilliteratesharecropperwhodesertedhisschoolteacherwifein1914.Hisearlyyearswere
spentinmiseryandpoverty,travellingroundtorelatives,hismotherbecomingpartiallyparalysedbyastroke.AfterfiveyearsattheSmithRobinsonPublicSchool,
Jackson,andinreactionagainsthisfamily'sreligiousconvictions,hewenttoMemphis,andfromtheretotheblackghettoofChicago.Whiledoingavarietyofmenial
jobshe'wasseriouslycontemplatingaliterarycareer',whichtookonmoreofarealitywhenin1932hejoinedtheJohnReedClubfortheuseofartforrevolutionary
ends.Hehadpoems,ofwhich'IHaveSeenBlackHands'(1934)istypical,andstoriespublishedinleftwingjournals.HejoinedtheCommunistPartyin1933.Now
acentralfigureintheSouthSideWriters'Groupandhavinghadhisstory'BigBoyLeavesHome'(1933)publishedinanationalanthology,hesplitwiththeChicago
branchofthepartyandwenttoNewYork,wherehebecameHarlemEditoroftheDailyWorker.UncleTom'sChildren:FourNovellas(1938),hisfirstpublished
book,wasreissuedlaterthatyearwithafifthstoryandanautobiographicalessay,'TheEthicsofLivingJimCrow'.
NativeSon(1940),anexplosivenovelaboutayoungcriminalwhichexploresthebackgroundtohisconsciousness,broughtWrighttothenoticeoftheliterary
establishmentandthereadingpublic.ThetextwasalteredinproofindeferencetotheBookoftheMonthClubacriticalversionisinWorks,Vol.1,ed.Arnold
Rampersad(1991).Afteraverybriefmarriagetoadancer,heachievedpersonalstabilitythroughhissecondwife,alsowhite,whomhemarriedin1941,andby
whomhehadtwodaughters.BlackBoy(1945)ishisautobiographyto1927:asecondpart,alsowrittenin194344,waspublishedposthumouslyasAmerican
Hunger(1977).From1947hishomebasewasinFrance,whereunlikeBALDWIN,whosementorhewasandwholivedtheretotryandcometotermswithhisown
identity,hewasdrawnintoFrenchintellectuallife.Hewrotethreemorenovels,ofwhichTheOutsider(1953)isanexistentialiststudyofmiseryandfreedominan
Americancontext.WhilesomequestionshavebeenairedaboutthesuddennnessofhisdeathinParis,itisgenerallyacceptedthatitwasduetoaheartattack.Of
severalotherposthumouslypublishedworks,RiteofPassage,afterwordbyArnoldRampersad(1994),writtenin1945whileWrightwaswaitingforBlackBoyto
bepublished,isalongstoryaboutagangofblackteenagerslivingundergroundinHarlem.SeeMichelFabre,TheUnfinishedQuestofRichardWright,tr.Isabel
Barzun,2ndedn1993(criticalbiography)RobertFelgar,RichardWright,1980(biographical/criticalstudy).
Wrightson,Patricia(b.1921)
neFurlonger,Australianchildren'snovelist,wasborninLismore,NewSouthWales,andwaseducatedthroughtheStateCorrespondenceSchoolandatSt
Catherine'sCollege,Stanthorpe.Shemarriedin1943(divorced1953).ShewasSecretaryandAdministratoroftheBonalboDistrictHospital194660,andofthe
SydneyDistrictNursingAssociation196064.ShewasAssistantEditor(196470)andEditor(197075)oftheNewSouthWalesDepartmentofEducation'sSchool
Magazine.Inthefivechildren'snovelsshepublishedbetween1955and1965,shetackledarangeofthemesincludinggrowingup,theexerciseofresponsibility,and
thechangingrelationshipofthelandanditstwopeoples.Shedevelopedthefirsttwooftheseinahighlyimaginativeandnovelwayin'IOwntheRace
course!'(1968).ThethirdrecursinAnOlderKindofMagic(1972)andsubsequentnovelsinwhichshehasusedAboriginalloreinanincreasinglyambitiousfashion,
culminatinginthetrilogy,TheBookofWirrun(1983).ShewontheinternationalHansChristianANDERSENAwardin1986,andwasmadeOBEin1978.
Wyatt,(Sir)Thomas(150342)
Englishpoet,wasbornatAllingtonCastle,Kent,thesonofacouncillorofHenryVII,andwaseducatedatStJohn'sCollege,Cambridge.HewasappointedClerkof
theKing'sJewelsin1529,andservedHenryVIIIinvariouscapacitiesabroad.Hewasimprisonedthreetimes:in1534forbrawling,in1536onachargeofadultery
withAnneBoleyn(hewasknightedonhisreleasein1537),andin1541fortreason,ofwhichhewasacquitted.HeintroducedintoEnglishfromItalian,andpassedon
toSURREY,thesonnetformofPETRARCH,whichforallhisirregularitiesofmetreheoftendidbetterthanhisprotg(cf.'Thelonglovethatinmythoughtdoth

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harbour...'withSurrey'sversionofthePetrarchanoriginal,'Lovethatreignethandlivethwithinmythought...').Forallhistravelabroad,hissongsandlyricsarein
theEnglishtradition.Histechniqueisbestseenin'Myluteawake...''Theyfleefromme...''Whatrageisthis...''Perdie,Isaiditnot...'and'Ineternum...'
and'Blamenotmylute...',whereheeffectivelyusesasimplerefrainattheendofeachstanzagraduallytobuilduptoafinalclimax.Thegeneraltoneofhisverse,
however,isgloomyandresentful.Noneofitwaspublishedinhislifetime,butavolumeoftranslationsof'certaynpsalmeschosenoutofthepsalterofDavid'was
printedin1549.Oftheattributedpoemsin'Tottel'sMiscellany'(1557),97arebyWyatt,asagainst40bySurrey.SeeCompletePoems,ed.R.A.Rebholz,1981
SelectedPoems,ed.HardimanScott,1996KennethMuir,TheLifeandLettersofSirThomasWyatt,1963.
Wycherley,William(16401716)
Englishdramatistandpoet,wasborninClive,Shropshire,thesonofacountrygentlemanwhoeducatedhimathomeandwhenhewas15senthimtoFranceforfive
years.OnhisreturnhewasbrieflyattachedtoTheQueen'sCollege,Oxford,whichhelefttostudylawinLondon.HispoemHeroandLeanderinBurlesquewas
publishedanonymouslyin1669.ThecomedyLoveinaWood,or,StJames'sParkwasperformedin1671,andledtoafortuitousmeeting,describedwithrelishby
JohnDennis(16571734),thedramatistandcritic.AstheKing'smistress,theDuchessofCleveland(16411709),aboutwhomPEPYSadmitstohavingerotic
fantasies,passedWycherleyintheoppositedirectioninPallMall,sheleantoutofhercarriageandcalledhim'asonofawhore'.Whenhehadrecoveredfromhis
surprise,recognizingtheremarkasanallusiontoasongintheplay,heorderedhiscarriagetobeturnedround.Hecaughtupwiththeladyandinvitedhertoattend
thatnight'sperformance,where,fromthepitundertheKing'sBox,'heentertainedherduringthewholeplay'.Needlesstosay,thepublishedversion(1672)hasan
unctuousdedicationtoher.Threemorecomediesfollowed:TheGentlemanDancingMaster(1673),TheCountryWife(1675),andThePlainDealer(1677).
Wycherley'sreputationandhispositionatcourtwereminedbyadisastrousmarriagein1681totheCountessofDroghedaafterherdeaththefollowingyearherwill
wasdisputedandhespentseveralyearsinprisonfordebt.Restoredtofavourifnottofunds,hepublishedMiscellanyPoems(1704),thesubsequenteditionsof
whichincorporatedrevisionsmadeontheadviceofthe16yearoldPOPE.Heremarriedin1715,anddied11dayslater,leavinghisyoungwidow400ayear,which
hisnephewhadtopay.HisfirstthreeplaysareintheRestorationformatofrakes,fops,andamorousintrigues,thoughtheyaremuchbetterconstructedand
characterized,andmorehonestlyvulgarthanmost,andhaveunderlyinghintsofoutrage.ThissatiricalstreakismoreevidentinThePlainDealer,whosehero
(suitablynamedManly)mistrustsmankindandisbroughttohissensesbyadevotedfemaleadmirer.SeeTheCountryWifeandOtherPlays,ed.PeterDixon,1996
P.EVernon,WilliamWycherley,1965(criticalintroduction).
Wycliff,John(c.132884)
Englishclericandphilosopher,wasbornnearRichmond,Yorkshire,wenttoOxfordinabout1345,andbecameMasterofBalliolCollege,fromwhichheresignedin
1361totakeupthefirstofseveralecclesiasticaloffices.Intheearly1370shewasintheserviceoftheCrown,whoserepresentatives,notablyJohnofGaunt(1340
99),generallysupportedhiminhisopinionsontherelativeauthorityofChurchandState,whichheexpoundedintwotreatisesinLatin,DeDominioDivinoandDe
CiviliDominio.Whenheattackedthedoctrineoftransubstantiation,however,eventhissupportmeltedaway.HeretiredtohisparishofLutterworth,Leicestershire,
wherehediedaftersufferingseveralstrokes.InthemeantimeacourtsummonedbytheArchbishopofCanterburyhadformallycondemnedhisviewsandinstigated
thepersecutionofthefollowersofhisteachings,knownasLollards.Afterhisdeathmanyofhiswritingsweredestroyed,andin1428hisbonesweredugupand
thrownintotheRiverSwift.BecauseofthedifficultyofascribingparticularworksinEnglishtohimpersonally,suchwritingsareusuallyreferredtoasWycliffite.
Wylie,Elinor(18851928)
neHoyt,Americanpoetandnovelist,wasborninSomerville,NewJersey,theeldestoffivechildreninadistinguishedphiladelphiafamilyherfatherwasappointed
SolicitorGeneraloftheUSAin1897.ShewaseducatedattheexclusiveMrsFlint'sschool,Philadelphia,travelledEuropewithhergrandfather,andmadehersocial
debut.In1905shemarriedPhilipHichborn,anadmiral'sson,bywhomshehadasonin1907.In1910shelefthersonwithanauntandelopedwithHoraceWylie,a
marriedlawyer15yearshersenior.TheywenttoEngland,wheretheylivedintheNewForestas'MrandMrsWaring'forthreeyears,duringwhichshehadavolume
ofverse,IncidentalNumbers(1912),privatelypublishedinLondon.AfterHichborn'ssuicideandWylie'sdivorcetheyreturnedtotheUSA,married,andsettledin
Washington,whereshebecameacquaintedwithSINCLAIRLEWISandWilliamRoseBent(18861950),thepoetandeditor,whosuggestedsheshouldsubmitherverse
toliteraryjournals.
ThereceptionofNetstoCatchtheWind

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(1921),whosecontentshadadistinctly19thcenturyflavour,encouragedhertothinkofherselfasapotentialliteraryfigure.SheleftWylieandmovedtoNewYork,
whereshewasforatimePoetryEditorofVanityFair.In1923,afterherdivorce,shemarriedBent,whowasawidowerwiththreechildren.Asecondvolumeof
verse,BlackArmour,andherfirstnovel,JenniferLorn:aSedateExtravaganza,setin18thcenturyEnglandandtheOrient,werepublishedin1923.Herpersonal
literarycoterieorganizeda'JenniferLornDinner',thedishesbeingmentionedinthebookorinBECKFORD'SVathek.Aconsciousprofessionalaswellasanartist,she
followedupwithtwomorenovels:TheVenetianGlassNephew(1925),aromanticfantasy,andTheOrphanAngel(1926inBritainasMortalImage,1927),her
onlynovelwithanAmericansetting,inwhichshefantasizesthesurvivalfromdrowningofSHELLEY,andhissubsequentallegoricalquestforSilverLaCroix.In1926she
tooktospendingsummersaloneinEngland.Athirdbookofpoems,TrivialBreath,andafourthnovel,MrHodge&MrHazard,an'everydayfable'inwhicha
Victorianphilistineclasheswith'thelastRomanticpoet',werepublishedin1928.IntheautumnshehadastrokeinNewYork,anddiedthedayafterfinalizingthe
textsofhersonnetsequence,AngelsandEarthlyCreatures(1929limitededn,printedinEngland,1928).BenteditedTheCollectedPoemsofElinorWylie
(1932).SeeJudithFarr,TheLifeandArtofElinorWylie,1983.
Wyndham,John,pseudonymofJohnWyndhamParkesLucasBeynonHarris(190369)
Britishnovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninKnowle,Warwickshire,theeldestsonofabarrister,andwaseducatedatBedalesSchool.Hetriedvariouscareers
before,encouragedbyasmallprivateincome,heturnedtowriting.HepublishedsciencefictionstoriesinAmericanmagazinesasJohnBeynonHarris,andthen,in
1935,brokeintotheEnglishmarketwithaserialinPassingShow,writtenunderthenameofJohnBeynon.DuringWorldWarIIheworkedfirstasacensorinthe
civilservice,andtheninacipherofficeasacorporalintheRoyalCorpsofSignals.Hisfirstnovel,TheDayoftheTriffids(1951),writtenasJohnWyndham,
establishedhisnameaswellasanew,postwar,genreinsciencefictioninthiscase,thehumanraceispitchedagainstbothblindnessandamonstrousstrainofvirulent
andmobileplantlife.AglobaldisasterofadifferentkindfeaturesinTheKrakenAwakes(1953),whileinTheChrysalids(1955)andTheMidwichCuckoos
(1957)childrenareaffectedwithstrangepowers.Ofhisvolumesofshortstories,TheSeedsofTime(1956)andConsiderHerWaysandOthers(1961)have
survivedthetestoftimeinthesamewayashavemostofhisnovels.

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X
Xenophon(c.430c.355BC)
Greekhistorian,wasanAthenian.In401heaccompaniedthetenthousandGreekmercenariesrecruitedbyCyrustohelphimwrestthethroneofPersiafromhis
brother,ArtaxerxesII.WhenCyruswaskillednearBabylonandtheGreekgeneralsluredintoatrapandbeheaded,Xenophontookcharge,andinanepicmarch
broughtthearmybacktotheseaseehisaccountoftheexploit,Anabasis,tr.RexWarnerasThePersianExpedition(newedn1972).Shortlyafterwardshewas
formallybanishedfromAthens,andappearsasamemberoftheSpartanforcesagainstthePersiansin396,andagainstAthensin394.TheSpartansgrantedhiman
estatenearOlympia,wherehelivedcomfortablywithhisfamilyforthenexttwentyyearsuntilejectedinalocalrising,andmovingtoCorinth.Hisbanishmentwas
liftedinabout365,butheprobablydidnotreturntoAthens.Hellenicatr.RexWarnerasAHistoryofMyTimes(newedn1979)ishiscontinuationofthestory
ofthePeloponnesianWarfrom411,whenTHUCYDIDESbreaksoff,toitsendin404,withanadditionalfivebooksofratherramblingmemoriesofthesucceedingperiod
to362,whenThebandominationcollapsed.Healsowrotetreatisesonhorsemanship,hunting,andhouseholdmanagementrecollectionsofthephilosopher,Socrates
(469399),whomheknewandafictionalaccountoftheeducationandcareerofCyrustheGreat,founderofthePersianempire.

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Y
Yeats,W(illiam)B(utler)(18651939)
Irishpoet,dramatist,andprosewriter,wasborninSandymount,Dublin,theeldestchildoftheartistJohnButlerYeats(18391922)andbrotheroftheartistJack
ButlerYeats(18711957)forYeats'srelationswithhistwohardworkingyoungersistersseeJoanHardwick,TheYeatsSisters(1996).Thefamilymovedto
Londonin1867,butin1880returnedtoDublin,wherehewenttotheHighSchool,HarcourtStreet,andthentotheSchoolofArt.Hisfirstpublishedpoemappeared
intheDublinUniversityReviewin1885.AfterthefamilysettledinLondononcemore,hemadefrequentvisitstoIreland,andin1888editedananthologyof
contemporarypoetry,PoemsandBalladsofYoungIreland,whichcontainedfourofhisownpoems.
In1889hepublishedinLondonTheWanderingsofOisinandOtherPoems,whosetitlepoem,basedonelementshehadfoundintranslationsofGaelicmythology,
marksthebeginningoftheIrishLiteraryRevival.HealsometMaudGonne(18661953),asbeautifulasanactressasshewasferventasanIrishnationalist.Hefell
hopelesslyinloveandproposedtoherunsuccessfullyonmanyoccasionsseeTheGonneYeatsLetters18931938,ed.AnnaMcBrideWhiteandA.Norman
Jeffares(2ndedn1993).Hisfirstplay,TheCountessCathleen(1892),whichwascomposedinproseandthenreworkedinverse,waswrittenforher.Sowasa
groupofpoemsundertheheadingof'TheRose',publishedinTheCountessKathleenandVariousLegendsandLyrics(1891)andsubsequentlyinPoems(1895),
whichcomprisedaselectionofwhathewantedpreserved.Therose,signifyingeternalbeauty,wasoneofthemanysymbolswhichhedrewfromIrishmythologyand
occultloretoillustratehispoeticthemes.InthestoriesinTheSecretRose(1897),occultismisoverlaidwithPreRaphaelitedetail,andpoemsreflectinghisobsession
withMaudoccuralsoinTheWindAmongtheReeds(1899),IntheSevenWoods(1903),andTheGreenHelmet,andOtherPoems(1910).Hehad,inaddition,
asporadicaffairwithMrsOliviaShakespear(18631938),whobecamehislifelongcorrespondentandconfidante,andwhosedaughtermarriedPOUNDseeJohn
Harwood,OliviaShakespearandW.B.Yeats(1989).
In1897thesecondofhismanyvisitstoCoolePark,Co.Galway,thehomeofGREGORY,ledtotheestablishmentoftheIrishLiteraryTheatre,withGEOROEMOORE,
EdwardMartyn(18591923),andYeatsasdirectors.Itwasreplacedin1902bytheIrishNationalDramaticSociety,withhimselfasPresident.Anearlyproduction
washisCathleenNiHoulihan(1902),asymbolicplayaboutthestruggleforIrishindependence,inwhichMaudplayedanelectrifyingrole.In1905hebecameaco
director,withLadyGregoryandSYNGE,oftheAbbeyTheatre,wherehisDeirdre,atragedyfromtheheroicsagas,wasfirstperformedin1906.Later,he
experimentedwithotherdramaticforms:aseriesderivedfromtheJapaneseNohplayswaspublishedasFourPlaysforDancers(1921).
In1916Maud'shusband,JohnMacBride,whomshehadshockedYeatsbymarryingin1903,wasexecutedforhispartintheEasterRising.Thenextyear,having
beenturneddownyetagainbyMaud,andalsoseveraltimesbyIseult(18941954)seealsoSIUART,Maud'sillegitimatedaughterbyaFrenchman,hemarried
GeorgieHydeLees(18951968),ayoungEnglishwomanwhohadmediumisticpowers.Hiswife'sattemptstodrawhimoutofhisobviousunhappinessbyautomatic
handwritingresulted,muchtohersurprise,inAVision(1925),anexplorationintothecyclicalviewofhistoryandofhumanexperience.Italsorevivedhispoetic
impulse,leadingtohiscollectionsTheTower(1928)andTheWindingStair,andOtherPoems(1933),inwhichaphilosophicalattitudetooldage,wit,scorn,
sensuality,andasenseofpanicabouttheworld'sfuturepredominate.Althoughhehadoftenbeenill,hewaswritingplaysandfinepoetrytothelast.Hediedwhile
winteringintheRiviera.HewasinterredinRoquebruneandreburiedinSligoin1948.Besidesbeinganexperimentaldramatistinavarietyofforms,hewasapoetof
manymoodsandskillswhoseworkhashadadominanteffectonmuchmodernpoetry.HewasinstrumentalinfoundinganIrishnationalliteraryand,perhapseven
moresignificantly,dramaticmovement.HisEssays19311936waspublishedin1937,andhewasEditorofTheOxfordBookofModernVerse18921935(1936).
From1922to1928hewasanactivesenatoroftheIrishFreeState.He

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refusedaknighthoodin1915.HewasawardedtheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1923.SeeYeats'sPoems,ed.A.NormanJeffares,1989SelectedPoems,ed.
RobertGill,1993CollectedPlaysofW.B.Yeats,1952Autobiographies,newedn1988A.NormanJeffares,W.B.Yeats:aNewBiography,newedn1990
R.EFoster,W.B.Yeats:aLife,Volume1theApprenticeMagi18651914,1997EdwardMalinsandJohnPurkis,APrefacetoYeats,2ndedn1994A.
NormanJeffares,ANewCommentaryonthePoemsofW.B.Yeats,1984A.S.KnowlandandA.NormanJeffares,ACommentaryontheCollectedPlaysof
W.B.Yeats,1975.
Yerby,Frank(191692)
Americannovelist,wasborninAugusta,Georgia,ofmixedparentage:'DonotcallmeBlack.IhavemoreSeminolethanNegrobloodinme.'Hewaseducatedat
PaineCollege,Augusta,andFiskUniversity,goingontopostgraduatestudyatChicagoUniversity,afterwhichhetaughtinLouisiana.In1941,havingmarriedoneof
hisstudents,hegaveupteachingtobecomealaboratorytechnicianwiththeFordMotorCo.inMichiganHisearlyliteraryworkwasofsocialprotestagainstthe
treatmentofcontemporaryblackAmericans,andincludedtheshortstories'HealthCard'(1944)and'Homecoming'(1946),andanovelwhichnoonewouldpublish.
Accordingtohisaccount,hecynicallyanalysedthemarketforpopularfiction,andcameupwithTheFoxesofHarrow(1946),setintheAmericanSouthitwasthe
firstofnumeroushistoricalnovels(hepreferredtheterm'costumedramas')which,anobituaristsuggests,'werenotsomuchbodicerippersasaccountsofbodices
beingvoluntarilyundonebystrongwilledheroineswith,orwithout,thecooperationofheroesmoreinterestedinactionthaningentlewooing'.Otherbackgrounds
includetheCrusades,inTheSaracenBlade(1952),saidtohavesoldtenmillioncopiestheFrenchRevolution,inTheDevil'sLaughter(1953)andearlyChristian
times,inJudas,MyBrother:theStoryoftheThirteenthDisciple(1969).NovelsinwhichheaddressesmoreseriousissuesincludeSpeakNow(1969)andThe
Dahomean(1971inUKasTheManfromDahomey).In1953hevisitedSpain,wherehemet,and,afterhisdivorce,married,hissecondwife,andsettledin
Madrid.
Yevtushenko,Yevgeny(Aleksandrovich)(b.1933)
Russianpoet,wasborninZima,Siberia,andwasbroughtupinMoscowafterhisgeologistparents(hismotheralsosang,toentertainthetroops)separatedin1941.
At15hehadapoemprintedinSovietSporthewas19,andastudentattheInstituteofWorldLiterature,whenhisfirstcollectionwaspublished.ThedeathofStalin
in1953wasacontributiontotheliberationofminds,andhefoundametierintherealizationthat'poetrywasmobile...apoemwasmuchquickertowritethana
novel,anditcouldbereadinpublicevenbeforeitcameoutinprint'.Hisemergenceasapublicpoetcamewith['ZimaJunction'](1956),alongautobiographical
poem,amajorthemeofwhichishisfascinationwithhisownconsciousnessandemergingidentity.From1960hetravelledabroad,performinginpublic,composing
instantverses,andgenerallycosmopolitanizingtheSovietUnion.'BabiyYar'(1961),animpressivepoemcommemoratingtheGermanmassacre(withtheassistanceof
someUkrainians)oftheKievJews,andwritten,byhisownaccount,intwohoursasanattackonantiSemitismwithintheSovietUnion,wasfirstreadattheMoscow
PolytechnicafterhehadgivenatalkaboutCuba.By1963hecoulddrawanaudienceoffourteenthousandataMoscowstadium.WhileWesterncriticshavepointed
totheunevennessofhisworkandthedeclineinhisreputationasapoet,therehasbeennoshortageoftranslations.APrecociousAutobiography,tr.AndrewR.
MacAndrew(1963)isanimpressionisticstudyofhisfirstthirtyyears.Don'tDieBeforeYou'reDead,tr.AntoniaW.Bouis(1995)isanautobiographicalnovelofthe
attemptedrevolutioninMoscowin1991.SeeTheCollectedPoems19521990,ed.AlbertC.Todd,1992.
Yonge,CharlotteM(ary)(18231901)
Britishnovelist,wasborninOtterbourne,Hampshire,anareawhichshehardlyleftallherlifeexceptforvisitstorelativesandonebusinesstriptoFrancein1869,to
staywiththefamilyofthehistorian,FranoisGuizot(17871874).Shewaseducatedinclassicsandmathematicsbyheroverbearingfather,andinmodernlanguages
bytutorsfromtheageofsevenuntilherdeathshetaughtinthevillageSundaySchool.Sheisquotedashaving'nohesitationindeclaringmyfullbeliefintheinferiority
ofwomen',towhosemoralandreligiousimprovementshededicatedherliterarytalents.Inthisshewasencouragedbyhermentor,Rev.JohnKeble(17921866),
founderoftheOxfordMovementintheChurch(andalsoProfessorofPoetryatOxford183141),whobecameherlocalvicarin1836itwasherfamily'sdecision
thatanyearningsshouldbedevotedtogoodcauses.Herbestknownbook,TheHeirofRedclyffe(1853),longandtediousasitmaybetomodernreaders,is,
perhapssurprisingly,aromanticnovel.TheDaisyChain:or,Aspirations,aFamilyChronicle(1856),2000ofherearningsfromwhichwenttoamissionary
collegeinNewZealand,andothersimilarlybasedworks,aresignificantprototypesofthemodernfamilynovelforyoungpeoplesosoontobeimmortalizedby
ALCOTT,theheroineofwhoseLittleWomen(1868)isfoundinchapter3intheattic'eatingapplesandcryingoverTheHeirofRedclyffe'.Yongewas

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thesoleEditorfromitsfoundationin1851to1890oftheMonthlyPacket,agirls'magazinedesignedtoimbuethemwiththespiritoftheOxfordMovementshealso
editedtheMonthlyPaperofSundayTeachingfrom1860to1875,andMothersinCouncilfrom1890to1900.Betweentimesshewrotesomehundrednovels
andmanyeducationalbooks,andtranslatedhistoricalworksfromtheFrench.SeeMargaretMareandAliciaC.Percival,VictorianBestseller:theWorldof
CharlotteM.Yonge,1948AletheaHayter,CharlotteYonge,1996(introduction).
Yorke,HenryVincent
SeeGREEN.
Young,Andrew(18851971)
Scottishpoetandnaturalist,wasborninElginandeducatedattheHighSchoolofEdinburghandEdinburghUniversity,beingordainedintheUnitedFreeChurchin
1912.In1918hebecameMinisteroftheEnglishPresbyterianChurchinHove,Sussex.Duringthe1930shewasconvertedtotheChurchofEngland,andwasVicar
ofStonegateinSussexfrom1941untilhisretirementin1959.HewasmadeacanonofChichesterCathedralin1948.Hisfirstbookofverse,SongsofNight(1910),
waspublishedprivately,anditwasonlyaftertheappearanceofsevenvolumesinallthathereachedasignificantaudiencewithaselectionofhispoems,Winter
Harvest(1933).Histhemesareinspiredbyaminuteobservationandknowledgeofnatureandthelandscape(asin'TheWhiteBlackbird','PloughinginMist',
'MountainView','TheSnowdrop','Daisies',andthecurious'HibernatingSnails'),andbyprofoundreligiousmeditation.HismostsustainedpoemisOutoftheWorld
andBack(1958),thejourneyofasoulthefirstpartwaspublishedasIntoHades(1952).Healsowroteaversemysteryplay,Nicodemus(1937),andseveral
botanicalandtopographicalproseworks,includingAProspectofFlowers(1945)andThePoetandtheLandscape(1962).HewasawardedtheQueen'sGold
MedalforPoetryin1952.SeePoeticalWorks,ed.EdwardLowburyandAlisonYoung,1985.
Young,Douglas(191373)
Scottishpoetandclassicist,wasborninTayport,Fife,andspenthischildhoodinIndia,wherehisfatherworkedforaDundeejutecompany.Hewaseducatedat
MerchistonCastleSchoolandStAndrewsUniversity,whichhefavouredoverOxfordandCambridge,towhichhealsopassed,foritsgolfcourses.Hesubsequently
wonanopenexhibitiontoNewCollege,Oxford,wherehereadGreats.In1938hebecameassistanttotheProfessorofGreekatAberdeen.Anactiveand
impressivememberoftheScottishNationalParty,herefusedtobeconscriptedinWorldWarII(thoughhewouldprobablyhavebeenrejectedasunfit),onthe
groundsthattheactwascontrarytoScottishlaw.Hewasimprisonedforayear,duringwhichhesupervisedthepublicationofAutranBlads:anOutwaleoVerses
(1943).ThiseruditeandenjoyablevolumecontainedsomeofhisbestknownpoemsinScots,suchas'SabbathintheMearns'and'SangbytheSea',andtranslations
intoScotsfromGaelic,Latin,andGreek,andintoGreekfromScots.AfterthewarhetaughtclassicsatUniversityCollege,Dundee,andStAndrewsUniversity,
becomingSeniorLecturerin1960.HewasappointedProfessorofClassicsatMcMasterUniversity,Ontario,in1968,andtothenewchairinGreekattheUniversity
ofNorthCarolinain1970.Hediedsuddenlyathisdesk,withhisHOMERinfrontofhim.HetranslatedtheOresteiaofAESCHYLUSintoEnglishverse(1974)hisversions
inScotsofTheFrogsandTheBirdsofARISTOPHANES,asThePuddocks(1957)andTheBurdies(1959),werebothlaterperformedattheEdinburghFestival.A
ClearVoice:DouglasYoung,PoetandPolymath,ed.ClaraYoungandDavidMurison(n.d.),containsaselectionofhiswritingsandamemoir.
Young,Edward(16831765)
Britishpoetanddramatist,wasborninUpham,Hampshire,thesonoftherector,whobecameDeanofSalisbury.HewaseducatedatWinchesterCollege,goingon
attheadvancedageof19toNewCollege,Oxford,onthedeathofwhosewarden,withwhomhewaslodging,hetransferredtoCorpusChristiCollege.Hewas
nominatedtoalawfellowshipatAllSouls,andgraduatedasDCLin1719,havinginthemeantimebecomeaminorlightinLondonliterarycircles,andpublishedsome
occasionalandcommemorativepoems.Twotragedies,Busiris,KingofEgypt(1719)andTheRevenge(1721),owemoretothepoeticthanthedramaticart.At
thistimehewastutortotheyoungMarquisofWharton(16981731),whowasasomewhaterraticpatronYounghadtoapplytothecourtstosettleafinancial
disagreementbetweenthem.LoveofFame:or,TheUniversalPassion(172528)isacollectionofsatiresontypesofpeople.Inabout1727hetookholyorders
andwithdrewhisthirdplay,TheBrothers,whileitwasinrehearsal.Hewasappointedaroyalchaplainin1728,andRectorofWelwyn,Hertfordshire,in1730.In
1731hemarriedLadyElizabethLee,thewidoweddaughteroftheEarlofLichfield.Herdeathin1740,followingthoseofherdaughterandsoninlaw,promptedThe
Complaint:or,NightThoughtsonLife,Death,&Immortality(174246),aninfluentialblankversepoeminnine'Nights'whichisthemostsustainedexampleof
18thcenturygraveyardpoetry.In1753heresuscitatedTheBrothers,whichwasstagedonbehalfoftheSocietyforthePropagationoftheGospel.Whenthetakings
fellshortofwhathehadanticipated,hepaidthe

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balancehimself.Hisprosetreatise,ConjecturesonOriginalComposition(1759),containssomeusefulobservations.
Young,FrancisBrett(18841954)
Britishnovelistandpoet,wasborninHalesowen,Warwickshire,thesonofadoctor,andwaseducatedatEpsomCollegeandBirminghamUniversityhequalifiedas
MBin1907,andsetupinpracticeinDevon.Thefollowingyearhemarriedaconcertsinger(heoftenactedasheraccompanist).Hisfirstpublishedbookwasa
criticalstudyofBRIDGES(1913),someofwhosepoemshesettomusic.BeginningwithDeepSea(1914)hepublishedseveralnovelsduringWorldWarI,inwhichhe
servedinEastAfricaintheRoyalMedicalCorpsherecordedsomeofhisexperiencesinMarchingonTanga(1917).Severelyandpermanentlyaffectedbymalaria,
hewasinvalidedoutin1918withtherankofmajor,andwasneverabletoresumehismedicalcareer.In1919hepublishedTheYoungPhysician,asemi
autobiographicalnovel,andPoems19161918.HeandhiswifelivedinCapriuntil1929,inahousewhichitissaidwasbuiltfortheminexchangeforhistranslating
thearchitect'sstoriesintoEnglish.TheythenspentthreeyearsintheLakeDistrict,beforesettlingnearEvesham,Worcestershire.Equallyadeptatvisualizingharshor
romanticsettingsonlandoratsea,hewasuptoWorldWarIIabletowriteanovelayear,witharangeofthemesandindifferentmoodsthemosthighlyregarded
areColdHarbour(1924),PortraitofClare(1927),MyBrotherJonathan(1928),andtheunfinishedSouthAfricantrilogy,TheySeekaCountry(1937)andThe
CityofGold(1939).TheBattleofBritainin1940inspiredhimtocomposeTheIsland(1944),aversesagainavarietyofpoeticforms,recallinghighandlowpoints
inBritishhistory.HediedinCapeTown,wherehehadgoneonmedicaladvice.
Yourcenar,Marguerite(190387)
Frenchnovelist,poet,andcritic,wasbornMargueritedeCrayencourinBrussels,oftwoancientandwealthyFlemishfamiliessheassumedtheapproximateanagram
ofhernameinthe1920s,andadopteditlegallyin1947.Hermotherdiedtendaysafterthebirth,andYourcenarspentherchildhoodonthefamilyestatenearLille.
Shewaseducatedprivately,andtravelledwidelywithherfatheruntilhisdeathin1929andthelossofthefamilyfortuneintheWallStreetcrash.Shepublishedtwo
booksofversebeforeshewas20Feux(1936tr.DoriKatzasFires,1981),prosepoems,waswrittenafteracrisisoflove.In1937inParisshemetGraceFrick
(190379),anAmericanacademic,withwhomin1939shesettledintheUSA.ShebecameanAmericancitizenin1947,thoughshecontinuedtowriteinFrench.
Mmoiresd'Hadrien(1951tr.GraceFrickasMemoirsofHadrian,1954),herfirstnoveltobepublishedinEnglish,andalsoherbestknown,istheepistolary
revelationsoftheRomanemperor,inwhichthepast,andeternalpersonalpredicaments,arevividlybroughttolife.OthersincludeLeCoupdeGrce(1939tr.Frick
asCoupdeGrce,1957),aslightstoryofaninvertedlovetrianglewhoseelegancereflectstheclassicalFrenchtraditionandL'OeuvreauNoir(1968tr.Frickas
TheAbyss,1976reissuedasZenoofBruges,1994),aboutthe16thcenturyalchemist.
ShealsowroteplaysbasedontheGreektragediansandpublishedseveralcollectionsofcriticalessaysseeThatMightySculptor,Time,tr.WalterKaiser(1992).
AmonghertranslationsintoFrenchareVIRGINAWOOLF'STheWaves(1937)andHENRYJAMES'SWhatMaisieKnew(1947).HerFrenchcitizenshipwasrestoredinorder
thatshemightacceptmembershipoftheAcadmieFranaisein1980,thefirstwomanevertobeelected.HerlastfictiontoappearinEnglishisABlueTaleand
OtherStories,tr.AlbertoManguel(1995),threeearlypieces,thoughthetitlestorywasnotpublishedinFrenchuntil1993.SouvenirsPieux(1974tr.MariaLouise
AscherasDearDeparted,1992),afamilyhistorywhoserecurringthemeistheecologymovement,isthefirstofthreediscursiveandaphoristicmemoirs,thelastof
whichisunfinished.SeeJosyaneSavigneau,MargueriteYourcenar:InventingaLife,tr.JoanE.Howard,1993(biography).

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Z
Zamyatin,YevgenyIvanovich(18841937)
Russiannovelistandshortstorywriter,wasborninLebedyan,Tambov,andstudiednavalengineeringatthePolytechnicInstitute,StPetersburg,wherehelived
illegallyafterbeingimprisonedin1905andexiledtohishometownforpoliticalactivity.Hespent191617inEnglandasanavalarchitectatNewcastleuponTyne,
supervisingtheconstructionoftenicebreakersfortheTsaristgovernment.NowalapsedBolshevik,hereturnedtoRussiajustbeforetheOctoberRevolution,asa
resultofwhichtherewerenomorenewshipsandnoproperjobforhim.Ashortnovel,[TheIslanders](1918),satirizingtheEnglish,hadsomesuccess,however,
andhewasabletosurviveasalecturerincreativewriting,editor,andofficialoftheWriters'Union,whilehimselfwritingstoriesseeTheDragonandOtherStories,
tr.MirraGinsburg(1975)andtranslatingsuchwritersasSHERIDAN,HENRY,LONDON,andWELLS,onwhomhepublishedtwocriticalessays.Hewasalsoindebtedtothe
'newandentirelyoriginalspeciesofliteraryform'createdbyWells'inhisnovelsofsociofantasy'forhisantiUtopiannoveloflifeinatotalitarianstate,[We](tr.
GuilbertGuerney,introductionbyMichaelGlenny,1970).OriginallytranslatedintoEnglishbyGregoryZilboorgandfirstpublishedinNewYork(1924),itwas
translatedfromEnglishintoCzech(1926),andfromCzechbackintoRussian,inwhichextractswerepublishedinPragueinanmigremagazine(1927).Thiswasthe
signalforthepersecutionofitsauthorandthebanningofallhisworkintheSovietUnion.HispersonalappealtoStalinin1931tobeallowed,withhiswife,toleave
thecountry'formedicaltreatment'wasgrantedwiththesupportofGORKY,andhesettledinParis,wherehedied.Initspoliticalimplicationsaswellasitstheme,[We]is
aworthyforerunnerofORWELL'SNineteenEightyFour.SeeASovietHeretic:EssaysbyYevgenyZamyatin,ed.andtr.MirraGinsburg,1974AlexM.Shane,
TheLifeandWorksofEvgenijZamjatin,1968.
Zangwill,Israel(18641926)
Britishnovelistanddramatist,wasborninLondon,thesonofanimpoverishedRussianJewishrefugee,andwaseducatedattheJews'FreeSchoolandLondon
University.Hetaughtforafewyearsathisformerschool,andthenbecameafulltimewriter.Afterhavinghadseveralstoriespublished,hewascommissionedbythe
JewishPublicationSocietyofAmericatowritea'big'Jewishnovel.ChildrenoftheGhetto(1892)isavivid,compassionate,moving,andoftenveryfunny
expressionofJewishlifeintheEastEndofLondon.Attemptstorepeattheformula,GhettoTragedies(1893)andGhettoComedies(1907),werelesssuccessful.
HisothermemorableworkisTheKingoftheSchnorrers(1894),acollectionofstorieswhichhadfirstappearedinthehumorousjournal,theIdler.Zangwillbecame
aprominentmemberoftheJewishcommunityandaleadingspokesmanforZionism(hefoundedtheJewishTerritorialOrganizationfortheSettlementofJewsWithin
theBritishEmpire),thoughinhispersonallifehedisplayedanambivalencetowardshisfaith.SeeJosephH.Udelson,DreameroftheGhetto:theLifeandWorksof
IsraelZangwill,1990andinChaimBermant,What'stheJoke:aStudyofJewishHumourThroughtheAges,1986.
Zola,mile(18401902)
Frenchnovelistandcritic,wasborninParis,theonlychildofanItaliancivilengineer(whodiedwhentheboywasseven)andhismuchyoungerworkingclassFrench
wife.HewaseducatedatCollged'Aix,wherehisclosefriendwasPaulCzanne(18391906),thoughitwasZolawhousedtowintheschooldrawingprize,andat
theLyceSaintLouis,Paris.Hepassedthewrittenbutnottheoraltestforhisbaccalaureatein1858,andfailedcompletelythefollowingyear.Afterworkingasa
clerkintheExciseOffice,hewastakenonbythepublishinghouseofHachette,graduatingfromdispatchtoadvertising,whichwasusefulexperiencewhenitcameto
thepromotionofhisfirstbook,ContesNinon(1864),acollectionofstories.In1865hejoinedthedailynewspaperL'vnementasartscolumnist,inwhich
capacityhedefiantlysupportedtheImpressionistschoolofCzanne,EdouardManet(183283),andClaudeMonet(18401926).ThrseRaquin(1867tr.
LeonardTancock,1972),astudyofguilt,washisfirstsuccessfulattempttomatchinfictiontheImpressionists'interpretationsofcontemporarylife,thoughthe
'Naturalism'towhichhelaidclaimhadmoretodowithrealismthan

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withitsscientificconnotation.Henowembarkedonwhatbecameasequenceof20novels,underthegeneralheadingof'LesRougonMacquart',exploringthe
destructiveinfluencesofheredityonmembersofthesamefamilyduringtheSecondEmpire(185170).Ofthese,L'Assommoir(1877tr.Tancock,1970),Nana
(1880tr.GeorgeHolden,1972),andLaBteHumaine(1890tr.TancockasTheBeastinMan,1977tr.RogerPearson,1996)inparticularbroughthim
notorietyaswellasfameandwealth,whilealsoestablishinghimasachampionoftheworkingclasses.In1870hemarriedAlexandrineGabrielleMeley(18391925),
theorphanedlovechildofateenageliaison:theyhadnochildren.In1888hebegananaffairwiththe20yearoldJeanneSophieAdleRozerot,hiswife'ssewing
maid,whousedtoposeforhiminhisexerciseofthenewartofphotography.HesetherupinaParisapartment:theyhadadaughter(b.1889)andason(b.1891).
Thefirst(carefullybowdlerized)translationofZolaintoEnglishwasNana(1884),negotiatedbyGEORGEMOOREonbehalfoftheLondonpublisher,HenryVizetelly
(182094).In1888VizetellyofferednodefenceagainsttheprosecutionofNanaandtwoother'obscenelibels'intheformofnovelsbyZola,andwasfinedand
boundoverforayear,duringwhichheissuedfurthertranslations.Hewastriedagain,pleadedguiltyontheadviceofhiscounsel,andwassentencedtothreemonths
injail.Notwithstanding,in1893ZolapaidavisittoBritainastheguestoftheInstituteofJournalists,thehighlightofwhichwasaballattheGuildhall,atwhichfour
thousandguestsclappedhisarrival.In1897hewasinvolvedinthecaseofAlfredDreyfus(18591935),inwhosedefencehedeliberatelycourtedprosecutionwithan
articleinL'Auroreundertheheadline'J'Accuse'(1898)seeTheDreyfusAffair:'J'Accuse'andOtherWritings,ed.AlainPags,tr.EleanorLevieux(1996).His
appealagainstasentenceofayear'simprisonmentforlibelwasupheldonatechnicality,andanewtrialordered.TokeeptheDreyfusaffairalive,Zolafledto
England,outsidethejurisdictionofFrenchlaw,whereJeanneandthechildrenjoinedhim.Hereturnedayearlater,whentheAppealCourtupheldapetitionforthe
retrialofDreyfus.Zoladiedofcarbonmonoxidepoisoning,causedbyafaultyflueinhisbedroom.SeeFrederickBrown,Zola:aLife,1996.