Pumped Storage Contribution to Grid

Inertia
Alois Lechner, Ph.D.
ANDRITZ HYDRO
Vienna, Austria
1 Introduction
With the conventional setup of a grid connected generator, the inertia of the rotating parts is
electromagnetically coupled to the grid. A change in the grid frequency is inevitable leading to a
change of generator speed, the corresponding change of the energy stored in the rotating inertias
is supporting the grid frequency stabilisation. The grid inertia was thereby a value provided by
the nature of electromagnetical energy conversion, therefore usually no efforts to increase the
grid inertia were taken.
In the last years power electronic converters controlling the power flow are growing both in
number and in size, coming either from the renewable power sources wind and solar or from
HV-DC transmission lines. Most of the units operating with power electronic converters are not
changing the power flow if the grid frequency changes. Especially for islanded grids the
corresponding decrease of stabilizing inertia is starting to worry the authorities responsible for
grid quality ([1], [2], [3], [4]).

2 Grid inertia
2.1 Key indicator: inertia constant H
The value representing best the stabilizing function of the grid inertia is the inertia constant H,
which is calculated as energy stored in rotating parts divided by nominal apparent power
(equ. 1).

(1)
The same definition can be applied to a whole grid, with all power plants contributing according
their individual Hi and averaged with their individual nominal power Si (equ. 2). The higher the
resulting Hgrid, the less are both maximum grid frequency deviation and rate of change of
frequency (RoCoF).
(2)
The grid frequency deviation exceeding the set limit of protection devices (typically ~1.6%) may
cause a chain reaction including blackout. High RoCoF values are favouring inter-grid
oscillations, again an area of concern for grid quality considerations.

2.2 Contribution of power plant technologies

Power plants with grid connected generators contribute to the grid inertia accordingly with their
inertia constant H. The rotating parts of generator, shaft and prime mover provide more or less
inertia, depending on the power plant technology. Diagram 1 shows the typical inertia constant

Diagram 1: Inertia constant range for common power plant technologies ([5], [6])

range for the most common power plant technologies. The resulting grid inertia constant Hgrid is
depending on the technology mix in the grid, Hgrid=5s is a reasonable estimate if no information
about the technology mix is available.

2.3 Contribution of renewable sources

The inertia constant H of wind turbines is in the range of 3s-5s (see diagram 2). Nevertheless, in
most of the installed wind turbines the grid inertia contribution is zero, as the wind turbine speed
is decoupled via the power electronic converter from the grid frequency. For future installations,
some TSOs are requiring that the inertia control via converter control algorithms is enabled [1].
How much of the physical inertia can be used as grid inertia depends on the mechanical design
of tower and blades ([7], [8]).
Photovoltaic power conversion is by its nature not capable of providing grid inertia, as there is
no relevant energy stored in the conversion system (except some milliseconds in the capacitors).

Diagram 2: Inertia constant range of renewable sources

2.4 Example: Grid frequency response to partial power outage

An imbalance of power production and power consumption in the grid is leading to a change of
kinetic energy, which means a change of grid frequency. The frequency deviation is then causing
corrective actions to rebalance power production and consumption plus a corrective action to reestablish the nominal grid frequency. Diagram 3 illustrates a sudden drop in power production
with different grid inertia constants (H=5s for a grid setup with conventional power plants,
H=2.5s for grid setup with half of the production by renewable sources). Corresponding with the
ratio of the grid inertias, both the rate of change of frequency and the maximum frequency
deviation are twice in value for the low grid inertia.

Diagram 3: Grid frequency response to a drop in power production with varying inertia
constant

3 Inertia contribution of converter controlled hydro power plant

3.1 Typical values of hydro power plants
Depending on the turbine type, the typical inertia constant of a hydro power plant is either in the
upper range (3s-7s) for Pelton and Francis turbines or in the lower range (0.7s-3s) for Kaplan or
bulb turbines (diagram 4). For pumped storage usually there is the choice between a ternary set
with Pelton turbine and Francis pump or a reversible Francis pump-turbine.

Diagram 4: Inertia constant range for hydro power plants

3.2 Virtual inertia by converter control

The physical inertia reacts to grid frequency changes when the generator is coupled to the grid.
The power flow is driven by the rate of change of frequency, with same change rate arriving on
the physical inertia. By supplying an appropriate control algorithm ([9], [10]) in the power
electronic converter it is possible to expose the physical inertia to change rates which is
calculated as grid RoCoF x KV (virtual inertia scaling factor), e.g. with a scaling factor of 5 the
system acts as grid inertia 5 times higher than the physical inertia. If the inertia constant

calculated with the physical inertia (equ. 1) would be 3s, with KV=5 the system behaves like a
conventional system with the inertia constant 15s (diagram 5).
It has to be mentioned that in a converter setup an appropriate control algorithm is necessary
even if only the physical inertia is set to react to grid frequency changes. By default, the coupling
of the frequencies on the both sides of the converter is 0.

Physical Inertia

Grid

Converter
J_virt

Virtual Inertia
Diagram 5: Realisation of virtual inertia by converter control

3.3 Speed controller options of turbine control

If a hydro power plant is connected to the grid via a power electronic converter, the turbine speed
is usually set to operate at best system efficiency ([11], [12]). During grid frequency changes the
turbine speed has to change according to the selected factor for virtual inertia, but there are
different options for the turbine to return to the speed set before the grid frequency disturbance.
Three different choices were taken into detailed analysis (see also diagram 6):
a. Turbine speed set point is calculated as hydraulic operation point (undisturbed) plus grid
frequency deviation times virtual inertia scale factor.
b. Turbine speed set point is calculated as hydraulic operation point (undisturbed) plus grid
frequency deviation times virtual inertia scale factor only if a grid frequency change is
detected. Otherwise the turbine control brings back the turbine speed to the hydraulic
operation point immediately.
c. Turbine speed set point is calculated as hydraulic operation point (undisturbed) plus grid
frequency deviation times virtual inertia scale factor only if a grid frequency change is
detected. Otherwise the turbine control brings back the turbine speed to the hydraulic
operation point following a lag function.
Choice (a) is the same procedure as it would appear with a grid connected generator. During the
time where the grid frequency is deviating from the nominal grid frequency the turbine speed is
not following exactly the hydraulic operation point which was derived for undisturbed operation,

usually by optimizing system efficiency. This is the main drawback of this controller option, as
the duration of a grid frequency deviation may last for some time until the grid operators are able
to rebalance the power flow. The main advantages are a very simple control strategy and low
requirements for the hydraulic control components.

Diagram 6: Turbine speed reaction to grid frequency drop for selected speed controllers
Choice (b) is mainly focussing on keeping the turbine speed near to the hydraulic operation point
for undisturbed operation, which is the main advantage of this controller options. The main
disadvantage is that the hydraulic control is counteracting the speed change caused by vitual
inertia control and therefore shows significant control action during or following the grid
frequency disturbance.
Choice (c) is a compromise between choice (a) and choice (b), combining most of the advantages
without adding up the drawbacks. The turbine speed is not sent back to the hydraulic operation
point for undisturbed operation immediately, but following a lag function. Thereby the long
lasting speed deviation of (a) is avoided, and the hydraulic control is rather following a ramp
change instead of a step change, resulting in reduced stress on hydraulic control elements.

For KV=1 (grid inertia equals physical inertia) the turbine speed reaction to an assumed grid
frequency drop is shown in diagram 6, the corresponding gate opening of the turbine is shown in
diagram 7. The turbine speed for choice (c) reaches the speed value of the undisturbed operation
point in the same time as choice (a), but with a similar control movement on the gate opening as
choice (b). Therefore, the choice (c) was used for the rest of the simulations as turbine speed
controller.

Diagram 7: Turbine gate reaction to grid frequency drop for selected speed controllers

3.4 Handling converter limits

An important restriction to be considered is the limitation of the operation range originating in
the converter. The relevant limitation is usually the converter current and thereby generator
power and torque and grid power. For the presented paper the operation point of generator is set
to 90% of its as starting point for the simulation. The converter limit is assumed as 100% of
nominal, thus neglecting potential converter overload capabilities.

Especially when setting the grid inertia to a higher level than the physical inertia, the desired
value for grid power may exceed the converter limit during the grid frequency change. Such a
reaction can is outlined in diagram 8, where the virtual inertia is set five times the grid inertia.

Diagram 8: Grid power cut off at converter power limit

The first and very practical approach is to limit the set values for grid power without other
action, which is very easy to achieve by leaving the job of limitation to the converter control only
(see diagram 8). The significant drawback is that the resulting grid inertia support is depending
on the operation point, e.g. the higher the power set value in undisturbed condition the lower the
energy supplied during the frequency drop which means in outcome lower grid inertia. An
alternative strategy is so calculate the energy which would have been delivered to the grid if no
converter limits would apply. This energy will in total be delivered to the grid, which means the
time span of increased grid power is prolonged, see diagram 9. This strategy supports the
restoration of the grid frequency to its nominal value.

Diagram 9: Grid power controlled to supply grid inertia changes with converter power limit

4 Example: Virtual inertia controlled hydro power plant reacting to grid

frequency drop
The simulation tool is SIMSEN [13], which contains models for electrical, mechanical and
hydraulic systems. To illustrate the performance of virtual inertia a synthetic frequency drop
(diagram 10) is used, representing the typical frequency drop ([7], [8]) in 3 distinct sections: a
linear frequency decrease (starting at t=5s, lasting for 2s), followed by a stabilization phase with
constant frequency (lasting 5s) and a recovery phase with slow linear rise back to nominal
frequency (lasting 60s).
The hydro power plant is operating at 90% load before the frequency drop, the scaling factor KV
for the grid inertia is set to: 0, 1, 2, 3 and 5.

4.1 Grid power response

The grid power supporting the grid in case of frequency deviations is the relevant output of the
virtual inertia system. With the given grid frequency curve (diagram 10), the grid power has a
significant positive offset during the frequency decrease (5s-7s) and a small negative offset
during the frequency recovery (12s-72s). With the variation of the inertia scaling KV, these
offsets are scaled accordingly. As illustrated in diagram 11, this behaviour is present as long as
the power does not reach the converter limit (set to 1.0). For KV=3 and KV=5 the power limit of
the converter is active. In the diagram the behaviour for no grid inertia (KV=0) is illustrated as
well, which is of course a straight line, no influence by the grid frequency drop is visible.

Diagram 10: Synthetic frequency drop used for simulation

Diagram 11: Grid power response to frequency drop for variation of inertia scaling factor KV

4.2 Turbine speed response

The energy supplied to the grid has to be taken from the energy stored in the physical inertia of
turbine and generator. Therefore the maximum speed drop of the turbine is the frequency drop of
the grid multiplied by the inertia scaling KV. Diagram 13 shows the response of the turbine speed
using the speed controller choice (c) described in chapter 3.3.

4.3 Response of hydraulic system

With the change of turbine speed and with the request to return the turbine to the steady state
operation as soon as possible, some reaction to the grid frequency drop is visible in the hydraulic
system as well (except for KV=0). Both the turbine gate opening (diagram 12) and the turbine
flow (diagram 14) show a moderate response, scaled again with the inertia scaling KV.

Diagram 12: Reaction of turbine gate opening for variation of inertia scaling factor KV

Diagram 13: Reaction of turbine speed for variation of inertia scaling factor KV

Diagram 14: Reaction of hydraulic flow for variation of inertia scaling factor KV

5 Conclusion
Combining the flexibility of power electronic converters with the robustness of hydro power
equipment opens the opportunity for supporting grid inertia with a multiple of the physical
inertia [14]. The influence on the hydraulic system is moderate. The limits of the virtual inertia
which can be supplied are given by the capabilities of the converter and so depend also on the
pre-fault operation point.
Supporting grid stability with inertia is always valuable from technical point of view. If this
reasonable behaviour will be commercially rewarded is at discussion at the moment and will
probably depend on the inherent stability of the grid, thus its cumulated inertia constant. The
weaker a grid, the more importance should be given to improve stabilization. Especially in
islanded grids the inertia topic may become very important ([15], [16]). For the future, in
addition to grid inertia other stabilising functions supporting the grid with immediate power in
case of grid problems can be implemented as well.

6 References
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Specific Need, Power and Energy Society General Meeting, 24-29 July 2011.

[2]

E. Muljadi, V. Gevorgian, M. Singh and S. Santoso, Understanding Inertial and

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[3]

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[4]

National Grid. (2010). Grid Code Frequency Response Working Group: Simulated
Inertia. Available:
http://www.nationalgrid.com/uk/Electricity/Codes/gridcode/workinggroups/freqresp/.

[5]

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[6]

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[7]

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[8]

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[9]

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The Author
Alois Lechner is a member of the Electrical Power System division of ANDRITZ HYDRO,
Vienna, Austria. After receiving his Ph.D. in electrical engineering from Vienna University of
Technology in 1991, he specialized on high performance and high accuracy variable speed drives
within the VA TECH group and after 2005 for Schneider Electric. In March 2011 he joined
ANDRITZ HYDRO to work in the field of variable speed power generation.