Stresses in Beams Lecture

MECHANICS OF SOLIDS
Lecture 4
Stresses in Beams
Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman
Room 66, Level 2 Module Code: KA20903 (BK2015)
Civil Engineering Programme 2016-2017 Semester 1
Faculty of Engineering
Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman
Lecture Content
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Normal Strains in Beams
4.3 Normal Stress in Beam due to Bending
4.4 Economical Cross-Section Shape
4.5 Shear Stress in Rectangular Beam
4.6 Shear Stress in Beam Flange and Web

4.1 Introduction
1. Normally, beam is subjected to bending moment and
shear force. Bending moment causes bending stress
while shear force causes shear stress in beam.
2. In this lecture, relationship between bending moment

with bending stress and relationship between shear
force and shear stress is studied. Then, the stress
distribution along the sectional plane in member due
to bending and shear are discussed.
3. To find relationship between parameters

aforementioned above, a few assumptions are made:
a) Beam should be levelled evenly before and
after the loading is applied. The cross-sectional
plane should be perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of beam through the centroid
of the section before and after bending as
shown in the sectional plane m-n in Figure
4.1(a) & (b).
b) The whole beam is homogeneous and obeyed
Hooke’s Law ( 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 ) with stresses at not
exceeding the proportional limit.
c) Modulus of elasticity of tension and
compression are the same.
d) The beam is straight before loading and
uniform cross-section along the beam. Figure 4.1 Beam due to bending

4.1 Introduction
e) Load is acting at the plane of bending so that
the beam will not undergo twisting or torsion.
f) The deformation and rotation are small.
4. By referring to Figure 4.1(a) & (b), the longitudinal

axis of the beam is in the straight line before loading
and in the curve form after loading. The curve lines
that pass through the centroid of the curve is called
deflection curve for beam. When the beam is loaded,
strain and then stress will occur in beam due to the
internal action, i.e. bending moment and shear forces.
If a beam is bending due to bending moment only,
then the bending is known as pure bending.
5. Consider section m-n and u-v in Figure 4.1(b). If line

m-n and u-v is extended, it will intersect at point O,
which is called as centre of curvature. The distance
between a point on the deflection curve with the
centre of curvature is called as radius of curvature, R.
Curvature, k, of a line is defined as the reciprocal of
the radius of curvature, which is:
𝑘 = 1/𝑅
Figure 4.1 Beam due to bending

4.2 Normal Strain in Beam
1. Consider the beam AB that is load with P in Figure
4.2 (a). As a result of bending deformation, the
section 𝑎𝑏 and 𝑐𝑑 with distance of 𝑑𝑥 will rotate
at 𝑑𝜃 about perpendicular to x-y plane but
remained flat (refer Figure 4.2 (c)).
2. Note that 𝑎𝑏 and 𝑐𝑑 is perpendicular to the

longitudinal axis of the beam. 𝑐′𝑑’ plane is the
original plane before load act on the beam and are
drawn parallel to 𝑎𝑏.
3. When taken 𝑎𝑏-plane as a reference, a layer of 𝑎𝑐

was shortened by 𝑐𝑐‘ (compression.) and it was
also stretched for 𝑏𝑑 plane by 𝑑′𝑑 (tension).
4. For any beams that bear load, every point located

on the longitudinal axis undergoes compression,
while point which is below the axis undergoes
tension.
5. In neutral plane, there are no elongation or

shortening as the plane parallel to the x-z plane.
This plane is indicated by a dotted line (s-t).
6. Neutral axis, as Z in 4.2(b) is the axis that pass

through the centroid of a cross-section. Figure 4.2 Normal strain in Beam

4.2 Normal Strain in Beam
6. Neutral axis, as Z in 4.2(b) is the axis that pass
through the centroid of a cross-section.
7. Now consider 𝑔ℎ with a distance 𝑦 below neutral

plane. Elongation at this layer is ℎ𝑘 = 𝛿 = 𝑦𝑑𝜃.
Therefore, the strain on 𝑔ℎ is
𝜀𝑥 = ℎ𝑘/𝑔ℎ
Since g𝑓 = 𝑒𝑓 = 𝑅𝑑𝜃
𝜀𝑥 = 𝑦𝑑𝜃/𝑅𝑑𝜃 ⇒ 𝜀𝑥 = 𝑦/𝑅 = 𝑘𝑦 (4.1)
8. Equation (4.1) shows that the strain of longitudinal

𝜀𝑥 , the beam is directly proportional to the
curvature and change linearly with distance y from
the neutral plane. 𝜀𝑥 is sometimes called normal
strain. Positive value 𝑦 for a point located below
the neutral plane and vice versa. The distribution
of strain on cross section can be seen in Figure 4.2
(d).
9. Another thing to note is height of beam does not

change before and after loading. Thus a point on
the beam does not experience prolongation or
shortening in the y-direction. 𝜀𝑦 is equal to zero. Figure 4.2 Normal strain in Beam

Example 4.1
A concrete beam of 8 m supported on both two ends and
subjected to a point load P as shown in Figure 43 (3). Press cross
section is shown in Figure 4.3 (b) to point C is positioned
centroid of the section. The curved beams appear as shown in
Figure 4.3 (c) with the curvature of 0.01 / m. specify
a) Strain in the lower layer of beams
b) The increase length of beam at the bottom
c) Deflection at the mid span of beam
d) Strain at z direction if Poisson’ ratio, 𝑣 = 0.4
Solutions
a) εx = ky = 0.01/m 0.1m = 0.001
b) 𝑘 = 1/𝑅 = 0.01 ⇒ 𝑅 = 1/0.01 = 100𝑚

sin 𝜃 = 4/𝑅 = 4/100 = 0.04
⇒ 𝜃 = 2.292° = 0.040010674 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝛿𝑥 = 𝑦 2𝜃 = 8.0 × 10−3 𝑚 = 8𝑚𝑚
c) From Figure 4c, ∆

= 𝑅 − 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 100 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2.292° = 0.08𝑚 = 80𝑚𝑚
c) Strain Z, = −𝑣𝜀𝑥 = −0.4 0.001 = −0.0004

Figure 4.3 Bending of beam

1. Normal strain, 𝜀𝑥 resulting from bending will cause the
normal stress, 𝜎𝑥 which acts on the cross section of the
beam. If the material is linear elastic, the normal stress
and normal strain can be relate using Hooke's Law (𝜎 =
Eε),
𝜎𝑥 𝑦
𝜀𝑥 = = ⇒ 𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝑦/𝑅 (4.1)
𝐸 𝑅
2. From this expression, it was found that the stress in the

beam varies linearly with distance y, while E and R are
constant.
3. From Figure 4.4(a), if the beam is cut at section a-a, shear

force, V and bending moment, M will produce as shown Figure 4.4 Shear force and bending moment at the beam
in Figure 4.4 (b). section
4. In this section, we will look for a correlation between the 5. Using static equilibrium equation in y and z direction,
moment M with bending stress, 𝜎𝑥 . Consider an element in the direction of the shear force is obtained.
of area 𝑑𝐴 in cross section located at a distance y from
the neutral axis as shown in Figure 4.5. The forces acting
on this element is the force normal to the plane of the 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑑𝑉𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝐴 ∴ 𝑉𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝐴
section and had a magnitude of 𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝐴 and shear forces in
the y and z, each with a magnitude of 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝐴 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑑𝐴 .
For the beam in two dimensions. 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑑𝐴 shear force is
negligible. 𝐹𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑑𝑉𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑑𝐴 ∴ 𝑉𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑑𝐴

6. This integration results give a shearing
force which causes shear stress and the
matter is discussed further in Section 4.5
and 4.6.
7. Consider also the moment which produces

the normal stress on the entire cross-
section. By taking moments due to forces
acting on dA to the neutral axis z in Figure
4.5 and directly integrating the entire
cross-sectional area, we get:
𝐸𝑦
𝑀𝑧 ⇒ 𝑑𝑀 = 𝑦𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
𝑅
𝑀 = 𝐸/𝑅 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
8. Equation 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 is the second moment of

area or moment of inertia of the section
about the neutral axis, I. Therefore, this Figure 4.5 Normal and shear stress
equation can be written as:
𝐸𝐼 𝐸 𝑀
𝑀= or = (4.2)
𝑅 𝑅 𝐼

9. Equation (4.2) shows that the bending moment M is
inversely proportional to the radius of curvature R
and directly proportional to the quantity EI (ie the
flexural rigidity of the beam). It has been
𝐸𝑦
demonstrated that 𝜎𝑥 = Thus, equation (4.2) can
𝑅
be written as:
My
σx = (4.3)
I
𝜎𝑥 𝑀 𝐸
= = (4.4)
𝑦 𝐼 𝑅
10. Equation (4.3) shows that stress 𝜎𝑥 is directly

proportional to the bending moment M and varies
linearly with distance y from the neutral axis and
also inversely proportional to the moment of inertia,
I. This equation is known as the formula of bending.
11. The sign convention for bending moments are as

described in Chapter 3, the bending moment is
considered positive if it causes the tension at the
point below the neutral axis and bending moment
are considered negative if it causes the tension at Figure 4.6 Sign convention for bending moment
the point on the neutral axis (see Figure 4.6).

10. For the beam in Figure 4.7 (a) using Equation 4.3, the bending stress distribution diagram for a
beam of rectangular cross section can be drawn as shown in Figure 4.7 (c).
11. Note that, the maximum bending stress in a given section will occur at the very top and bottom of
the beam, which is:
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑀𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝐼
given that 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the furthest distance from the neutral axis
Figure 4.7 Diagram of bending stress distribution for rectangular cross-section

13. As described earlier, the distance y is positive for points below the neutral axis and vice versa.
Therefore, assuming that y1 and y2 is the distance between the uppermost point of the bottom of
the neutral axis, thus:
𝑀𝑦1 𝑀
𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑝 = − = − = 𝜎𝑚 (compression stress)
𝐼 𝑍1
𝑀𝑦2 𝑀
𝜎𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = − = − = 𝜎𝑚 (tension stress)
𝐼 𝑍2

14. With 𝑍_1= 𝐼/𝑦_1 , 𝑍_2= 𝐼/𝑦_2 called as the section modulus of the
cross-sectional area and has three power units of length (e.g., mm3 and
m3). For beams with rectangular cross section as shown in Figure 4.7 (b),
𝑏ℎ3 𝑍=
𝑏ℎ2
𝐼= and 6
12
15. And the sectional shape of the solid circle in Figure 4.8
𝜋𝑟 4 𝑍=
𝜋𝑑 3
𝐼= and 32 Figure 4.8 Circular cross-section
64
14. Moment of inertia and section modulus can be
determined using method introduced in KA10603 Applied
Mechanics.
15. By referring to Figure 4.7 (c), note that the tensile force T
and C compressive forces acting on the shear stress block
centroid.
𝑇 = 𝐶 = 𝑏ℎ/2 𝜎𝑚 /2) = (𝑏ℎ𝜎𝑚 )/4

16. Bending moment acting on the section can be
determined, namely
Figure 4.9 Warped beam
2
𝑀 = 𝑇 × 𝑒 = 𝑏ℎ𝜎𝑚 /4 2ℎ/3 = 𝑏ℎ 𝜎𝑚 /6
18. Figure 4.9 shows a bulking beam cross-section. Clipping
planes are no longer coplanar beam in non-uniform
17. The analysis conducted before this is related to the bending. Note that the a-b plane no longer is in one plane
normal stress caused by the bending moment. This means but was changed to the curve plane. However the effect of
the effect of shear forces to the normal stress of a section normal stress due to buckling is small compared with the
is ignored. Generally, a section beams subjected to shear normal stresses resulting from bending moments.
forces and bending moments, and the effect of the Therefore, we can use the formula to calculate the bending
existence of this shear force will cause buckling of the stress bending even if the beam section having a non-
beam cross section and such cases are referred to as non- uniform bending.
uniform bending.
19. Note also that the plane cd located in the middle of the
range does not suffer from buckling because shear force at
the section is zero if the beam is charged as shown above.

Example 4.2
A simple beam AB is subjected to a uniformly distributed load
of 15 kN /m as in Figure 4.10 (a). Determine the maximum
bending stress at the top and bottom of the beam. Beam cross-
section is T-shaped as shown in Figure 410 (k). Next draw
bending stress distribution along the height of the beam.
Solution
𝑤𝐿2 15 × 82
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 12𝑘𝑁𝑚
8 8
Next is to determine the maximum distance y and moment

of inertia, I. We need to determine the position of the
centroid of the section then find the position of the
horizontal axis passing through the centroid. In Figure 4.10
(b), by taking a moment to line a-a,
120 × 24 × 12 + 100 × 24(50 + 24)

𝑦𝑎 = = 40.18𝑚𝑚
120 × 24 + 100 × 24
𝑦𝑏 = 124 − 𝑦𝑎 = 124 − 40.18 = 83.82𝑚𝑚
𝑦𝑎 is the distance between the neutral axis through the

centroid of the top section of the beam. 𝑦𝑏 is the distance
between the neutral axis through the centroid of the lower
section of the beam.
𝐼
120 × 243 2
24 × 1003
= + 2880 × 28.18 + + 2400
12 12
× 33.822 = 7.18 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
Figure 4.10 Bending stress distribution

Solutions 4.2
𝑀𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑝 =
𝐼
(120 × 106 )(−40.18)
=
7.18 ×106
= −671.5 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 (Compression)
𝑀𝑦𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝜎𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 =
𝐼
(120 × 106 )(83.82)
=
7.18 ×106
= 1400.9 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 (Tension)

Example 4.3
A beam AB with a cross section of 80 mm x 120 mm to
bear a 40 kN point load as in Figure 4.11. Beam cross-
section is shown in Figure 4.11. Determine the maximum
stress acting on the beam.
Solution
The maximum bending stress occurs at the section where
the moment is the maximum and the point farthest from
the neutral axis. Therefore, BMD should be drawn to
determine the maximum bending moment
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 60 𝑚𝑚, and

𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 60 𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝑏ℎ3
𝐼 =
12
80 ×1203
=
12
= 11.52 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐼
60 ×106 60
=
11.52 × 106
= 312.5 𝑁/𝑚𝑚4
Figure 4.11 SFD and BMD

Example 4.4
Figure 4.12 (a) shows a beam subjected to point load at C
and a uniformly distributed through the beam. Beam
cross-section is shown in Figure 4.12 (b). Determine the
maximum bending stress in the beam.
Solution
𝑀𝐴 = 0
⇒ 3𝑅𝐵 − 10 1.8 − 6 × 3 1.5 = 0

∴ 𝑅𝐴 = 15 𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝑦 = 0
⇒ 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 − 10 − 6 × 3 = 0
∴ 𝑅𝐴 = 13 𝑘𝑁
Maximum bending moment occurs at C, which is the point

where shear force is equal to zero.
1.8 13+2.2
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
= 13.68 × 103 Nm
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐼
13.68 × 103 125
= 2503
150 ×
12
= 8.76 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Figure 4.12 SFD and BMD

Example 4.5
A cantilever of 4m length with a cross section of 8cm x
18cm (Figure 4.13(b)) carries a uniform load of 100 kN/m
(Figure 4.13(a). Determine the stress produced at 8 cm
layer below the neutral axis at the cross-section 3m from
the free end.
Solution
By referring to Figure 4.13(c), moment at distance 3 m
from free end is
𝑀 = − 100 × 3 3/2
= −450 𝑘𝑁𝑚
= −450 × 105 𝑁𝑐𝑚
Moment of inertia is
8 × 183
𝐼 =
12
= 3888 𝑐𝑚4
Stress at distance 8 cm, 𝑦 = 8 𝑐𝑚
8 Figure 4.13 Cantilevered beam

𝜎 = −450 × 105 ×
3888
= −9.3 × 10 𝑁/𝑐𝑚2
4
The negative sign shows compression occurs at the bottom

of the beam.

Example 4.6
For the beam shown in Figure 4. 14 (a), calculate the tension
and compression stress of the beam where the negative and
positive moment is at its maximum. Draw the bending stress
distribution in both sections.
Solution
By referring to Figure 4.14(a), reactions forces at the support is
𝑀𝐴 = 0
⇒ 5𝑅𝐵 − 20 × 7 − 120 × 3 − 50 × 7 × 3.5 = 0

∴ 𝑅𝐵 = 345 𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝑦 = 0
⇒ 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 − 120 − 20 − 50 × 7 = 0
∴ 𝑅𝐴 = 145 𝑘𝑁
To determine maximum moment, 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 can be determined by drawing BMD as shown in Figure

4.14(c). There are two maximum moment, which is 210.25
kNm (at section AB) and 140 kNm (at support B). Therefore,
maximum stress due to these moments should be determined
for the top and bottom layer of the beam.
Determine 𝐼
By taking moment at line 𝑎 − 𝑎 (Figure 4.14(e))
200×600×300+600×200(600+100)
𝑦𝑎 = = 500 𝑚𝑚
200×600+600×200
𝑦𝑏 = 800 − 𝑦𝑎 = 800 − 500 = 300 𝑚𝑚

Solution 4.6 (continued)
200 × 6003 600×2003
𝐼 = + 200 × 600 × 2002 + + 600 ×
12 12
200 × 2002
= 13.6 × 109 𝑚𝑚4 .
At section AB, 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 210.25 𝑘𝑁𝑚
At the bottom layer of the beam, 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑦𝑏

𝑀 𝑦
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼
(210.25 × 106 )(300)
= 13.6 × 109
At the top layer of f the beam, 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑦𝑎

𝑀 𝑦
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼 𝑚𝑎𝑥
(210.25 × 106 )(−500)
= 13.6 × 109
= −7.73 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 (Compression)
The bending stress distribution is shown in Figure 4.14(f).

At support B, 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −140 𝑘𝑁𝑚
At the bottom layer of the beam, 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑦𝑏
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼
(−140 × 106 )(300)
= = −3.09 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 (Compression)
13.6 × 109
At the top layer of f the beam, 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑦𝑎

𝑀 𝑦
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝐼 𝑚𝑎𝑥
(−140 × 106 )(−500)
= 13.6 × 109
The bending stress distribution at the section where negative

maximum bending moment is shown in Figure 4.14(g)

Example 4.7
Beam AB with 8m span carry a uniform
distributed linear loads as shown in Figure 4.15 (a). The
beam has a T-shaped cross section with dimensions as shown
in Figure 4.15 (b). Determine the maximum stress in the
beam and draw bending stress distribution along the beam
section. Determine the bending
stress at 50mm below from the neutral axis.
Solution
Determine reactions, see Figure 4.15(c),
𝑅𝐴 = 10 × 8 × 4 + 0.5 × 8 × 20 × 8/3 /8
= 66.7 𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝐵 = 10 + 30 0.5 × 8 − 𝑅𝐴
= 93.3 𝑘𝑁
Determine 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥
By taking moment at distance 𝑥 from A, with 𝑦 = 20𝑥/8
𝑀 = 66.7𝑥 − 10𝑥 2 − 0.5𝑦(𝑥)(𝑥 3)

= 66.7𝑥 − 5𝑥 2 − 0.5(20𝑥 8)(𝑥)(𝑥 3)
= 66.7𝑥 − 5𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 3 /12
For maximum moment, 𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑥 = 0

15𝑥 2
𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑥 = 66.7 − 10𝑥 − 12 =0
15𝑥 2 /12 + 10𝑥 − 66.7 =0
−10± 102 −4 15/12 −66.7
𝑥 = = 4.33 𝑚𝑚
2 15 12
By putting 𝑥 value to the moment expression, maximum

moment is obtained:
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 66.7 4.33 − 5 4. 332 − 5 4. 332 − 5(4.333 ) 12 Figure 4.15 Bending stress distribution
= 144.3 𝑘𝑁𝑚
Solution 4.7 (Continued)
Determine neutral axis, see Figure 4.15(d)
By taking moment at the bottom layer of the beam cross-
section
2000 × 130 + 2400 × 60

𝑦𝑏 = = 91.8 𝑚𝑚
2000 + 2400
𝑦𝑎 = 140 − 𝑦𝑎 = 48.2 𝑚𝑚
Determine moment of inertia, 𝐼

𝐼
100 × 203 2
20 × 1203
= + 100 × 20 × 38.2 + + 20 × 120
12 12
2
× 31.8
= 8.3 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
Determine maximum bending stress

𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐼
(144 × 103 )(−48.2)
=
8.3 × 106
= −0.84 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 (Compression)
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑦𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐼
(144 × 103 )(91.8)
=
8.3 × 106
= 1.58 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 (Tension)

Example 4.8
Figure 4.16 (a) shows the load-bearing steel beams strokes by
uniformly distributed load of w. The cross section of the beam is
inverted T-shaped as in Figure 4.16 (b). Find flange width b, so that
the tensile stress 400 kN/cm2 and the compressive stress of 1000
kN/cm2.
Solution
𝜎𝑎 = 𝑀𝑦𝑎 /𝐼 and 𝜎𝑏 = 𝑀𝑦𝑏 /𝐼
𝜎𝑎 𝑦𝑎
Therefore, =
𝜎𝑏 𝑦𝑏
𝑦𝑎 1000 (a)
= ⇒ 𝑦𝑎 = 2.5𝑦𝑏
𝑦𝑏 400
𝑦𝑎 + 𝑦𝑏 = 17.5 𝑐𝑚 (b)
By solving equation (a) and (b)

𝑦𝑏 = 5 cm
By taking a moment of cross-section at the bottom line
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴
15 × 2.5 + 𝑏 × 2.5 𝑦𝑏 = 15 × 2.5 2.5 + 7.5 + 2.5𝑏 1.25
𝑏 = 20 𝑐𝑚

1. In designing a beam, many factors will be considered
include economic factors. Economic factors included:
• Shape of the beam
• Size of the beam
2. Beam must have greater allowable stress than working

stress by considering the safety factor should be given.
3. Using σ = M/Z, we can find section modulus and also

required sectional size if allowable stress of the material
is known.
4. Section shown in Figure 4.17(a) to (e) known as open

section while Figure 4.17(f) to (h) referred as the closed
section.
5. Generally, closed section afford to give resistance against

torsion or twisting over 100 times compared to open
sections. Thus, for members who experience large
torsion, closed sectional shape is more economical.
6. In the design, the way the beam placed and sectional

shape of the beam plays an important role so that it was
more economical. Figure 4.17 Beam cross-section

8. Referring to Figure 4.18 (a) and 4.18 (b), two cross-sectional
beam shown has the same cross sectional area but different
moments of inertia.
9. Moment of inertia of the section in Figure 4.18 (a), the bh3/12 is

greater than the moment of inertia of the section in Figure
4.18(b), namely hb3/12 if the dimension h is greater than b.
10. Therefore, the beam with the first section will provide a moment
of resistance against the horizontal axis is greater than the beam
with a second section.
11. Bending stress of the beam, M = σI/y , the bending moment is

proportional to the moment of inertia.
12. Therefore, we can conclude that the long side of a section must
be placed so that parallel to the plane of bending, i.e. in the
direction in which the load is applied.
13. Note that although the beams provide moment resistance more
if h increases, this does not mean that it can provide resistance
effective against bending as if the dimension h is too large
compared with the dimensions b, the beam section to be slim
and beams will be unstable side.
14. For beams with slender, the ratio h / b is large, the beam firstly
will fail prior to buckling failure rather than in terms of strength. Figure 4.18 Position of beam with different moment of
inertia, I
15. Sectional shape is also important to provide greater
resistance moment.
16. Sectional shape having a flange like I, T and L will provide

a greater moment of inertia despite broad cross-section
similar to the shape of rectangular section, at the same
time will save material
17. Figure 4.19 (a) to (d) shows various sectional shape with
an area of each section is the same.
18. The moment of inertia ratio shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Comparison of I value for various cross-section

shape
Section Cross-sectional area Moment inertia, I
(a) 20 000 mm2 66.7 x106 mm4
(b) 20 000 mm2 172.2 x106 mm4
(c) 20 000 mm2 228.4 x106 mm4
(d) 20 000 mm2 191.7 x106 mm4 Figure 4.19 Various shape with same area

19. Note that the cross section of which has a flange like I, T, and L provide a large moment of
resistance compared with rectangular section. The sectional shape of the steel structure
that has flanges always been used in the construction.
20. This sectional shape is also used in precast concrete structures but rarely used in concrete
structures cast in-situ due to difficulties in terms of its construction.
21. However, the beam that has a rectangular slab on top of it is always considered as a beam
with a T-shaped cross-section or L design.

1. In this section we will discussed about shear stresses parallel to
the longitudinal axis and the plane of the cross beam due to
shear force, V.
2. As study previously, shear forces produced in a beam due to

loading onto it is parallel with the surface of the cross section of
the beam. The shear force is acting uniformly over the entire area
of a cross section, but different stress produce for each every
layer of the cross section of the beam. Shear stress is considered
to be the same across the width of the beam on a layer.
3. Consider the two sections on a beam with a distance between it

is small as in Figure 4.20 (a). Because of the distance 𝑑𝑥 is very
small, then the shear force V and the shear stress 𝜏 on both
sections is the same as shown by Figure 4.20 (b) and (c).
4. Shear force V and V1, has produced shear stress respectively

equal to 𝜏 and 𝜏1 . The shear stress that parallel to the plane will
have the same in magnitude but opposite in direction. From
Figure 4.2 (b) and (c), we can obtain the expression,
𝑉 = 𝜏 𝑏𝑑ℎ and 𝑉1 = 𝜏1 𝑏𝑑𝑥

Figure 4.20 Shear stress in beam
5. By equilibrium moment
𝑀 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉1 𝑑ℎ − 𝑉𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜏1 𝑏𝑑𝑥 = 𝜏 𝑏𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑥, ⇒ 𝜏1 = 𝜏

6. The horizontal shear stress in the beam occurs
because the layers of longitudinal beams are trying
to shift from each other. Each layer will provide
resistance to sliding. This can be explained by
placing some pieces of boards stacked and attached
using glue to form a beam as in Figure 4.21 (a).
When load apply, each of the contact surface
between the pieces of the board will experience
slippage as in Figure 4.21 (b), and this slippage is
prevented by the shear stress.
7. It is clear that shear stress for element at the top

and bottom surface of a beam is zero because the
external surface has zero shear.
Figure 4.21 Slippage in beam

7. Consider two cuttings 𝑚𝑚‘ and 𝑛𝑛′ within 𝑑𝑥 on a beam as 𝑑𝑀
9. By referring to lecture 3, 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑉 (vertical shear force) and
shown in Figure 4.22(a). Assuming the bending moment at the ℎ/2
section 𝑛𝑛‘ is greater than the bending moment at the section knowing that 𝑦1
𝑦 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐴𝑦, which is the first moment of
𝑚𝑚′, then the bending stress on 𝑛𝑛‘ , i.e. (𝜎2 ) is greater than area. Therefore,
the bending stress in 𝑚𝑚′, i.e. (𝜎1 ). 𝑉𝐴𝑦
𝜏=
𝐼𝑏
8. Furthermore, the forces acting on 𝑛𝑛‘ (𝐹2 ) will be greater than
the force on 𝑚𝑚′ (𝐹1 ). The difference in both for resuting the
shear force, V. The equation for the beam shear stress can be is the shear stress parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
𝜏
derived by considering the shear stress on a layer, say at a beam.
distance 𝑦 from the neutral axis, as shown in Figure 4.22 (b). is a vertical shear force at the section under consideration.
𝑉
ℎ/2
is the area between the line parallel to the neutral axis
𝐹1 = 𝜎𝑑𝐴
𝑦1
through the point at which the shear stress to be
1 𝐴
determined and a parallel line with the neutral axis that
ℎ/2 passes through the top or bottom of a beam.
𝐹2 = 𝜎𝑑𝐴
𝑦1 is centroid of the area is measured from the neutral axis. Y
2 𝑦
value is always positive.
ℎ/2 ℎ/2
𝑉 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹 = 𝑦1
𝜎 𝑑𝐴 − 𝑦1
𝜎 𝑑𝐴 𝐼 is the moment of inertia about the neutral axis.
2 1
ℎ
ℎ/2 𝑀2 𝑦 𝑀1 𝑦
= 𝑦1
𝑑𝐴 − 2
𝑦1
𝑑𝐴 𝑏
is the width of the beam at the point where the shear
𝐼 𝐼
stress to be determined.
𝑀2 −𝑀1 ℎ/2
= 𝑦1
𝑦 𝑑𝐴 10. With reference Figure 4.22 (c), the shear stress at the position
𝐼
y1 from the neutral axis of rectangular section can be
𝑉 𝑀2 −𝑀1 ℎ/2
𝜏= = 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 determined from formula, which has issued the above.
𝑏𝑑𝑥 𝐼𝑏𝑑𝑥 𝑦1
𝑑𝑀 ℎ/2
= 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
𝐼𝑏𝑑𝑥 𝑦1

𝑉𝐴𝑦
𝜏 =
𝐼𝑏
ℎ ℎ
𝑉 𝑏( 2−𝑦1 ) 𝑦1 +0.5 2−𝑦1
=
𝐼𝑏
ℎ2
𝑉 4
−𝑦12
=
2𝐼
11. From this equation, 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs when expression 𝑦12 = 0, which is 𝑦1 = 0. Therefore,
𝑉ℎ2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
8𝐼
𝑉ℎ2
= 𝑏ℎ3
8 12
3𝑉
=
2𝑏ℎ
= 1.5 times the average shear stress
12. The shear stress distribution on the overall rectangular section is drawn as shown in Figure
4.22(d). See that the maximum shear stress occur at the neutral axis and shear stress at
the top and bottom layer of the beam is zero.

Figure 4.22 Force and shear stress in beam

Example 4.9
Beam cross-section of 100mm x 150mm and a span of 6m is
located at pinned support A and rolled support B. The beam
carries a uniform distributed load of 5kN/m as shown in Figure
4.23 (a):
a) Calculate shear stress at section 1.0m from the left support,

at 25mm intervals from top to bottom section. Then draw
the shear stress distribution.
b) Determine the maximum shear stress in the beam.
Solution
(a) Reaction at A & B is RA = RB = 5 x 6/2 = 15kN
Shear force at section 1.0 m from A

𝑉 = 𝑅𝐴 − 5 × 1 = 10𝑘𝑁
Moment of Inertia is
153
𝐼 = 10 × = 2812.5𝑐𝑚4
12
At point 25 mm from top surface (Figure 4.23(d))

𝐴 = 2.5 × 10 = 25 𝑐𝑚2
𝑦 = 7.5 − 2.5/2 = 6.25 𝑐𝑚
𝑉𝐴𝑦 10000 × 25 × 6.25

𝜏1 = = = 55.6N/𝑐𝑚2
𝐼𝑏 2812.5 × 10
Figure 4.23 Shear stress distribution

At point 50 mm from top surface (Figure 4.23(e))
𝐴 = 5.0 × 10 = 50 𝑐𝑚2
𝑦 = 7.5 − 5.0/2 = 5.0 𝑐𝑚
𝑉𝐴𝑦 10000 × 50 × 5.0

𝜏2 = = = 88.9 N/𝑐𝑚2
𝐼𝑏 2812.5 × 10
At point 75 mm from top surface (Figure 4.23(f))

𝐴 = 7.5 × 10 = 75 𝑐𝑚2
𝑦 = 7.5 − 7.5/2 = 3.75 𝑐𝑚
𝑉𝐴𝑦 10000 × 75 × 3.75

𝜏3 = = = 100.0 N/𝑐𝑚2
𝐼𝑏 2812.5 × 10
For rectangular section, formula to maximum shear stress can

be used to determine 𝜏3 because the stress at this layer is
maximum.
3𝑉 3 × 10000
𝜏3 = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 100.0𝑁/𝑐𝑚2
2𝑏ℎ 2 × 10 × 15
At point 100 mm from top section (Figure 4.23(g))

𝐴 = 5.0 × 10 = 50 𝑐𝑚2
𝑦 = 7.5 − 5.0/2 = 5.0 𝑐𝑚
𝑉𝐴𝑦 10000 × 50 × 5.0 Figure 4.23 Shear stress distribution

𝜏4 = = = 88.9 N/𝑐𝑚2
𝐼𝑏 2812.5 × 10

At point 125 mm from top section (Figure 4.23(h))
𝐴 = 2.5 × 10 = 25 𝑐𝑚2
𝑦 = 7.5 − 2.5/2 = 6.25 𝑐𝑚
𝑉𝐴𝑦 10000 × 25 × 6.25

𝜏5 = = = 55.6 N/𝑐𝑚2
𝐼𝑏 2812.5 × 10
In this case, the shear stress is symmetrical to the neutral axis.

Therefore, the shear stress distribution is shown in the Figure
4.23(c). Actually, there is no need to calculate 𝜏4 and 𝜏5
because 𝜏4 = 𝜏2 and 𝜏5 = 𝜏1 .
(b) 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs when the shear force V is the maximum 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
15 kN 15kN and occur at support A or B.
3𝑉 3 × 15000
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 150.0 𝑁/𝑐𝑚2
2𝑏ℎ 2 × 10 × 15
Figure 4.23 Shear stress distribution

Example 4.10
Calculate the normal stress and shear stress at point B for AC
beam shown in Figure 4.24 (a). The beam cross section is
rectangular in shape as shown in Figure 4.24 (b)
Solution
From shear force and moment analysis in Figure 4.24(c)
𝑀 = −60 𝑘𝑁𝑚 and V= 30 𝑘𝑁
Sign in this expression as discussed in Lecture 3. Referring to

Figure 4.24(b), moment of inertia of the section to z-axis is
𝑏ℎ3 (75)1503
𝐼= = = 21.1 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12 12
Normal stress at point B is

𝑀𝑦 (−60×106 )(45)
𝜎= = = −128 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 (Compression)
𝐼 21.1×106
Y value is positive because point B occurs below the neutral

axis. Because the normal stress is negative, hence compressive
stress. To find shear stress at B, area between point B and the
beam layer at the bottom as shown in Figure 4.24(d) should be
determined. Distance 𝑦 in shear stress equation is the distance
from neutral axis to the area centroid that is considered. If the
shaded area in the figure is considered, 𝑦 = 60 𝑚𝑚, which is
centroid area at the bottom from neutral axis. Therefore
𝑉𝐴𝑦 (30 × 103 )(75 × 30)(60)

𝜏= = 6
= 2.56 N/𝑐𝑚2
𝐼𝑏 21.1 × 10 × 75
Figure 4.24 Shear stress at points

Solution 4.10 (continued)
This shear stress can also be obtained from considering area
from point B to beam layer at the top shown in Figure 4.24(e).
See the centroid for this area occurs at distance 15 mm to the
top from neutral axis.
𝑉𝐴𝑦 (30 × 103 )(75 × 120)(15)

𝜏= = = 2.56 N/𝑐𝑚2
𝐼𝑏 21.1 × 106 × 75

1. Shear stress distribution is dependent on the shape of a 4. Note that the shear stress at the very top of the web can
cross. For beams with flange like section I, H, T, L and C the be found by replacing the value of b in equation 𝜏𝑏 =
shear stress distribution produced when loaded is different 𝑉𝐴𝑦 /𝐼𝑏 with the value of t. Therefore,
with the case of rectangular section. Although the shear
stress distributed in all parts of the cuttings either flange or 𝑡1
𝑉(𝑏𝑡1 )(𝑑1 + )
web, but most of the shear force is taken by the web. 𝜏𝑤 = 2
Figure 4.25 (a) shows the cross T with flanges and web. 𝐼𝑡
5. Therefore, there are two values of shear stress at the

2. Consider a beam with a T-shaped cross section with the
same level of the neutral axis; one for the shear stress at
centroid is located at point C as shown in Figure 4.25 (b).
the flange and the other on the web.
The shear stress at every point of the section in which the
flange can be determined using the formula of shear stress
6. Continue with finding the shear stress at any point on the
that had been issued to a rectangular section.
web, let say on a point y1 on the neutral axis, as shown in
Figure 4.25(c). Area A that should be taken is the showed
3. Suppose we want to find the shear stress in the bottom
shaded area.
flange, 𝜏𝑏 . Therefore, extensive to be taken is the shaded
area in Figure 4.25 (b). 𝑑1 − 𝑦1
𝑡1
𝑉𝐴𝑦 𝑉 𝑏𝑡1 𝑑1 + + 𝑡(𝑑1 + 𝑦1 )
2 2 + 𝑦1
𝑡 𝜏= =
𝑉𝐴𝑦 𝑉(𝑏𝑡1 )(𝑑1 + 1 ) 𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑡
𝜏𝑏 = = 2
𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑏
with
𝑏𝑡13 𝑡1 2 𝑡𝑑 3 𝑑
𝐼= + 𝑏𝑡1 (𝑑1 + ) + + 𝑡𝑑 (𝑑2 − )2
12 2 12 2

7. This shear stress can be searched more easily if we 𝑉𝑏 = 𝐴1 𝑏 and 𝑉𝑤 = 𝐴2 𝑡
consider the shaded area as shown in Figure 4.25
(d) 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑤 = 𝐴1 𝑏 + 𝐴2 𝑡
with
𝑑2 + 𝑦1
𝑉𝐴𝑦 𝑉 𝑡(𝑑2 + 𝑦1 ) 𝑑2 −
2 2𝜏𝑏 𝑡1 2𝑑1 (𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝜏𝑤 ) 2𝑑2 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜏= = 𝐴1 = and 𝐴2 = 𝜏𝑤 𝑑1 +
𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑡 3 3 3
8. The maximum shear stress is when 𝑦1 = 0, 𝑉𝑏 is the shear force on the flange
𝑉𝑑22 𝑉𝑤 is the shear force in the web

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝐼 𝜏𝑏 is the shear stress on the flanges
9. Diagram of shear stress distribution for this section 𝜏𝑤 is the shear stress on the web
is drawn as in Figure 4.25 (e), and it is a second
degree of parabolic curve.
10. The amount of shear force acting on this section

can be determined by the product of the area of
the shear stress diagrams with wide of the beam.
For this section, the calculation is made separately
to the flange and web. If the area of the shear
stress diagrams for flanges and web are respectively
A1 and A2, therefore,

Figure 4.22 Force and shear stress in beam

Example 4.11
A steel beam with sizes UB 254 x 102 x 28 kg/m as shown in
Figure 4.26 (a) bear the shear force of 25kn. Draw a diagram
of shear stress distribution along the beam section.
Solutions
Sectional dimensions in mm for the beam can be obtained
from standard tables for steel produced by the plant and
shown in Figure 4.26 (a). Sectional moment of inertia can be
calculated, i.e. I = 4008cm4 (this value can obtain from
standard table). As the section is symmetric, we only consider
the shear stress at points A, B, C and D only. Shear stress at A
is zero.
Shear stress in B can be determined by calculating the shaded

area in the Figure 4.26 (b)
𝑉𝐴𝑦
𝜏𝐵 =
𝐼𝑏
(25 ×103 ) 102.1×10 125.2
=
40008 × 103 × 102.1
= 0.781 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Shear stress in C can be determined by calculating the shaded

area in the Figure 4.26(b), but the value of b is 6.4mm
𝑉𝐴𝑦
𝜏𝐶 =
𝐼𝑏
(25 ×103 ) 102.1×10 125.2 Figure 4.26 Shear stress distribution for I beam
=
40008 × 103 ×6.4
= 12.46 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

Solutions 4.11
Shear stress in D can be determined by calculating the
shaded area in the Figure 4.26 (c)
𝑉𝐴𝑦
𝜏𝐷 =
𝐼𝑏
(25 ×103 ) 102.1 ×10 125.2 + 6.4 ×120.2 60.1
=
40008 × 104 ×6.4
2
= 16.96 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
Shear stress distribution diagram is drawn as shown in Figure

4.26 (d). We can determine the shear force by obtaining the
product of the area of the diagram of shear stress
distribution with wide sections,
2
𝑉 =2 × 0.781 × 10 102.1 + (12.46 × 120.2 ×
3
Figure 4.26 Shear stress distribution for I beam

Example 4.12
Determine the shear stress at point C which is located at a
distance of 2m from support A and at a distance of 125mm from
the bottom of the beam. Refer to Figure 4.27 (a) and (b).
Solutions
To get reaction at A,
𝑀𝐵 = 0 ⇒ −5𝑅𝐴𝑦 + 40(5)(5/2) = 0 ⋯ 𝑅𝐴𝑦 = 100 𝑘𝑁
Shear force at C
𝑉 = 100 − 40 × 2 = 20 𝑘𝑁
To get centroid and moment of inertia,

𝐴 = 200 × 10 + 2 140 × 10 = 4800 𝑚𝑚2
By taking a-a as reference,

200 × 10 145 + 2 140 × 10 70
𝑦= = 101.25 mm
4800
𝐼
(200)103
= + 200 × 10 × 43.753
12
(10)1403
+2 + 10 × 140 × 31.253 = 11.15 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
Shear stress at C,
𝑉𝐴𝑦 20 × 103 × (2 × 10 × 125)(38.75)
𝜏𝐶 = = = 8.7 N/𝑚𝑚2
𝐼𝑏 11.15 × 106 × 20

Stresses in Beams Lecture

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Stresses in Beams Lecture

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MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

2. In this lecture, relationship between bending moment

3. To find relationship between parameters

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

4. By referring to Figure 4.1(a) & (b), the longitudinal

5. Consider section m-n and u-v in Figure 4.1(b). If line

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

2. Note that 𝑎𝑏 and 𝑐𝑑 is perpendicular to the

3. When taken 𝑎𝑏-plane as a reference, a layer of 𝑎𝑐

4. For any beams that bear load, every point located

5. In neutral plane, there are no elongation or

6. Neutral axis, as Z in 4.2(b) is the axis that pass

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

7. Now consider 𝑔ℎ with a distance 𝑦 below neutral

8. Equation (4.1) shows that the strain of longitudinal

9. Another thing to note is height of beam does not

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

a) Strain in the lower layer of beams

b) The increase length of beam at the bottom

c) Deflection at the mid span of beam

d) Strain at z direction if Poisson’ ratio, 𝑣 = 0.4

b) 𝑘 = 1/𝑅 = 0.01 ⇒ 𝑅 = 1/0.01 = 100𝑚

c) From Figure 4c, ∆

c) Strain Z, = −𝑣𝜀𝑥 = −0.4 0.001 = −0.0004

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

2. From this expression, it was found that the stress in the

3. From Figure 4.4(a), if the beam is cut at section a-a, shear

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

7. Consider also the moment which produces

8. Equation 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 is the second moment of

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

10. Equation (4.3) shows that stress 𝜎𝑥 is directly

11. The sign convention for bending moments are as

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

Figure 4.7 Diagram of bending stress distribution for rectangular cross-section

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

Figure 4.7 Diagram of bending stress distribution for rectangular cross-section

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

Figure 4.7 Diagram of bending stress distribution for rectangular cross-section

𝑇 = 𝐶 = 𝑏ℎ/2 𝜎𝑚 /2) = (𝑏ℎ𝜎𝑚 )/4

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

Next is to determine the maximum distance y and moment

120 × 24 × 12 + 100 × 24(50 + 24)

𝑦𝑏 = 124 − 𝑦𝑎 = 124 − 40.18 = 83.82𝑚𝑚

𝑦𝑎 is the distance between the neutral axis through the

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

Figure 4.10 Bending stress distribution

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 60 𝑚𝑚, and

Figure 4.11 SFD and BMD

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

⇒ 3𝑅𝐵 − 10 1.8 − 6 × 3 1.5 = 0

Maximum bending moment occurs at C, which is the point

Figure 4.12 SFD and BMD

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

Stress at distance 8 cm, 𝑦 = 8 𝑐𝑚

8 Figure 4.13 Cantilevered beam

The negative sign shows compression occurs at the bottom

Lecture slides prepared by Dr. Ahmad Nurfaidhi Rizalman

⇒ 5𝑅𝐵 − 20 × 7 − 120 × 3 − 50 × 7 × 3.5 = 0

To determine maximum moment, 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 can be determined by drawing BMD as shown in Figure