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Aim: To determine total thermal resistance and thermal conductivity of composite walls.
Introduction:
Many engineering applications of practical utility involve heat transfer
through a medium composed of two or more materials of different thermal conductivities
arranged in series or parallel. Consider for example the walls of a refrigerator, hot cases,
cold storage plants, hot water tanks etc., which always have some kind of insulating
materials between the inner and the outer wall. A hot fluid flow inside the tube covered
with a layer of thermal insulation is an example of composite system because in this case
the thermal conductivities of tube metal insulation are different. The problem of heat
transfer through the composite system can be solved by the application of thermal
resistance concept.
The procedure for solving one dimensional, steady state heat conduction
problems for composite system comprising parallel plates, co-axial cylinders or
concentric spheres are dealt here.
Description:
The apparatus consists of three slabs of different materials namely Mild
Steel, Wood and Bakelite. The heater is provided to supply heat input across these
composite walls. Total heater assembly comprises of a heater bound between two
aluminium plates, on both side of these heater identical structures of composite walls are
placed. Thermocouples are provided at proper positions in the composite walls to record
desired inside temperature of composite wall. Multi-channel temperature indicator is used
to measure this temperature. Small hand press provided to press the wall on each other
and ensure that no air gap remaining between two plates. Heat input to heater is given
through a dimmerstat variac and measured by Voltmeter and Ammeter. By varying heat
input & combination of the composite structure, wide range of experiment can be
performed.
Specifications:
(1) Diameter of slabs (d)
Wood
: 0.3m
Bakelite : 0.3m
Mild Steel : 0.3m
(2) Thickness of slab (b)
: 0.036m
(3) Heater
: 400W
(4) Thickness of wood plate
: 0.012m
(5) Thickness of Bakelite plate : 0.012m
(6) Thickness of Mild Steel plate : 0.012m
(7) Temperature Indicator
: 0 - 300C
(8) Ammeter
: 0 5A
(9) Voltmeter
: 0 300V
Precautions:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Procedure:
(1)
Keep the dimmerstat at zero position before switch on the power supply.
Increase the voltage gradually.
Operates selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
Do not exceed 120V so as to avoid the fluctuating result.
Time (min)
Calculations:
(1) Rate of heat supply Q = V x I W
(For calculating the thermal conductivity of composite walls, it is
assumed that due to large diameter of the plates, heat flowing
through the central portion is unidirectional i.e. axial flow. Thus for
calculating central half diameter area where unidirectional flow is
considered. Accordingly thermocouples are fixed at closed to center
of the plates.)
q=
2 W
A m2
2 2
d m
4
.
Q
q in any one direction =
2
T +T
TB = 3 4
2
T +T
TD = 7 8
2
A=
T1 +T2
2
T +T
TC = 5 6
2
TA =
q xb
K composite =
TA -TD
b = total thickness of the slab in m
(4) Thermal conductivity of individual materials
.
q xb wood
K wood =
TA -TB
q xb M.S.
K M.S. =
TC -TD
dT
(5) Draw the temperature distribution along wall thickness (
)
dx
Conclusion:
q xb bakelite
K bakelite =
TB -TC
Precaution:
(1) Keep the dimmerstat to zero position before starting the unit.
(2) Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
(3) Never exceed the heater input to 100V.
Observation Table:
Voltmeter reading (V):
Ammeter reading (I):
Thermocouple
Time (min)
Readings (C)
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
Calculations:
(1) Power input to heater Q:
Q = V x I Watt
(2) Average surface temperature of inner sphere Ti
(T +T +T +T )
Ti = 1 2 3 4 C
4
(3) Average surface temperature of outer sphere To
(T +T +T +T +T +T )
To = 5 6 7 8 9 10 C
6
(4) Thermal conductivity of insulating powder (K)
1 1
1
W
K=Q( )
ri (T
r0 -T
4 ) mK
i
o
= 12.7mm
= 150mm
= 14mm
= 36mm
= 0.65
= 0.5 HP
= 5 nos.
= 1 no.
= Brass
= 0 300 C
= 0 300 V
= 0 5 Amp.
Procedure:
(1) Switch on main switch.
(2) Start heating the fin by switching on the heater.
(3) Adjust dimmerstat voltage equal to 60 V to 90 V.
(4) Start the blower.
(5) Adjust the difference of level in manometer with the help of valve.
(6) Take the reading of thermocouples in the time interval of 10 min.
(7) Take the readings till steady state condition is reached.
Precautions:
(1) See that dimmerstat is at zero position before switching on heater.
(2) Operate change over switch of temperature indicator gently.
(3) Be sure the steady state is reached before taking the final readings.
Observation table:
Input voltage =
Input current =
Manometer readings h1 =
Ambient temperature (T6) =
Time in
Min
T1
T2
h2 =
h = h2 h1=
C
Temperature
T3
T4
T5
T6
Calculations:
(1) Average fin temperature (Tm)
T +T +T +T +T
Tm = 1 2 3 4 5 C
5
T +T
(2) Mean Fin temperature = Tmf = m 6 C
2
(3) Air flow rate (Q)
Q=
Cd xa1xa 2 x 2gh m
a
2
1
m3 /s
a - a2
Where, Cd = 0.65
a1 = area of delivery pipe in m2 = 1.01x10-3 m2
a2 = area of orifice in m2 = 1.54 x 10-4 m2
g = 9.81 m/s2
h = difference in manometer reading in m
w = density of water = 1000 Kg/m3
a = density of air = 1.207 Kg/m3
Note: Take the values of kair, air from chart at Tmf
N u =0.174R e
0.618
0.805
= 38mm
= 530mm
= 7 are as shown as 1 to 7 & marked
on temperature indicator switch
(4) Thermocouple No.8 reads the temperature of air in the duct
(5) Temperature indicator
= 0 300 C
(6) Ammeter
=05A
(7) Voltmeter
= 0 300 V
(8) Dimmerstat
= 2 Amp.
Procedure:
(1) Put on the supply & adjust the dimmerstat to obtain the required heat input.
(2) Wait till the fairly steady state is reached, which is confirmed from temperature
readings (T1 T7)
(3) Note down surface temperatures at various points (T1 T7).
(4) Note down ambient temperature T8.
Precautions:
(1) Before starting the unit, keep dimmerstat to zero volt position & increase it
slowly.
(2) Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
(3) Never exceed 100V.
Observation Table:
Input voltage (V) =
Input current (I) =
Thermocouple
Location
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8(Ta)
20
30
Time (min.)
40
50
60
Calculation:
(1) Average heat transfer co-efficient (h)
q
ha =
A s (Ts -Ta )
Where, h = heat transfer co-efficient
q = V x I Watts
As = Surface area of cylinder in m2 = 2..r.l
r = radius of pipe in m
l = length of pipe
Ts = Average of surface temperature T1 T7
Ta = Ambient temperature
70
80
= 0.036 m
= 0.45 m
= 0.5 HP
= 0.014 m
= 0 300 V
=05A
= Chromel Alumel
= 0 300 C
= Nichrome wire heater
Procedure:
(1) Start the supply.
(2) Start the blower and adjust the flow by means of valves to some desired
difference in manometer level (preferably open control valve fully.)
(3) Start the heating of the test section with the help of dimmerstat and adjust
desired heater input with the help of ammeter and voltmeter (100 V).
(4) Take the readings of all 8 thermocouples at an interval of 10 min. until the
steady state is reached.
(5) Also note down the heater input (in terms of voltage and current)
Thermocouple positions:
T1- T6 = Temperature of pipe wall in the test section
T7
= Air inlet temperature
T8
= Air outlet temperature
Precautions:
(1) Keep the dimmerstat to zero position before switch on the power supply.
(2) Increase the voltage gradually.
(3) Do not stop the blower in between the testing period.
(4) Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
(5) Do not exceed the heater input to 100V.
Observation Table:
Input voltage (V) =
Input current (I) =
Manometer reading h1 =
Temperatures
10
mm
20
h2 =
mm H = h1 h2 =
Time (min.)
30
40
50
60
70
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
Calculation:
(1) Bulk mean temperature of air
( T +T )
Tbm = i o
2
Properties of air at Tbm
=
Kg/m3
a
=
KJ/Kg-K
Cp a
(2) Discharge of air
Cd a1a 2 2gh a
Qa =
w
a
a12 -a 22
Where a1
= Area of delivery pipe
= Area of orifice
a2
Cd
= Co-efficient of discharge
ha
= Manometer reading in m
g
= Gravitational acceleration
= Density of air
a
Cp a = Density of air at
(3) Mean mass flow rate of air (ma)
ma = Qa x a Kg/s
= 1.01 x 10-3 m2
= 1.54 x 10-4 m2
= 0.65
= h1-h2
= 9.81 m/s2
= 1.1238 Kg/ m3
mm
80
Stefan-Boltzman Constant
Aim: To determine Stefan-Boltzman constant.
Introduction:
The most commonly used law of thermal radiation is the Stefan Boltzman
law which states that thermal radiation heat flux or (emissive power) of a black surface is
proportional to the forth power of absolute temperature of the surface and is given by,
q
= e b = T 4 W/m2
A
The constant of proportionality is called the Stefan Boltzman constant and
has the value of 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4.
The Stefan Boltzman law can be derived by integrating the Planks law
over the entire spectrum of wavelengths from 0 to . Through historically it is worth
noting that the Stefan Boltzman Law was independently developed before Planks Law.
The object of this experimental set-up is to verify the value of this
constant fairly close by an arrangement.
Apparatus:
The apparatus as illustrated in fig. 1 is centered on a flanged copper
hemisphere B fixed on flat non-conducting plate A. The outer surface of B is enclosed in
a metal water jacket to heat B to some suitable constant temperature. The hemispherical
shape of B is chosen solely on grounds that it simplify the task of drawing the water
between B and C. Four Chromel Alumel thermocouples are attached to various point on
surface of B to measure its mean temperature to be read by a temperature indicator. The
disc D that is mounted in an insulating bakelite sleeve S is fitted in a hole drilled in the
centre of base plate A. the base of S is conveniently supported from underside of A. A
Chromel-Alumel thermocouple is used to measure temperature of D (T5). A
thermocouple is mounted on the disc to study the rise of its temperature.
When the disc is inserted at the temperatureT (T1, T2, the temperature of
enclosure) the response of temperature change of disc with time is used to calculate the
Stefan-Boltzman constant.
Specification:
(1) Hemisphere diameter
(2) Base Bakelite plate diameter
(3) Test disc diameter
(4) Thickness of test disc
(5) Thermocouples on hemisphere
(6) Water tank with immersion heater
(7) Thermocouple on test disc
(8) Temperature indicator
= 0.2m
= 0.3m
= 0.02m
= 0.002m
= 4 Nos.
= 1 No.
= 1 No.
Procedure:
(1) First boil the water in the water tank with the help of immersion heater upto
boiling temperature (T6 = 92-95 C)
(2) The disc D is removed before pouring the hot water in the jacket.
(3) The hot water is poured in the water jacket.
d = 0.020m
m = 0.007Kg
C = 877 J/KgK
Ad = 3.14 x 10-4 m2
Observation Table:
(1) For hemisphere: Water
Temp.(T6)
Sr. No.
T1
T4
T5
Calculations:
(1) Stefan-Boltzman constant,
dT
)
dt Where, = Stefan-Boltzman constant
=
4
A(T 4 - T1 )
m = mass of the trest disc in Kg
S = Specific heat of test disc (brass)
Ad = Area of the test disc (/4.d2)
T = mean temperature of hemisphere i.e.
T +T +T +T
T = 1 2 3 4 C
4
Ta = Avg. Temperature of test disc (T5) C
dT = TFinal - Tinitial
TFinal = Steady state reading of test disc
Tinitial = Temp. of disc from which it starts
increasing
dt = Total time required for achieving the steady state from the time when
temp of the disc start increasing
m.S.(
Temperature
20C
95-540 C
29 100C
Emissivity
0.15
Increase with
temperature
0.2 0.33
0.8 1.00
Apparatus:
The experimental set-up consists of two circular aluminum plates of identical in
size & is provided with heating coils sandwiched. The plates are mounted on brackets are
kept in an enclosure so as to provide undisturbed natural convection surrounding.
The heater input to the heater is varied by separate dimmerstat and is measured by
using an ammeter and voltmeter, with the help of double plate toggle switches. The
temperature of the plates is measured by temperature indicator. Another thermocouple is
kept in enclosure.
Plate-1 is blacked whereas plate-2 is the test plate whose emissivity is to be
determined.
The heater inputs to two plates are dissipated from the plates by conduction,
convection and radiation. The experimental set-up is designed in such a way that under
steady state conditions the heat dissipation by conduction & convection is same for both
the plates, when the surface temperatures are same & the difference in the heater input
readings are because of the difference in radiation characteristics due to their different
emisivities.
Theory:
Under steady state condition,
Let, Wb = Heater input to black plate = V1I1
WT = Heater input to test plate = V2I2
A = Area of plates = d 2 m2
4
Ts = Temperature of black plate
Td = Ambient temperature
b = Emissivity of black plate to be assumed equal to unity
= Emissivity of non-black test plate
W
= Stefan-Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10-8 2 4
m K
By using Stefan-Boltzman Law:
(W1 W2) = (b ). .A (Ts4 Td4)
We shall now define a number of terms concerned with the emission characteristics of
surfaces. It is useful to introduce first the concept of an ideal surface called a black
surface or a black body. A black surface is one, which absorbs all the radiation falling on
it regardless of its wavelength or direction. For a given temperature & wavelength, it
emits the maximum amount of energy. It thus serves as a standard on which to base the
emission characteristics of real surfaces.
The radiant flux emitted from the surface of a body is called the total hemispherical
emissive power & will be denoted by symbol e (W/m2). The total hemispherical
emissive power of a black surface will be denoted by eb. The adjectives total and
hemispherical indicate that the quantity being defines is a summation of radiation emitted
over all wavelength & over all directions.
Specifications:
(1) Test Plate
(2) Black Plate
(3) Heater Nichrome strip wound on mica sheet
(4) Dimmerstat
(5) Voltmeter
(6) Ammeter
(7) Enclosure
(8) Thermocouple
(9) Temperature Indicator
170mm
170mm
0 300V
05A
With one side of perpex sheet
Chromel Alumel 3 Nos.
0 300C
Procedure:
(1) Start the supply.
(2) When both the toggle switches are in downward direction black plate
dimmerstat operate whereas when both the toggle switches are in upward
direction test plate dimmerstat operate.
(3) Gradually increase the input to the heater to black plate & adjusts the heater
input to test plate slightly less than the black plate.
(4) Check the temperature of the two plates with small time intervals & adjust the
input to test plate only by the dimmerstat so the two plates will be maintained
at the same temperature.
(5) This will require some trial & error and has to wait sufficiently to obtain the
steady state condition.
(6) After attaining the steady state condition, record the temperatures & voltmeter
& ammeter both the plates.
Precautions:
(1) Use stabilized A.C. single-phase supply.
(2) Always keep the dimmerstat at zero position before start.
(3) Gradually increase the heater input.
(4) See that the black plate is having layer uniformly.
(5) Operate the selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
Note: There is a possibility of getting absurd result if the supply voltage fluctuating.
Observation table:
1. Heater input to black plateV =
I =
Temperatures
Black plate (T1)
Test Plate (T2)
Enclosure (T3)
Calculations:
(1) Emissivity of test plate:
(Wb WT) = (b ). .A (Ts4 Td4)
Where, Wb = Heater input to black plate (watt)
WT= Heater input to test plate (Watt)
= 230mm
= 6mm
= M.S.
O.D.
I.D.
Material
No. of tubes
Length
Surface area of tubes
= 16mm
= 13mm
= Copper
= 32
= 550mm
= .di.l.n
(2) Tubes :
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
where, = 3.14
di= 13 x 10-3m
l = 0.55m
n = 32
Flow rate can be adjusted by valve on hot and cold side. The temperature at
hot inlet and outlet and those at cold inlet and outlet are measured by
thermocouple & digital temperature indicator.
Water flow measurement - with measuring flask and stop watch (For hot &
cold water)
For hot water, gyser of capacity 3 KW is provided.
Electric supply : 230V, 15A with neutral & earthing connection
Procedure:
(1) Start the flow of water through hot and cold side.
(2) Adjust the flow as per requirement.
(3) Put on the gyser.
(4) Wait till the hot water temperature is rising & then take the reading.
(5) Measure the flow rate of hot & cold water.
Observation table:
Sr.
No.
Calculations:
(1) Hot water side:
Qh = mh. Cph. [Thi Tho]
(2) Cold water side:
Qc = mc. Cpc. [Tco Tci]
Ti =Thi -Tci
T -Te
(3) LMTD = i
Where,
T
Te =Tho -Tco
ln i
Te
(3) For overall heat transfer co-efficient U:
q = U. A. LMTD
Q +Q
q
U=
(then q= h c )
A.LMTD
2
= 14.5mm
= 150mm
= 5 nos.
= 1 no.
= Brass
= 0 300 C
= 0 300 V
= 0 5 Amp.
Procedure:
(8) Switch on main switch.
(9) Start heating the fin by switching on the heater.
(10)
Adjust dimmerstat voltage equal to 60 V to 90 V.
(11)
Take the reading of thermocouples in the time interval of 10 min.
(12)
Take the readings till steady state condition is reached.
Precautions:
C
Temperature
T3
T4
T5
T6
``
Calculations:
(11) Average fin temperature (Tm):
T +T +T +T +T
Tm = 1 2 3 4 5 C
5
T +T
(12) Mean Fin temperature = Tmf = m 6 C = ___________.
2
Note: Take the values of kair, from chart at Tmf
(13)
Gr =
Pr =
( g. .t ) L 3
Cp.
k
(15)
N u xK air
W/m2K
d
Fin parameter (m) :
h=
m=
h.P -1
m
k.A
Where,
P = circumference of fin (.d)
k = thermal conductivity of fin material (Brass)
A = Area of fin [(/4)d2]
= ________m
= 110.71 W/m C
= ________ m2
(16)
Efficiency ():
tanh(mL)
fin =
mL
= __________%