INTRODUCTION

Foundation materials that exhibit volume change from change in soil moisture are
referred to as expansive or swelling clay soils. Characteristic expansive or swelling
materials are highly plastic clays and clay shales that often contain colloidal clay
minerals such as the montmorillonite. Soils that exhibit greatest volume changes
from dry to wet state usually possess a considerable percentage of montmorillonite.
Since expansive soils have a tendency to change their volume to a large extent,
they cause heavy distress to engineering constructions. The lightweight structures
are severely affected due to high swelling pressure exerted by these soils. Such
type of large scale distress, due to expansive shrinking nature of expansive soil, can
be prevented by either obstructing the soil movement and reducing the swelling
pressure of soil or making the structure sufficiently resistant to damage from soil
movement. In Western Rajasthan, India previously it seems that only dune sand is
present up to great depth or there is some sand stone etc. However, during
construction of Rajasthan Canal (Presently Indira Gandhi Nahar) project, it was
observed that bentonite is present below the dune sand or at depth when canal is in
cutting. This causes swelling (i.e. volume change) and hence there are cracks in the
lining of canal. Not only in Jaisalmer (Ramgarh, Pokhren, etc), swelling soil was
observed but also in Barmer district, Pali district (Jetpur), Nagaur district, Jodhpur
district, Bhopalgarh etc. Swelling soil is present. Many researchers have worked on
expansive soils such as Jones & Holtz (1973), Chan (1975), Mathur (1995) and
Pandey (1997).
PROPERTIES OF SWELLING SOIL
Due to the presence of imbalance electrical charge and cation exchange capacity
produced by sodium-based montmorillonite the expansive bentonite soil swells.
Replacing the sodium ions by inorganic compounds, which may produce such type
of cation having less ion exchange capacity and also form a balanced electrical
charge in soil structure, can reduce this expansion. Replacement of monovalent
sodium by calcium ions may leads to a marked reduction in diffuse double layer
thickness leading to decrease in liquid limit, plastics limits and swelling pressure.
Keeping this aspect in view, an attempt has been made to study the alteration
brought out by dune sand and gypsum mixture. Therefore, tests have been
conducted on bentonite soil, obtained from different parts of Rajasthan, mixed with
different percentage of dune sand and gypsum to study the effects of mixtures on
swelling pressures of expansive soils. Also effect of molding water content and
variation of densities are studied in view of change in swelling pressure.
SUGGESTED REMEDIES FOR SWELLING SOIL
The swelling soil causes due to its expansive nature with water cracks are formed in
buildings, canal lining etc. various suggestions to overcome the problem is as
under: Provide CNS layer. Detailed study of CNS depth, layer thickness properties of

CNS are carried out and published by Dr. Katti (1972, 1979). It is a great problem
now a day to locate the CNS material at nearby site and hence it is very costly some
times to transport the natural CNS material. Some percentage of clay, sand and the
existing swelling soil may be used as CNS material. Provide under-reamed piled
foundation. Provide slotted footing so that this may reduce the swelling pressure.
Addition of gypsum will reduce the swelling pressure. Limit the foundation depth if
swelling soil is at some depth so that distance between foundation and swelling soil
will be more and as the distance is more there are less chances of cracks in
building. Take effective measures to maintain moisture equilibrium in foundation
soil. Add dune sand in the existing swelling soil.
CONCLUSIONS
Swelling soils are present in various parts of Rajasthan. Swelling pressures, liquid
limit plastic limit, shrinkage limit etc. are different at each site and there is no
correlation of properties of each site. Swelling pressure increases with increase in
dry density and decreases with increase in molding water content. Swelling
pressure also decreases due to addition of gypsum and dune sand. Various remedial
measures are presented in the paper to overcome the problem of swelling pressure.
Foundations on Black Cotton Soil
The property of volumetric changes with the change of atmospheric conditions makes black
cotton soil dangerous to be founded buildings. It swells excessively when wet and shrinks
excessively when dry resulting terrible cracks in soil without any warning. It has a great
affinity to water. This tendency of soil is on account of the presence of fine clay particles.
Cracks are formed due to movement of the ground on account of alternate swelling and
shrinkage. The cracks thus formed are sometimes 15 to 20 cm wide and 2.5 to 4 m deep.
Safety Precautions
The following precautions are generally adopted while building structures on black cotton
soil:
1. To limit the load on the soil to 5.5 tonnes/ sqr. m. if water is liable to to find an access to
the foundations, the limit of loading should be restricted to 4,900 kg/ sqr. m.
2. To take the foundation to such depths where the cracks cease to extend. The minimum
depth
of
foundation
should
be
at
least
1.5
m.
3. To provide reinforced concrete ties or bands all around the main walls of the building. The
R.C.C ties or bands which may be 10 cm to 15 cm deep should be placed at plinth level,
lintel level and eaves level. In case of flat roof, R.C.C slab it self acts as a tie and as such no
extra band needed to be provide near the roof in such cases.
4. If the depth of the black cotton soil at a given site is only 1 to 1.5 m, the entire black
cotton soil above the hard bed may be completely removed and the foundation may be laid
on the hard bed below.
5. The swelling of soil in direct contact with the foundation material causes maximum
damage. Hence it is necessary to prevent the direct contact of black cotton soil with

masonry work below ground level. These can be achieved by making wider trenches for
foundation and filling spaces on the either side of the foundation masonry with sand or
moorum.
6. The bed of foundation trench should be made firm or hard by ramming it well. On the
rammed bed a 30 cm layer of good hard moorum should be spread in layers of 15 cm, each
layer being well watered and rammed before laying the next layer. On this layer either stone
or sand bed should be provided to the desire height to place the foundation concrete bed
block upon it.
7. In case of ordinary buildings, the foundation should be taken at least 30 cm deeper than
the depth where the crack stop.
8. In important structures raft foundation should be provided so as to float the building on
the bed below the depth, quite independent of the surrounding soil.
9. For less important structures like compound walls etc., the foundation should preferably
be taken at least 15 cm below the depth at which cracks in soil cease to occur.
10. Construction in black cotton soil should be undertaken during dry season.
11. The masonry for the walls should start at least 15 cm below the general ground level.
12. The width of trench for main walls or load bearing walls of a building should be dug 40
cm wider than the width of foundation. This is necessary to ensure provision of at least 20
cm wide layer of coarse sand on either side of foundation masonry thereby separating the
sub-structure from having direct contact with black cotton soil.
:
In case of compound wall, width of sand layer on either side of foundation masonry could be
15 cm.
Based on research carried out to develop a effective foundation system, it is found that
under-reamed piles provide an ideal solution to foundation in black cotton soil or other
similar types of expansive soils. The construction of under-reamed pile is briefly discussed
below:

Under-reamed Pile Foundation

Under-reamed piles are bored cast-in-situ concrete piles having bulk shaped enlargement
near base. These piles are commonly recommended for providing safe and economical
foundations in expansive soils such as black cotton soil, filled up ground and other types of
soils having poor bearing capacity. In these type of foundation the structure is anchored to
the ground at a depth where ground movement due to changes in moisture content
negligible. A pile having one bulk is known as single under-reamed pile. It is seen that the
load bearing capacity of the pile can be increased by increasing the number of bulk at the
base. In such a case the pile is named as multi-under-reamed pile. The increase in the
bearing capacity of the pile can also be achieved by increasing the diameter and the length
of the pile.

The method of construction of under-reamed pile is very simple the holes for casting piles in
the ground may be bored by using hand augers. The auger should be rotate slowly with a
constant downward pressure and should be taken out when it is just full. For deeper boring
suitable extension rods are attached to the auger. In projects where the magnitude of piling
work is more, electric power winch may be used for expediting boring operation.
After boring is carried out ti the required depth, the base of the bore hole is enlarged in the
form of a bulb near its base by use of a tool, known as under-reamer.
In case of double or multi-under-reamed piles, after the boring and under-reaming of the
bulb, the boring is extended further for second under-reaming and so on.
In sites where the sub-soil water table in high, bentonite slurry is used to retain the sides of
the bore-hole against collapse.
After the pile holes are ready for concreting, reinforcement cage are lowered in the holes
and concrete is poured by usu of a funnel.
The piles should be cast at least 200 to 400 mm above the cut-off level. Later on, when the
concrete is hardened, the extra length of each pile is broken and the pile top is brought to
the desired level.
Normally with one set of two rigs it is possible to cast 4 to 5 piles in a day.
Since the magnitude of open excavation in this case is limited to bore holes, it is possible to
continue execution of under-reamed piling work even in rainy season.
Thus, besides relative saving in direct cost (when compared with conventional isolated
footings) it is possible to have overall saving in time of completion of a work by adopting
under-reamed piles.