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A radio control flyer (holding a transmitter) guides his aircraft in for a landing
A radio-controlled aircraft (often called RC aircraft or RC plane) is a model aircraft that is controlled
remotely, typically with a hand-held transmitter and a receiver within the craft. The receiver controls
the corresponding servos that move the control surfaces based on the position of joysticks on the
transmitter, which in turn affect the orientation of the plane.
Flying RC aircraft as a hobby has been growing worldwide with the advent of more efficient motors
(both electric and miniature internal combustion or jet engines), lighter and more
powerful batteries and less expensive radio systems. A wide variety of models and styles is available.
Scientific, government and military organizations are also utilizing RC aircraft for experiments,
gathering weather readings, aerodynamic modeling and testing, and even using them as dronesor spy
planes.
Types
There are many types of radio-controlled aircraft. For beginning hobbyists, there are park
flyers andtrainers. For more advanced pilots there are glow plug engine, electric powered
and sailplaneaircraft. For expert flyers, jets, pylon racers, helicopters, autogyros, 3D aircraft, and
other high end competition aircraft provide adequate challenge. Some models are made to look and
operate like a bird instead. Replicating historic and little known types and makes of full-size aircraft as
"flying scale" models, which are also possible with control line and free flight types of model aircraft,
actually reach their maximum realism and behavior when built for radio control flying.
[edit]Radio control scale aircraft modeling

This Kyosho "Phantom 70" biplane is a semi-scale replica of a class winner and record holder from the
2007 Reno Air Races. In this example, the fuselage with its complex curves as well as the engine cowl,

wheel pants and wing struts are rendered in fiberglass. The wings and horizontal stabilizer are
traditional balsa/plywood construction
Perhaps the most realistic form of aeromodeling, in its main purpose to replicate full-scale aircraft
designs from aviation history, for testing of future aviation designs, or even to realize never-built
"proposed" aircraft, is that of radio control scale aeromodeling. RC Scale model aircraft can be of any
type of steerable airship lighter-than-air (LTA) aviation craft, or more normally, of the heavier-than-air
fixed wing glider/sailplane, fixed-wing single or multi-engine aircraft, or rotary-wing aircraft such as
autogyros or helicopters.
Full-scale aircraft designs from every era of aviation, from the "Pioneer Era" up toWorld War I's start,
through to the modern day in the 21st century, have been modeled as radio control scale model
aircraft. Builders of RC Scale aircraft can enjoy the challenge of creating a controllable, miniature
aircraft that merely "looks" like the full scale original in the air with no "fine details", such as a
detailed cockpit, or go into seriously replicating many operable features of a selected full scale
aircraft design, even down to having operable cable-connected flight control surfaces, illuminated
navigation lighting on the aircraft's exterior, realistically retracting landing gear, etc. if the full-sized
aircraft possessed such features as part of its design.
Various scale sizes of RC scale aircraft have been built in the decades since modern digitalproportional, miniaturized RC gear came on the market in the 1960s, and everything from indoorflyable electric powered RC Scale models, to enormous "giant scale" RC Scale models, in scale size
ranges that usually run from 20% to 25%, and upwards to 30 to 50% size of some smaller full scale
aircraft designs, that can amazingly replicate some of the actual flight characteristics of the full scale
aircraft they are based on, have been enjoyed, and continue to be built and flown, in sanctioned
competition and for personal pleasure, as part of the RC scale aeromodeling hobby.
[edit]Sailplanes and gliders

F3A Pattern Ship - ZNline Alliance by CPLR

Shinden by Bryan Hebert

Main article: radio-controlled glider
Gliders are planes that do not typically have any type of propulsion, as a general rule. Because most
gliders are unpowered, flight must be sustained through exploitation of the natural lift produced
from thermals or wind hitting a slope. Dynamic soaring is another popular way of providing energy to
gliders that is becoming more and more common.
[edit]Jets
Jets tend to be very expensive and commonly use a micro turbine or ducted fan to power them. Most
airframes are constructed from fiber glass and carbon fiber. Inside the aircraft, wooden spars
reinforce the body to make a rigid airframe . They also have kevlar fuel tanks for the Jet A fuel that
they run on. Most micro turbines start with propane, burn for a few seconds before introducing the jet
fuel by solenoid. These aircraft can often reach speeds in excess of 320 km/h (200 mph). They require
incredibly quick reflexes and very expensive equipment, so are usually reserved for the expert. The
FAA heavily regulates flying of such aircraft to only approved AMA (Academy of Model Aeronautics)
sites, in where certified turbine pilots may fly. Also, the AMA requires model aviation enthusiasts who
wish to operate miniature gas turbine powered RC model aircraft, to be certified in the operation of
the type of gas turbine engine, and all aspects of safety in operating such a turbine-powered model
aircraft, that they need to know in flying their model.[1]. Some military bases allow such high tech
aircraft to fly within limited airspace such as Kaneohe Marine base in Hawaii, and Whidbey Island NAS
in Washington State. An average turbine aircraft will cost between $150$10,000 with more than
$20,000 all-up becoming more common. Many manufactures sell airframes such as Yellow Aircraft and
Skymaster. Turbines are produced from The Netherlands (AMT)to Mexico (Artes Jets). The average
microturbine will cost between $2500 and $5000 depending on engine output. Smaller turbines put
out about 12 lbf (53 N) of thrust, while larger microturbines can put out as much as 45 lbf (200 N) of
thrust. Radio control jets require an on board FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control) controller,
this controls the turbine, just like a larger turbine. RC Jets also require electrical power. Most have a

LIPO (Lithium Polymer pack) at 8-12 volts that control the FADEC. There is also a LIPO for the onboard
servos that control ailerons, elevator, rudder, flaps and landing gear.
[edit]Pylon racers
Racers are small propeller aircraft that race around a 2, 3, or 4 pylon track. They tend to be hard to
see and can often go over 240 km/h (150 mph), though some people do pylon races with much slower
aircraft. Although several different types of aircraft are raced across the world, those flown primarily
in the US are; Q500 (424 or ARPRA, and 428), and Q40. 424 is designed as a starting point into the
world of pylon racing. Inexpensive (under $200 for the airframe) kits with wing areas of 3,200 square
centimetres (500 sq in) are flown with .40 size engines that can be purchased for less than $100. The
goal is for the planes to be not only inexpensive, but closely matched in performance. This places the
emphasis on good piloting. APRA is a version of 424 with specific rules designed for consistency. 428
aircraft are similar to 424 in appearance. The difference is in engine performance and construction.
The planes are primarily made of fiberglass with composites used at high load points. Wings are often
hollow to save weight. (All aircraft must meet a minimum weight. A lighter wing moves more of the
weight closer to the center of gravity. This requires less control deflection and its resulting drag to
change the planes attitude.) They also use .40 size engines but unlike 424 they are much more
expensive. They have been designed to put out the maximum amount of power at a specific RPM using
a specific fuel. Nelson manufactures the most predominantly used engine. Speeds are very fast in this
class with planes capable of reaching 290 km/h (180 mph). Q40 is the highpoint of pylon racing, as
their aircraft resemble full size race planes. They are not limited to the simple shapes that Q500
planes are, which have much cleaner aerodynamics and less wing area. They use the same basic
Nelson engine used in 428, but the engine is tuned to turn a much smaller prop at a much higher rpm.
The planes accelerate much more slowly than 428, but their clean airframes allow them to reach
higher speeds, and maintain them around the turns. These planes can fly in excess of 320 km/h (200
mph) on the course. Because of their limited wing area however, Q40 planes must fly a larger arc
around the pylons to conserve energy. Although faster, they ultimately fly a larger course. Ironically
the best times for a 10 lap 3 pylon Q40 race are very close to the same in 428.
[edit]Helicopters
Main article: radio-controlled helicopter
Radio-controlled helicopters, although often grouped with RC aircraft, are in a class of their own
because of the vast differences in construction, aerodynamics and flight training. Hobbyists will often
venture from planes, to jets and to helicopters as they enjoy the challenges, excitement and
satisfaction of flying. Some radio-controlled helicopters have photo or video cameras installed and are
used for aerial imaging or surveillance. Newer "3d" radio control helicopters can fly inverted with the

advent of advanced swash heads, and servo linkage that enables the pilot to immediately reverse the
pitch of the blades, creating a reverse in thrust.
[edit]Flying bird models, or ornithopters
Some RC models take their inspiration from nature. These may be gliders made to look like a real bird,
but more often they actually fly by flapping wings. Spectators are often surprised to see that such a
model can really fly. These factors as well as the added building challenge add to the enjoyment of
flying bird models, though some ARF (almost-ready-to-fly) models are available. Flapping-wing models
are also known as ornithopters, the technical name for an aircraft whose driving airfoils oscillate
instead of rotate.
[edit]Toy-class RC
Since about 2004, new, more sophisticated toy RC airplanes, helicopters, and ornithopters have been
appearing on toy store shelves. This new category of toy RC distinguishes itself by:

Proportional (vs. "on-off") throttle control which is critical for preventing the excitation
of phugoid oscillation ("porpoising") whenever a throttle change is made. It also allows for
manageable and steady altitude control and reduction of altitude loss in turns.

Lithium polymer batteries for light weight and long flight time.

EPP (Expanded Polypropylene) foam construction making them "indestructible" in normal

crash-prone use.

Low flying speed and typically rear-mounted propeller(s) make them harmless when crashing
into people and property.

Stable spiral mode resulting in simple turning control where "rudder" input results in a steady
bank angle rather than a steady roll rate.

As of 2009, the toy class RC airplane typically has no elevator control. This is to manage costs, but it
also allows for simplicity of control by unsophisticated users of all ages. The down side of lack of
elevator control is a tendency for the airplane to phugoid. To damp the phugoid oscillation naturally,
the planes are designed with high drag which reduces flight performance and flying time. The lack of
elevator control also prevents the ability to "pull back" during turns to prevent altitude loss and speed
increase.

Costs range from 20 to 40 USD. Crashes are common and inconsequential. Throttle control and turning
reversal (when flying toward the pilot) rapidly become second-nature, giving a significant advantage
when learning to fly a more costly hobby class RC aircraft.
[edit]3D flight
3D flight is a type of flying in which model aircraft have a thrust-to-weight ratio of more than 1:1
(typically 1.5:1 or more), large control surfaceswith extreme throws, low weight compared to other
models of same size and relatively low wing loadings.
These elements allow for spectacular aerobatics such as hovering, 'harriers', torque rolling, blenders,
rolling circles, and more, maneuvers that are performed below the stall speed of the model. The type
of flying could be referred to as 'on the prop' as opposed to 'on the wing', which would describe more
conventional flight patterns that make more use of the lifting surfaces of the plane.
3D has created a huge market for electric indoor 'profile' types similar to the Ikarus 'Shockflyers'
designed to be able to fly inside a gym or outside in little wind. These generally make use of
small brushless motors (often outrunners, but also geared inrunners) and lithium polymer batteries.
There are also many larger 3D designs designed for two and four stroke glow engines, two stroke gas
engines and large electric power systems. The most common and which most pilots describe as the
best size of a 3D plane is a 40%/150cc class.
[edit]Types of kits and construction
There are various ways to construct and assemble an RC aeroplane. Various kits are available,
requiring different amounts of assembly, different costs and varying levels of skill and experience.
Some kits can be mostly foam or plastic, or may be all balsa wood. Construction consists of
using formers and longerons for the fuselage, and spars and ribs for the wings and tail surfaces. More
robust designs often use solid sheets of wood to form these structures instead, or might employ a
composite wing consisting of an expanded polystyrene core covered in a protective veneer of wood,
often obechi. Such designs tend to be heavier than an equivalent sized model built using the
traditional method, and would be much more likely to be found in a power model than a glider. The
lightest models are suitable for indoor flight, in a windless environment. Some of these are made by
bringing frames of balsa wood and carbon fiber up through water to pick up thin plastic films, similar
to rainbow colored oil films. The advent of "foamies," or craft injection-molded from lightweight foam
and sometimes reinforced with carbon fiber, have made indoor flight more readily accessible to
hobbyists. "Crash proof" EPP (Expanded Polypropylene) foam planes are actually even bendable and
usually sustain very little or no damage in the event of an accident, even after a nose dive. Some
companies have developed similar material with different names, such as AeroCell or Elapor.

The late 1980s saw a range of models from the United States company US AirCore cleverly using
twinwall polypropylene material. This double skinned 'Correx' or 'Coroplast' was commonly used in
advertising and industry, being readily available in flat sheet form, easily printed and die cut. Models
were pre-decorated and available in ARTF form requiring relatively straightforward, interlocking
assembly secured with contact adhesive. The material thickness (usually 3~6mm) and corresponding
density meant that models were quite weighty (upwards of 5 lbor 2 kg) and consequently had above
average flying speeds. The range were powered using a clever (interchangeable) cartridge motor
mount designed for the better, more powerful 0.40 cu in (6.6 cm) glow engines. Aircore faded from
the scene around the Millennium.
Coincidently this is when the material was used experimentally by Mugi-the small tough delta glider
was invented. This rapidly developed into a high performance design-the Mugi Evo. Popular worldwide
as the plans were immediately launched freely on the Internet. Any grade or thickness of the material
can be used by appropriate scaling. However the optimum material is twinwalled polypropylene sheet
in 2mm thickness and at 350gsm (density)
Amateur hobbyists have more recently developed a range of new model designs utilizing
the corrugated plastic or "Coroplast" material. These models are collectively called "SPADs" which
stands for Simple Plastic Airplane Design. Fans of the SPAD concept tout increased durability, ease of
building, and lower priced materials as opposed to balsa models, sometimes (though not always) at
the expense of greater weight and crude appearance.
Flying models have to be designed according to the same principles as full-sized aircraft, and
therefore their construction can be very different from most static models. RC planes often borrow
construction techniques from vintage full-sized aircraft (although they rarely use metal structures).
[edit]Ready to fly

ParkZone P-51D Mustang

Main article: Ready To Fly

Ready to fly (or RTF) planes come as pre-assembled kits that usually only require wing attachment or
other basic assembly. Typically, everything that is needed is already in the kit. RTF planes can be up in
the air in just a few minutes and have all but eliminated assembly time (at the expense of the model's
configuration options.) Among traditional hobbyist builders, RTF models are a point of controversy, as
many consider model assembly, fabrication and even design as integral to the hobby.
[edit]Almost ready to fly
Main article: Almost Ready to Fly

This Great Planes Supermarine Spitfire LF Mk XII wears the markings of the 222 Squadron and is an
example of an almost ready to fly model
Almost ready to fly (or ARF or ARTF) kits are similar to RTF kits; however usually require more
assembly and sometimes basic construction. The average ARF aircraft can be built with less than 4
hours of labor, versus 2050+ hours (depending on detail and desired results) for a traditional kit
aircraft. The fuselage and appendages are normally already constructed. The kit will usually require
separate purchase and installation of servos, choice of motor (gas, glow fuel, or electric), speed
controller (electric) and occasionally control rods. This is an advantage over RTF kits, as most model
aircraft enthusiasts already own their equipment of choice, and only desire an airframe.
[edit]Balsa kit
Balsa kits come in many sizes and skill levels. The balsa wood may either be cut with a die-cut orlaser.
Laser cut kits have a much more precise construction and much tighter tolerances, but tend to cost
more than die-cut kits.
The kit usually contains most of the raw material needed for an unassembled plane, a set of
(sometimes elaborate) assembly instructions, and a few spare parts to allow for builder error.
Assembling a model from plans or a kit can be very labor-intensive. In order to complete the
construction of a model, the builder typically spends many hours assembling the frame, covering it,
and polishing/refining the control surfaces for correct alignment. The kit does not include necessary

tools, and these have to be purchased separately. A single overlooked error during assembly could
compromise the model's airworthiness, leading to a crash that destroys the model.
Smaller balsa kits will often come complete with the necessary parts for the primary purpose of nonflying modeling or rubber band flight. These kits will usually also come with conversion instructions to
fly as glow (gas powered) or electric and can be flown free-flight or radio-controlled. Converting a kit
requires additional and substitution parts to get it to fly properly such as the addition of servos,
hinges, speed controls, control rods and better landing gear mechanisms and wheels.
Many kits will come with a tissue paper covering that then gets covered with multiple layers of plane
dope which coats and strengthens the fuselage and wings in a plastic-like covering. It has become
more common to cover planes with heat-shrinking plastic films backed with heat-sensitive adhesive.
These films are generally known as 'iron-on covering' since a hand-held iron allows the film to be
attached to the frame; a higher temperature then causes the film to tighten. This plastic covering is
more durable and makes for a quick repair. Other varieties of heat shrinkable coverings are also
available, that have fibrous reinforcements within the plastic film, or are actual woven heat shrinkable
fabrics.
It is common to leave landing gear off smaller planes (roughly 36" or smaller) in order to save on
weight, drag and construction costs. The planes can then be launched by hand-launching, as with
smaller free-flight models, and can then land in soft grass.
[edit]From plans or scratch
Planes can be built from published plans, often supplied as full sized drawings with included
instructions. Parts normally need to be cut out from sheet wood using supplied templates. Once all of
the parts have been made, the project builds up just like another kit. A model plane built from scratch
ends up with more value because you created the project from the plans. There is more choice of plans
and materials than with kits, and the latest and more specialized designs are usually not available in
kit form. The plans can be scaled to any desired size with a computer or copy machine, usually with
little or no loss in aerodynamic efficiency.
Hobbyists that have gained some experience in constructing and flying from kits and plans will often
venture into building custom planes from scratch. This involves finding drawings of full sized aircraft
and scaling these down, or even designing the entire airframe from scratch. It requires a solid
knowledge of aerodynamics and a plane's control surfaces. Plans can be drawn up on paper or done
with CAD software. Many CAD packages exist for the specific purpose of designing planes and
perfecting airfoils.
[edit]Plane characteristics

[edit]Wing location
[edit]High wing
File:Spad2.jpg
This homebuilt high-wing model is an example of the concept of Simple Plastic Airplane Design where
readily available and easily workable materials are used to create a simple, rugged airframe
The easiest planes to fly are typically ones that have a high wing, or a wing that is on top or above the
plane's fuselage. Wing dihedrals (bend or change of angle in wing relative to fuselage)
or polyhedrals are also common. Most trainers and park flyers have this configuration.
These planes hold most of their weight under the canopy of the wing structure and tend to react more
like a glider. For this reason, they are very stable and easy to fly. If a high wing plane is out of control,
stability can often be regained by returning the controls to a neutral position, allowing the plane to
naturally fall back into a gliding position.
High wings are typical of many vintage private planes, such as the Piper Cub and the Cessna 170.
[edit]Low wing

This .60 cubic inch/10cc glow-powered Vinh Quang Model Mudry CAP 10 is a fully aerobatic, low-wing,
"sport scale" model plane with slight dihedral
Low wing planes offer a higher level of flying difficulty because the weight of the plane sits on top of
the wing structure, making the balance a bit top heavy. Most wing configurations provide a
slight dihedralto provide a bit more balance during flight.
The weight distribution and wing position of a low wing plane provides a good balance of stability and
maneuverability. The plane's moment of inertia about the rotation axis is lower because it is closer to
the wing, therefore rolls require much less torque and are more rapid than a high wing plane.
Low wings are typical of World War II war planes and many newer passenger planes and commercial
jets.
[edit]Mid-wing

This Electrify/Great Planes model of aYakovlev Yak-54 is an example of a high-performance, fully

aerobatic mid-wing plane with no dihedral
Mid-wing planes are usually considered the most difficult to fly. The wings are usually located right in
the vertical middle of the fuselage, near the bulk mass of the aircraft. Very little leverage is needed to
turn and rotate the plane's weight.
Mid-wings are often straight without any dihedral providing an almost symmetrical aerodynamic
structure. This allows the plane to be relatively balanced whether right-side-up, upside-down, or any
other position. This is great for military jets, sport planes and aerobatic planes, but less advantageous
for the learning pilot. Because of this symmetry, the plane does not really have any natural or stable
flying position, like the high wing planes, and will not automatically return to a stable gliding position.
[edit]Number of channels
The number of channels a plane requires is normally determined by the number of
mechanical servosthat have been installed (with a few exceptions such as the aileron servos, where
two servos can operate via a single Y harness (with one of the two servos rotating in the opposite
direction)). On smaller models, usually one servo per control surface (or set of surfaces in the case of
ailerons or a split elevator surface) is sufficient.

Ailerons - controls roll.

Elevator - controls pitch (up and down).

Throttle or, if electric, motor speed.

Rudder (or Vertical Stabilizer)- controls yaw (left and right).

Retracts - controls retractable landing gear.

Flaps - Increase lift, but also increase drag. Using Flaps, an aircraft can fly slower before
stalling. Flaps are often used to steepen the landing approach angle and let the plane land at a

slower touchdown speed (as well as letting the aircraft lift off at a slower takeoff speed). In both
cases, flaps enable using a shorter runway than would otherwise be required.

Auxiliary Switches - can control anything such as Spoilers, Flaperons, Elevons, Bomb Bay
Doors, Lights, Cameras, etc.

Three channels (controlling rudder, elevator and throttle) are common on trainer aircraft. Four channel
aircraft add aileron control.
For complex models and larger scale planes, multiple servos may be used on control surfaces. In such
cases, more channels may be required to perform various functions such as deploying retractable
landing gear, opening cargo doors, dropping bombs, operating remote cameras, lights, etc.
The right and left ailerons move in opposite directions. However, aileron control will often use two
channels to enable mixing of other functions on the transmitter. For example, when they both move
downward they can be used as flaps (flaperons), or when they both move upward,
asspoilers (spoilerons). Delta winged aircraft designs commonly lack a separate elevator, its function
being mixed with the ailerons and the combined control surfaces being known as elevons. V-tail
mixing, needed for such full-scale aircraft designs as the Beechcraft Bonanza, when modeled as RC
scale miniatures, is also done in a similar manner as elevons and flaperons.
Tiny ready to fly RC indoor or indoor/outdoor toy aircraft often have two speed controllers and no
servos, as very small and inexpensive servos are not yet available. There can be one motor for
propulsion and one for steering or twin motors with the sum controlling the speed and the difference
controlling the turn (yaw).
Some .049 glow models use two controls: elevator and rudder with no throttle control. The plane is
flown until it runs out of fuel then landed like a glider.
[edit]Turning
Turning is generally accomplished by rolling the plane left or right and applying the correct amount of
up-elevator ("back pressure").
A three channel RC plane will typically have an elevator and a throttle control, and either an aileron or
rudder control but not both. If the plane has ailerons, rolling the wings left or right is accomplished
directly by them. If the plane has a rudder instead, it will be designed with a greater amount
of Dihedral Effect, which is the tendency for the airplane to roll in response to sideslip angle created
by the rudder deflection. Dihedral Effect in model airplane design is usually increased by increasing
the Dihedral Angle of the wing (V-bend in the wing). The rudder will yaw the plane so that it has a left

or right sideslip, dihedral effect will then cause the plane to roll in the same direction. Many trainers,
electric park fliers, and gliders use this technique.
A more complex four channel model can have both rudder and ailerons and is usually turned like a full
sized aircraft. That is, the ailerons are used primarily to directly roll the wings, and the rudder is used
to "coordinate" (to keep the sideslip angle near-zero during the rolling motion). Sideslip otherwise
builds up during an aileron-driven roll because of adverse yaw. Often, the transmitter is programmed
to automatically apply rudder in proportion to aileron deflection to coordinate the roll.
When an airplane is in a small to moderate bank (roll angle) a small amount of 'back pressure' is
required to maintain height. This is required because the lift vector, which would be pointing vertically
upwards in level flight, is now angled inwards so some of the lift is turning the aircraft. A higher
overall amount of lift is required so that the vertical component remains sufficient for a level turn.
Many radio controlled aircraft, especially the toy class models, are designed to be flown with no
movable control surfaces at all. Some model planes are designed this way because it is often cheaper
and lighter to control the speed of a motor than it is to provide a moving control surface. Instead,
"rudder" control (control over sideslip angle) is provided by differing thrust on two motors, one on
each wing. Total power is controlled by increasing or decreasing the power on each motor equally.
Usually, the planes only have only these two control channels (total throttle and differential throttle)
with no elevator control. Turning a model with differential thrust is equivalent to and just as effective
as turning a model with rudder. Lack of elevator control is sometimes problematic if
the phugoid oscillation isn't well-damped leading to unmanageable "porpoising". See "Toy class
RC" section.
[edit]V-tail systems
A V-Tail is a way of combining the control surfaces of the standard "+" configuration
of rudder and elevator into a V shape. These ruddervatorsare controlled with two channels and
mechanical or electronic mixing. An important part of the V-Tail configuration is the exact angle of the
two surfaces relative to each other and the wing, otherwise the ratio of elevator and rudder outputs
will be incorrect.
The mixing works as follows: When receiving rudder input, the two servos work together, moving both
control surfaces to the left or right, inducing yaw. On elevator input, the servos work opposite, one
surface moves to the "left" and the other to the "right" which gives the effect of both moving up and
down, causing pitch changes in the aircraft.

V-Tails are very popular in Europe, especially for gliders. In the US, the T-Tail is more common. V-Tails
have the advantage of being lighter and creating less drag. They also are less likely to break at
landing or take-off due to the tail striking something on the ground like an ant mound or a rock.
[edit]Powerplants
Main article: Model aircraft#Power sources
Most planes need a powerplant to drive them, the exception being gliders. The most popular types for
radio-controlled aircraft are internal combustion engines, electric motors, jet, and rocket engines.
Three types of internal combustion engines are available being small 2 and 4 stoke engines. Glowplug
engines which use nitro-methanol as fuel, compressive ignition ('diesel') burn paraffin with ether as an
ignition agent. Larger engines can be glowplug but increasingly common gasoline is the fuel of choice.
[edit]Frequencies and sub-channels
[edit]Frequency
Frequency determines the line of communication between a receiver and transmitter. The transmitter
and receiver must both be on the same frequency so the plane can be controlled.
[edit]Reserved frequencies
Many countries reserve specific frequency bands (ranges) for radio control use. Due to the longer
range and potentially worse consequences of radio interference, model aircraft have exclusive use of
their own frequency allocation in some countries.
USA and Canada reserved frequency bands

72 MHz: aircraft only (France also uses US/Canada channels 21 through 35).

75 MHz: surface vehicles.

50 & 53 MHz:, on the 6-meter band for all vehicles, with the operator holding a valid amateur
radio (FCC in the USA) license.

27 MHz: general use, toys.

2.400-2.485 GHz: Spread Spectrum band for general use (amateur radio license holders have
2.39-2.45 GHz licensed for their general use in the USA) and usually using frequency-hopping
spread spectrum RF technology to maximize the number of available frequencies on this band,
especially at organized events in North America.

US frequency chart available at [2], Canadian frequency chart available at [3]

European reserved frequency bands

35 MHz: aircraft only.

40 MHz: surface vehicles or aircrafts.

27 MHz: general use, toys, citizens band radio.

2.4 GHz spread spectrum: surface vehicles.

Within the 35 MHz range, there are designated A and B bands. Some European countries allow use
only in the A band, whereas others allow use in both bands.
Singapore reserved frequency bands

29 MHz: aircraft only

Australian reserved frequency bands

36 MHz: aircraft and water-craft (odd channels for aircraft only)

29 MHz: general use

27 MHz: light electric aircraft, general use

2.400-2.485 GHz: Spread Spectrum band for general use (ACMA references available at [4])

New Zealand reserved frequency bands

35 MHz: aircraft only

40 MHz: aircraft only

27 MHz: general use

29 MHz: general use

36 MHz: general use

72 MHz: general use (US 72 MHz "even-numbered" channels 12 through 56, at 40 kHz spacing)

2.4 GHz is permitted under NZMAA and MED/RSM regulations, provided equipment bears a CTick compliance label

Detailed information, including cautions for transmitting on some of the 'general use' frequencies, can
be found on the NZMAA website.
Amateur radio license reserved frequency bands

50 and 53 MHz in the USA and Canada

433434 MHz in Germany (some of these German "ham RC" UHF band channels are also usable
by "hams" in Switzerland)

[edit]Channels
Most RC aircraft in the USA utilize a 72 MHz frequency band for communication. The
transmitter radio broadcasts using AM or FM usingPPM or PCM. Each aircraft needs a way to
determine which transmitter to receive communications from, so a specific channel within the
frequency band is used for each aircraft (except for 2.4 GHz systems which use spread
spectrum modulation, described below).
Most systems use crystals to set the operating channel in the receiver and transmitter. It is important
that each aircraft uses a different channel, otherwise interference could result. For example, if a
person is flying an aircraft on channel 35, and someone else turns their radio on the same channel, the
aircraft's control will be compromised and the result is almost always a crash. For this reason, when
flying at RC airfields, there is normally a board where hobbyists can post their channel flag, so
everyone knows what channel they are using, avoiding such incidents.
A modern computer radio transmitter and receiver can be equipped with synthesizer technology, using
a phase-locked loop (PLL), with the advantage of giving the pilot the opportunity to select any of the
available channels with no need of changing a crystal. This is very popular in flying clubs where a lot
of pilots have to share a limited number of channels.
Newer Transmitters use spread spectrum technology. Spread spectrum allows many pilots to transmit
in the same band (2.4 GHz) with little fear of conflicts. Receivers in this band are virtually immune to
most sources of electrical interference. Amateur radio licensees in the United States also have general
use of an overlapping band in this same area, which exists from 2.39 to 2.45 GHz.
[edit]Military usage
Radio-controlled aircraft are also used for military purposes, with their primary task being
intelligence-gathering reconnaissance. These are usually vehicles not designed to contain a human
pilot (see unmanned aerial vehicle). Remotely controlled drone aircraft were used to train gun crews.

Servomechanism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Industrial servomotor
The grey/green cylinder is the brush-type DC motor. The black section at the bottom contains the
planetary reduction gear, and the black object atop the motor is the optical rotary encoder for position
feedback. This is the steering actuator of a large robot vehicle.

A servomechanism, or servo is an automatic device that uses error-sensing negative feedback to

correct the performance of a mechanism. The term correctly applies only to systems where the
feedback or error-correction signals help control mechanical position or other parameters. For
example, an automotive power window control is not a servomechanism, as there is no automatic
feedback that controls positionthe operator does this by observation. By contrast the car's cruise
control uses closed loop feedback, which classifies it as a servomechanism.

A servomechanism may or may not use a servomotor. For example, a household furnace controlled by
a thermostat is a servomechanism, yet there is no motor being controlled directly by the
servomechanism.

A common type of servo provides position control. Servos are commonly electrical or partially
electronic in nature, using an electric motor as the primary means of creating mechanical force. Other
types of servos use hydraulics, pneumatics, or magnetic principles. Servos operate on the principle
of negative feedback, where the control input is compared to the actual position of the mechanical
system as measured by some sort of transducer at the output. Any difference between the actual and
wanted values (an "error signal") is amplified and used to drive the system in the direction necessary
to reduce or eliminate the error. This procedure is one widely used application of control theory.

Speed control via a governor is another type of servomechanism. The steam engine uses mechanical
governors; another early application was to govern the speed of water wheels. Prior to World War II
theconstant speed propeller was developed to control engine speed for maneuvering aircraft. Fuel
controls forgas turbine engines employ either hydromechanical or electronic governing.

Positioning servomechanisms were first used in military fire-control and marine navigation equipment.
Today servomechanisms are used in automatic machine tools, satellite-tracking antennas, remote
control airplanes, automatic navigation systems on boats and planes, and antiaircraft-gun control
systems. Other examples are fly-by-wire systems in aircraft which use servos to actuate the aircraft's
control surfaces, andradio-controlled models which use RC servos for the same purpose.
Many autofocus cameras also use a servomechanism to accurately move the lens, and thus adjust the
focus. A modern hard disk drive has a magnetic servo system with sub-micrometre positioning
accuracy.

Typical servos give a rotary (angular) output. Linear types are common as well, using a screw thread
or alinear motor to give linear motion.

Another device commonly referred to as a servo is used in automobiles to amplify

the steering or braking force applied by the driver. However, these devices are not true servos, but
rather mechanical amplifiers. (See also Power steering or Vacuum servo.)

In industrial machines, servos are used to perform complex motion.

[edit]RC servos

Small R/C servo mechanism

1. electric motor
2. position feedback potentiometer
3. reduction gear
4. actuator arm

RC servos are hobbyist remote control devices servos typically employed in radio-controlled models,
where they are used to provide actuation for various mechanical systems such as the steering of a car,
the control surfaces on a plane, or the rudder of a boat.

RC servos are composed of an electric motor mechanically linked to a potentiometer. Pulse-width

modulation (PWM) signals sent to the servo are translated into position commands by electronics
inside the servo. When the servo is commanded to rotate, the motor is powered until the
potentiometer reaches the value corresponding to the commanded position.Due to their affordability,
reliability, and simplicity of control by microprocessors, RC servos are often used in smallscale robotics applications.

The servo is usually controlled by three wires: ground, power, and control. The servo will move based
on the pulses sent over the control wire, which set the angle of the actuator arm. The servo expects a
pulse every 20 ms in order to gain correct information about the angle. The width of the servo pulse
dictates the range of the servo's angular motion.

A servo pulse of 1.5 ms width will typically set the servo to its "neutral" position or 45, a pulse of 1.25
ms could set it to 0 and a pulse of 1.75 ms to 90. The physical limits and timings of the servo
hardware varies between brands and models, but a general servo's angular motion will travel

somewhere in the range of 90 - 120 and the neutral position is almost always at 1.5 ms. This is the
"standard pulse servo mode" used by all hobby analog servos.

A hobby digital servo is controlled by the same "standard pulse servo mode" pulses as an analog
servo.[3] Some hobby digital servos can be set to another mode that allows a robot controller to read
back the actual position of the servo shaft. Some hobby digital servos can optionally be set to another
mode and "programmed", so it has the desired PID controller characteristics when it is later driven by
a standard pulse servo receiver.[4]

RC servos are usually powered by the receiver which in turn is powered by battery packs or
anElectronic speed controller (ESC) with an integrated or a separate Battery eliminator circuit (BEC).
Common battery packs are either NiCd, NiMH or lithium-ion polymer battery (LiPo) type. Voltage
ratings vary, but most receivers are operated at 5 V or 6 V.
Applications
A compelling advantage of Li-poly cells is that manufacturers can shape the battery almost however
they please, which can be important to mobile phone manufacturers constantly working on smaller,
thinner, and lighter phones.
3-Cell LiPo for RC-models
Li-poly batteries are also gaining favor in the world of radio-controlled aircraft as well as radiocontrolled cars, where the advantages of both lower weight and greatly increased run times can be
sufficient justification for the price. Some airsoft gun owners have switched to LiPo batteries due to
the above reasons and the increased rate of fire they provide. However, lithium polymer-specific
chargers are required to avoid fire and explosion. Explosions can also occur if the battery is shortcircuited, as tremendous current passes through the cell in an instant. Radio-control enthusiasts take
special precautions to ensure their battery leads are properly connected and insulated. Furthermore
fires can occur if the cell or pack is punctured. Radio-controlled car batteries are often protected by
durable plastic cases to prevent puncture. Specially designed electronic motor speed controls are used
to prevent excessive discharge and subsequent battery damage. This is achieved using a low voltage
cutoff (LVC) setting that is adjusted to maintain cell voltage greater than (typically) 3 V per cell.
Li-poly batteries are also gaining ground in PDAs and laptop computers, such as Apple's MacBook
family, Amazon's Kindle, Lenovo'sThinkpad X300 and Ultrabay Batteries, the OQO series of palmtops,
the HP Mini and Dell products featuring D-bay batteries. They can be found in small digital music
devices such as iPods, Zunes, and other MP3 players and the Apple iPhone and iPad, as well as gaming

equipment like Sony's Playstation 3 wireless controllers[2]. They are desirable in applications where
small form factors and energy density outweigh cost considerations.