Code switching in TV programs

REPUBLIC OF YEMEN
TAIZ UNIVERSITY
CENTER OF LANGUAGES

Code Switching In TV Programs

Done by:
by:
Mervat Al-Doais
Qanbar

Supervised
Dr Nada

February, 2010

Code switching in TV programs

Declaration
I declare that this dissertation represents my own work, except
where due
Acknowledgement is made, and that it has not been previously
included in a thesis, dissertation or report submitted to this
University or to any other institution for a degree, Diploma or other
qualification.
__________________________
Mervat Al-Doais

Acknowledgements
My sincere thanks are dedicated to Dr Nada, my research
supervisor, for her invaluable advice and guidance throughout my
study. I would also like to give special thanks to my father, who has
given me valuable inspiration and encouragement at stages in the
preparation and writing of this paper.

Code switching in TV programs

Mervat Al-Doais

Contents
Declaration.. 2
Acknowledgement..2

CHAPTER ONE:

Introduction..4
Research
questions....................................................................................... 5
Population of interest5
Objectives of the study..5
Organization of the
study..............................................................................5

Theoretical Background

Definition of Code5
Different between Code-switching and Codemixing..6
Background of Code switching
7
Types of Code- switching and Code- mixing
..8
Most common code switching
type..8
Uncommon Code switches
9
Factors behind code-mixing/ switching

..9

Unconscious factors of Code

switching.9
Conscious factors of Code
switching10
Attitudes toward Code switching
.10

CAPTER TWO
Literature review

Earlier studies on code switching..11

Code switching in the media.13

Code switching in TV programs

Code switching in advertisement...14

CHAPTER THREE
Research Design and
Methodology..15
- Population and Sample..15
- Method of sampling16
- Data collection instrument..16

CAPTER FOUR
Findings and discussions
17

CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusions
5.1 Summary of the findings
22
5.2 Limitations of the study
.. 22
5.3 Implications for further research
22
References

Chapter One
Introduction
The basic principle of language style is that an individual speaker does not always
talk the same way on all occasions. Differentiations can be made between intonation,
grammar, lexicon, or pronunciation, but also between local dialect and standard
speech. The choice depends on the person you are talking to, the environment and
many other social factors. The words you are saying always carry some sort of
meaning and it depends on the circumstances, personal desires etc. So, style shifts
occur according to topic, setting or audience. Two types of code-switching exist: the
alternation between different languages or between different styles. The first relates to
the switch for instance from English to Turkish which often occurs in Germany, or
switches between Arabic and English in Jordon. The second type refers to the change
of codes between different dialects or varieties within the same language.
The phenomenon of shifting Arabic to English in TV programs
becomes noticeable to every TV viewer. We have noticed how
participants in some TV programs are discussing a topic using both
Arabic and English language. And we also have noticed that this
phenomenon does not exist in all TV programs. The announcer in
Aljazeera channel never switches to English even if he is a bilingual.
Thus the main interest of this study lies in answering the questions
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Code switching in TV programs

in which type of TV programs we could find a heavy use of English

within Arabic language structures? For what purpose do people
switch and which pattern of switching is mostly used?
According to Walte(2006) three main approaches to code-switching exist: the
grammatical, the sociolinguistic and the conversational approach. This study is based
on the grammatical as well as the sociolinguistic approach. In the grammatical
approach the focus lies on the micro-level. How code-switching works, grammatical
features like syntax and morphology, matrix and embedded language etc. are in the
centre of interest. In this approach, no personal interpretation is possible because of
fixed rules. No background information is needed in order to analyze a conversation
and reasons for code-switching are not considered. It sets the grammatical frame
which consists of morpheme order and system morphemes. So, the framework to start
the analysis with is analysed, but motivations and the circumstances are left out. Here
we come to the next approach, the sociolinguistic one. Sociolinguistics deal with the
understanding of language behaviour with regard to the context in which it was
spoken (Giles/Smith,) in Walte (2006). "This approach is so to say community based;
factors like identification, background, the situation, the time etc. gives material to
answer the question why?"Walte (2006). As I have mentioned above the main interest
of this study lies in answering why and which pattern of switching is mostly used,
thus this study will be based on the grammatical and sociolinguistic approach.

1.2 Research Questions:

The primary researches questions will be investigated in this paper
are:
Research Question 1: In which type of TV programs we could find a
heavy use of English within Arabic language structures?
Research Question 2: why and in which situation do people do it?
Research Question 3: what different kinds of code switching do
occur?

1.3 Population of Interest:

This research focuses on the Arabic/English code-mixing that
occurs among
TV programs in general. Some programs are chosen as the
population of interest for this research due several factors. First of
all, Arabic/English code switching is found in some specific TV
programs. For example, style and stars, Deal or no deal, stars ,
miss , , ,
The Second reason, among these programs some are of heavy use
of code switching.
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Code switching in TV programs

1.4 Objectives of the Study:

The objectives of this study are derived from the research questions
previously proposed. The purposes are to examine the kinds of TV
programs in which we find a heavy use of code switching, and to
know why and in which situation do people do it, and what different
kinds of code switching do occur.
More specifically, the objectives are as follows:
1. To analyze the speech of some bilinguals
2. To identify the types of patterns of mixing/switching;
3. and to examine the purpose of code-mixing/switching.

1.5 Organization of the Study:

The content of the study will be organized in five chapters. Chapter

1 serves as an introduction to the main research questions and
overall purpose of the research. It also provides us with the
theoretical background to the study. Chapter 2 contains a broad
literature review of code-mixing and issues related to the media.
Chapters 3 contains the research methodology and design. Chapter
4 discusses the results of the research questions. Finally, Chapter 5
offers the limitations of the findings. Directions for future research
are also provided.

1.1 Theoretical background

Definition of Code
In communications, a code is a rule for converting a piece of
information (for example, a letter, word, or phrase) into another
form or representation, not necessarily of the same sort. In
communications and information processing, encoding is the
process by which a source (object) performs this conversion of
information into data, which is then sent to a receiver (observer),
such as a data processing system (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code)in Liu
(2006).
In semiotics, the concept of a code is of fundamental importance.
Saussure emphasized that signs only acquire meaning and value
when they are interpreted in relation to each other. He believed that
the relationship between the signifier and the signified was arbitrary.
Hence, interpreting signs requires familiarity with the sets of
conventions or codes currently in use to communicate meaning.
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code (Semiotics) in Liu (2006)
In the context of cryptography, a code is a method used to
transform a message into an obscured form, preventing those not in
on the secret from understanding what is actually transmitted. The
usual method is to use a codebook with a list of common phrases or
words matched with a codeword. Messages in code are sometimes

Code switching in TV programs

termed code text. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code (cryptography)) in Liu

(2006)
In computer programming, the word code refers to instructions to a
computer in a programming language. In this usage, the noun
"code" typically stands for source code, and the verb "to code"
means to write source code, to program. This usage may have
originated when the first symbolic languages were developed and
were punched onto cards as "codes". (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code
(computer- programming)) in Liu (2006).
In Sociolinguistics the term code is a relatively neutral
conceptualization of a linguistic variety-be it a language or a dialect.
Romaine (1995) in Liu (2006) mentions that: "I will use the term `code
here in a general sense to refer not only to different language, but
also to varieties of the same language as well as styles within a
language." However, not many researchers really explicate the term
in their definition. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code) in Liu (2006).

1.1.2 Different between Code-switching and Codemixing

Several scholars have attempted to define code-switching and
code-mixing. Among them are Amuda (1989), Atoye (1994) and
Belly (1976). For instance, Hymes in Liu (2006) defines only codeswitching as "a common term for alternative use of two or more
languages, varieties of a language or even speech styles." while
Bokamba (1989) in Liu (2006) defines both concepts thus: "Codeswitching is the mixing of words, phrases and sentences from two
distinct grammatical (sub)systems across sentence boundaries
within the same speech event... code-mixing is the embedding of
various linguistic units such as affixes (bound morphemes), words
(unbound morphemes), phrases and clauses from a cooperative
activity where the participants, in order to in infer what is intended,
must reconcile what they hear with what they understand. " in Liu
(2006).
Some other scholars reserve the term code switching for switches
across sentences or frames of discourse, while switches within
sentences are termed as code mixing (Kamwangamala, 1992;
Luke, 1984; Sridhar, 1995) in Fong (2008). In code mixing, the base
sentence is usually of the syntactical structure of one language
while morphological, phonological or lexical items from the other
language(s) are inserted. The distinction between code switching
and code mixing is important yet problematic as the two are often
closely intertwined. Some scholars (e.g. Clyne, 1991, Gumperz,
1982) in Fong (2008) therefore prefer to use code switching as a
cover term for the alternate use of two languages, either within a
sentence or between sentences (Clyne, 1991)in Fong (2008), while
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Code switching in TV programs

other scholars (e.g. Bhatia, 1992) prefer to use mixing as an

umbrella term to designate both inter-sentential and intra-sentential
switches. Fong (2008).
Very often the expression code mixing is used synonymously with
code switching and means basically intra-sentential code switching.
However, recent research has given new meaning to this term.
Maschler (1998) in Liu (2006)defines code mixing or a mixed code as
"using two languages such that a third, new code emerges, in which
elements from the two languages are incorporated into a
structurally definable pattern" In other words, the code mixing
hypothesis states that when two code switched languages
constitute the appearance of a third code it has structural
characteristics special to that new code (Liu (2006). In this study I
would prefer to use the term 'code switching' for both kinds intersentential and intra-sentential switches.
Code switching is not a display of deficient language knowledge: a
grammarless mixing of two languages. Instead it is a phenomenon
through which its users express a range of meanings. By code
switching, which occurs mostly in conversation, the choice of speech
alerts the participants to the interaction of the context and social
dimension within which the conversation is taking place. The
phenomenon of code switching is examined from a conversational
analysis perspective, and as such is viewed as interactive
exchanges between members of a bilingual speech community (Liu
(2006)

1.1.3 Background of Code switching/ mixing

The term code switching has been written as two wordscode
switching or
code-switchingand has also been referred to as code-mixing,
code shifting, language alternation, language mixture and language
switching (Benson 2001) in Bishop (2006). Though some have
differentiated between these terms, as we mentioned above,
currently the one-word term code switching is most commonly
used to describe the use of two languages within one conversation
or text (Benson 2001) in Bishop (2006). The first use of the term code
switching has been attributed to Hans Vogt in an article written in
1954 (Auer 1998) in Bishop (2006), although the earliest evidence of
code switching research in the U.S. dates back to the work of Aurelio
Espinosa (1911), professor of Romantic languages at Stanford
University (Benson 2001) in Bishop (2006).
Code switching was historically believed by many early scholars
to be primarily employed by individuals who possessed inferior
intelligence levels or a low mastery of a second language (Benson
2001) in Bishop (2006). Shortcomings in the new language were
believed to cause people to go back and forth between the new and
the known languages. However, Espinosa (1911) in Bishop (2006)
disagreed with these scholars in his research among the U.S.
Hispanic communities of Colorado and New Mexico. He described
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Code switching in TV programs

the observed half-English, half Spanish speech mixture as

astonishing and pervasiveits use independent of social class
as well as education level. Today, prevailing perspectives sight code
switching as a skilled code, used most effectively by individuals that
have a high degree of mastery in multiple languages. In other
words, code switching is now thought to be an indicator of bilingual
ability rather than merely a demonstration of language deficiency
(Becker 1997) in Bishop (2006).
An individuals level of second language ability can be
demonstrated through his manner of code switching. For example,
those with low levels of proficiency (such as those at the early
stages of second language acquisition) engage in inter-sentential
switching (Becker 1997 in Bishop (2006). That is, one sentence is first
spoken in one language, and another complete sentence is then
spoken in the alternate language. This use has been suggested for
fear of violating grammatical rules when speaking, as this is a less
risky way to switch as compared to code switching within the
same sentence (Sankoff and Poplack 1981) in Bishop (2006). More
advanced bilingual speakers evidence their proficiency in both
languages by participating in intra-sentential code switching, where
the speaker switches back and forth within a single sentence
(Becker 1997) in Bishop (2006). Examples of intra-sentential (within
sentence) code switching are provided (from Espinosa 1911, as
cited by Benson 2001) in Bishop (2006), with the translated versions
italicized:
1. Que fine ice-cream!
What good ice cream!
2. Vamos ir al foot-ball game y despus al baile a tener the time of
our lives.
We are going to go to the football game and then to the dance to
have the time of our lives.
Linguists refer to the primary language used in conversation as
the matrix
Language. The language switched towhich may be seen as nondominant within a conversationis termed the embedded
language. The matrix language is consistently the source of the
grammatical frame when participating in code switching. That is, the
grammatical rules of the matrix language guide the formation of
code switched sentence structure. Bishop (2006)

1.1.4 Types of Code- switching and Code- mixing

Bishop states that Code-switching can be either inter-sentential,
intra-sentential or Tag- switching. In inter-sentential code-switching,
the language switch is done at sentence boundaries. This is seen
most often between fluent bilingual speakers. He adds "Sometimes I
will start a sentence in English y termin in espaol". In intrasentential code-switching, the shift is done in the middle of a
sentence, with no interruptions, hesitations, or pauses indicating a
shift. It often happens within one sentence or even a one phrase.
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Code switching in TV programs

10

The speaker is usually unaware of the switch. The third type of code
switching is known as" Tag- switching". This involves the insertion of
a tag in one language into an utterance that is otherwise entirely in
the other language.
The most common type of language switching is known as
mechanical switching; intra-sentential. It occurs unconsciously, and
is also known as code-mixing. Code-mixing occurs when a speaker is
momentarily unable to remember a term, but is able to recall it in a
different language. In this study only code-mixing between
languages is considered here particularly mixing between Arabic
and English language; however, switching between dialects, and
even more so, between styles or registers is also frequent. Bishop
(2006).

1.1.5 Most Common Code switch Types

Poplack (1981) in Bishop (2006) provides us with different types or patterns
of code switching:

1. Full sentence: Good morning

everybody
3. between major noun phrase and verb phrase: were illiterate

4. between verb phrase and object noun phrase: his father

5. between verb phrase and prepositional phrase:
with some people
6. between verb and adverb: hardly
7. between noun and adjective: perfect
8. between determiner and noun: character
11. Interjection ... so
12. Tag phrase: you know
Poplack (1981) in Bishop (2006) found that nearly half the switches
were full sentence switches, with the next most common switches
found between the noun phrase and the verb phrase (example #3),
between the verb phrase and the object noun phrase (example #4)
and between the verb phrase and the prepositional phrase (example
#5). The noun was found to be the single most frequently switched
item. According to Lipski (1982), nouns provide the bilingual speaker
with a ready word which may not be found in one language or
which, for whatever reason, seems more appropriately expressed in
one language than in another (p. 197). Bishop (2006)

1.1.6 Uncommon Code switches

It is more uncommon to find code switching among elements that
are different in grammatical structure between two languages. This
is due to the inherent desire of the speaker to maintain
grammaticality during the discourse process. Perhaps the greatest
structural conflict between Arabic and English concerns the use of
adjectives due to differences in adjective placement within a
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Code switching in TV programs

11

sentence. According to Sridhar and Sridhar (1980) in Bishop (2006),

Adjectives normally precede the noun in English except in certain
specific structures (e.g., when preceded by an adverb), and follow
the noun in Spanish except when they are members of a closed set
(e.g., possessives, ordinals, and other limiting adjectives).
Therefore, single code switched adjectives are less likely to be found
in Spanish/English code switching as compared to other
grammatical forms of code switching. However, they do occur. And
when they do, they nearly always obey the language-specific
structural constraints (Sridhar and Sridhar 1980) in Bishop (2006) of
the matrix language. For example, Poplack (1981) found that less
than one percent of adjectival Spanish/English code switches defied
grammatical rules. Bishop (2006)

1.1.7 Factors behind code-mixing

Many factors like the setting, the interlocutor, the social circumstances or the topic
play an important role when choosing the code. Besides, using a code serves to
express something. You can show solidarity or refusal, social integrity or distance,
intimacy or coldness via certain codes. As we can see, the choice of a code depends
on many different factors and sometimes it is important to be aware which code to
choose because every choice carries meaning and is interpreted by the interlocutors.
Walte (2006).

According to Bishop (2006) code switching is the result of two

factors; conscious and unconscious factors.

Unconscious factors of Code switching

Becker (1997) in Bishop (2006) classifies unconsciously motivated

code switches to three Categories:
-The first category includes code switches that result from a
momentary inclination during the production stage of speech. This
generally means that a speaker is not able to access the equivalent
lexical item in the other language.
-The second category refers to switches that are triggered due to
the frequent exposure of such items in another language. This is due
to habitual use of these terms, so that their usage is no longer a
conscious choice.
- The third category for unconsciously triggered code switches is due
to the untranslatability of a given item into another language. This
occurs when a speaker would be hard-pressed to find an appropriate
synonym in another language. The German term shadenfreude
which refers to the pleasure derived from anothers misfortune
would fall here.

Conscious factors

It has also been discovered in Bishop (2006) that bilingual code

switches may also occur due to several factors:
-conscious psychological factors:
According to Becker (1997) in Bishop (2006), Psycholinguists have
found that bilingual speakers use code switching as a
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Code switching in TV programs

12

communication resource to achieve their communicative

intentions.
- Conscious social factors:
Individuals may use code switching to convey a specific identity for
them. Myers-cotton (1993) in Bishop (2006) states: Identity is used
in a very general sense; I do not mean to imply that code choices
can fashion new persons out of speakers. What they can do is
negotiate a particular identity for the speaker in relation to other
participants in the exchange.
- In terms of communication, individuals may use code switching to
negotiate a meaning that is better or more easily expressed using
multiple languages rather than remaining within a single language.
- According to Becker (1997) in Bishop (2006), By consciously
switching from one language to another, the bilingual sends a signal
to the addressee to search for additional meaning beyond the
content of the message. Such extralinguistic information may
include a signaling of status, education and authority by evidencing
multiple identities through code switching. Bishop (2006).

1.1.8 Attitudes toward Code switching

A bilinguals attitude toward code switching is one of the most

important
determinants of whether or not he practices it and how he views
others who use it
(Grosjean 1982; Luna and Peracchio 2005) in Bishop (2006).
Therefore, attitudes toward the practice should not be negative.
Luna and Peracchio (2005a) in Bishop (2006) define attitudes toward
code switching as the extent to which individuals believe code
switching to be a desirable practice. In general, bilinguals are
believed to possess negative attitudes to code switching, even when
its use is common among community members (Luna and Peracchio
2005a; Hidalgo 1986; Ramirez, Milk and Sapiens 1983) in Bishop
(2006). Past research has indicated that bilinguals have a negative
attitude toward code switching in spite of its widespread use in
society (Hidalgo 1986; Ramirez, Milk and Sapiens 1983; Luna and
Peracchio 2005a) in Bishop (2006). Individuals tend to believe that
code switching somehow violates the purity of their home
language (Hussein 1999 in Bishop (2006)). According to Alvarez
(1997) in Bishop (2006), Traditionalists have sometimes deplored
this code switching between languages, often calling it a product of
laziness and ignorance. Others consider mixing two languages as a
sign of linguistic dexterity (Alvarez 1997) in Bishop (2006) and a
tool to evidence another positively evaluated identity. Thus, there
appears to be a discrepancy between explicit (stated) attitudes and
implicit attitudes (actual beliefs) toward code switching. Hussein
(1999) in Bishop (2006) best summarizes this argument as follows:
There seems to be a marked contrast between what some bilinguals
believe and their actual verbal behavior. Whereas they call for a
separation in the use of the
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Code switching in TV programs

13

two codes and the elimination of elements from language A in the

use of language
B and vice versa, their actual speech behavior points to the
contrary. He offers Pandits (1990) example of the case of a HindiEnglish speaker who is states that he is not in favor of mixing
English with Hindi in his family, although his statements clearly
contradict with his manner of speech (English words in bold,
translation in italics): main to pure hindi bolana like karati hun mix
karane ka to question hi nahin uthatta apani daughter aur sons ko
bhi pure Hindi bolane ko-encourage karatti hun. (I like to speak pure
Hindi. The question of mixing Hindi and English does not arise. I also
encourage my daughter and sons to speak pure Hindi.) (Pandit
1985: 17) Bishop (2006).

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Code switching in TV programs

14

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter offers a review of the Literature on language codemixing, including historical and contemporary views concerning its
existence and development.
Earlier studies that dealt with code switching as a major topic
started in the 1960s with Gumperz 1964; Lehtinen 1966; and Clyne
1967 (Boumans 1998:9). In 1970s, most of the code mixing studies
(e.g., Gumperz 1976, 1979; Pfaff 1976, 1979; Myers-Scotton 1989,
etc.) drew on two interacting language systems Spanish-English to
analyze the grammatical structures and syntactic rules of these two
interacting language systems in code switched sentences.
A considerable number of studies were also carried out dealing with
code switching between Moroccan Arabic and other languages
mostly French and Dutch. Worthwhile mentioning studies are
Abbassis (1977); Bentahilas (1983a, 1983b); Bentahila et als.
1983, 1991); Boumanss (1998); Heaths (1989); Eids (1992);
Myers-Scotton, Jake, and Okashas (1996); Nait Mbarek and
Sankoffs (1988); Nortier (1989, 1990a, 1990b, 1995); and Saids
(1988).
revealed that code switches consisted of smaller
constituents (adjectives, adverbs, determiners, nouns, prepositions,
and verbs) and larger constituents (e.g., sentences and clauses).
This finding lends support to Bentahila study (1983) on the same
language pairs in which it was also revealed that switches occurred
in various syntactic environments (Bentahila) in Redouane (.).
Data also revealed that nouns constitute a large number of
switches. This finding corroborates the findings of various studies
involving different language pairs, for example Berk-Seligsons
(1986) study on Hebrew-Spanish; Pfaffs 1979; Poplacks (1980,
1981); and Timms (1975) studies on English-Spanish where nouns
were found to comprise the highest number of switches (BerkSeligson 1986:314). The findings of Gumperz (1976) and Poplack
(1980) studies, however, run counter to this finding. In these two
studies, sentence was found the most highly switched constituent.
The finding that switches between an Arabic determiner and a
French noun was possible within noun boundary is in line with
Bentahila (1983) and Abbassis (1977) investigating the same
Redouane(..)

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Code switching in TV programs

15

language pair. The non-occurrence of the opposite that is switching

between French determiner and an Arabic noun does, however,
corroborate the claim made by Abbassi (1977) who states that this
type of switching is not permissible. Within sentence boundary, the
finding of switches between the subject and verb, and between the
main verb and its complements (e.g., between verb and object, and
between verb and adverb) lends support to Bentahila's study (1983)
where various switches occurred between French subject and Arabic
predicate or vice versa. Also the finding that switches between the
Arabic auxiliary and French verb supports Bentahila's study (1983)
where the data show evidence of switches where a main verb in
Arabic introduces a French complement verb (Bentahila) in
Redouane. However, Abassis
(1977) claim runs counter to this finding. Also Timm in his (1975) on
Spanish-English code switching, and in his (1977) study on RussianFrench finds that this type of switches is impossible. Evidence was
also found for switches in clause boundary where the co-ordinating
or subordinate conjunctions in different positions in a clause, and in
the same or different language as the first or second clause. These
types of switches are in line with Bentahilas study (1983) where
various examples of switches at various types of clause boundary
also occurred. Gumperz, however, does not support the finding that
the conjunction can be in different language as the first or second
clause by claiming that the conjunction must always be in the same
language as the second clause when a switch occurs between the
two conjoined clauses (1976:34). Similarly, kachru in his (1977)
study, investigating Hindi-English code switching, advances that
when a switch occurred between two clauses it is impossible that
the conjunction be in a different language from both the clauses it
conjoins. Moreover, there is evidence in the data of instances of
lexical items that consist of morphemes from both Arabic and
French. Switches occurred mainly across word internal morpheme
boundaries involving an inflectional morpheme from Arabic and a
root morpheme from French. This finding in line with Bentahilas
studies (1983 and 1992) where instances of switching between a
root morpheme and an inflection were found in Moroccan ArabicFrench corpora. For example, in their (1992) study, Bentahila reports
a number of examples that consist of French verb stems inflected
with Arabic affixes. Also, in Berk-Seligsons study (1986)
investigating Spanish-Hebrew code switching, there were instances
where the free morpheme constraint was violated. One of the
instances in this study is the use of the Hebrew stem talfn phone,
call which was attached to a Spanish verb ending (Berk-Seligson
1986:333). The findings of this study have demonstrated, on the
one hand, that the speech of these Arabic-French bilingual
Moroccans contained varied switches between French and Arabic in
both formal and informal situations, and on the other hand, that a
considerable number of cases of switching occurred even though

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16

the surface structure of the two languages is not equivalent. This

violation of the syntactic
rules and structures of either language can be used as evidence to
refute the validity and universality of the three linguistic constraints.
In the following paragraphs, counter examples of the equivalence
structure constraint where switches occurred within syntactic
structures that are different in both languages, resulting in violating
the surface form of either language will be discussed. It has been
argued (Poplack 1980) that switching is possible only within
structures, which have the same surface form in both languages and
if it does not violate the surface syntactic rules of the
Languages involved. Worthwhile mentioning examples of nonequivalence structures of Arabic and French where the code
switching occurred are the following. First is the case of switching
between subject and main verb. In Arabic the required ordering of
constituents in declarative sentences is mainly VSO (verb-subjectobject), however, in French declarative sentences, the required
order is SVO (subject-verb-object) where the subject must precede
the verb. The data include instances of switching between subject
and verb in an Arabic surface structure (VSO) as in examples 5(F)
and 5(I).
Bentahila (1983) strongly supports the findings of this study.
Bentahila (1983) found that their French-Arabic code switching data
exhibited a number of violations of this constraint. Code switches
occurred between subject and main verb in cases where French
declarative sentences require a SVO order of elements and Arabic
sentences require a VSO ordering. Another counter example of
equivalence structure constraint is the case of switching between
adjectives and nouns. Although, in both Arabic and French the place
of adjectives is after the nouns they modify, in French, however,
there are some other adjectives that must precede their nouns. In
this study, there is evidence of switches by these Moroccan
speakers between adjectives and nouns in cases where French
adjectives normally precede a noun, and where Arabic requires the
opposite order.
Another worth mentioning difference between French and Arabic
structures is the use of a definite article before an adjective. Arabic
requires that an adjective within a define noun phrase to be
accompanied by a definite article, for example, in Arabic, we have
/lmalik lmabsut/, literally the king the happy. In French, however,
the adjective is not preceded by a definite article. Yet switches were
found in the data in both directions. Last but not the least is the
difference of number of determiners in noun phrases between the
two languages. In French, a noun is only preceded by a single
definite or indefinite determiner. While this is true in Arabic, there
are cases where a noun may contain a sequence of two determiners
as the indefinite determiner /waed/, and the demonstratives /had/
and /dak/ that must be followed by a definite article. Redouane
adds,"In this study, there were instances of switches between Arabic
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17

determiner and French noun and vice versa in an Arabic surface

structure , for example, /had la ville/, literally that the city, /waed
le programme/, literally one the program".
In Redouane's study in" Linguistic Constraints on Code switching and Code mixing of
Bilingual Moroccan Arabic-French Speakers in Canada" finds that switches occur in
two directions from either French to Arabic or Arabic to French, but
the former was most frequent. Code switching practices among
these Moroccan Arabic speakers vary from the use of either French
or Arabic single words to larger sequences of words in single
utterances. Data yield various instances of switches within noun
phrases. Within this boundary, switches occurred between
determiner and noun, noun and adjective. Also, the data include
examples of switches between subject and verb, verb and object,
verb and adverb in Arabic or French simple sentences. Moreover,
instances of switches were also found in a clause boundary involving
various types of subordinate clauses, namely adverbial, conditional,
and relative. One of the most striking findings found in the study is
that these Moroccan speakers switched smaller constituents (e.g.,
adjectives, adverbs, determiners, nouns, and verbs) than larger
constituents. More importantly, nouns were the most often highly
switched syntactic category among
smaller constituents.

2.2 Code switching in the Media

Code switching has been observed in many media communication
vehicles, including television programming (Alvarez 1997), bestselling novels (Chavez 2002), popular music and radio (Stavans
2003; Alvarez 1997) and the Internet (Dillon 2000) in Bishop (2006).
In childrens television programming, several prominent shows that
include Spanish/English code switching are Nick Juniors Dora the
Explorer, and Go, Diego, Go, the Disney Channels Manny the
Mechanic, and PBSs Maya and Miguel and Dragon tales. The
primary characters are children of Hispanic background who
primarily speak English with switches to Spanish (expect on the
Spanish Nick Jr. Station where Dora the Explorer speaks primarily
Spanish with brief switches to English).
Regarding radio, there are currently more Spanish-language
radio stations in California alone compared to the whole of Central
America (Stavans 2003). In this domain, code switching may also be
found extensively, especially in many Southwestern communities of
the United States. Alvarez (1997) in Bishop (2006) provides this
example of Spanish/English code switching on a Texas radio station:
Those who tune into KXTN-FM in San Antonio, which has been No. 1
in the ratings for four years running, hear deejays saying things like,
"Recuerdales que hoy, esta tarde, vamos a estar en vivo in Dillards,
broadcasting live from 3 to 5, with your chance to win some cool
KXTN prizes. Acompanen a sus amigos." Translation: Remember
that today, this afternoon; we are going to go live from Dillards,
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Code switching in TV programs

18

broadcasting live from 3 to 5. Come with your friends." Even the

station's advertisers have requested that their commercials be
broadcast [using code switching], recognizing that the language can
tap into the listener's bicultural world. Furthermore, Latina
magazine, one of the most popular magazines amongst Spanishspeaking women, currently employs English-to-Spanish code
switches throughout its content as well as on its Internet site.
According to Haubegger (1997) in Bishop (2006), the publisher of
Latina, "If we were an English magazine, we would just be general
marketIf we were a Spanish-language magazine, we would be
Latin American. We are the intersection of the two, and we reflect a
life between two languages and two cultures that our readers live
in" (as quoted by Alvarez 1997) Bishop (2006).

2.3 Code switching in Advertising

Although code switching is not a common practice in advertising,

instances of its
use have been identified in advertising. For example, an AFLAC
advertisement in
Hispanic magazine targeting U.S. Latinos asked, Twenty million
hijas (daughters) are covered by AFLAC. Is yours? (in Luna and
Peracchio 2005b). However, academic research concerning the
impact of code switching in advertising has been limited. Some
notable exceptions include the recent works of David Luna and
Laura Perrachio (2005a, b). Their focus has been on HispanicAmerican bilinguals. A primary contribution these authors make is
the identification of the code switching direction effect. This refers
to which language is made salient by the process of code switching.
For example, Twenty million hijas are covered by AFLAC, may be
seen as an English-to-Spanish code switch. English, in this case
would be the matrix language and Spanish the embedded one.
Using other terminology, Luna and eracchio (2005a, b) would call
changing from Spanish to English a Minority-to-Majority language
code switch. They state that a language may be considered the
majority (minority) language if it is (not) the language used by the
group that holds the political, cultural and economic power within a
country (Luna and Peracchio 2005a; Grosjean 1982) in Bishop
(2006). Their findings (2005b) reveal that the direction in which the
code switching goes has an influence on persuasion through the
outcomes affecting product evaluation. Specifically, they found that
changing from the Majority language (in this case, English) to the
Minority language (Spanish) within an advertising message
resulted in lower product evaluations than changing in the opposite
direction. They attribute this to the minority language being made
more salient and its impact on persuasion. Specifically, individuals
engaged in more negative elaboration when Spanish was made
salient through the Spanish-to-English code switch. The authors
were able to reverse this code switching direction effect through a
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19

manipulation of attitudes toward the majority and minority

languages. That is, when individuals were prompted as to the
positive benefits of knowing and speaking Spanish, products
advertised in English-to-Spanish (or Majority-to-Minority) code
switched slogans were evaluated more highly than in the Spanishto-English (Minority-to- Majority) condition. Luna and Peracchio
(2005a) in Bishop (2006) also examined the effect of attitudes
toward codes witching on persuasion. In the neutral condition (in
which attitudes toward code switching were not manipulated), they
replicated their results of the previous study. Specifically, they found
that English-to-Spanish code switches resulted in more negative
elaboration and hence lower product evaluation. However, they also
showed that when English was made salient through the Spanish-toEnglish code switch, more positive than negative elaboration
occurred in the non-manipulated condition. However, they also
found that an individuals attitude toward code switching could
affect product evaluation. Particularly, they found that when
negative attitudes toward code switching were induced, more
negative elaboration occurred. Inducing more positive attitudes
toward Code switching, however, did not increase positive
elaboration beyond the neutral Condition, suggesting a ceiling effect
for evaluations of code switched ads. Further, Luna and Peracchio
(2005a) found support for a contextual effect on evaluations of code
switched ads. When the context in which a code switched ad was
manipulated, the authors were able to overcome the expected code
switching direction. That is, an English-to-Spanish (Majority-toMinority) code switched ad was viewed more positively than a
Spanish-to-English ad when it was viewed in the context of a
magazine that employed English-to-Spanish code switching, thus
reversing the code switching direction effect. The authors suggest
that if bilinguals perceive a specific type of code switching (Majorityto-Minority vs. Minority-to-Majority) to be the norm, they will react
more favorably to it. Bishop (2006).

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CAPTER THREE
This chapter describes the framework of the present study, including the research
design and methods. It explains how the research was conducted, and how the data
were collected and analyzed.

3.1 Research Design and Methodology

The method the researcher is going to follow is the observational

method of the non-participant type. The researcher will observe the
phenomenon of code switching as it occurs in natural settings. The
researcher will watch different types of TV programs to observe
when and why the participants on those programs code switch/ mix.
Thus the source of data in this study will be the utterances that are
produced by some bilingual's in different programs.

3.2

Population and Sample

The population of this study is every bilingual participant in any TV

program presented in any Arabic channel. Since the researcher is
unable to watch every TV program, and since he is unable to catch
every bilingual participant on those programs, he will chose some
samples for his study. The samples of this study are those TV
programs in which we could find bilinguals in Arabic and English
language. Actually, there are different types of TV programs such as
religious, entertainment, news, infotainment, sportetc, but
bilinguals in Arabic and English language cannot be found in all
these programs. For example, participants in religious programs
cannot shift from the Arabic language. Thus the researcher will
chose his sample intendedly.

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Code switching in TV programs

21

3.3 Data collection instrument

The researcher collects his data through the close observation of the
bilinguals in TV programs, using sheets only.

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Findings and discussions
This chapter discusses the findings concerning code switching in TV
programs. The data that are collected through the close observation
of some TV programs are analyzed to answer the questions of this
study;
Research Question 1: In which type of TV programs we could find a
heavy use of English within Arabic language structures?
Research Question 2: what different kinds of code switching do
occur?
Research Question 3: why and in which situation do people do it?
4.2 Types of TV programs:
The findings of this study show that there are two different types of
T V programs; TV programs in which we could find an extensive use
of English words, the second type of TV programs are those
programs in which we could not find a single word of English
language. The first type of T V programs includes programs of
fashion, programs of health; in short I can say that in the
infotainment programs we can find an extensive use of English
words. The second type include "news, religious programs, sports,
documentary programs, programs of animals and natural disaster,
educational programsetc. The researcher suggests that in the
second type of TV programs we could find some bilinguals, but they
are not allowed to mix languages as the addressing the whole social
classes neglecting any social differences. While in the first type of
TV programs, the speaker is addressing a particular social class,
gender, or a particular age, so he knows very well what kind of
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22

variety should he use and when he should switch to the other

language.

4.3 Analyzing data based on the grammatical

approach
Patterns of code switching:
As we have mentioned previously, the researcher in this study will
depends on the most common types of switching that are provided by
Poplack. Poplack (1981) in Bishop (2006) provides us with different types or
patterns of code switching:

1. Full sentence: Good morning

everybody
2. between major noun phrase and verb phrase: were illiterate

3. between verb phrase and object noun phrase: his father

4. between verb phrase and prepositional phrase:
with some people
5. between verb and adverb: hardly
6. between noun and adjective: perfect
7. between determiner and noun: character
8. Tag phrase: you know
9. Interjection: ok
The data of this study shows that nearly half the switches were
between the verb phrase and the noun phrase, between the
determiner and the noun phrase, and between the noun and the
adjective. The noun was found to be the single most frequently
switched item. In this study nouns were found to comprise the highest number of
switches.
The findings of this study show that while bilinguals switch their language from
Arabic into English, some changing in the grammar of one of the languages may
occur. These changes can be at the level of morphology, or at the level of syntax.

4.3.1 Changes at the level of phonology:

No noticeable changes at the level of sounds are there

4.3.2 Changes at the level of morphology:

Mostly when a bilingual switches his language from Arabic into English this switch
does not accompanied with any change in the morphological rule of the mixed word.
For example, her movement , stability ,
Surgery , qualities
But sometimes a morphological change may occur. For example:

1- Inflections

Inflectional affixes signal grammatical relationships, such as

plural, past tense and possession, and do not change the
grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached; that
is, the words constitute a single paradigm, e.g. walk, walks,
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Code switching in TV programs

23

walked. Plurality in English is expressed through adding the

inflectional suffix/s, es/ to the nouns. Plurality in Arabic language,
in the other hand, is more complicated than those of English, and can be
expressed through adding the suffix or ,
The data of this study revealed that switching between a root morpheme and an
inflection were found; an inflectional morpheme from Arabic and a root morpheme
from English .An English noun can be pluralized by adding the Arabic inflectional
suffix. For example,
-sacks

-characters

-marks

-masks

2. Word class:
The findings of this study reveal that the class of the word may also change while switching
from Arabic into English. An English verb may be used as a noun in Arabic. For example,
-made
- effect
-look

4.3.3 Changes at the level of syntax

The data of this study reveal that switches between an Arabic determiner and an
English noun or adjective are possible. For example,
- hard
- Simple
- Old age
The findings of this study show that there are not any changes at the level of syntax.
In English language the possessive pronouns usually precede the noun. For instance
"my book". But in Arabic language the possessive pronouns come after the nouns"
" . When people switch from Arabic into English, the structure of Arabic language
control his switching, so in this case they switch their language at the same time will
maintain the grammatical structure of Arabic language " , ,

4.4 Analyzing data based on the

sociolinguistic approach
Many factors like the setting, the interlocutor, the social circumstances or the topic
play an important role when choosing the code. Besides, using a code serves to
express something. You can show solidarity or refusal, social integrity or distance,
intimacy or coldness via certain codes. As we can see, the choice of a code depends
on many different factors and sometimes it is important to be aware which code to
choose because every choice carries meaning and is interpreted by the interlocutors.
Walte (2006).
As it is mentioned before there are several factors behind code switching, some are
conscious and others are unconscious. These factors are
- The speaker is momentarily unable to remember a term, but is able to recall it in a
different language.
- The speaker is not able to access the equivalent lexical item in the other language.
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Code switching in TV programs

24

- The frequent exposure of such items; habitual use of these terms.

- The untranslatability of a given item into another language.
- The speakers switch to another language to achieve their communicative
intentions or
- To convey a specific identity for them in relation to other participants in the
exchange.
- To negotiate a meaning that is better or more easily expressed using multiple
languages rather than remaining within a single language.
- To search for additional meaning beyond the content of the message such
extralinguistic information may include a signaling of status, education and authority
by evidencing multiple identities through code switching.
- To exclude or include a participant
- To quote others sentences.
- To express anger, amusement, strictness, seriousness, threateningetc.
- To fill the gaps.
- To express solidarity.
- showing off.
The researcher notices that the speaker is usually unaware of the switching.
The findings of this study reveal that the most common reason
behind code switching is the habitual use of some English terms. Words
such as style, look, teacher, bicycle, exercises, masks, make up
etc, are mostly common words among bilinguals.
Another reason behind this switching is that speakers are momentarily
unable to remember an Arabic term, but is able to recall it in English language. That
is because the frequent exposure of such items so it is easier for the
speaker to recall these items in English rather than in Arabic.
In discussing some important topics in TV programs, speakers do
not usually want to make so many pauses in their speech so they
use the interjections to fill the gaps. For example, words such as "ok,
you know, I mean, soetc. are of heavy use among bilinguals.
The findings of this study reveal that Style's programs are the
most type of TV programs in which we could find a heavy use of
English words. The speakers in those programs usually switch into
English for a purpose; they know that their audience is from the high
class, so they switch to English language to achieve their communicative
intentions. They want to attract the attention of that group by
expressing solidarity.
In programs that are related to health, the speakers usually
switch to English language because the read, say and studied those
terms in English language. So it will be easier for them to recall
those items in English more than in Arabic language. The most
frequent English words that are used in this domain are "surgery,
exercises, patient, healthy, mind, feet, words related to parts of
body, stabilityetc.
The speaker is not able to access the equivalent lexical item in the other language
The strangest thing in this phenomenon is even cookers switch
their code from Arabic into English, for what purpose do they code
switch?!!!
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Code switching in TV programs

25

The researcher in this study notices that such speakers are using in
English language to show of. They want to show that they are also
as well educated as others. Another possible reason for this
switching can be to show that this meal is a new one which is taken
from foreign countries such as " up side down '
.Words that are used in this domain are " sugar, milk, Sault, spices,
wateretc.

CAPTER FIVE
5 Conclusion
5.1 Summary of the findings

In this study, I have attempted to explore the reasons behind code

switching and to explore the most common type of switching. The
data of this study shows that nearly half the switches were between
the verb phrase and the noun phrase, between the determiner and
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Code switching in TV programs

26

the noun phrase, and between the noun and the adjective. The noun
was found to be the single most frequently switched item.
The findings of this study show that while bilinguals switch their language from
Arabic into English, some changing in the grammar of one of the languages may
occur. These changes can be at the level of morphology, or at the level of syntax.
Bilinguals in TV programs usually switch into English intendedly.
Every choice of some English items carries meaning. The most prominent
factor behind code switching is the frequent exposure of specific items that
make the speaker momentarily unable to remember them in Arabic language, but is
able to recall it in English language.

5.2 Limitations of the study

This study is concerned with switching Arabic language into English
language in TV programs. Switches from English into Arabic are not
in the researcher's concern.

5.3 Implications for further research

At the end of this study the researcher suggests that there should
be another study to explore if there are any switches from English
into Arabic, and for what purposes?
The reason behind this suggestion is that people nowadays notice
that many foreign politicians are using Arabic; even the president of
America Barak Obama uses Arabic language when quoting from the
holy Quora'an.

References
BISHOP, M." THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE CODESWITCHING IN INCREASING
ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS AMONG MEXICAN-AMERICAN YOUTH

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Fong, S.2008. "A case study of teachers and students perception of mixed-code
teaching in the F1 English classes of a Hong Kong (CMI) secondary school."
University of Hong Kong.
Liu. 2006." CASE STUDY: ESTABLISHING A SPEECH MICRO-COMMUNITY".
Redouane, R." Linguistic Constraints on Code switching and Code mixing of
Bilingual Moroccan Arabic-French Speakers in Canada". Montclair State University.
Walte.I.2006.CASESTUDY: ESTABLISHING A SPEECH MICRO-COMMUNITY.
University of honor.

ANALYIZING DATA

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Code switching in TV programs

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Pattern
Full
NP+VP N+ADJ V+ADV V+PREP DETE+N TAG VP+NP
of
sentence
switching
*
*
*

*
*
*
*
*

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

*
*
*
*

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

The diagram shows that most of the switches are between determiner and noun phrase

EXAMPLES OF SOME RECORDED UTTERANCES BY SOME

BILINGUALS IN TV PROGRAMS
-

design
made
Fashion

Fashion
effect
Simple
Refinement
Artistic

28

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
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Code switching in TV programs

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29