Brief Guide to Skills and Methodology in History: Prof. Paul Tonks (U.I.C.

)
2 Major Texts are Highly Recommended:
[General] Jules R. Benjamin, A Students Guide to History (Bedford/St. Martins,
Boston, 2004, 9th edition) this is the one that I am using for the quotes, but I wont cite
pages specifically as we may have different editions. See below.
The Central Library has the 1987 4th edition: Call # 907 87a
[Research Paper] Kate L. Turabian, Students Guide for Writing College Papers
(University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1976, 3rd edition)
The Library has several editions/versions, including the 1976 one: Call # 808.042 T84s
I shall place these on reserve in the Library for you, on the 2nd Floor Course Reserve
Section, so that they will be available whenever you need to consult them as a reference
guide you might also consider taking out on loan an alternate copy or indeed
purchasing one, perhaps online.
The following guidelines and advice are chiefly drawn from the above Benjamin text.
Likewise, I would recommend that you make use of the associated website, which has
links to a large number of resources (such as primary and secondary sources):
< http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/benjamin10e/default.asp >
I would reiterate also that it would be in your best interest to talk with me individually
about your work, especially the Research Paper (which constitutes a significant
proportion of your course grade).
Methods of Historical (and Interdisciplinary) Research
History has been influenced by many other disciplines, particularly in recent years, e.g.
Psychology, Sociology, Political Science, Anthropology etc. An example might be the
use of demographic statistical data in Quantitative History.
Types of Historical Evidence
There are 2 Basic Forms of Historical Evidence: Primary & Secondary Sources.
1/ A Primary Source records the actual historical event (it is first-hand evidence).
Examples: Diaries, Letters, Notebooks, Newspaper Accounts. Official Data, such as
government legislation, census returns etc. also constitute primary sources. In the
modern era, primary sources might take a number of different forms, such as
video/audio recordings, photographs etc.

2/ A Secondary Source is a source produced not by a witness/participant in an historical

event, but by someone who has investigated it subsequently, e.g. a modern historian (so
most historical writing, such as an academic journal article, constitutes secondary
evidence some historical writing is in fact Tertiary (third level) because it is drawn
from secondary rather than primary sources, though).
Categorizing Historical Information/Evidence
Objective Conditions This could involve quantitative data, for example, on
population statistics.
Social: e.g. Race/Ethnicity, Class, Gender
Political Mode of Governance, for example What institutions governed a particular
place/people.
Economic Questions such as the make-up of the economy (Internal vs. External trade,
for example).
Subjective Conditions (or Culture/Identity)
Elite & Popular Culture (so, in early modern Britain and America, for example, one
might consider the relationship of the intellectual culture of the elite to the popular
culture of the mass of the population. One could take a key area such as Religion and
then ask major Questions: Were the Beliefs of the Elite significantly in tension with
those of the mass of the Population?)
One would aim to try to relate these two types of Historical Evidence Objective and
Subjective to each other in order to Answer/Assess Key Historical Interpretive
Debates:
How did peoples self-definition (or cultural identity) relate to their socio-economic
status/gender/race etc.?
Using Historical Evidence
You must pay careful attention to the use of Evidence. This means that you need to be
aware of issues of reliability, bias and so forth. How can we aim to use Evidence
effectively? The key test is to compare sources (preferably as many as possible in order
to give us a good sample or data-set). One can examine sources for consistency, for
example. One may have several different accounts of the same event think about what
would happen if you asked your friends to discuss a sports match or concert, one would
probably have a great variety of different opinions/memories.
One needs to display clear, critical reasoning in order to produce effective historical
analysis and argument based upon the evaluation of a broad range of evidence.
Reading and Preparation

It is worth quoting Prof. Benjamin directly here:

The most common history assignment is the reading of a textbook. Many students hope
to get by with their lecture notes, and they put off reading the textbook until right before
the final exam. Reading the textbook week by week will give you the background
knowledge necessary to understand the lectures and supplementary readings. In most
courses the lectures embellish portions of the textbook, and lecturers assume that
students are familiar with the textbook coverage. Sitting through a lecture on the
economic aspects of the American Revolution may be confusing if you have not read
the textbook discussion of the mercantilist theories behind many of the colonists
grievances.
Taking Notes in Class
Again, it is worth quoting Prof. Benjamin directly here, as he makes a number of key
points that all students should take on board for any History course (and indeed other
courses too):
The first rule of note taking is simple: pay attention. Learn to concentrate on what is
being said. Read assigned texts before going to class so you wont end up taking notes
on the material in the book. If everything the instructor says is new to you, you will
spend so much time writing that you may not be able to grasp the theme of the lecture.
If you have obtained some basic information from outside readings, however, you will
be able to concentrate on noting points in the lecture that are new or different.
I shall provide you with Benjamins Basic Guidelines here:
1/ Prepare for a lecture by reading all related course materials ahead of time.
2/ Write the course information, lecture subject, and date at the top of each page.
3/ Be selective dont try to write everything a lecturer says.
4/ Be sure to write anything that the instructor (a) puts on the board; (b) says is
important; (c) emphasizes as he or she speaks.
5/ Leave room in your notes to add material later if necessary.
6/ Reread your notes later in the day on which they were written.
7/ Underline especially important points.
8/ Look up the meaning of any unfamiliar words.
9/ Rewrite any parts of your notes that are poorly organized.
10/ If something important in your notes is unclear to you, ask your instructor about it.
Benjamin stresses the Range of Skills involved in Studying History:
Studying history provides you with a variety of skills. Reading effectively, taking class
notes, and understanding what you need to know for an exam are three primary skills.
These prepare the way for more advanced goals: clear writing, adequate research, and
the presentation of a well-prepared thesis.

Writing Effectively
Benjamin emphasizes the importance of clear and persuasive writing in History. This is
fundamental in our course. Again, it is worth quoting Benjamin here:
Your writing skills tell the reader a lot about your ability to think clearly, whether you
are writing a student paper or a proposal to your boss . . . clear thinking is the source of
clear writing. Two years after graduating, you may no longer remember the causes of
World War I, but if you have sharpened your writing skills in history assignments, you
will have acquired a skill and an asset that will last a lifetime.
Benjamin identifies 2 major objectives in good, clear writing: Logical Thought and
Persuasive Analysis/Argument.
He offers a brief set of Guidelines for Clear Writing:
1/ Each sentence clearly names its subject.
2/ Each sentence is clear about what the subject is doing.
3/ If you have several points to make about the subject, split them into separate
sentences.
4/ Each sentence adds something to the thesis of the essay.
5/ Each sentence is connected logically to the sentence around it.
6/ Avoid the passive voice.
7/ Use the past tense when writing about past historical events.
8/ Each paragraph is clear about its central point.
9/ When you get to a new point, start a new paragraph.
10/ Prepare your reader for the transition from one paragraph to another with a phrase or
sentence linking the two.
11/ Each paragraph is connected logically to the sentences around it.
The Research Paper both Benjamin and Turabian are Very Useful for You
Benjamin provides, again, a good summary of the value of writing a research paper:
The assignment to write a research paper requires you to gather your own sources of
information and draw your own conclusions. It is one of the most creative tasks you will
do as a history student; the paper you write is uniquely your own. Because a lot of
independent work is involved, research is often the most challenging history
assignment. The skills you gain from this kind of a project (gathering, organizing, and
interpreting evidence) are invaluable. Any professional or business career that you later
pursue will call for one or more of these skills.
Benjamin breaks down the process of producing a good Research Paper into 5 distinct,
though related, Parts:
1/ Choosing a Topic and developing a Thesis

2/ Finding the best Sources of Information

3/ Determining what you need to record from your Sources
4/ Organizing your Research
5/ Writing your Research Paper
Key: Choose something that Interests you! Further Reiteration: You would be advised
to consult with me about your Research Topic/Thesis.
Stages of Developing your Thesis
Identify a Topic Identify a Theme Develop a Thesis
A topic is a broad area, such as the Transatlantic Slave Trade. A theme is narrower: for
example, the British role in the eighteenth-century Transatlantic Slave Trade. A Thesis is
the specific argument that you wish to make about your theme; your thesis, then, might
be: Why British participation in the Transatlantic Slave Trade was crucial to Britains
emergence as a global power.
Crucial Here is the Library and undertaking Research. Remember our Library Trip and
exploration of Undertaking Research (in a rigorous, academic fashion). You need to take
advantage of the many resources that are available to you. In order to do this most
effectively, you should be prepared to seek advice and guidance from Library Staff, and
myself.
Writing a Research Paper
Benjamin advises: Before you begin to write, you need to have narrowed your topic to
a theme, to have fully researched that theme, and to have organized your research . . .
Now comes the final step narrowing your theme to a thesis and stating that thesis
clearly in the introduction to your paper.
Just as in an essay for an exam, a Research Paper must be built around a Strong Thesis.
Here are some brief guidelines:
1/ Have a strong Thesis Statement.
2/ Clearly express points supporting your argument (topic sentences).
3/ Show historiographical awareness of different interpretations (and, ideally, evaluate
these).
4/ Use factual evidence to support your Interpretation (your Thesis).
5/ Use active language, not the passive voice:
*** Who does what to whom? ***

Passive: British tea was boycotted. Active: Rebellious Americans boycotted British
tea.
Impact/effect: This highlights Agency i.e. the active role of participants in shaping
historical events.
6/ Reiterate your Thesis in your Conclusion explain why your topic and specific
argument is important.
7/ Clear, reliable References are crucial. Footnote the Sources (both Factual and
Interpretive) that you draw upon using the Turabian citation method:
a) (Monograph/Book) First citation: author, book title (place of publication,
publication date), pages (this can be abbreviated after the first citation again,
see Turabian.
b) (Journal Article) First citation: author, article title, title of journal (volume
number: month, year), pages.
8/ Pay close attention to Spelling and Grammar see my syllabus remarks on grading!
One Final, but Very, Very, Very Important Point: AVOID PLAGIARISM
There are specific Guidelines for this in both Benjamin and Turabian. Read them
closely. It is your responsibility to know and understand how to avoid Plagiarism.
I shall quote (thus NOT PLAGIARIZE) Benjamin here:
The only thing worse than misquoting your sources is plagiarizing them. Because of
your inexperience with your theme, it may be tempting to use the sophisticated language
of the trained historians you are reading. In most cases, their expertise enables them to
make their points clearly, and it is easy to fall into the dangerous habit of using their
words instead of your own. Remember that your instructor is also a historian and can
tell the difference between the language of someone who has spent years researching a
topic and that of the average history student. Second, and more important, thinking is
learning. If you substitute the simple task of copying for the more difficult but
rewarding one of thinking about something and then expressing it in your own words,
you are doing yourself a disservice. Finally, plagiarism is cheating and is a serious
violation of college rules.
I hope that these brief notes are of help to you. They are merely a starting point,
however. You must take active, personal responsibility for your work and your academic
career. You do have support, though, which is why I stress again that you should take
advantage of the opportunity to come to ask questions and discuss any issues/problems
with me.
Best Wishes,

Prof. Tonks