Constructivism and Social Constructivism in the Classroom

General Overview
In the constructivist classroom, the focus tends to shift from the teacher to the students.
The classroom is no longer a place where the teacher ("expert") pours knowledge into
passive students, who wait like empty vessels to be filled. In the constructivist model, the
students are urged to be actively involved in their own process of learning.
In the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge as a dynamic,
ever-changing view of the world we live in and the ability to successfully stretch and explore
that view - not as inert factoids to be memorized.
Key assumptions of this perspective include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

What the student currently believes, whether correct or incorrect, is important.

Despite having the same learning experience, each individual will base their learning
on the understanding and meaning personal to them.
Understanding or constructing a meaning is an active and continuous process..
Learning may involve some conceptual changes.
When students construct a new meaning, they may not believe it but may give it
provisional acceptance or even rejection.
Learning is an active, not a passive, process and depends on the students taking
responsibility to learn.

The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students use inquiry
methods to ask questions, investigate a topic, and use a variety of resources to find
solutions and answers. As students explore the topic, they draw conclusions, and, as
exploration continues, they revisit those conclusions. Exploration of questions leads to more
questions.
There is a great deal of overlap between a constructivist and social constructivist classroom,
with the exception of the greater emphasis placed on learning through social interaction,
and the value placed on cultural background. For Vygotsky, culture gives the child the
cognitive tools needed for development. Adults in the learners environment are conduits for
the tools of the culture, which include language, cultural history, social context, and more
recently, electronic forms of information access.
In social constructivist classrooms collaborative learning is a process of peer interaction that
is mediated and structured by the teacher. Discussion can be promoted by the presentation
of specific concepts, problems or scenarios, and is guided by means of effectively directed
questions, the introduction and clarification of concepts and information, and references to
previously learned material.

Role of the teacher

Constructivist teachers do not take the role of the "sage on the stage." Instead, teachers act
as a "guide on the side" providing students with opportunities to test the adequacy of their
current understandings

Selected Bibliography
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. Allyn & Bacon, Boston: MA
Hill, W.F. (2002) Learning: A survey of psychological interpretation (7th ed), Allyn and
Bacon, Boston, MA.
Jordan, A., Carlile, O., & Stack, A. (2008). Approaches to learning: A guide for
teachers. McGraw-Hill, Open University Press: Berkshire.
Ormrod, J.E. (1995). Human Learning (2nd ed.). New Jersey, Prentice Hall.
Ryder, M (2009) Instructional Design Models. Downloaded
fromhttp://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/idmodels.html on 30 March
2009)

Selected Resources
List of learning theories and how they apply to practice:
http://icebreakerideas.com/learning-theories/
List of models and good info on each:
http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/idmodels.html
Outline of learning theories:
http://www.learning-theories.com/

Visual thinking and learning in education

Visual learning strategies such as graphic organizers, diagrams, outlines and more are being used in classrooms across the
country. These strategies help students or all ages better manage learning objectives and achieve academic success. As
students are required to evaluate and interpret information from a variety of sources, incorporate new knowledge with what
they already have learned, and improve writing skills and think critically, visual learning tools help students meet those
demands. Paired with the brains capacity for images, visual learning strategies help students better understand and retain
information.
In this section of our website, we offer a variety of resources for better understanding the use of visual learning
methodologies and tools to incorporate into your classroom.
View:
Lesson plans that incorporate visual thinking and outlining and are aligned to the Common Core State Standards.
Our award-winning software tools, Inspiration, Kidspiration, Webspiration Classroom, and InspireData are based
upon proven visual learning methodologies that help students think, learn and achieve. With the powerful combination of

visual learning and technology, students in grades K-12 learn to clarify thoughts, organize and analyze information, integrate
new knowledge, and think critically.

How does visual learning help students?

Visual learning helps students clarify their thoughts
Students see how ideas are connected and realize how information can be grouped and organized. With visual learning,
new concepts are more thoroughly and easily understood when they are linked to prior knowledge.
Visual learning helps students organize and analyze information
Students can use diagrams and plots to display large amounts of information in ways that are easy to understand and help
reveal relationships and patterns.
Visual learning helps students integrate new knowledge
According to research, students better remember information when it is represented and learned both visually and verbally.
Visual learning helps students think critically
Linked verbal and visual information helps students make connections, understand relationships and recall related details.
Visual thinking and learning utilize graphical ways of working with ideas and presenting information. Research in both
educational theory and cognitive psychology tells us that visual learning is among the very best methods for teaching
students of all ages how to think and how to learn
. http://www.inspiration.com/visual-learning

What is a learning style?

The ways that people go about gathering and interpreting information can be surprisingly
different. Research shows that people have different preferences and strengths in how they take
in, and process, information. These preferences are sometimes referred to as learning
styles and are used to describe and help us understand the different ways in which different
people learn.
Some learners may be very receptive to visual forms of information such as pictures and
diagrams, whilst others prefer written and spoken explanations. Some people prefer to learn
actively and interactively, whilst others work better on their own.
The idea of learning styles usually refers to a preferred way of learning. It implies that each
individual has a natural inclination toward learning of some kind and, that if that preference can
be identified, teaching and learning experiences can be provided to help that person learn more
effectively.
Learning styles theory is not intended to pigeonhole or type people, but to understand better the
ways they learn.
A review of the most popular theories of learning styles can be found in the section on Difference
within Teaching for Effective Learning. This covers:

Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic learners

The Power of Diversity - Barbara Prashnig

Kolb's Learning Style Model

Felder-Silverman Learning Style

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Learning styles research

Over the years, a number of different learning styles theories have emerged. The majority of
these have been based on responses to questionnaires, and since this approach relies on
peoples willingness and ability to be accurate and objective about the ways that they learn, the
validity of learning styles theory has often been questioned.
The most thorough review of learning styles theory was undertaken by the Learning and Skills
Research Centre at Newcastle University whose 170-page report entitled Learning Styles and
Pedagogy in Post-16 Learning was published in 2004.
The Newcastle University researchers identified a wide range of learning styles models and also
reviewed the significant volume of research carried out into learning styles during the past 30
years. This included David Kolbs influential inventory of Learning Styles research between 1971
and 2004, and also Dunn and Dunns Learning Styles bibliography containing over 1000 entries.
It was not only the number of learning styles models which surprised the Newcastle University
team, but the differences in what the models claimed to measure and the terminology used to
describe different kinds of learners. The researchers concluded that this is potentially confusing
for both schools and educational policy makers who are not specialists in the field.

Identifying the common beliefs about learning styles

The Newcastle team reviewed 71 models of learning styles developed over the past 50 years and
identified 13 as major models, largely based on their popularity. They also sought to establish
families of learning styles based on common principles and methodologies.
Providing a holistic view of learning styles theory, however, has frequently proved difficult for
educational writers since there is no common conceptual framework or language across learning
styles models. Although there are some overlapping concepts, there is no direct comparability
between models. Across the broad landscape of learning styles models, however, it is possible to
draw some broad conclusions:

Most learning style theories focus heavily on the ability to think

The skills of visualising and verbalising are common to many models

Few approaches address the role of feelings and emotions within learning

Few theories deal with the role of physical activity within learning.
In summary, the Newcastle researchers were sceptical about the validity and reliability of most of
the main learning styles theories. Little, if any, of the research on which the main theories are
based has ever been published and there is a lack of scientific evidence to support the
underpinning constructs of learning styles theory.

No universally accepted theory

The BECTA report on learning styles (2005) support several of the key conclusions of the
Newcastle University review. The BECTA report concluded that, despite the many opinions on
learning styles, there are few generally agreed facts. Whilst some theories are more influential
than others, no model of learning styles is universally accepted. The BECTA report, however,
summarised some of the consistent messages associated with learning styles.

There is no secure evidential base to support any one theory of learning styles - it is
important to be aware of the limitations of any learning styles model and indeed of the field as a
whole.

Any theory or model of learning styles is a simplification of the complexity of how

students learn.

Learning styles are at best one of a range of factors determining how learners react to
learning opportunities - environment, teaching methods and curriculum requirements are all part
of a complex pattern of interactions.

There is a danger inherent in learning styles of labelling students as particular kinds of

learners - given the lack of robust evidence in the field, labelling strategies seems safer than
labelling learners.

An awareness of learning styles theories may help to develop metacognition and the
ability to learn how to learn.

At least some aspects of learning styles and strategies can be taught, regardless of the
natural inclination of individual learners.
A number of influential writers (including Kolb, Honey and Mumford) have argued recently that
learning styles are not determined by inherited characteristics, but develop through
experience. Styles are, therefore, not necessarily fixed and can change over time, even from one
situation to the next. Bloomer and Hodkinson (2000) argue that learning styles are not a major
determinant of how people learn and that the effects of contextual, cultural and relational issues
are much greater.
Suzuki and Restak also promote the possibility that the brain has the ability to change (plasticity)
and transform itself based on experience. If this is true, then it is possible that learning styles
can also change and transform themselves based on experience. If teachers promote a preferred
set of learning styles for individual students, they may in fact be limiting their ability to learn
from a neurological perspective.
If learning styles are not fixed traits, but can change and adapt to different situations and
learning contexts, this suggests that schools should place less emphasis on identifying the
learning styles of students and more on encouraging a balanced approach to learning.

The argument for learning styles

Although the value of learning styles theory has been questioned in recent years, this has been
due largely to the lack of scientific research to support the various models, particularly in relation
to gains in learning and attainment. Nevertheless, there is a common acceptance that people do
learn in different ways and that greater awareness of learning preferences and styles helps
teachers to be more flexible in their teaching and to use a wider range of classroom
methodologies.
Recent work by Cheminais (2002), Reid (2005) and Burnett (2005) identifies learning style as an
important idea for inclusive learning and teaching in the classroom. Cheminais (2002) believes
that effective and successful teachers will:

show respect for pupils individual learning styles and differences

be responsive to pupils different learning styles

use different levels of tasks and activities.

The DEMOS Working Group led by David Hargreaves concluded that Many teachers are
successfully using learning styles as a means of getting students to reflect deeply on their
learning and thus develop their meta-cognitive capacities. (DEMOS, 2005)
If we accept we are different in similar ways and that it is possible to identify and measure these
differences reasonably accurately, then the potential benefits for teachers and learners are
considerable. A greater knowledge of a range of learning styles will help teachers to:

be more aware of their preferred teaching style. This might include the way they
communicate and the kinds of methods and techniques used to explain things. It might also
include the way they plan lessons and the kinds of tasks and activities devised for learners.

recognise their students learning styles, particularly those that are different from their
own.

understand better the difficulties and barriers that young people experience in their
learning.
Potentially, the most attractive claim is that teachers will be able to match their teaching to their
students learning styles by explaining and presenting things in different ways, using alternative
teaching aids and techniques and tailoring the activities that they provide to suit their students
learning styles. Greater awareness of their own dominant learning styles can help teachers to
provide learning activities that are more inclusive of the other styles and which reach all
learners.
Even those educationalists who question the validity of learning styles as a concept, agree that
there is a benefit in enabling learners to reflect on how they learn best and this is an important
aspect of developing metacognition in young people. Some writers conclude that fostering
metacognition is perhaps the most important advantage that can be claimed for applying
learning styles theory to learning and teaching.

Learning styles - the main messages

It is important to recognise that there is no single learning style theory that is universally
accepted, nor is there a 'right' way to study or 'best' way to teach. Teachers should also avoid
the temptation to try to categorise or confine individual pupils to one learning style. Age,
educational level, and motivation influence each pupil's learning so that what was once preferred
may no longer be that pupil's current preferred learning style.
Nevertheless, greater awareness of learning preferences and styles helps teachers to be more
flexible in their teaching and to utilise a wider range of classroom methodologies. The aim is not
to match teaching style to learner preferences, but to help young people build their skills and
capacities to learn well in both preferred and less preferred modes of learning.
The main messages for teachers, schools and learners are as follows.
1.

Do not place too much faith in any one learning styles theory. Most are not very robust or
reliable. A learning style should not be thought of as an absolute, nor should it be considered the
main determinant of intelligence, ability or competence.

2.

Most students have elements of more than one learning style. They may have a
preference for one way of learning, but can also learn in other ways although it may be harder to

do so. Knowing their preferred learning styles may help students develop strategies to
compensate for weaknesses and build on strengths.
3.

Teachers should avoid trying to categorise or confine individual pupils to one learning
style. The aim of learning style theory is to help young people build their skills and capacities to
learn well in both preferred and less preferred modes of learning. Teachers should also be aware
that age, educational level, and motivation influence each pupil's learning and that preferred
learning styles might alter over time.

4.

A teachers own preferred learning style often becomes his or her predominant teaching
style. Teachers who are aware of their preferred teaching styles and the preferred learning styles
of each of their learners, are more likely to adopt student-centred learning experiences, even if it
is not the way they learned or prefer to learn.

5.

Teachers should attempt to use a variety of materials and delivery methods to allow
students to at least have their learning style preference partly addressed.

6.

It is important that learners are able to make use of all their senses when gathering,
processing and recalling information. This is particularly true of visual and kinaesthetic
learning. Teachers should be able to vary their approaches when presenting information and
contexts for learning, for example, conveying the big picture as well as detailing step-by-step
learning where appropriate.

7.

Some research suggests that the most able learners are those with reasonably plastic
learning styles who can adapt their ability to learn to the prevailing materials and circumstances.
In other words, making people move out of their preferred learning style gives them the
possibility of developing new learning strategies.

8.

Teachers should also be aware of the importance of feelings and emotions in learning, as
well as the nature of feedback that they give to learners. This can markedly affect the motivation
and achievement of young people.
In summary, helping young people to identify the ways that they learn best and providing them
with opportunities to use all their senses and different intelligences is one of the key challenges
for policy makers, teachers and parents alike.

Further reading
Books to help you reflect
'Gifts Differing' (Isabel Myers, Consulting Psychologists Press, Paulo Alto, 1980)
'Marching to Different Drummers' (Pat Burke Guild and Stephen Garger, ASCD, Alexandria, 1998)
'Learning Styles and Pedagogy in Post-16 Learning' (The Learning and Skills Research
Centre, 2004, available at www.LSRC.ac.uk)
'About Learning: Report of the Learning Group' (David Hargreaves et al, Demos, 2005)
'Learning Styles' (Becta report, 2005)

Practical books
'What Type am I?' (Renee Baron, Penguin Books, 1998)
'Im not Crazy, Im Just not You' (Roger Pearman and Sarah Albritton, Davies Black, Paulo Alto,
California, 1996)

'A Teachers Guide to Cognitive Type Theory and Learning Style' (Carolyn Mamchur, ASCD Virginia
1996)
'People Types and Tiger Stripes' (Gordon Lawrence, CAPT, Florida, 1979)
'The Developing Child' (Elizabeth Murphy, CPP, California, 1992)
'Different in Similar Ways' (Ian Smith, Learning Unlimited 2005)
'One of a Kind - Making the Most of Your Childs Uniqueness' (Lavonne Neff,1995)
'Please Understand Me' (David Kiersey and Marilyn Bates, Prometheus Books, California, 1978)
'Effective Teaching, Effective Learning: Making the personality connection in your classroom'
(Alice and Lisa Fairhurst, Davies Black, Paulo Alto, California 1995)
'The Power of Diversity' (Barbara Prashnig, David Bateman, New Zealand 1998)

Useful websites
www.personalitypage.com
www.knowyourtype.com
www.typelogic.com
www.personalitypathways.com