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Fatigue(material)
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Inmaterialsscience,fatigueistheweakeningofamaterialcausedbyrepeatedlyappliedloads.Itisthe
progressiveandlocalisedstructuraldamagethatoccurswhenamaterialissubjectedtocyclicloading.
Thenominalmaximumstressvaluesthatcausesuchdamagemaybemuchlessthanthestrengthofthe
materialtypicallyquotedastheultimatetensilestresslimit,ortheyieldstresslimit.
Fatigueoccurswhenamaterialissubjectedtorepeatedloadingandunloading.Iftheloadsareabovea
certainthreshold,microscopiccrackswillbegintoformatthestressconcentratorssuchasthesurface,
persistentslipbands(PSBs),andgraininterfaces.[1]Eventuallyacrackwillreachacriticalsize,the
crackwillpropagatesuddenly,andthestructurewillfracture.Theshapeofthestructurewillsignificantly
affectthefatiguelifesquareholesorsharpcornerswillleadtoelevatedlocalstresseswherefatigue
crackscaninitiate.Roundholesandsmoothtransitionsorfilletswillthereforeincreasethefatigue
strengthofthestructure.

Contents
1
2
3
4

Fatiguelife
Characteristicsoffatigue
Timelineofearlyfatigueresearchhistory
Highcyclefatigue
4.1 Stresscycle(SN)curve
4.2 Probabilisticnatureoffatigue
4.3 Complexloadings
4.3.1 Formultiaxialloading
4.4 Miner'sRule
4.5 Paris'Law
4.6 GoodmanRelation
5 Lowcyclefatigue
6 Fatigueandfracturemechanics
7 Designagainstfatigue
7.1 Stoppingfatigue
7.2 Materialchange
7.3 Peeningtreatmentofweldsandmetalcomponents
7.4 Highfrequencymechanicalimpact(HFMI)treatmentofwelds
8 Notablefatiguefailures
8.1 Versaillestraincrash
8.2 deHavillandComet
8.3 AlexanderL.Kiellandoilplatformcapsizing
8.4 Others
9 Seealso
10 References
11 Furtherreading
12 Externallinks

Fatiguelife
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ASTMdefinesfatiguelife,Nf,asthenumberofstresscyclesofaspecifiedcharacterthataspecimen
sustainsbeforefailureofaspecifiednatureoccurs.[2]Forsomematerials,notablysteelandtitanium,
thereisatheoreticalvalueforstressamplitudebelowwhichthematerialwillnotfailforanynumberof
cycles,calledafatiguelimit,endurancelimit,orfatiguestrength.[3]
Engineershaveusedanyofthreemethodstodeterminethefatiguelifeofamaterial:thestresslife
method,thestrainlifemethod,andthelinearelasticfracturemechanicsmethod.[4]Onemethodto
predictfatiguelifeofmaterialsistheUniformMaterialLaw(UML).[5]UMLwasdevelopedforfatigue
lifepredictionofaluminiumandtitaniumalloysbytheendof20thcenturyandextendedtohighstrength
steels,[6]andcastiron.[7]

Characteristicsoffatigue
Inmetalalloys,andforthesimplifyingcasewhenthereare
nomacroscopicormicroscopicdiscontinuities,theprocess
startswithdislocationmovementsatthemicroscopiclevel,
whicheventuallyformpersistentslipbandsthatbecomethe
nucleusofshortcracks.
Macroscopicandmicroscopicdiscontinuities(atthe
crystallinegrainscale)aswellascomponentdesignfeatures
whichcausestressconcentrations(holes,keyways,sharp
changesofloaddirectionetc.)arecommonlocationsatwhich
thefatigueprocessbegins.
Fatigueisaprocessthathasadegreeofrandomness
(stochastic),oftenshowingconsiderablescatterevenin
Fractureofanaluminiumcrank
seeminglyidenticalsampleinwellcontrolledenvironments.
arm.Darkareaofstriations:slow
Fatigueisusuallyassociatedwithtensilestressesbutfatigue
crackgrowth.Brightgranular
[8]
crackshavebeenreportedduetocompressiveloads.
area:suddenfracture.
Thegreatertheappliedstressrange,theshorterthelife.
Fatiguelifescattertendstoincreaseforlongerfatiguelives.
Damageiscumulative.Materialsdonotrecoverwhenrested.
Fatiguelifeisinfluencedbyavarietyoffactors,suchastemperature,surfacefinish,metallurgical
microstructure,presenceofoxidizingorinertchemicals,residualstresses,scuffingcontact
(fretting),etc.
Somematerials(e.g.,somesteelandtitaniumalloys)exhibitatheoreticalfatiguelimitbelow
whichcontinuedloadingdoesnotleadtofatiguefailure.
Highcyclefatiguestrength(about104to108cycles)canbedescribedbystressbasedparameters.
Aloadcontrolledservohydraulictestrigiscommonlyusedinthesetests,withfrequenciesof
around2050Hz.Othersortsofmachineslikeresonantmagneticmachinescanalsobeused,to
achievefrequenciesupto250Hz.
Lowcyclefatigue(loadingthattypicallycausesfailureinlessthan104cycles)isassociatedwith
localizedplasticbehaviorinmetalsthus,astrainbasedparametershouldbeusedforfatiguelife
predictioninmetals.Testingisconductedwithconstantstrainamplitudestypicallyat0.015Hz.

Timelineofearlyfatigueresearchhistory
1837:WilhelmAlbertpublishesthefirstarticleonfatigue.Hedevisedatestmachineforconveyor
chainsusedintheClausthalmines.[9]
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1839:JeanVictorPonceletdescribesmetalsasbeing'tired'inhislecturesatthemilitaryschoolat
Metz.
1842:WilliamJohnMacquornRankinerecognisestheimportanceofstressconcentrationsinhis
investigationofrailroadaxlefailures.TheVersaillestraincrashwascausedbyaxlefatigue.[10]
1843:JosephGlynnreportsonthefatigueofanaxleonalocomotivetender.Heidentifiesthe
keywayasthecrackorigin.
1848:TheRailwayInspectoratereportsoneofthefirsttyrefailures,probablyfromarivetholein
treadofrailwaycarriagewheel.Itwaslikelyafatiguefailure.
1849:EatonHodgkinsonisgranteda"smallsumofmoney"toreporttotheUKParliamentonhis
workin"ascertainingbydirectexperiment,theeffectsofcontinuedchangesofloaduponiron
structuresandtowhatextenttheycouldbeloadedwithoutdangertotheirultimatesecurity".
1854:Braithwaitereportsoncommonservicefatiguefailuresandcoinsthetermfatigue.[11]
1860:SystematicfatiguetestingundertakenbySirWilliamFairbairnandAugustWhler.
1870:Whlersummariseshisworkonrailroadaxles.Heconcludesthatcyclicstressrangeismore
importantthanpeakstressandintroducestheconceptofendurancelimit.[9]
1903:SirJamesAlfredEwingdemonstratestheoriginof
fatiguefailureinmicroscopiccracks.
1910:O.H.BasquinproposesaloglogrelationshipforSN
curves,usingWhler'stestdata.
1945:A.M.MinerpopularisesPalmgren's(1924)linear
damagehypothesisasapracticaldesigntool.
1954:Theworld'sfirstcommercialjetliner,thedeHavilland
Comet,suffersdisasterasthreeplanesbreakupinmidair,
causingdeHavillandandallothermanufacturerstoredesign
highaltitudeaircraftandinparticularreplacesquareapertures
likewindowswithovalones.
1954:L.F.CoffinandS.S.Mansonexplainfatiguecrack
growthintermsofplasticstraininthetipofcracks.
1961:P.C.Parisproposesmethodsforpredictingtherateof
growthofindividualfatiguecracksinthefaceofinitial
Micrographsshowinghowsurface
scepticismandpopulardefenceofMiner'sphenomenological
fatiguecracksgrowasmaterialis
approach.
furthercycled.FromEwing&
1968:TatsuoEndoandM.Matsuishidevisetherainflow
Humfrey,1903
countingalgorithmandenablethereliableapplicationof
Miner'sruletorandomloadings.[12]
1970:W.Elberelucidatesthemechanismsandimportanceofcrackclosureinslowingthegrowth
ofafatiguecrackduetothewedgingeffectofplasticdeformationleftbehindthetipofthecrack.

Highcyclefatigue
Historically,mostattentionhasfocusedonsituationsthatrequiremorethan104cyclestofailurewhere
stressislowanddeformationisprimarilyelastic.

Stresscycle(SN)curve
Inhighcyclefatiguesituations,materialsperformanceiscommonlycharacterizedbyanSNcurve,also
knownasaWhlercurve.Thisisagraphofthemagnitudeofacyclicstress(S)againstthelogarithmic
scaleofcyclestofailure(N).

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SNcurvesarederivedfromtestsonsamplesofthematerialtobe
characterized(oftencalledcoupons)wherearegularsinusoidal
stressisappliedbyatestingmachinewhichalsocountsthenumber
ofcyclestofailure.Thisprocessissometimesknownascoupon
testing.Eachcoupontestgeneratesapointontheplotthoughin
somecasesthereisarunoutwherethetimetofailureexceedsthat
availableforthetest(seecensoring).Analysisoffatiguedata
requirestechniquesfromstatistics,especiallysurvivalanalysisand
linearregression.

SNcurveforabrittlealuminium
withanultimatetensilestrengthof
320MPa.

TheprogressionoftheSNcurvecanbeinfluencedbymanyfactors
suchascorrosion,temperature,residualstresses,andthepresence
ofnotches.TheGoodmanLineisamethodusedtoestimatetheinfluenceofthemeanstressonthe
fatiguestrength.

Probabilisticnatureoffatigue
Ascouponssampledfromahomogeneousframewilldisplayavariationintheirnumberofcyclesto
failure,theSNcurveshouldmoreproperlybeaStressCycleProbability(SNP)curvetocapturethe
probabilityoffailureafteragivennumberofcyclesofacertainstress.Probabilitydistributionsthatare
commonindataanalysisandindesignagainstfatigueincludethelognormaldistribution,extremevalue
distribution,BirnbaumSaundersdistribution,andWeibulldistribution.

Complexloadings
Inpractice,amechanicalpartisexposedtoacomplex,often
random,sequenceofloads,largeandsmall.Inordertoassessthe
safelifeofsuchapart:
1.Complexloadingisreducedtoaseriesofsimplecyclic
loadingsusingatechniquesuchasrainflowanalysis
2.Ahistogramofcyclicstressiscreatedfromtherainflow
analysistoformafatiguedamagespectrum
Spectrumloading
3.Foreachstresslevel,thedegreeofcumulativedamageis
calculatedfromtheSNcurveand
4.TheeffectoftheindividualcontributionsarecombinedusinganalgorithmsuchasMiner'srule.
Formultiaxialloading
SinceSNcurvesaretypicallygeneratedforuniaxialloading,someequivalenceruleisneededwhenever
theloadingismultiaxial.Forsimple,proportionalloadinghistories(lateralloadinaconstantratiowith
theaxial),Sinesrulemaybeapplied.Formorecomplexsituations,suchasnonproportionalloading,
Criticalplaneanalysismustbeapplied.

Miner'sRule
In1945,MAMinerpopularisedarulethathadfirstbeenproposedbyA.Palmgrenin1924.Therule,
variouslycalledMiner'sruleorthePalmgrenMinerlineardamagehypothesis,statesthatwherethere
arekdifferentstressmagnitudesinaspectrum,Si(1ik),eachcontributingni(Si)cycles,thenif
Ni(Si)isthenumberofcyclestofailureofaconstantstressreversalSi(determinedbyuniaxialfatigue
tests),failureoccurswhen:
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Cisexperimentallyfoundtobebetween0.7and2.2.Usuallyfordesignpurposes,Cisassumedtobe1.
Thiscanbethoughtofasassessingwhatproportionoflifeisconsumedbyalinearcombinationofstress
reversalsatvaryingmagnitudes.
ThoughMiner'sruleisausefulapproximationinmanycircumstances,ithasseveralmajorlimitations:
1.Itfailstorecognisetheprobabilisticnatureoffatigueandthereisnosimplewaytorelatelife
predictedbytherulewiththecharacteristicsofaprobabilitydistribution.Industryanalystsoften
usedesigncurves,adjustedtoaccountforscatter,tocalculateNi(Si).
2.Thesequenceinwhichhighvs.lowstresscyclesareappliedtoasampleinfactaffectthefatigue
life,forwhichMiner'sRuledoesnotaccount.Insomecircumstances,cyclesoflowstressfollowed
byhighstresscausemoredamagethanwouldbepredictedbytherule.Itdoesnotconsiderthe
effectofanoverloadorhighstresswhichmayresultinacompressiveresidualstressthatmay
retardcrackgrowth.Highstressfollowedbylowstressmayhavelessdamageduetothepresence
ofcompressiveresidualstress.

Paris'Law
InFracturemechanics,Anderson,Gomez,andParisderived
relationshipsforthestageIIcrackgrowthwithcyclesN,intermsof
thecyclicalcomponentKoftheStressIntensityFactorK[13]

whereaisthecracklengthandmistypicallyintherange3to5
(formetals),whichstatesthattherateofcrackgrowthwithrespect
tothecyclesofloadappliedisafunctionofthestressintensity
factorthisisnamedParis'law.
Thisrelationshipwaslatermodified(byForman,1967[14])tomake
betterallowanceforthemeanstress,byintroducingafactor
dependingon(1R)whereR=minstress/maxstress,inthedenominator.

Typicalfatiguecrackgrowthrate
graph

GoodmanRelation
Inthepresenceofasteadystresssuperimposedonthecyclicloading,theGoodmanrelationcanbeused
toestimateafailurecondition.Itplotsstressamplitudeagainstmeanstresswiththefatiguelimitandthe
ultimatetensilestrengthofthematerialasthetwoextremes.Alternativefailurecriteriainclude
SoderbergandGerber.[15]

Lowcyclefatigue
Wherethestressishighenoughforplasticdeformationtooccur,theaccountingoftheloadinginterms
ofstressislessusefulandthestraininthematerialoffersasimplerandmoreaccuratedescription.This
typeoffatigueisnormallyexperiencedbycomponentswhichundergoarelativelysmallnumberof
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strainingcycles.LowcyclefatigueisusuallycharacterisedbytheCoffinMansonrelation(published
independentlybyL.F.Coffinin1954andS.S.Manson1953):

where,
p/2istheplasticstrainamplitude
f'isanempiricalconstantknownasthefatigueductilitycoefficient,thefailurestrainforasingle
reversal
2Nisthenumberofreversalstofailure(Ncycles)
cisanempiricalconstantknownasthefatigueductilityexponent,commonlyrangingfrom0.5to
0.7formetalsintimeindependentfatigue.Slopescanbeconsiderablysteeperinthepresenceof
creeporenvironmentalinteractions.
AsimilarrelationshipformaterialssuchasZirconiumisusedinthenuclearindustry.[16]

Fatigueandfracturemechanics
Theaccountaboveispurelyempiricaland,thoughitallowslifepredictionanddesignassurance,life
improvementordesignoptimisationcanbeenhancedusingFracturemechanics.Fatigueofmaterialscan
bedescribedashavingfourstages.
1.Cracknucleation,
2.StageIcrackgrowth,
3.StageIIcrackgrowth,and
4.Ultimateductilefailure.

Designagainstfatigue
Dependabledesignagainstfatiguefailurerequiresthorougheducationandsupervisedexperiencein
structuralengineering,mechanicalengineering,ormaterialsscience.Therearefourprincipalapproaches
tolifeassuranceformechanicalpartsthatdisplayincreasingdegreesofsophistication:[17]
1.Designtokeepstressbelowthresholdoffatiguelimit(infinitelifetimeconcept)
2.Failsafe,gracefuldegradation,andfaulttolerantdesign:Instructtheusertoreplacepartswhen
theyfail.Designinsuchawaythatthereisnosinglepointoffailure,andsothatwhenanyonepart
completelyfails,itdoesnotleadtocatastrophicfailureoftheentiresystem.
3.Safelifedesign:Design(conservatively)forafixedlifeafterwhichtheuserisinstructedtoreplace
thepartwithanewone(asocalledlifedpart,finitelifetimeconcept,or"safelife"design
practice)plannedobsolescenceanddisposableproductarevariantsthatdesignforafixedlifeafter
whichtheuserisinstructedtoreplacetheentiredevice
4.Damagetolerantdesign:Instructtheusertoinspectthepartperiodicallyforcracksandtoreplace
thepartonceacrackexceedsacriticallength.Thisapproachusuallyusesthetechnologiesof
nondestructivetestingandrequiresanaccuratepredictionoftherateofcrackgrowthbetween
inspections.Thedesignersetssomeaircraftmaintenancechecksschedulefrequentenoughthat
partsarereplacedwhilethecrackisstillinthe"slowgrowth"phase.Thisisoftenreferredtoas
damagetolerantdesignor"retirementforcause".

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Stoppingfatigue
Fatiguecracksthathavebeguntopropagatecansometimesbestoppedbydrillingholes,calleddrill
stops,inthepathofthefatiguecrack.[18]Thisisnotrecommendedasageneralpracticebecausethehole
representsastressconcentrationfactorwhichdependsonthesizeoftheholeandgeometry,thoughthe
holeistypicallylessofastressconcentrationthantheremovedtipofthecrack.Thepossibilityremains
ofanewcrackstartinginthesideofthehole.Itisalwaysfarbettertoreplacethecrackedpartentirely.

Materialchange
Changesinthematerialsusedinpartscanalsoimprovefatiguelife.Forexample,partscanbemade
frombetterfatigueratedmetals.Completereplacementandredesignofpartscanalsoreduceifnot
eliminatefatigueproblems.Thushelicopterrotorbladesandpropellersinmetalarebeingreplacedby
compositeequivalents.Theyarenotonlylighter,butalsomuchmoreresistanttofatigue.Theyaremore
expensive,buttheextracostisamplyrepaidbytheirgreaterintegrity,sincelossofarotorbladeusually
leadstototallossoftheaircraft.Asimilarargumenthasbeenmadeforreplacementofmetalfuselages,
wingsandtailsofaircraft.[19]

Peeningtreatmentofweldsandmetalcomponents
Increasesinfatiguelifeandstrengthareproportionallyrelatedto
thedepthofthecompressiveresidualstressesimpartedbysurface
enhancementprocessessuchasshotpeeningbutparticularlyby
laserpeening.Shotpeeningimpartscompressiveresidualstresses
approximately0.005inchesdeep,laserpeeningimparts
compressiveresidualstressesfrom0.040to0.100inchesdeep,or
deeper.Laserpeeningprovidesignificantfatiguelifeextension
throughshockwavemechanicswhichplasticallydeformthe
surfaceofthemetalcomponentchangingthematerial
properties.[20]Laserpeeningcanbeappliedtoexistingparts
withoutredesignrequirementsorincorporatedintonewdesignsto
allowforlightermaterialsorthinnerdesignstoachievecomparable
engineeringresults.

ExampleofaHFMItreatedsteel
highwaybridgetoavoidfatigue
alongtheweldtransition.

Highfrequencymechanicalimpact(HFMI)treatmentofwelds
Thedurabilityandlifeofdynamicallyloaded,weldedsteelstructuresaredeterminedoftenbythewelds,
particularbytheweldtransitions.ByselectivetreatmentofweldtransitionswiththeHighFrequency
MechanicalImpact(HFMI)treatmentmethod,[21][22]thedurabilityofmanydesignscanbeincreased
significantly.Thismethodisuniversallyapplicable,requiresonlyspecificequipmentandoffershigh
reproducibilityandahighdegreeofqualitycontrol.

Notablefatiguefailures
Versaillestraincrash
FollowingtheKing'sftecelebrationsatthePalaceofVersailles,atrainreturningtoPariscrashedin
May1842atMeudonaftertheleadinglocomotivebrokeanaxle.Thecarriagesbehindpiledintothe
wreckedenginesandcaughtfire.Atleast55passengerswerekilledtrappedinthecarriages,including
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theexplorerJulesDumont
d'Urville.Thisaccidentis
knowninFranceasthe
"Catastropheferroviairede
Meudon".Theaccidentwas
witnessedbytheBritish
Drawingofafatiguefailureinan
locomotiveengineerJoseph
axlebyJosephGlynn,1843
Lockeandwidelyreportedin
Britain.Itwasdiscussed
extensivelybyengineers,whosoughtanexplanation.

Thederailmenthadbeentheresultofabrokenlocomotiveaxle.Rankine'sinvestigationofbrokenaxles
inBritainhighlightedtheimportanceofstressconcentration,andthemechanismofcrackgrowthwith
repeatedloading.Hisandotherpaperssuggestingacrackgrowthmechanismthroughrepeatedstressing,
however,wereignored,andfatiguefailuresoccurredataneverincreasingrateontheexpandingrailway
system.Otherspurioustheoriesseemedtobemoreacceptable,suchastheideathatthemetalhad
somehow"crystallized".Thenotionwasbasedonthecrystallineappearanceofthefastfractureregionof
thecracksurface,butignoredthefactthatthemetalwasalreadyhighlycrystalline.

deHavillandComet
TwodeHavillandCometpassengerjetsbrokeupinmidairand
crashedwithinafewmonthsofeachotherin1954.Asaresult,
systematictestswereconductedonafuselageimmersedand
pressurisedinawatertank.Aftertheequivalentof3,000flights,
investigatorsattheRoyalAircraftEstablishment(RAE)wereable
toconcludethatthecrashhadbeenduetofailureofthepressure
cabinattheforwardAutomaticDirectionFinderwindowinthe
roof.This'window'wasinfactoneoftwoaperturesfortheaerials
ofanelectronicnavigationsysteminwhichopaquefibreglass
Therecovered(shaded)partsof
panelstooktheplaceofthewindow'glass'.Thefailurewasaresult
thewreckageofGALYPandthe
ofmetalfatiguecausedbytherepeatedpressurisationandde
site(arrowed)ofthefailure
pressurisationoftheaircraftcabin.Also,thesupportsaroundthe
windowswereriveted,notbonded,astheoriginalspecificationsfor
theaircrafthadcalledfor.Theproblemwasexacerbatedbythepunchrivetconstructiontechnique
employed.Unlikedrillriveting,theimperfectnatureoftheholecreatedbypunchrivetingcaused
manufacturingdefectcrackswhichmayhavecausedthestartoffatiguecracksaroundtherivet.

ThefuselagerooffragmentofG
ALYPondisplayintheScience
MuseuminLondon,showingthe
twoADFwindowsatwhichthe

TheComet'spressurecabinhadbeendesignedtoasafetyfactor
comfortablyinexcessofthatrequiredbyBritishCivil
AirworthinessRequirements(2.5timesthecabinproofpressureas
opposedtotherequirementof1.33timesandanultimateloadof
2.0timesthecabinpressure)andtheaccidentcausedarevisionin
theestimatesofthesafeloadingstrengthrequirementsofairliner
pressurecabins.

Inaddition,itwasdiscoveredthatthestressesaroundpressure
cabinapertureswereconsiderablyhigherthanhadbeenanticipated,
especiallyaroundsharpcorneredcutouts,suchaswindows.Asa
initialfailureoccurred.[23]
result,allfuturejetairlinerswouldfeaturewindowswithrounded
corners,greatlyreducingthestressconcentration.Thiswasa
noticeabledistinguishingfeatureofalllatermodelsoftheComet.InvestigatorsfromtheRAEtolda
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publicinquirythatthesharpcornersneartheComets'windowopeningsactedasinitiationsitesfor
cracks.Theskinoftheaircraftwasalsotoothin,andcracksfrommanufacturingstresseswerepresentat
thecorners.

AlexanderL.Kiellandoilplatformcapsizing
TheAlexanderL.KiellandwasaNorwegiansemisubmersible
drillingrigthatcapsizedwhilstworkingintheEkofiskoilfieldin
March1980killing123people.Thecapsizingwastheworst
disasterinNorwegianwaterssinceWorldWarII.Therig,located
approximately320kmeastofDundee,Scotland,wasownedbythe
StavangerDrillingCompanyofNorwayandwasonhiretothe
UnitedStatescompanyPhillipsPetroleumatthetimeofthe
disaster.Indrivingrainandmist,earlyintheeveningof27March
1980morethan200menwereoffdutyintheaccommodationon
theAlexanderL.Kielland.Thewindwasgustingto40knotswith
wavesupto12mhigh.Therighadjustbeenwinchedawayfrom
theEddaproductionplatform.Minutesbefore18:30thoseonboard
Fracturesontherightsideofthe
felta'sharpcrack'followedby'somekindoftrembling'.Suddenly
AlexanderL.Kiellandrig
therigheeledover30andthenstabilised.Fiveofthesixanchor
cableshadbroken,withoneremainingcablepreventingtherig
fromcapsizing.Thelistcontinuedtoincreaseandat18.53theremaininganchorcablesnappedandthe
rigturnedupsidedown.
AyearlaterinMarch1981,theinvestigativereport[24]concludedthattherigcollapsedowingtoa
fatiguecrackinoneofitssixbracings(bracingD6),whichconnectedthecollapsedDlegtotherestof
therig.Thiswastracedtoasmall6mmfilletweldwhichjoinedanonloadbearingflangeplatetothis
D6bracing.Thisflangeplateheldasonardeviceusedduringdrillingoperations.Thepoorprofileofthe
filletweldcontributedtoareductioninitsfatiguestrength.Further,theinvestigationfoundconsiderable
amountsoflamellartearingintheflangeplateandcoldcracksinthebuttweld.Coldcracksinthewelds,
increasedstressconcentrationsduetotheweakenedflangeplate,thepoorweldprofile,andcyclical
stresses(whichwouldbecommonintheNorthSea),seemedtocollectivelyplayaroleintherig's
collapse.

Others
The1862HartleyCollieryDisasterwascausedbythefractureofasteamenginebeamandkilled
220people.
The1919GreatMolassesFloodhasbeenattributedtoafatiguefailure.
The1948NorthwestAirlinesFlight421crashduetofatiguefailureinawingsparroot
The1957"Mt.Pinatubo",presidentialplaneofPhilippinePresidentRamonMagsaysay,crashed
duetoenginefailurecausedbymetalfatigue.
The1965capsizeoftheUK'sfirstoffshoreoilplatform,theSeaGem,wasduetofatigueinpartof
thesuspensionsystemlinkingthehulltothelegs.
The1968LosAngelesAirwaysFlight417lostoneofitsmainrotorbladesduetofatiguefailure.
The1968MacRobertsonMillerAirlinesFlight1750thatlostawingduetoimpropermaintenance
leadingtofatiguefailure
The1977DanAirBoeing707crashcausedbyfatiguefailureresultinginthelossoftheright
horizontalstabilizer
The1980LOTFlight7thatcrashedduetofatigueinanengineturbineshaftresultinginengine
disintegrationleadingtolossofcontrol
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The1985JapanAirlinesFlight123crashedaftertheaircraftlostitsverticalstabilizerduetofaulty
repairsontherearbulkhead.
The1988AlohaAirlinesFlight243sufferedanexplosivedecompressionduetofatiguefailure.
The1989UnitedAirlinesFlight232lostitstailengineduetofatiguefailureinafandiskhub.
The1992ElAlFlight1862lostbothenginesonitsrightwingduetofatiguefailureinthepylon
mountingofthe#3Engine.
The1998Eschedetraindisasterwascausedbyfatiguefailureofasinglecompositewheel.
The2000Hatfieldrailcrashwaslikelycausedbyrollingcontactfatigue.
The2000recallof6.5millionFirestonetiresonFordExplorersoriginatedfromfatiguecrack
growthleadingtoseparationofthetreadfromthetire.[25]
The2002ChinaAirlinesFlight611haddisintegratedinflightduetofatiguefailure.
The2005Chalk'sOceanAirwaysFlight101lostitsrightwingduetofatiguefailurebroughtabout
byinadequatemaintenancepractices.
The2009Viareggiotrainderailmentduetofatiguefailure.

Seealso
Aviationsafety
Embedment
Forensicmaterialsengineering
Fractography
Thermomechanicalfatigue
Criticalplaneanalysis
Vibrationfatigue

References
1.Kim,W.H.Laird,C.(1978).CrackNucleationandStateIPropagationinHighStrainFatigueII
Mechanism.ActaMetallurgica.pp.789799.
2.Stephens,RalphI.Fuchs,HenryO.(2001).MetalFatigueinEngineering(Seconded.).JohnWiley&
Sons,Inc.p.69.ISBN0471510599.
3.Bathias,C.(1999)."Thereisnoinfinitefatiguelifeinmetallicmaterials".Fatigue&Fractureof
EngineeringMaterials&Structures.22(7):559565.doi:10.1046/j.14602695.1999.00183.x.
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Furtherreading
Andrew,W.(1995)FatigueandTribologicalPropertiesofPlasticsandElastomers,ISBN1
884207154.
Leary,M.,Burvill,C.Applicabilityofpublisheddataforfatiguelimiteddesign(http://onlinelibrar
y.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/qre.1010/pdf)QualityandReliabilityEngineeringInternationalVolume
25,Issue8,2009.
Dieter,G.E.(1988)MechanicalMetallurgy,ISBN0071004068.
Little,R.E.&Jebe,E.H.(1975)StatisticaldesignoffatigueexperimentsISBN0470541156.
Palmgren,A.G.(1924):DieLebensdauervonKugellagern(LifeLengthofRollerBearings.In
German).ZeitschriftdesVereinesDeutscherIngenieure(VDIZeitschrift),ISSN03417258(http
s://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:03417258),Vol68,No14,April1924,pp.339
341.
Schijve,J.(2009).FatigueofStructuresandMaterials,2ndEditionwithCdRom.Springer.
ISBN9781402068072.
Lalanne,C.(2009).FatigueDamage.ISTEWiley.ISBN9781848211254.
Pook,Les(2007).MetalFatigue,Whatitis,whyitmatters.Springer.ISBN9781402055966.
Draper,John(2008).ModernMetalFatigueAnalysis.EMAS.ISBN0947817794.
SubraSuresh,FatigueofMaterials,SecondEdition,CambridgeUniversityPress,1998,ISBN0
521570468.

Externallinks
WikimediaCommonshas
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mediarelatedtoMaterial
FatiguebyShawnM.Kelly(http://www.sv.vt.edu/classes/MS
fatigue.
E2094_NoteBook/97ClassProj/anal/kelly/fatigue.html)
SAEFatigue,Design,andEvaluationCommitteewebsite(htt
p://www.fatigue.org)
ArticleregardingFatigueTestingofBoltedJoints(http://www.zwick.co.uk/appsdisp.php?id=25)
Examplesoffatiguedmetalproducts(http://materials.open.ac.uk/mem/mem_mf.htm)
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MATDAT.COMMaterialPropertiesDatabaseMonotonic,CyclicandFatiguePropertiesof
Steels,AluminumandTitaniumAlloys(http://www.matdat.com)
ApplicationnoteonfatiguecrackpropagationinUHMWPE(http://www.campoly.com/index.php/d
ownload_file/view/204/108/)
Videoonthefatiguetest(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LhUclxBUV_E),Karlsruhe
UniversityofAppliedSciences

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