DRYING OF PROCESS

MATERIALS

Definition of Drying
Drying generally means removal of relatively small amounts of water

from material
The water is usually removed as a vapor by air
General Method of Drying
Heat is added by direct contact with heated air at atmospheric

pressure and the water vapor formed is removed by the air

In vacuum drying, the evaporation of water proceeds more rapidly at
low pressures and the heat is added indirectly by contact with metal
wall or by radiation
In freeze drying, water is sublimed from the frozen material

Equipment For Drying

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

7)

Tray Dryer
Vacuum shelf Indirect Dryers
Continuous Tunnel Dryers
Rotary Dryers
Drum Dryers
Spray Dryers
Freeze Dryers

Tray Dryers
1. In tray dryers, the food is spread out, generally quite
thinly, on trays in which the drying takes place.
2. Heating may be by an air current sweeping across
the trays, by conduction from heated trays or heated
shelves on which the trays lie, or by radiation from
heated surfaces.
3. Most tray dryers are heated by air, which also
removes the moist vapours.

Continuous Tunnel Dryers

1. Developments of the tray dryer : the trays on
trolleys move through a tunnel where the heat is
applied and the vapours removed.
2. In most cases, air is used in tunnel drying and the
material can move through the dryer either
parallel or counter current to the air flow.
3. Sometimes the dryers are compartmented, and
cross-flow may also be used.

Roller or Drum Dryers

1. In these the food is spread over the surface of
a heated drum.
2. The drum rotates, with the food being
applied to the drum at one part of the cycle.
3. The food remains on the drum surface for
the greater part of the rotation, during which
time the drying takes place, and is then
scraped off.
4. Drum drying may be regarded as conduction
drying.

Spray Dryers
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Liquid or fine solid material in a slurry is sprayed in the form of a

fine droplet dispersion into a current of heated air.
Air and solids may move in parallel or counterflow.
Drying occurs very rapidly, so that this process is very useful for
materials that are damaged by exposure to heat for any
appreciable length of time.
The dryer body is large so that the particles can settle, as they dry,
without touching the walls on which they might otherwise stick.
Commercial dryers can be very large of the order of 10 m diameter
and 20 m high.

DRYING PROCESS CONCEPT

Vapor pressure of Water
Humidity and Humidity Chart

Humidity
Percentage humidity
Dew point temperature
Humidity chart

Adiabatic saturation temperatures

Wet bulb temperature
Moisture content

Drying curve and drying rates calculation

8

BASICS OF DRYING
9

In most cases, drying is accomplished by vaporizing the

water that is contained in the solid, and to do this the latent
heat of vaporization must be supplied. Thus, two important
process-controlling factors that enter into the unit operation
of drying:
(a) transfer of heat to provide the necessary latent heat of
vaporization,
(b) movement of water or water vapor through the solid
material and then away from it to effect separation of water
from solid stuff.
Humidification transfer of water from the liquid into a
gaseous mixture of air and water vapor

PHASE DIAGRAM OF WATER

10

Pure water can exist in three states, solid, liquid and vapour. The state in
which it is at any time depends on the temperature and pressure conditions and it is
possible to illustrate this on a phase diagram.

Along line AB, the phases liquid and

vapour coexist.
Along line AC, the phases ice and
liquid coexist.
Along line AD, ice and vapour coexist.
As the horizontal line crosses AC, the
solid melts and on crossing AB, the
liquid vaporizes.
Moving from point (3) to (4), ice
sublimes (vaporizes) to a vapour
without becoming a liquid.

VAPOR PRESSURE OF WATER

11

Boiling occurs when the vapour pressure of the water is equal to the
total pressure on the water surface. The boiling point at atmospheric
pressure is of course 100C.
At pressures above or below atmospheric, water boils at the
corresponding temperatures above or below 100C.
For example:
At 100C, vapor pressure of water is 101.3 kPa (1 atm), and
therefore it will boil at 1 atm pressure.
At 65.6C, from steam tables in Appendix A.2, the vapour
pressure of water is 25.7 kPa. Hence, at 25.7 kPa and 65.6C,
water will boil.

12

Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. In

daily language the term "humidity" is normally taken
to mean relative humidity
Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the
partial pressure of water vapor in a parcel of air to the
saturated vapor pressure of water vapor at a prescribed
temperature

HUMIDITY
13

Humidity (H) unit kg H2O/ kg dry air

kg H 2O
pA kg mol H 2O 18.02 kg H 2O
1
H

kg dry air P p A kg mol air kg mol H 2O 28.97 kg air / kg mol air

18.02 p A
H
28.97 P p A

SATURATION HUMIDITY
14

Saturation humidity : water vapour is in equilibrium

with liquid water at the given conditions of pressure and
temperature (saturated air)
Under conditions of saturation, the partial pressure (pA)
of the water vapour in the air is equal to the saturation
vapour pressure (pAS) of water at that temperature
Saturation humidity is given by :

18.02 p AS
HS
28.97 P p AS

PERCENTAGE HUMIDITY
15

Percentage
Humidity

Percentage Relative
Humidity

H
H P 100
HS
pA
H R 100
p AS

DEW POINT
16

Dew point - the temp. at which a given mixture

of air and water vapor would be saturated

The condensed water is called dew.
The dew point is a saturation point.

HUMID HEAT
17

Humid heat is the amount of heat in J or kJ required

to raise the temperature of 1 kg of dry air plus the

water vapor present by 1 K or 1 C

cs 1.005 1.88H

kJ/kg dry air.K

HUMID VOLUME
18

Humid volume is the total volume in 1 m of 1 kg dry

air plus the vapor and it contains at 1 atm abs

pressure and the given gas temperature
3

vH (2.83x10 4.56x10 H )T K
o

m3/kg dry air

For saturated air-water vapor mixture, H = Hs and H is the

saturated volume

HUMIDITY CHART
19

Chart of properties of air-water vapor mixtures at

1.0 atm abs

Plot of humidity, H versus actual temperature of
the air-water vapor mixture (dry bulb
temperature)
Any point below saturation line, represents
unsaturated air-water vapor mixtures

Humidity Chart

Figure 9.3-2. Humidity chart for mixtures of air and water vapor at a
total pressure of 101.325 kPa (760 mm Hg).

EXAMPLE 9.3-1
21

The air in a room at 26.7 0C and a pressure of 101.325

kPa and contains water vapor with partial pressure
pA = 2.76 kPa. Calculate the following:
a) Humidity, H

b) Saturation Humidity, HS
c) Percentage Humidity, HP
d) Percentage relative humidity, HR

EXAMPLE 9.3-1
22

Solution :
a) pA = 2.76 kPa, P = 101.325 kPa,

H = (18.02/28.97)(pA /(P- pA)) = 0.01742 kg H2O/kg air

b) Refer steam table, at 26.7 0C, 101.325 kPa,
pAS (partial pressure of water vapor in saturated air) = 3.5 kPa
HS = (18.02/28.97)(pAS/(P-pAS)) = 0.02226 kg H2O/kg air
c) HP = 100H/Hs = 78.3%

d) HR = 100pA/pAS = 78.9%

EXAMPLE 9.3-2
23

Air entering a dryer has a temperature (dry bulb

temperature) of 60 0C and a dew point of 26.7 0C.
Using the humidity chart, determine the
a) Actual humidity H,
b) Percentage humidity, HP,

c) Humid heat cs, and

d) Humid volume, vH.

EXAMPLE 9.3-2
24

Solution :
The dew point of 26.7C is when the given mixture is at 100%
saturation.
a) Starting at 26.7C, drawing a vertical line until intersect the line
for 100% humidity. Humidity, H = 0.0225 kg H2O/kg air.

b) From humidity chart, at H = 0.0225 and T = 60C, percentage

humidity, Hp = 14%.
c) Humid heat, cs = 1.005 + 1.88H = 1.047 kJ/kg airK
d) Humid volume, H= (2.83 x 10-3 + 4.56 x 10-3H)T = 0.977 m3/kg
air

EXAMPLE 9.3-2

HP = 14%
H = 0.0225

Dew point = 26.7C

25

ADIABATIC SATURATION TEMPERATURE

The adiabatic saturation temperature, Ts is the

steady-state temperature attained when entering
gas of air-water vapor mixture is contacted with
spray of liquid water.

ADIABATIC SATURATION TEMPERATURE

27

If the contact between the entering gas and spray of

droplets is enough (sufficiently long time) to bring
the gas and liquid to equilibrium, the leaving air is
saturated at TS and HS.

H HS
cS 1.005 1.88H

T TS
S
S
Read TS and HS on 100% saturation curve.

ADIABATIC SATURATION CURVE

28

EXAMPLE 9.3-3
29

An air stream at 87.8 0C having a humidity H = 0.03

kg H2O/kg dry air is contacted in an adiabatic
saturator with water. It is cooled and humidified to
90% saturation. Determine:
a) The final values of H and T
Answer : H = 0.05 kg H2O/kg dry air, T = 42.5C
b) For 100% saturation, what would be the values of
H and T

Answer : H = 0.05 kg H2O/kg dry air, T = 40.5C

EXAMPLE 9.3-3 (a)

90% saturation

Final H = 0.05 kg H2O/kg dry air

Given H = 0.03 kg H2O/kg dry air

Given T = 87.8C
Final T = 42.5C

EXAMPLE 9.3-3 (b)

31

100% saturation

Final H = 0.05 kg H2O/kg dry air

Given H = 0.03 kg H2O/kg dry air

Final T = 40.5C

Given T = 87.8C

WET BULB TEMPERATURE

32

The wet bulb temperature, TW is the steady-state non-equilibrium

temperature reached when a small amount of water is contacted under
adiabatic conditions by a continuous stream of gas.
The wet bulb temperature is always lower than the dry bulb
temperature but will be identical with 100% relative humidity (the air is
at the saturation line).
The adiabatic saturation lines can also be used for wet bulb lines (only
for water vapor). The wet bulb determination is often used to measure
the humidity of an air-water vapor mixture.

EXAMPLE 9.3-4
33

A water vapor-air mixture having a dry bulb

temperature of T = 600C is passed over a wet bulb, as
in figure 9.3.4. The wet bulb temperature obtained is
Tw = 29.5 0C. What is the humidity of the mixture.
Answer :

The web bulb temperature of 29.5C can be assumed to

be the same as the adiabatic saturation temperature.
Following the adiabatic saturation curve of 29.5C until
reaches the dry bulb temperature of 60C, the
humidity is H = 0.0135 kg H2O/kg dry air

34

H = 0.0135 kg H2O/kg dry air

Tw = 29.5C

Tdry bulb = 60C

PROBLEM 9.3-1
35

The air in a room is at 37.8C and a total pressure of 101.3kPa

containing water vapor with a partial pressure pA = 3.59 kPa.
Calculate
a)

b)
c)

Humidity (Ans: 0.0229 kg water vapor/kg dry air)

Saturation humidity and percentage humidity (Ans: Hs =
0.0443 and Hp = 52.89%)
Percentage relative humidity (HR = 54.5%)

PROBLEM 9.3-3
36

The air entering a dryer has a temperature, of 65.6C (150F) and dew
point of 15.6C (60F). Using the humidity chart, determine the actual
humidity (H) and percentage humidity (Hp). Calculate the humid volume
of the mixture (H) and also calculate cs using SI and English units

Answer:
H = 0.0113 kg water vapor/kg dry air
Hp = 5.3%
H = 0.976 m3/kg dry air @ 15.65 ft3/Ibm dry air

cs = 1.026 kJ/kg dry air @ cs = 0.245 btu/Ibm dry air

PROBLEM 9.3-4
37

An air water vapor mixture going to a drying process has a dry

bulb temperature of 57.2C and a humidity of 0.03 kg H2O/kg dry
air. Using the humidity chart and appropriate equations,
determine the percentage humidity, saturation humidity at
57.2C, dew point, humid heat and humid volume

PROBLEM 9.3-5
38

Air at 82.2C and having a humidity H = 0.0655 kg H2O / kg

dry air is contacted in an adiabatic saturator with water. H
leaves at 80% saturation
a)

b)

What are the final values of H and TC?

For 100% saturation, what would be the values of H and T?

PROBLEM 9.3-6
39

Air enters an adiabatic saturator having a temperature of 76.7C

and a dew point temperature of 40.6C . H leaves the saturator
90% saturated. What are the final values of H and TC?

PROBLEM 9.3-7
40

An air water vapor mixture has a dry bulb temperature of 65.6C

and a wet bulb temp. of 32.2C. What is the humidity of the
mixture?

PROBLEM 9.3-8
41

The humidity of an air-water vapor mixture is H=0.03kg H2O/kg

dry air. The dry bulb temperature of the mixture is 60C. What is
the wet bulb temperature?

MOISTURE CONTENT
42

Moisture content

The quantity of water contained in a material, such as rock, ceramics,

fruit, or wood.
Equilibrium moisture content
The moisture content at which the materials is neither gaining or
loosing moisture
Free moisture content
The moisture above the equilibrium moisture content
The moisture that can be removed by drying under the given percent
relative humidity
Critical moisture content
Condition where there is insufficient water on the surface to
maintain a continuous film of water

DRYING CURVE
43

Figure 9.5-1. Typical drying-rate curve

(a) plot of data as free moisture versus
time
(b) rate of drying curve as rate versus free
moisture content.

Constant rate period (BC)

- the slope and drying rate are constant
Falling rate period (CDE)
- at point C, the drying rate starts to decrease
until it reaches point D
Xc = critical
moisture content

- at point D, the rate of drying falls even more

rapidly until it reaches point E where the
moisture content is zero.

DRYING IN THE CONSTANT-RATE PERIOD

44

In constant rate drying period,

surface of the solid is initially

very wet, and a continuous film
of water exists on drying
surface.
This water is entirely unbound
water and it acts as if the solid
were not present
The rate of evaporation is
independent of solid and is
essentially the same as the rate
from a free liquid surface.
Increased roughness of the
solid surface, however may lead
to higher rates than from a flat
surface

Rc

Xc = critical
moisture content

DRYING IN THE CONSTANT-RATE PERIOD

45

Equation used for constant-rate period

LS X LS dX
R

A t
A dt

LS
X1 X 2
t
ARC

R = drying rate, kg H2O/hm2

LS = kg dry solid
A = Exposed surface area for
drying, m2

X = moisture content
t = constant-rate drying time

EXAMPLE 9.6-1
46

A solid whose drying rate is represented by Fig 9.5-1a

is to be dried from a free moisture content , X1 =

0.38 kg H2O/kg dry solid to X2 = 0.25 kg H2O/kg
dry solid . Estimate the time required.
From figure (9.5-1 a):

For x1 = 0.38 kg H2O/kg dry solid , t1 = 1.28 h

For x2 = 0.25 kg H2O/kg dry solid , t2 = 3.08 h
Hence, the time required is
t = t2 t1 = 3.08 1.28 = 1.80 h

EXAMPLE 9.6-1
47

t1 = 1.28 h
t2 = 3.08 h

EXAMPLE 9.6-2
48

Repeat Example 9.6-1 but use Eq. 9.6-2 and Fig. 9.5-

1b
Rc

From figure (9.5-1 b):

Ls/A = 21.5
Rc = 1.51 kg H2O/hm2
t

LS
ARC

X1 X 2

21.5
0.38 0.25 1.85h
1.51

The value is close to example 9.6-1

DRYING IN THE FALLING-RATE PERIOD

49
In constant-rate drying period, the

surface of the solid in initially very

wet and a continuous film of water
exists on the drying surfaces
Point C is at the critical free
moisture content Xc
At this point there is insufficient
water on the surfaces to maintain a
continuous film of water
The entire surfaces is no longer
wetted and the wetted area
continually decreases in this first
falling-rate until the surface is dry
at point D
The second falling-rate period
begins at point D when the surface
is completely dry

Rc

Xc = critical
moisture content

DRYING IN THE FALLING-RATE PERIOD

50

The rate of drying is not constant, but decreases with time

when drying proceeds past the critical free moisture

content Xc.
The drying time for any region between X1 and X2 is given
as follows (Eq. 9.6-1):

LS
t
A

dX
X 2 R
X1

Can be integrated by plotting 1/R versus X & determine the

area under curve, using GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION or

NUMERICAL INTEGRATION.

EXAMPLE 9.7-1
51

A batch of wet solid whose drying rate curve is

represented by Fig 9.5-1b is to be dried from a free

moisture content , X1 = 0.38 kg H2O/kg dry solid to
X2 = 0.04 kg H2O/kg dry solid . The weight of dry
solid is Ls = 399 kg dry solid and A = 18.58 m2 of top
drying surface. Calculate the time for drying. Note
that Ls/A = 399/18.58 = 21.5 kg/m2.

EXAMPLE 9.7-1
52

From figure, Xc = 0.195 kg

H2O/kg dry solid

For the constant-rate
period, Region X between
X1 = 0.38 and Xc = 0.195.
Rc = 1.51 kg H2O/hm2
Substitute into Eq. 9.6-2:

LS
t
ARC

XC

21.5
0.38 0.195

1.51
2.63h

EXAMPLE 9.7-1
53

For the falling-rate period using graphical method, values

of R and X is obtained from Fig 9.5-1b and get the value of

1/R. (Region X is between Xc = 0.195 and X2 = 0.04)
X

1/R

0.195

1.51

0.663

0.150

1.21

0.826

0.100

0.90

1.11

0.065

0.71

1.41

0.050

0.37

2.70

0.040

0.27

3.70

EXAMPLE 9.7-1
54

Plot graph 1/R vs X

Determine the area under the curve using histogram:

X1

X2

dX
0.165
R

Substitute into Eq. 9.6-1 to calculate t for falling rate period

LS
t
A

dX
399
X 2 R 18.58 0.165 3.54h
X1

Total drying time = time at constant-rate + time at falling-

rate period

ttotal 2.63 3.54 6.17h

EXAMPLE 9.7-1
55

EXAMPLE 9.7-1
56

For the falling-rate period using numerical method,

values of R and X is obtained from Fig 9.5-1b and get

the value of 1/R, X, (1/R)av and (X)(1/R)av
R
1/R
X
(1/R)av (X)(1/R)
. X
av

0.195

1.51

0.663

0.045

0.745

0.0335

0.150

1.21

0.826

0.050

0.969

0.0485

0.100

0.90

1.111

0.035

1.260

0.0441

0.065

0.71

1.408

0.015

2.055

0.0308

0.050

0.37

2.702

0.010

3.203

0.0320

0.040

0.27

3.704

Total

0.1889

X =
(0.195 - 0.150)
(1/R)av =
(0.663 + 0.826)/2

EXAMPLE 9.7-1
57

Substitute into Eq. 9.6-1 to calculate t for falling rate period

LS
t
A

dX
399
X 2 R 18.58 0.1889 4.06h
X1

Total drying time

ttotal 2.63 4.06 6.69h

EXAMPLE 9.7-2 (Special case)

58

Repeat example 9.7-1 but as an approximation assume a

straight line for the rate R vs X through the origin from

point Xc to X = 0 for the falling-rate period
Solution:
Drying in the falling-rate region is from Xc (0.195) to X2
(0.04).
Use Eq. 9.7-8 to calculate time at falling-rate period

LS X C
X C 3990.195 0.195
t
ln

ln
4.39
ARC
X 2 18.581.51 0.040

Total drying time

ttotal 2.63 4.39 7.02h

59