H

E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

HEAT TRANSFER
SME 4453

LECTURER: PM DR MAZLAN ABDUL WAHID

http://www.fkm.utm.my/~mazlan

H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Chapter 3

Steady-State
SteadyOne Dimensional
Heat Conduction
PM Dr Mazlan Abdul Wahid

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

UTM Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
www.fkm.utm.my/~mazlan

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

One-Dimensional Steady-State Conduction

Conduction problems may involve multiple directions and timedependent conditions
Inherently complex Difficult to determine temperature distributions

One-dimensional steady-state models can represent accurately

H
A
P
T
E
R

numerous engineering systems

In this chapter we will:

Learn how to obtain temperature profiles for common geometries

with and without heat generation.

Introduce the concept of thermal resistance and thermal circuits

Introduce to the analysis of one dimensional conduction analysis
on extended surfaces

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Assumptions
- 1 dimensional heat transfer
- Isothermal surfaces
- Steady state

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Fouriers law

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Thermal Resistance concept

- Conduction

Thermal world

H
A
P
T
E
R

Electrical world

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T

Thermal Resistance concept

- Convection

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

The Plane Wall

Consider a simple case of onedimensional conduction in a plane
wall, separating two fluids of different T,1
temperature, without energy
Ts ,1
generation

Cold fluid

T,2 , h2

Temperature is a function of x
Must consider
Convection from hot fluid to wall

H
A
P
T
T,2 E
R

Ts ,2

Heat is transferred in the x-direction

T,1 , h1

qx

Conduction through wall

Convection from wall to cold fluid

Begin by determining temperature

distribution within the wall

Hot fluid

x=0

x=L

x
Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T

Temperature Distribution

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

T
T T T
+ k
+ q = c p
k
+ k
x x y y y z
t

d dT
k
=0
dx dx
C
Heat diffusion equation in the x-direction
for steady-state conditions, with no energy
generation:

Boundary Conditions:

H
A
P
T
E
R

 qx is constant

T (0) = Ts ,1 , T ( L) = Ts ,2

Temperature profile, assuming constant k:

T ( x ) = (Ts ,2 Ts ,1 )

x
+ Ts ,1
L

(3.1)
 Temperature varies linearly with x
Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Thermal Resistance
Based on the previous solution, the conduction heat transfer rate can
be calculated:

q x = kA

dT kA
(Ts,1 Ts,2 ) = (Ts ,1 Ts ,2 ) (3.2a)
=
dx
L
L / kA

Similarly for heat convection, Newtons law of cooling applies:

(T T )
q x = hA(TS T ) = S
1 / hA

And for radiation heat transfer:

qrad = hr A(Ts Tsur ) =

(Ts Tsur )
1 / hr A

(3.2b)

H
A
P
T
E
R

(3.2c)

Recall electric circuit theory - Ohms law for electrical resistance:

Electric current =

Potential Difference
Resistance
Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Thermal Resistance
We can use this electrical analogy to represent heat transfer problems
using the concept of a thermal circuit (equivalent to an electrical circuit).

q=

T
T
Overall Driving Force
= overall
Resistance
R

Compare with equations 3.2a-3.2c

The temperature difference is the potential or driving force for the
heat flow and the combinations of thermal conductivity, convection
coefficient, thickness and area of material act as a resistance to this
flow:

Rt ,cond

H
A
P
T
E
R

L
1
1
, Rt ,conv =
, Rt ,rad =
=
kA
hA
hr A
Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Thermal Resistance for Plane Wall

Cold fluid

T,1

T,2 , h2
Ts ,1

qx =
Ts ,2

T,1 , h1

Hot fluid

qx

x=0
x

T,2

x=L

T ,1 Ts ,1
1 / h1 A

Ts ,1 Ts , 2
L / kA

Ts , 2 T , 2
1 / h2 A
C

In terms of overall
temperature difference:

qx =

T ,1 T , 2

Rtot =

H
A
P
T
E
R

Rtot

L
1
1 3
+
+
h1 A kA h2 A
Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Composite Walls
Express the following
geometry in terms of
a an equivalent
thermal circuit.

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Composite Walls
What is the heat transfer rate for this system?

q x = UAT
Alternatively

T
1
=
Rtot = Rt =
q UA

H
A
P
T
E
R

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and T the overall

temperature difference.

U=

1
Rtot A

1
[(1 / h1 ) + ( LA / k A ) + ( LB / k B ) + ( LC / kC ) + (1 / h4 )]
Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Thermal Resistance concept

- Convection & Radiation

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T

Example single layer wall

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Example multi layer wall

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Example single layer window

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

10

H
E
A
T

Example two layer window

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T

Composite Walls with parallel resistances

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

(a) Surfaces normal to the xdirection are isothermal

For resistances in series:

Rtot=R1+R2++Rn

For resistances in parallel:
1/Rtot=1/R1+1/R2++1/Rn

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

3
(b) Surfaces parallel to xdirection are adiabatic
Dr Mazlan

11

H
E
A
T

Composite Walls with parallel resistances

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Composite Walls with parallel resistances

For resistances in series:
Rtot=R1+R2++Rn

For resistances in parallel:
1/Rtot=1/R1+1/R2++1/Rn

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

12

H
E
A
T

Parallel heat conduction

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Attention
The result obtained will be
somewhat approximate, since
the surfaces of the
third layer will probably not
be isothermal, and heat
transfer between the first
two layers is likely to occur.

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

13

H
E
A
T

Heat loss through a

composite wall

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Contact Resistance

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

14

H
E
A
T

Contact Resistance
The temperature drop
across the interface
between materials may
be appreciable, due to
surface roughness
effects, leading to air
pockets. We can defineC
H
thermal contact
A
resistance:
P

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

q x = hcAT int

T
E
R

Rc = Tint / hcA
Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

15

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Thermal contact resistance is observed to

decrease with decreasing surface roughness
and increasing interface pressure, as
expected.
Most experimentally determined values of the
thermal contact resistance fall between
0.000005 and 0.0005 m2 C/W (the
corresponding range of thermal contact
conductance is 2000 to 200,000 W/m2 C).

H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

16

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Contact resistance of transistors

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

17

H
E
A
T

Composite Walls with contact resistances

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Radial Systems-Cylindrical Coordinates

Consider a hollow cylinder, whose inner and outer surfaces are
exposed to fluids at different temperatures

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Temperature distribution

Dr Mazlan

18

H
E
A
T

Temperature Distribution - Thermal resistance

for cylinder

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

T
1 T 1 T T
k
+ k
kr
+
+ q = c p
r r r r 2 z z
t
Heat diffusion equation (eq. 2.5)
in the r-direction for steadystate conditions, with no energy
generation:

1 d dT
kr
r dr dr

=0

for constant k
1 d dT
r
=0
r dr dr

dT
dT
Fouriers law: qr = kA
= k (2rL)
= const
dr
dr

Boundary Conditions:

H
A
P
T
E
R

T ( r1 ) = Ts ,1 , T ( r2 ) = Ts ,2

Temperature profile, assuming constant k:

(Ts ,1 Ts ,2 )

r
T (r) =
ln + Ts ,2  Logarithmic temperature
ln( r1 / r2 ) r 2
distribution
Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Temperature Distribution - thermal resistance

for cylinder

T (r) =

(Ts ,1 Ts ,2 )

r
ln + Ts ,2
ln( r1 / r2 ) r 2

qr = kA

therefore

dT
dT
= k (2rL)
dr
dr

qr =

2 kL ( T1 T 2 )
ln( r2 / r1 )

qr =

T1 T 2
ln( r2 / r1 ) / 2 kL

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

R cyl = ln( r 2 / r1 ) / 2 kL
Dr Mazlan

19

H
E
A
T

Temperature Distribution - thermal resistance

for cylinder

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Thermal resistance for cylinder

Based on the previous solution, the conduction hear transfer rate can
be calculated:
Fouriers law:

qx =

qr = kA

2Lk (Ts ,1 Ts , 2 )
ln(r2 / r1 )

dT
dT
= k ( 2rL)
= const
dr
dr

(T

s ,1

Ts , 2 )

ln(r2 / r1 ) /(2Lk )

(T

In terms of equivalent thermal circuit:

qx =

T ,1 T , 2

Rtot =

Rtot

s ,1

Ts , 2 )

Rt ,cond

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

1
ln(r2 / r1 )
1
+
+
h1 (2r1 L)
2kL
h2 (2r2 L)
Dr Mazlan

20

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Composite Walls
Express the following
geometry in terms of
a an equivalent
thermal circuit.

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Composite Walls
What is the heat transfer rate?

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient. If A=A1=2r1L:

1
U=
1 r1
r
r
r
r
r
r 1
+
ln 2 + 1 ln 3 + 1 ln 4 + 1
h1 k A r1 k B r2 kC r3 r4 h4

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

3
alternatively we can use A2=2r2L, A3=2r3L etc. In all cases:

U1 A1 = U 2 A2 = U 3 A3 = U 4 A4 =

Dr Mazlan

21

H
E
A
T

Spherical Coordinates

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Fouriers law:

dT
dr
C
2 dT H
= k (4r )
A
dr P

qsph = kA

Starting from Fouriers law, acknowledging that qr is constant,

independent of r, and assuming that k is constant, derive the
equation describing the conduction heat transfer rate. What is
the thermal resistance?

T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Temperature Distribution - thermal resistance

for sphere

qsph / 4 dr / r 2 = k dT
q sph =

4 k ( Ts 1 Ts 2 )
(1 / r1 ) (1 / r2 )

R sph =

1
4 k

1
1

)
r1
r2

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

22

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Conduction with Generation

Thermal energy may be generated or consumed due to conversion
from some other energy form.

If thermal energy is generated in the material at the expense of some
other energy form, we have a source: q is +ve
Deceleration and absorption of neutrons in a nuclear reactor
Exothermic reactions
Conversion of electrical to thermal energy:

E& g
.
q=

I 2 Re
=
V
V

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

where I is the current, Re the electrical

resistance, V the volume of the medium

If thermal energy is consumed we have a sink:

Endothermic reactions

is -ve

24

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

The Plane Wall

Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a plane wall of
constant k, with uniform generation, and asymmetric surface conditions:
Heat diffusion equation (eq. 2.3) :

d 2T q.
+ =0
dx 2 k

H
A
P
T
E
R

Boundary Conditions:

General Solution:

q 2
T =
x + C1 x + C2
2k
2k
T ( L) = Ts ,1 , T ( L) = Ts ,2

25

Dr Mazlan

23

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Temperature Profile
.

qL2 x 2 (Ts , 2 Ts ,1 ) x Ts ,1 + Ts , 2 (3.3)

1 +
T ( x) =
+
2k L2
2
L
2
 Profile is parabolic.
 Heat flux not independent of x
What happens when:

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

q = 0, q increases, q < 0 ?

26

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Symmetrical Distribution
When both surfaces are maintained at a
common temperature, Ts,1= Ts,2 = Ts

.
qL2 x 2
1 + Ts (3.4a)
T ( x) =
2k L2

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

What is the location of the maximum

temperature?

T ( x ) Tmax x

=
Ts Tmax
L

(3.4b)

27

Dr Mazlan

24

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F


E
R

Symmetrical Distribution

Note that at the plane of symmetry:

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

dT
= 0 q" x =0 = 0

dx x =0
 Equivalent to adiabatic surface

28

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Calculation of surface temperature Ts

In equations (3.4a) and (3.4b) the surface temperature, Ts is needed.

Boundary condition at the wall:

dT
dx

x=L

= h(Ts T )

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Substituting (dT/dx)x=L from equation

(3.4a):

Ts = T +

.qL

(3.5)

29

Dr Mazlan

25

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Example
The steady-state temperature distribution in a composite plane wall of
three different materials, each of constant thermal conductivity, is
shown in the schematic below.
a) Does heat generation occur in any of sections A,B, or C?
b) Based on the schematic, what is the boundary condition at location (4)?
C
c) Comment on the relative magnitudes of q2 and q3.
H
A
P
T
E
R

d) Comment on the relative magnitudes of kA and kB.

30

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Example
A plane wall of thickness 0.1 m and thermal conductivity 25 W/m.K
having uniform volumetric heat generation of 0.3 MW/m3 is insulated
on one side, while the other side is exposed to a fluid at 92C. The
convection heat transfer coefficient between the wall and the fluid is
500 W/m2.K. Determine the maximum temperature in the wall.

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

31

Dr Mazlan

26

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Radial Systems
Cylindrical (Tube) Wall

Spherical Wall (Shell)

Solid Cylinder (Circular Rod)

H
A
P
T
E
R

Solid Sphere

32

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T

T
R
A
N
S

F
E
R

Radial Systems
.
Heat diffusion equation in 1 d
dT q

kr
+ = 0
r dr dr k
.
q 2
General Solution: T =
r + C1 ln r + C2
2k

the r-direction for steadystate conditions:

Boundary Conditions:

Temperature profile:

dT
dr

r =0

= 0, T ( ro ) = Ts

H
A
P
T
E
R

T , h

qro2 r 2
1 + Ts (3.53)
T (r ) =
4k ro2

3
L

Calculation of surface temperature:

q(ro2 L) = h(2ro L)(Ts T )

and

Ts = T +

qro
2h
33

Dr Mazlan

27

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Example
A cylindrical shell of inner and outer radii ri and ro, respectively, is filled
with a heat-generating material that provides a uniform volumetric
generation rate. The inner surface is insulated, while the outer surface
of the shell is exposed to a fluid with a convection coefficient h.
a) Obtain an expression for the steady-state temperature distribution T(r)
in the shell.
C
b) Determine an expression for the heat rate q(ro) at the outer radius of H
the shell in terms of the heat generation rate and the shell dimensions A
P
T
E
R

34

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

28

H
E
A
T

Critical radius of insulation

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Optimum thickness of insulation

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

29

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Extended Surfaces (Fins)

An extended surface (also know as a combined conduction-convection
system or a fin) is a solid within which heat transfer by conduction is
assumed to be one dimensional, while heat is also transferred by
convection (and/or radiation) from the surface in a direction transverse
to that of conduction

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

35

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Extended Surfaces (Fins)

Extended surfaces may exist in many situations but are commonly
used as fins to enhance heat transfer by increasing the surface area
available for convection (and/or radiation). They are particularly
beneficial when h is small, as for a gas and natural convection.

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

3

Solutions for various fin geometries can be found in the literature (see
for example in textbook).
36

Dr Mazlan

30

H
E
A
T

Extended surfacessurfaces- Fins

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

There are two ways to increase the rate

of heat transfer: to increase the
convection heat transfer coefficient h or
to increase the surface area A.

H
A
P
T
E
R

3
Fins enhance heat transfer from a
surface by exposing a larger surface
area to
convection and radiation.

H
E
A
T

Dr Mazlan

Fin equation

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

or

Dr Mazlan

31

H
E
A
T

Infinitely long fin

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Negligible heat loss from the fin tip

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

32

H
E
A
T

Fin efficiency

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Efficiency of fins (I)

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

33

H
E
A
T

Efficiency of fins (II)

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Fin effectiveness (I)

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

34

H
E
A
T

Fin effectiveness (II)

T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Proper length of a fin

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

35

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

Thermal resistance

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

H
E
A
T
T
R
A
N
S
F
E
R

C
H
A
P
T
E
R

Dr Mazlan

36