Afghanistan

Republic of Georgia

Pakistan

Argentina

Germany

PANAMA

Australia

Ghana

Peru

Austria

GREECE

Bahrain

Guatemala

The Philippines

Bangladesh

Honduras

BELGIUM

Iceland

Bermuda

India

Bolivia

Indonesia

Bosnia and
HerzEgovina

Iran

Brazil
Canada
Chile
China
Colombia
Costa Rica
Croatia
Cuba
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO
THE dominican
republic

POLAND
Portugal
PUERTO RICO
Russia
RWANDA

Iraq

Saudi Arabia

Ireland

Scotland

Israel

SenEgal

Italy

South Africa

Jamaica

South Korea

Japan

SPAIN

Kazakhstan

SWEDEN

Kenya
Kuwait
Mexico
NEPAL
The Netherlands

syria
Taiwan
Thailand
Turkey
Ukraine

Egypt

New Zealand

England

nicaragua

Ethiopia

Nigeria

Uzbekistan

FINLAND

North Korea

VENEZUELA

France

Norway

VIETNAM

The United States

Sudan

Joseph R. Oppong

Series Editor

Charles F. Gritzner

South Dakota State University

Frontispiece: Flag of Sudan

Cover: The Mero pyramids of the Kushite rulers
Sudan
Copyright 2010 by Infobase Publishing
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by
any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the
publisher. For information, contact:
Chelsea House
An imprint of Infobase Publishing
132 West 31st Street
New York NY 10001
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Oppong, Joseph R.
Sudan / Joseph R. Oppong.
p. cm. (Modern world nations)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-60413-620-3 (hardcover)
ISBN 978-1-4381-3307-2 (e-book)
1. SudanJuvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series.
DT154.6.O66 2010
962.4dc22

2009048066

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Book printed and bound by Bang Printing, Brainerd MN
Date printed: April 2010
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Table of Contents

1 Introducing Sudan

2 Physical Landscapes

18

3 People and Culture

36

4 History and Politics

61

5 The Darfur Crisis

75

6 Sudans Economy

86

7 Living in Sudan Today

98

8 Sudan Looks Ahead

Facts at a Glance
History at a Glance
Bibliography
Further Reading
Index

111
117
120
123
124
126

Sudan

1
Introducing
Sudan

udan is a country unlike any other in Africa. It is huge in area.

Physically and culturally it is a very diverse land, and few places
in the world have experienced a longer and more bitter history of conflict. Most of its people, particularly those living in the
south, live in grinding poverty. Because of the widespread hardships,
the Sudanese suffer from some of the worst health conditions in the
world. As an added hazard, they live in fear of stepping on land mines,
a potential reminder of the countrys long history of deadly conflicts.
The International Criminal Court (ICC) has formally charged Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir with war crimes. Al-Bashir faces arrest
if he ventures outside the country. Yet Sudans fortunes may have
taken a turn for the better. The country has emerged as a potentially
rich oil producer. China has already invested huge amounts of money
in the development of this vital resource. This book is about the complex story of Sudan, a country that constantly struggles to survive.

Introducing Sudan
From the varieties of soil on the Sudanese landscapes to
the cultural practices of the Sudanese people, Sudan is a land
of incredible diversity. Muslim in the north and a mix of native
and Christian faiths in the south, Sudan is full of religious and
many other cultural differences. As often as not, these differences have been the source of conflicts. In fact, for much of its
existence as an independent country, Sudan has been trapped
in civil strife. These conflicts have killed millions of people and
forced even larger numbers out of their homeland as refugees.
And in Darfur and elsewhere in the southern region of the
country, the massacres continue today.
Sudan is as huge as it is diverse. It has an area of 967,500
square miles (2,505,813 square kilometers), nearly one-quarter
the area of the United States. This makes it the largest country
in Africa. Within this large territorial expanse is an amazing
diversity of natural environments. It is home to enormous
deserts, majestic mountain ranges, soggy swamps and marshes,
and colorful tropical rain forests. From the fertility of the Nile
Valley to the barrenness of the deserts, and from the poverty of
the south to a north that is wealthy by comparison, Sudan is a
country that offers incredibly sharp contrasts.
To prosper, a country needs an easy outlet to the rest of the
world. Sudan is not landlocked. The northeastern part of the
country faces the Red Sea, where Port Sudan is a major seaport
facility. Yet most of the countrys people and economic activity are located more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) from the sea.
The southern provinces are so far removed from the countrys
railroad network and Port Sudan that they use another route.
They find it easier, faster, and cheaper to ship their products
by rail through neighboring Uganda and on to Kenyas major
seaport at Mombassa.
The countrys geographic location in northeastern Africa
extends from the southern border of Egypt to the northern
border of Uganda, a distance of about 1,200 miles (2,000 km).
In all, it shares political boundaries with nine other countries.

10

Sudan

Sudan, which is located in northeastern Africa, is the largest country on

the continent. Covering an area of 967,500 square miles (2,505,813
sq km), slightly more than one-quarter the size of the United States,
Sudan is the tenth largest country in the world by area.

Introducing Sudan
In addition to Egypt and Uganda, portions of its territory
border Libya, Chad, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Eritrea.
Many of these neighbors are also troubled by conflict. This area
of Africa is an often-dangerous neighborhood. It lies astride
the transition between the North African and Middle Eastern
culture realm to the north and the sub-Saharan African culture
realm to the south. In fact, Sudan is considered a cultural bridge
that links Arabs and Africans in one huge and diverse country.
This diversity is one factor that plays a key role in causing the
countrys seemingly ceaseless conflicts. The country combines
the peoples and cultures from two quite different worlds with
different ways of life. Differences include religion, language,
social interactions, diet, and much more.
Sudan provides a terrific opportunity to explore many
complex and currently hot topics in physical and human
geography. Using Darfur, we will examine the role of possible
climate change, particularly as it affects rainfall, as a factor
that may influence political crisis and ethnic hostilities. We
will answer the question of whether climate change, alone, can
cause war. We will also explore the issues surrounding Africas
refugee crisis. You will meet children your age, who were captured as slaves, and forced to marry at ages as young as 12 years.
You will encounter child soldiers. Of greatest importance, you
will meet people who are trying to begin their lives again after
the devastation of war.
Sudan is a country deeply divided in many ways. Because
of its distribution of power and population, Sudan is a story of
growth in the north and widespread despair in the south. The
Muslim north is the dominant region in terms of population,
political control, and economic power. Its people enjoy a fairly
decent level of well-being. The weak, impoverished, and tense
south, on the other hand, has always resisted northern rule
and dominance. In fact, Sudan was caught in a two-decade
civil war between the mainly Muslim north and the south,
where people are mostly animist (the belief that spirits inhabit
natural objects) or Christian. This north-south civil war lasted

11

12

Sudan
21 years, and killed an estimated 1.5 million people. It finally
ended in 2005.
Bitter fighting broke out in the western region of Darfur
in early 2003. In Darfur, the United Nations (UN) believes
that more than 2 million people have fled their homes and
more than 200,000 have been killed. Today, southern Sudan
looks for leadership and assistance from neighboring Uganda
and Kenya, rather than to Sudans capital, Khartoum, or the
Middle East.
Since ancient times, Sudan has been an arena for interaction between the cultural traditions of Africa and those of
the Mediterranean world. In recent centuries, Islam and the
Arabic language have become dominant in many northern
parts of the country. Arabic is the official language and Islam
is the countrys major religion, but Sudan also has a large
nonArabic speaking and non-Muslim population. Older
and more traditional African cultural practices, including
language and religion, dominate in the south. Christians and
animists living in the south have rejected attempts by the
government in Khartoum to impose Islamic law called Sharia
on the country as a whole. In addition, Sudan (particularly
in the south) has hundreds of ethnic and tribal subdivisions
and language groups. This makes real partnership within the
country a significant political challenge.
The two main divisionsnorth and southare sharply
divided along linguistic, religious, racial, and economic lines,
and these divisions have generated ethnic tensions and clashes
on numerous occasions. Moreover, the geographical isolation
of Sudans southern African peoples has prevented them from
participating fully in the countrys political, economic, and
social life.
Sudan has had numerous changes in government since
the country gained independence in 1956. Consecutive government rulers found it difficult to win general acceptance
and support from the countrys diverse population. In fact,

Introducing Sudan
following independence, it took the country 17 yearsuntil
1973to draft a formal constitution!
Seemingly constant conflict has tattered Sudans ability to
provide basic services to its people. This has caused many refugees to flee. But Sudan has also received large numbers of refugees from neighboring countries, primarily Ethiopia and Chad,
both of which have their own civil conflicts. Clearly, huge
numbers of people in Sudan desperately need humanitarian
assistance, but armed conflict, poor transportation routes and
facilities, and lack of government support continually block
such attempts to help affected populations. Despite large areas
of land that are suitable for cultivation, poverty and hunger
are widespread among Sudans refugees and displaced people.
In addition, some southerners who once fled their homes have
since returned, meaning that there is a pressing need for reconstruction. This makes the story of Sudan one of heartbreak and
of a desperate struggle for survival.
Sudan has been labeled as both a terrorist state and a failed
state (a place characterized by social, political, and economic
failure). Two reasons probably account for this. First, did you
know that al Qaeda was founded in Sudan? In fact, Sudan was
the first headquarters of al Qaeda, the international terrorist organization led by Osama bin Laden. After creating the
organization in 1989, bin Laden and al Qaeda operated from a
Sudanese base until 1996. During this period, al Qaeda established networks with other terrorist organizations. With their
help and that of its Sudanese hosts, al Qaeda grew to become a
global terrorist organization.
The country was an ideal location for the terrorist organization for several reasons. First, al Qaeda prefers lawless areas
with limited government (or a government that it can control).
In such an environment, it can operate freely and in secret. Second, because of Sudans size and vast area of sparsely populated
desert, it is a perfect setting for terrorist training camps. Finally,
the Sudanese government was weak, but supportive of what bin

13

14

Sudan
Laden was doing. In May 1996, following U.S. pressure on the
Sudanese government, bin Laden moved al Qaedas headquarters to Afghanistan, where he forged a close relationship with
the Taliban rulers. But for all practical purposes, al Qaeda was
born and raised in Sudan. This is why the country gained its
reputation as a terrorist state.
Sudan has also earned its reputation as a failed state. The
International Criminal Court (ICC) has formally charged
Omar al-Bashir, Sudans president since 1993 (and still in office
as of 2010) with war crimes and crimes against humanity. An
international warrant has been issued for his arrest. The ICC
holds President al-Bashir and his government responsible for
causing the conditions that made possible the murder, rape,
torture, and displacement of large numbers of civilians in Darfur. In theory, al-Bashir can be arrested if he ventures outside
Sudan. In reality, that is not very likely to happen if he limits
his travels to countries that support his policies. The numerous conflicts in Sudan, and the perceived involvement of the
countrys leaders in supporting and exploiting these conflicts,
make Sudan a failed state.
In certain ways, Sudan seems to be in the Dark Ages. If a
woman were to wear blue jeans in public, she could be arrested
and flogged with 40 lashes. One teacher learned to her dismay
that there was a price to pay of six months in jail and 40 lashes
for allowing her class to name a teddy bear Muhammad.
(These two examples are discussed at length in Chapter 7.)
Sudan suffers the tragic legacy of its conflicts in numerous ways. For example, the country is dotted with dangerous
and potentially deadly landmines. During the countrys many
conflicts, thousands of landmines were planted. During the
rainy season, the mines and other hidden, unexploded devices
are exposed at the surface, where they pose a great threat to
civilians, especially children. One such catastrophic case took
place in July 2009, when a landmine seriously injured a sevenyear-old boy named Hassan. On his way back from school,

Introducing Sudan

Due to the civil wars in Sudan, millions of people have been killed,
injured, or displaced. People face risks daily not only from soldiers
but from landmines that have been planted in tufts of grass or in
soil, under fruit trees, and near water sources. Above, a Sudanese
landmine victim watches others play wheelchair basketball at the
Kakuma refugee camp in Kenya. Kakuma houses refugees who have
fled internal conflicts in Sudan.

Hassan saw a shiny metal object sticking up out of the soil. As

he attempted to pull the object from the soil, it exploded. His
family immediately brought him to the nearby Doctors Without Borders hospital, where a team provides surgical care and
other health services.
Hassans two hands were completely destroyed and had to
be amputated at the elbows. He had injuries to his face, eyes,
neck, chest, and abdomen, and also on one of his legs. Hassan
also lost his eyesight. Although his parents were happy that he
survived, they were also worried about his future. He was still
a strong boy, but they wondered what future he would have

15

16

Sudan
in a country where surviving under normal circumstances is
already very difficult.
Unfortunately, in March 2009, Doctors Without Borders
was one of the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that
were thrown out of Sudan when the International Criminal
Court announced its charges against President al-Bashir. The
Sudanese government stated that it was unable to ensure the
safety of foreigners and Sudanese nationals who were not from
Darfur. Doctors Without Borders teams had been working in
Sudan since 1978, providing emergency medical humanitarian assistance. In addition to frequent outbreaks of violence
and attacks in the region, malnutrition is widespread and the
nations maternal mortality rates remain among the highest in
the world. Tuberculosis and other diseases, such as meningitis,
measles, cholera, and malaria, also are rampant within the
country.
Despite its historical ties to terrorism, internal conflicts,
and Islamic extremism, there is some room for optimism.
Sudan has gained recent importance as a potentially rich oil
producer. The countrys deposits are believed to hold Africas
greatest unexploited oil resources. By some estimates, Sudans
oil reserves are even greater than those of the Gulf of Guinea
including Nigeria, Gabon, Ghana, and the Ivory Coast combined. In fact, some experts even suggest that Sudans untapped
oil reserves equal those of Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, Sudan
has large deposits of natural gas, one of the three largest deposits of high-purity uranium in the world, and the fourth largest
deposits of copper.
This newly discovered wealth has made Sudan a major center of attention of the global superpowers. The United States,
however, is largely out of the running among those countries
that will benefit from Sudans resources. Because of the atrocities in Darfur, the United States imposed economic sanctions
on Sudan in 2007. Instead, China is providing the technology for exploration, drilling, pumping, and the building of a

Introducing Sudan
pipeline. China also buys much of Sudans oil, with payment
including weapons as part of the exchange.
While U.S. oil companies are barred from operating in
Sudan, China has found a reliable ally and an important oil provider in Sudan. This situation, of course, has critical implications for the global economy and political landscape. To satisfy
its growing appetite for oil, the rapidly growing Asian economic giant ignores Sudans atrocities and President al-Bashirs
dismal record of leadership. In 2009, an estimated 6 percent of
Chinas oil imports were from Sudan, and China wants more.
China has already made huge investments in Sudan and other
projects are planned. Currently, Asian oil companies dominate
the field in Sudan. As global oil shortages increase, Sudan is
going to become an even more important country.
All these conditions and more are to follow in the pages of
this book. Sudan invites you into its fascinating and frequently
turbulent world. Will you listen to its story?
[Note: The country of Sudan is not to be confused with the
rather vaguely defined geographical region of Sudan (Arabic:
Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks). The latter region generally is recognized as coinciding with arid and semiarid areas
of North Africa that are dominated by dark-skinned people of
the Islamic faith.]

17

2
Physical
Landscapes

udan spans 18 degrees of latitude, a distance of about 1,250

miles (2,000 km). Located at about 4 North Latitude, its
southern extremity lies very near the equator. The northern
border is located at about 23 North Latitude, near the Tropic of
Cancer. Everywhere one travels in Sudan, he or she will be surprised
by the countrys varied natural landscapes. Within the countrys
967,500-square-mile (2,505,813-square-kilometer) area are found an
incredible variety of physical conditions.
Land features range from boringly flat plains to rugged mountains. In the north, vast expanses of parched desert landscapes stand
in sharp contrast to the rain-drenched south. The country boasts a
wide array of flora (plants) and fauna (animal life). Flora reflects
precipitation, which diminishes from south to north. There are lush
tropical rain forests in the southern highlands. Moving northward,

18

Physical Landscapes
woodlands gradually give way to savanna landscapes, then
scrub and short grasslands, and finally to scant and scattered
desert vegetation in the north. In the northeast, Sudan faces
upon the Red Sea. The interiors well-watered river basins of
the Nile and its tributaries stand in marked contrast to the
bone-dry desert conditions of the eastern Sahara.
Sudans physical environment presents both opportunities
and challenges to the countrys people. Animals are biologically adapted to their habitats, the natural conditions in which
they can survive. Humans, on the other hand, draw upon
culture as our survival mechanism. We are able to culturally
adapt to, use, and modify the physical places in which we
live. Rather than nature determining how people live, people
determine how useful the environment will be to them. In
this chapter, you will learn about Sudans varied environmental conditions. Elsewhere, you will find out how people have
adapted to and used the land from place to place.
Land Features
To picture Sudans land features, it is helpful to think of
a horseshoe with the open end facing northward toward
Egypt. The space within the horseshoe is relatively low in
elevation and quite flat in terrain. In the interior, the Nile
River and its tributaries flow from south to north. The
streams flow through a valley that varies in width from very
broad in the south to just miles in width in some northern
areas. Moving from the center toward the countrys edges,
elevations rise. Except in the open north, the horseshoe itself
is formed by the various mountain ranges that flank much
of Sudans borderland.
Highlands
Highest elevations occur in the south, near the Ugandan
border. There, in the Imatonge Range, Mount Kinyeti rises to
an elevation of 10,456 feet (3,187 meters). The Imatonge and

19

20

Sudan
nearby Dongotona mountains are the rainiest areas of Sudan
and are shrouded in dense tropical rain forests. Because of
the moisture, many streams flow from the highlands (including those of neighboring Ethiopia) and help form southern
Sudans huge area of marsh and swamp. In western Sudans
Darfur region, Jebel Marrah rises to an elevation of 10,131
feet (3,088 m). Within Sudan, most of the southeast is lowland
plain. But towering peaks within Ethiopia and Eritrea rise very
near the border. In the northeast, much of the Red Sea coast is
bordered a short distance inland by mountains that run parallel to the sea. In the far northeast and within sight of the Red
Sea, Jebel Erba rises like a towering giant from near sea level to
an elevation of 7,274 feet (2,217 m).
A hill named Jebel Barkal is located along the Nile River
about 250 miles (400 km) north of Khartoum. Standing only
about 300 feet (100 m) tall, it is not a major physical feature.
But the landform is of great historical significance. About 1000
b.c., the area became the center of the powerful Kingdom of
Kush. Archaeologists have found the ruins of 13 temples and 3
palaces, including the famous Temple of Amun that is considered sacred even today by many people. Because of its historical
importance, the many ruins at the foot of Jebel Barkal are now
a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Lowlands
Most of the countrys interior is quite flat, with plains and low
plateaus occupying much of the area. In the northern roughly
half of Sudan, low-lying desert terrain dominates the landscape. To the west is the Libyan Desert, the regional name of
the eastern Sahara. The arid landscape located east of the Nile
Valley is the Nubian Desert. Both are part of the vast desert belt
that stretches across northern Africa and into southwestern and
central Asia. The desert is dominated by reg (gravel), hamada
(rocky), and erg (sandy) surface conditions that vary from
place to place.

Physical Landscapes

21

Northern Sudan is comprised of desert and the Nile Valley. Western Sudan is very
dry, thus people and animals must remain in reach of permanent wells, making
the population unevenly distributed and sparse. Several mountain ranges in the
far south, northeast, and west break up the flat terrain. Sudan is abundant in rich
mineral resources including petroleum, natural gas, iron, zinc, gold, and uranium.

22

Sudan
In the south, the lowlands are dominated by As Sudd,
one of the worlds largest wetland areas of marsh (reeds and
other aquatic plants) and swamp (standing water and trees).
The soggy region covers nearly 100,000 square miles (260,000
sqkm), an area about the size of Colorado. Physically, the
vast wetlands are formed by periodic flooding of very flat and
poorly drained land by the Nile and its tributaries.
Scattered about between the highlands and lowlands are a
number of upland areas best described as hills. They include
the Nuba Mountains and the Ingessana Hills, the latter being
an important chromium-producing area.
Weather and Climate
Sudans latitudinal location places most of the country within
the tropics. Tropical refers to temperature conditions, not
moisture. A tropical location is defined as being any place in
which the average temperature of the coldest month is above
64.4F (18C). There are three topical zones: wet tropics (not
found in Sudan), seasonal wet-and-dry tropics, and dry tropics. (Note: Each of these climatic zones is identified by a number of different names and defined by various conditions.) A
small area of northern Sudan experiences a dry subtropical
climate. There, the average temperature of the coldest month
drops below 64.4F (18C), but is above freezing. This section
describes the most important aspects of both weather (dayto-day conditions of the atmosphere) and climate (long term
average weather conditions).
Weather and climate are a mixture of temperature, precipitation, atmospheric pressure, and winds. In various combinations,
they create a fifth elementstorms. Many factors influence
weather and climate. Certainly latitude plays an important
role. Sudans tropical location, for example, is responsible for
the countrys constantly high temperatures. But among other
influences are air masses, pressure systems and winds, elevation,
and distance from a large body of water. As you can see, the

Physical Landscapes
atmosphere is very complex. In this section, only those elements
that are most important to conditions in Sudan are discussed.
In Sudan, precipitation is far and away the most important
element of weather and climate. Of particular importance is
the amount of rain that falls annually, when rain falls, and the
length and severity of the dry season. Many human activities
are finely tuned to these seasonal changes in weather. Basically,
most of the country experiences either seasonally wet-and-dry
conditions, or year-round aridity.
The change between wet and dry seasons is explained by
the movement of pressure systems and air masses. (An air mass
is a body of air that takes on the conditions of the area over
which it forms.) In simple terms, think of the southern part of
Sudan as lying between two weather extremes. To the north, in
the Sahara Desert, conditions are dry year-round. To the south,
along the equator, they are wet throughout the year.
As you probably know, the position of the sun moves
northward during the Northern Hemisphere summer and
southward during the hemispheres winter. As it makes its
annual migration, the sun drags with it Earths climatic belts
and their controls. During the Northern Hemisphere summer,
those conditions that contribute to high rainfall all year along
the equator move northward. This is southern Sudans wet season. During the winter months, the sun drags southward the
belt of conditions that cause aridity in the Sahara and northern
Sudan year-round. This creates the regions dry season.
The northern part of Sudan experiences a desert climate
(much of which is dry-tropical) throughout the year. If you
have a barometer, what weather conditions are indicated by rising atmospheric pressure? If you answered with words such as
calm, stable, clear, and fair, you are right! High pressure is associated with calm, non-stormy conditions. Most of northern
Africa, including northern Sudan, lies in a belt of year-round
high pressure. It is this pressure system that contributes to the
regions year-round lack of cloud cover and resulting aridity.

23

24

Sudan
Temperature
Temperatures in Sudan vary somewhat from region to region,
although no inhabited location experiences extreme cold.
(Snow occasionally falls on higher peaks.) Generally speaking,
drier locations experience greater temperature extremes than
do places with a humid climate and frequent cloud cover. In
fact, day-to-night temperature differences, particularly in drier
areas, can be greater than annual temperature ranges! In a dry
atmosphere, there is little moisture or cloud cover to block
incoming solar radiation. This allows daytime temperatures
to soar. On the other hand, at night, there is no atmospheric
blanket to keep heat on or near Earths surface. In the dry
desert atmosphere, daytime temperatures can be sweltering
hot, climbing to extremes well above 100F (37.7C). Yet during
the nighttime they can plummet to teeth chattering temperatures in the 40s (4.4-9.4C) or even lower.
In Sudan, temperatures do not vary greatly from month to
month. The range is greater in the arid north than in the more
humid southern part of the country. In Khartoum, Sudans
capital and largest city, the average annual temperature is 80F
(26.7C). (Phoenix, Arizona, experiences an annual average
temperature of 69.2F [20.67C].) The warmest months are
May and Junejust before the onset of the wet seasonwhen
afternoon highs average about 106F (41oC). The citys record
high temperature is a sweltering 118 F (48oC)! In January,
temperatures in Khartoum average 59 F (15oC), with a record
low temperature of only 41 F (5oC).
In the more humid south, annual average temperatures are
higher than in the north. Averages in the upper 70s to lower
80s (25 to 28C) are common. Juba, located near the Ugandan
border, experiences conditions typical to the region. The citys
average annual temperature is 81.1F (27.5C). During the
warm season the average daily high temperature is in the upper
90s (36-37C). Daily low temperatures during the cooler season
drop to an average 68F (20C).

Physical Landscapes
As always seems to be the case, there are some exceptions
to the general rules that have been presented here. For example,
temperatures can drop well-below freezing at high elevations
and snow falls occasionally atop the higher mountains. In the
north, an occasional cold front can bring unseasonably cold
temperatures. Another seemingly strange condition is that
highest temperatures do not happen during the summer (high
sun) period. Rather, they occur just before, or at the end of the
dry season when cloudless skies allow them to climb. Finally,
the south experiences the highest year-round average temperatures, but it lacks the extremely high temperatures that occur
in the north.
Precipitation
As you have seen, most of Sudan has an arid to semiarid climate. Only in the far south are conditions quite moist. Such
rain occurs mostly during the late spring, summer, and early
autumn months. Not all locations, of course, have moisture
spread out over half a year. The specific time of year, length
of the rainy season, and amount of rainfall vary from place to
place. Most rain falls in the form of thundershowers. Because
there is little vegetation to slow run-off, rainfall can accumulate
rapidly and create flash-flood conditions. The roaring water of
a flash flood can wash away everything in its path with devastating ferocity. You may be surprised to know that in desert
regions (including the Southwestern U.S.), many more people
are killed by flash floods than by dust storms!
In terms of precipitation, Khartoum is typical of northern
Sudan. The city has a very light rainy season that lasts from
July through September. Total annual average rainfall is about 6
inches (150 millimeters), roughly the same as Phoenix, Arizona.
Conditions are considerably wetter in the south. Yambo, a city
close to the Democratic Republic of the Congo in far southwestern Sudan, is the countrys wettest location. It has a nine-month
rainy season (very unique for Sudan!) and averages 44 inches

25

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Sudan
(1,142 mm) of precipitation a year. This is slightly more than the
average for most of southern Sudan. Juba, which is typical of the
region, averages about 39 inches (990 mm) of rain annually.
Throughout most of Sudan, an inadequate water supply
poses a major problem for settlement and economic development. Whereas people have learned to adapt to conditions of
water scarcity, frequent periods of severe drought can be devastating. When gripped by drought, many water supplies vanish,
crops wither, livestock die, and extreme hardship stalks the land
and its people.
Dust Storms
Summer is the season of the haboob, a hot, howling, dusty wind
common to the region. The term comes from an Arabic word
meaning strong wind. These storms occur mainly along the
southern margins of the Sahara Desert, including northern
Sudan. They approach as a dense wall of sand and dust that can
reach a height of 3,000 feet (900 m). When they strike, blinding
sand and dust can blacken the sky as the darkest night.
Most haboobs form in association with a huge convectional
cell (clouds with vertical development and often accompanied
by thunderstorms). As a result, the storms can create a double
whammy of blown sand and dust followed by drenching rain,
or mud storm. Fortunately, the storms usually are of short
duration, rarely lasting more than an hour or so. Light dust
particles, however, can remain in the sky for days, making the
sun look like a copper penny suspended in the heavens. Storms
identical to the haboob sometimes occur in the desert regions
of North America, Asia, and Australia.
Natural Vegetation
A very close relationship exists between precipitation and
natural vegetation cover. Desert landscapes cover about 36
percent of Sudans area. Here, annual rainfall averages less than
3 inches (125 mm). Plants struggle and those that can survive

Physical Landscapes

A haboob, which means strong wind in Arabic, is a gigantic

sandstorm commonly seen in arid regions around the world. These
seasonal storms can occur at any time without warning, usually lasts
about three hours, and can reach a height of about 3,000 feet (900
m). Above, a haboob spreads over Khartoum, Sudans capital city.

have developed unique ways to get by with minimal moisture.

Adaptation takes many forms. Most plants are small and have
very deep root systems. Some have small leaves, leaves that turn
against the sun during daylight hours, or leaves with waxy coatings. In each case, leaves are designed to reduce transpiration
(water loss).
A semidesert belt covers about 20 percent of Sudan. This
region receives between 5 and 12 inches (125 to 300 mm) of rainfall annually. Vegetation here is mainly short grass and low scrub.
As moisture increases southward, the semidesert belt gives way
to a savanna landscape of taller grasses and scattered trees. The
region, which covers about 24 percent of the country, receives
from 12 to 35 inches (300 to 900 mm) of rainfall a year. Fire is the

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Sudan
key to savanna landscapes. During the wet season, plant growth
is extensive, but in the dry season, conditions become parched
and plants withered. For millennia, the dried vegetation has been
burned by people living in savanna environments. This creates
an open landscape that favors grasses. The trees that grow here
are pyrophytic (fire resistant), such as the gnarly baobab and
umbrella-shaped acacias. Under natural conditions, woodlands
are found on floodplains, in mountainous areas, and in areas
that receive more than 35 inches (900 mm) of rainfall each year.
They cover about 8 percent of Sudans area.
Africa is the worlds longest inhabited continent. Over
hundreds of thousands of years, human activity has drastically
changed the natural vegetation. Change has come from the
widespread use of fire as a tool for clearing land, cutting wood
for various purposes, and, during recent millennia, farming
and grazing of livestock.
Animal Life
When most people think of Africas savanna landscapes, what
do you think comes to mind? If you said animals, you are
right. Sudan has some of the continents most varied, abundant, and spectacular wildlife populations. Nearly all of the
animals, including some 300 species of mammals, are found in
the southern part of the country. There, herbivorous (vegetarian) animals graze on the tall savanna grasses. They, in turn,
are preyed upon by carnivorous (meat eating) predators such
as lions and hyenas. Finally, vultures and other carrion-eating
birds, animals, and insects clean up the mess.
A recent wildlife survey conducted in southern Sudan
counted more than 1.2 million antelope of various types. It also
counted at least 8,000 elephants, as well as substantial numbers
of buffalos, lions, giraffes, and hartebeests. There are also a number of animals adapted to the forest environment. They include
several types of monkeys, the bongo antelope, chimpanzees, forest elephants, and at least two types of large wild hogs.

Physical Landscapes
The country is home to more than 200 bird species, including ostriches and storks. Fish and other aquatic species too
numerous to mention are found in the Nile and its tributaries.
They include hippopotami and huge (and frequently man-eating!) crocodiles. Many species also are found in the waters of
the Red Sea. As is true throughout the tropical world, Sudan
has more than its share of insects, including many that spread
diseases such as malaria. And, oh, yes, we wouldnt want to forget the more than two dozen venomous snakes, animals, and
insects and the huge python constrictor!
Sudans fauna has been threatened for some time. During
the decades-long civil war, bush meat (wildlife) was a primary source of food for many people. A fortune could be made
by poaching elephants for their valuable ivory tusks. Damage
to the environment has destroyed animal habitats. Today, many
concerned people fear that economic development will further
destroy animal habitats, both land and water. Agriculture,
mining, and petroleum production all change and pollute the
environment. And with the end of civil conflict, all of these
activities are increasing. Looking ahead, abundant wildlife
offers a safari option to regional economic development. For
this to happen, however, peaceful conditions must prevail and
an adequate tourist infrastructure must be developed.
Soils
About 7 percent of Sudans area is arable, or suitable for farming, but only 0.17 percent of the countrys land is actually
farmed. Soils, therefore, are of regional importance, but of little
significance to the countrys economy as a whole. The distribution of soils in an arid land is of little importance if water is
not available to irrigate crops. This situation helps to explain
why only a fraction of 1 percent of the land is farmed, whereas
7 percent is arable.
Soil is more than just dirt. It consists of sand, silt, or clay
and contains both minerals and organic material. Generally

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Sudan
speaking, desert soils lack organic content, because there is so
little vegetation to convert to humus (organic material in soil).
But in the dry desert environment, there is little rainfall to leach
(wash away) the mineral content. In many areas of medium
rainfall, moisture leaches away the minerals, but abundant plant
life and soil microorganisms contribute to high humus content.
Most desert soils lack humus. Additionally, in some locations
they are high in salt content, which is toxic to most plants.
Alluvial soils are those formed by the deposition of silt
from streams. You may have read about the annual flooding of
the Nile River in Egypt and the rich soils the floods deposited.
The soils were so fertile that farming supported thousands of
years of Egyptian high culture. Well, Sudan is upstream (the
Nile flows north) on the Nile from Egypt! The countrys rivers
have deposited rich deposits of alluvium, but there is a problem. In many places, particularly in southern Sudan, areas of
alluvial soils are flooded seasonally or throughout the year (as
in As Sudd).
Agriculturally, Sudans most important soils are the cracking soils found in scattered locations throughout the central
part of the country. They are clays in which large cracks form
when they dry out during the dry season, hence, their strange
name. When the rains return, the cracks allow water to seep
into the soil. Agriculture in the cracking soil belt is both dry
land (rain fed) and irrigated. It also is practiced by traditional
cultivators growing crops for subsistence, and mechanized
commercial farming.
Water Features
For centuries, the Nile has been Sudans lifeline just as it has
been to Egypt. The rivers length is a hotly contested issue.
(This is true of many rivers. The problem results from debating the location where a rivers most distant tributary actually
begins.) Most scholars agree that the Nile is 4,163 miles (6,700
km) long, making it the worlds longest river. It has several

Physical Landscapes
headwaters. The White Nile flows out of Central Africas Lake
Victoria, where it cascades down Ripon Falls. There, it drains
highland regions of Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi. The Blue
Nile flows in a southwesterly direction from Ethiopias Lake
Tana. (If you have difficulty remembering which is the White
Nile and which is the Blue Nile, just remember that the White
Nile is the westernmost of the two tributaries.) Both headwaters are in the equatorial region of Central Africa where rainfall
is heavy. There are, of course, other tributaries that feed into
these rivers. Ultimately, the Nile flows into the Mediterranean
Sea through its fertile and historically important delta in Egypt.
Nearly all of Sudan lies within the drainage basin of the Nile
and its two main tributaries, the Blue Nile (Al Bahr al Azraq)
and the White Nile (Al Bahr al Abyad).
As Sudd, the great marsh and swamp of the Nile, spreads
over much southern Sudan. Here, the White Nile and its tributaries do not follow a well-defined channel. Rather, the water
slowly wanders through a maze of lakes and marshes choked
with reeds and papyrus. As the water spreads out in the warm
tropical environment, a lot of it is lost to evaporation. In 1978,
Sudan and France began to build the Jonglei Canal. The ambitious project was supposed to create a channel for the Nile so
less water would be lost through evaporation. Also, the canal
would improve water transportation through the As Sudd
region. Unfortunately, because of Sudans civil war, the project
was discontinued and the canal was never finished.
Only a few of Sudans streams are not associated with the
Nile drainage. In the arid northern desert region, wadis (intermittent stream beds that contain water only after a rainstorm)
flow into the Red Sea, or simply disappear into small basins or
desert sands. Also, some of the rivers flowing into Sudan from
Ethiopia flow into shallow, evaporating ponds west of the Red
Sea Hills.
Several dams have been built on the White and Blue Nile in
Sudan. They are relatively small projects that control the flow

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Sudan
of water, protect against flooding, and provide water for irrigation in some locations. Sudan, however, is home to one megadam project. In 2003, construction began on the Meroe Dam, a
giant structure and hydroelectric installation being built on the
Great Bend of the Nile north of Khartoum. Nicknamed the
Pearl of the Nile, the giant dam will provide water for irrigation and double the countrys electricity producing capacity.
The reservoir will extend upstream for nearly 100 miles (160
km). Unfortunately, the man-made lake also will displace more
than 50,000 people. Most experts, however, believe that the
dam, reservoir, and power production will benefit many more
people than it will harm.
The Red Sea provides Sudan with an outlet to global shipping lanes through either Egypts Suez Canal, or the Strait
of Bab-el-Mandeb that opens into the Indian Ocean. Unfortunately, the countrys major port facility, Port Sudan, is far
removed from the centers of population and economic activity.
The sea provides some fishing and also offers great potential for
further development of tourism. In one respect, the Red Sea
stands out: it is the worlds saltiest water body that is connected
to the global ocean. Salinity averages 4.1 percent, compared
with the oceanic average of about 3.5 percent. Salt accumulates
in the water for three reasons: first, in the desert region, there
is very little inflow of fresh water; second, the Red Sea is semienclosed and there is little mixing with water of the Indian
Ocean; finally, salts accumulate through time because of the
very high water loss through evaporation.
Natural Resources
Sudan has many natural resources. It has woodlands in the south,
widespread grazing lands, and good soils in places. The Nile and
its tributaries provide precious water resources in the otherwise
parched landscapes of central and northern Sudan. The Nile also
offers excellent hydroelectric potential, some of which has been
and is being harnessed. The Red Sea offers fishing, shipping, and

Physical Landscapes
tourism. There is also mineral wealth, including deposits of copper, iron ore, chromium, zinc, tungsten, mica, silver, and gold.
Sudans most important economic resource, by a wide margin,
is petroleum. Huge deposits have been discoveredby some
estimates, comparable in size to those of the Middle East. The
country began to export oil in 1999 and certainly this source of
revenue will expand greatly during coming decades.
Environmental Problems
Sudan faces a number of serious environmental problems.
Warfare, of course, is a major destroyer of environments. Certainly the countrys long history of conflict has taken a huge toll
on the natural environment, including natural vegetation and
wildlife. Population growth, too, has added to the dependence
upon various natural elements. Wildlife is hunted for food,
soils are overfarmed, grasslands are overgrazed, and woodlands
are overcut for firewood. Stream pollution results from many
activities. Wells for irrigation deplete ground water reserves,
many of which already have gone bone dry. Two things, in
particular, stand out as being most severe in terms of Sudans
natural environment: desertification and deforestation.
Desertification
Desertification is defined as the creation of desert conditions
by human activities. It is a condition that threatens more than
one-third of Earths surface (including widespread areas of the
western interior of the United States and Canada). In Africa,
desertification has been particularly destructive in the Sahel
region, of which central Sudan is a part. Sahel means shore,
and the geographic region is the southern shore (wetter edge)
of the vast Sahara Desert. The entire Sahel region experienced a
very severe drought that began in the late 1960s and continued
at least to the mid-1980s.
Normally, the Sahel region receives an annual average 10 to
20 inches (250 to 500 mm) of rain. For a period of more than

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Sudan
two decades, however, a withering drought struck the area. Conditions were so extreme that in some areas, including in Sudan,
desert conditions spread southward a distance of about 60 miles
(100 km). Some 20 African countries were affected, including
150 million people. According to some estimates, 100,000 to
250,000 people died from lack of food and water. The toll on
livestock was much greater, reaching into the millions.
But, you might ask, people have lived here for thousands
of years and certainly have experienced many periods of severe
drought. Why is the problem so great now? The answer to this
question lies in a key word: human. As Sudans human population continues to increase, the dependence of poor people upon
nature and its resource also grows. Herd size increases, resulting
in the loss of vegetation cover from overgrazing. More marginally productive land is cleared for farming. Crops are needed to
feed an increasing number of rural families and growing urban
populations. Woodlands and scrublands are cut to provide firewood for cooking and warmth. Each of these land use practices
removes vegetation cover, thereby exposing fragile soil to ruin.
Remember the haboobs, the fierce dust storms? When land is
laid bare, heavy winds pick up soil particles that become the
sky-blackening dust associated with the storms. They are one
of the most visible results of desertification.
Deforestation
Between 1990 and 2010, Sudan lost nearly 12 percent, or about
35,000 square miles (90,000 sq km) of forest cover. This is an area
slightly larger than the state of South Carolina. The loss of woodland continues at an alarming rate. Each year, about 2,000 square
miles (5,200 sq km) of forest is cut down, whereas only about
115 square miles (300 sq km) of land is reforested. Drought,
overgrazing, and fire also have destroyed several species of grass
and other valuable flora. Most of Sudans people live where vegetation already has been drastically changed. Basically, the more
people who live in an area, the less natural vegetation will there
be. About 22 percent of all Sudanese live in the south. So it is

Physical Landscapes

Farming, livestock grazing, and the diversion of rivers for human use
historically have been among the leading causes of desertification.
The lack of water and fertile land has been a major source of conflict
between farmers and nomads in Sudan. According to the Institute
for Natural Resources in Africa, if current trends of soil degradation
continue, Africa will be able to feed only 25 percent of its population
by 2025.

not surprising that the area has some two-thirds of the countrys
remaining forest and tall grass savanna cover.
Historically, the leading causes of deforestation in Sudan
and especially in the troubled Darfur regionhave been attributed to overfarming and livestock grazing. This widespread
belief has spawned conflicts over which group, farmers or herders, should have claim to the land.

35

3
People and
Culture

n this chapter, we will take a close look at Sudans people. First,

you will learn about the countrys population as you are introduced to key demographic data (population statistics) and their
importance. Second, you will find that Sudan is a country with an
incredible diversity of ethnic groups. Contrasting ways of life and
group identities, as you will see, is both a blessing and a frequent
source of conflict. Finally, you will get a glimpse of the most important culture traits of the Sudanese people, including their languages
and religions.
It is often suggested that Sudan is Africa in a microcosm. As elsewhere on the huge continent, the country suffers from rapid population growth and a host of other demographic problems. Like the rest
of North Africa, it has a strong Arab-Muslim presence, which is in
sharp conflict with traditional African peoples. During the colonial

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People and Culture

era, Sudan (and most of the rest of Africa) was influenced by
French, British, and other European powers, each of which left
a strong cultural imprint. As a result, most African cultures are
a colorful blending of many different ways of life.
Population
In mid-2009, Sudans population was estimated to be just over
41 million. In 2008, the country conducted its first full census
since it gained independence in 1956. (Most demographic data
appearing in this chapter are based on U.S. government estimates. For current estimates, see CIA World Factbook.) Among
African nations, Sudan ranks sixth in population, behind Nigeria, neighboring Ethiopia, Egypt, and the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, and South Africa. Because Sudan is Africas largest country, you might think that it would have more people.
But you must remember that much of its area is desert, marsh
or swamp, or mountainous. Sudans population density of 44
people per square mile (17 per sq km) is almost meaningless.
In some places, such as in and around Khartoum, the population density is huge. Elsewhere, vast areas support almost no
population at all.
Population Change
Four factors determine whether a countrys population
changesbirths, deaths, out-migration, and in-migration.
Using these data, there are several ways to measure changes in
a countrys population. Perhaps the most useful statistic is the
rate of natural (population) increase, or RNI. A countrys RNI
is based upon birth rates and death rates. Between 2008 and
2009, Sudan experienced 33.74 births and 12.94 deaths per
1,000 people, resulting in a 2.08 RNI. This is slightly below the
2.4 percent annual increase for Africa as a whole, but a nearly
full percent greater than the 1.2 percent world figure.
You must remember that the RNI is based upon natural
increase. It reflects population change based upon the balance

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Sudan
of births over deaths. When migration is factored in, the countrys population is growing by about 2.14 percent annually. As
of 2010 and based upon the countrys RNI and net migration,
Sudans current population is growing by about 880,000 people
a year. By 2025, Sudans population is expected to increase to
around 57 million.
Another way to assess population change is the total fertility rate (TFR), the average number of children to which
women give birth during their fecund (fertile) years. For
Sudan, the TFR is 4.48, more than double the replacement
rate of 2.1. (The 2 is based upon a male and a female; the 0.1
is explained by the fact that some women will never have children.) This is well above the world average of 2.6, but below
the figure for most other African countries. Fortunately, the
rate of population growth Sudan is dropping gradually. When
a countrys population growth rate slows, it imposes less of
a burden on the economy. The government, for example, is
better able to provide services such as education, health care,
and infrastructure development. Currently, Sudans economy
is growing at around 6 to 7 percent annually, so it is expanding faster than is the population.
Finally, migrationboth in and outcan change a countrys population. Currently, Sudan is experiencing a net gain
from migration (0.63/1,000), or about 25,800 people each year.
As you soon shall see, however, the countrys migration patterns
fluctuate greatly from year to year. Migration is so important to
Sudan that it is discussed separately later in this chapter.
Demographics of Well-Being
Several sets of demographic data can offer valuable clues to the
well-being of a country and its people. They include life expectancy, age structure, and infant mortality rate. Life expectancy,
the average number of years a person is expected to live at birth,
is perhaps the most important index. Average life expectancy in
Sudan is 51.4 years, 52.4 for females and 50.5 for males. Among

People and Culture

the worlds nations, the country ranks a dismal two hundred
fourth among the 224 states for which data are available. Sadly,
although not surprisingly, 19 of the 20 countries with an even
shorter life expectancy are in Africa.
Age structure also can tell us a great deal about the wellbeing of a countrys people. Population pyramids provide a
visual breakdown of a nations population age and sex structure. As is true of most less-developed countries, Sudans
population is quite young. The median (middle) age is 19.1
years and a whopping 41 percent of the population is under
15 years old (versus 20.2 percent for the United States and
12.8 percent for Canada). Decades of warfare, poor diets,
inadequate health services, and other factors have taken a
dreadful toll on the Sudanese. Only 2.5 percent of them are
65 or older (compared to 16.1 percent of Americans and 15.2
percent of Canadians).
One of the most valid indicators of a countrys standard
of living is its infant mortality rate, the number of deaths per
1,000 from birth to age one year. Sudan experiences a horrendous loss of 82 deaths per 1,000 live births during the first year.
This is nearly twice as high as the world average of 46/1,000. (In
the economically developed world, figures are comparable to
those of the United States and Canada, 6.6/1,000 and 5.0/1,000,
respectively.) Infant mortality may be the best indicator of a
countrys medical care, health services, sanitation and hygiene,
nutrition, and other health conditions. Obviously, they are
lacking throughout much of Sudan.
Considerable geographic variations exist in data that
relate to human well-being. According to the United Nations
Childrens Fund (UNICEF), death rates among people who
have been forced to flee their homes in Darfur are up to 10
times higher than those for the rest of Sudans population. In
overcrowded camps with little clean water and poor sanitary
conditions, infant mortality rates soar. Throughout Sudan,
diarrhea is the cause of death for 3 out of every 4 children who

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Sudan
die before age five. Moreover, while 50 percent of Sudans urban
population had adequate sanitation facilities in 2004, only 24
percent of the rural population had this sort of access.
Human Development
As you have seen, population information can tell us more
than just numbers. The United Nations has developed a system
for measuring human development. Its Human Development
Index (HDI) is a comparative measure of living standards, life
expectancy, education, literacy, and other measures. Using this
yardstick, Sudan ranks 150 among the 182 countries included
in the survey. As bad as this may look, among Africans 54
countries, Sudan is not that bad off. Only eight African nations
rank higher than Sudan on the HDI. Despite this high standing
on the continent, the country has a very long way to go before
its people enjoy a standard of living comparable to that of the
worlds developed lands.
One huge challenge facing Sudans government is that of
educating its people. Only about 60 percent of the population
can read and write and only half of the countrys females are
literate. Until its citizens become better educated, Sudan faces
an up-hill struggle in improving the countrys economy and
social development.
Migration
Why do people migrate, or move from place to place? Geographers explain migration by using a simple push-and-pull
model. Many places have positive attractions that draw people
to that location. They are called pull forces. In traditional societies, better hunting, fishing, and gathering opportunities, or
more or better land on which to farm or graze livestock may
pull people to a new location. Today, when most people move,
they are pulled to places that offer a better economic opportunity, such as a job, a higher salary, or greater employment security. For some people, good schools, quality health and medical

People and Culture

facilities, environmental amenities such as a good climate, and
even low housing costs can be a draw.
At the same time, many places have certain negative characteristics, or push forces, that influence people leaving that
location. Examples of push forces include poor economic
opportunities, such as unemployment or low salaries. Environmental conditions such as drought, land shortage, and
social unrest can push people from a place. Some factors are
completely neutral. For example, if someone is retired, then
employment opportunities will not be a deciding factor in
whether to move (push) or where to migrate (pull). Some
moves are strictly voluntary, although people generally do
move to locations with desirable pull factors. The scenarios
described above are all examples of voluntary migration.
People move freely, at the time they choose and after considering their alternatives with the best information available, to the
destination of their choice.
Not all migration is voluntary. In fact, a considerable
amount of migration is involuntary. Sometimes, migrants have
no choice over the timing, the destination, or the mode of
transport used for the move. They are transported against their
will. Slaves brought to the Americas from West Africa were not
voluntary migrants. Slavery is an excellent example of forced
migration.
Yet another migration category is displaced people. In
this case, people may be reluctant to move, but are compelled
to relocate by circumstances beyond their control, such as
famine, war, drought, or persecution. They are forced to
move because they feel threatened in some way. This is the
case with internally displaced people. Fleeing war, religious
or political persecution, or some other negative condition,
they move to a place that offers peace and refuge. In Sudan,
for example, an estimated 500,000 southern Sudanese, have
left their poor and troubled homeland and moved to North
Sudan.

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Sudan
When displaced people cross an international boundary,
the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR)
calls them refugees. Thus, areas close to ongoing conflict usually have large numbers of people who have fled their homes
in order to move to a safer place. Similarly, countries adjoining
war-torn places have large numbers of refugees. This is the situation with Sudan and its neighbors.
Sudanese Refugees
An unknown number of Sudanese have left their country for a
variety of reasons. A substantial number of them have become
refugees in other lands. In 2009, Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
and Uganda all provided shelter for hundreds of thousands of
Sudanese refugees. Eastern Chad alone provided a temporary
home to about 250,000 refugees who had fled the conflict in
Sudans Darfur region.
Sudans almost constant wars also have affected all of its
neighboring countries. Even though Sudan generates its own
refugees that flee elsewhere, the country also is a host to large
numbers of refugees. According to the World Refugee Survey
2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, 310,500 refugees and asylum seekers lived in Sudan
in 2007. Most of them came from neighboring countries of
Eritrea, Chad, Ethiopia, and the Central African Republic.
Whether internally displaced, or in a foreign country,
refugees face similar difficulties. They are usually victims of
violence, rape, unwanted pregnancies, and physical and mental
torture. They also have huge unmet health needs. For example,
women and girls who fled the fighting in Darfur faced rape
and other violence in eastern Chad. This is true even inside
the refugee camps where they have sought sanctuary. Amnesty
International reports attacks by villagers living nearby, members of Chads army, and even aid workers in the camps. They
are especially vulnerable when they venture outside refugee
camps to collect firewood or water.

People and Culture

Around 200,000 Sudanese refugees from Darfur have fled to

neighboring Chad to live in United Nations refugee camps, and more
than 100,000 Chadian villagers have fled their own villages to live in the
camps. Twelve camps in the region house 250,000 Sudanese who have
fled the area and are now caught in the middle of warring armies.

Settlement
If allowed to freely choose, people, through time, will settle in
those areas where they can make a living. The well-being of
a human population depends upon many things. One of the
most important is economic development. In some lands, such
as much of rural Sudan, well-being depends upon how well
people can provide for themselves. Usually, this means they can
grow and raise enough food to feed their families and provide
themselves with lifes other necessities, such as a home, water,
and firewood. For most urban societies, provision is different.
Urban people depend upon jobs or other ways of surviving in
a cash economy where goods and services must be purchased.
In Sudan, we find both groups.

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Sudan
Sixty-two percent of Sudanese live in rural environments,
leaving only 38 percent residing in urban centers. This is
well below the world average, which today is equally divided
between rural and urban. A detailed population distribution
map of Sudan is quite revealing. It shows, for example, some
areas of very dense settlement. About 5 million Sudanese live
in Khartoum and surrounding communities. The Nile River
satisfies many needs, including domestic use and irrigation.
Consequently, about 35 percent of the population lives along
the Nile. Towns around the Nile have been the main centers of
urban development since the beginning of human settlement
in the region. Elsewhere, troubled Darfur has about 7.5 million
people and South Sudan an estimated 8.2 million. Most of the
desert north supports very few people. Settlements are small
and widely scattered, with most developed around oasis sites
where water is available.
Ethnic Groups
Few countries can match Sudans ethnic diversity. At one time,
the country was home to an estimated 600 different ethnicities.
(There is little agreement on the definition of ethnicity. Here,
it is defined as a group of people who share a common racial
and cultural heritage, have strong historical ties, and possess a
strong feeling of group or self-identity.) At the broadest division, Sudans population is about 52 percent black, 39 percent
Arab, and 6 percent Beja (a traditional culture in eastern
Sudan). Additionally, about 3 percent of the population is foreign or other.
You must remember that for millennia, most Sudanese
people lived in small tribal groups. Each such group had its
own heritage and sense of being different (often including its
language) than others. During recent decades, some of the
countrys smaller ethnic groups (and languages) have vanished.
Some were absorbed by conquest. Others became gradually
absorbed into the culture of neighboring ethnic groups. Still

People and Culture

others migrated to cities or elsewhere and became acculturated
(the process of gradually accepting traits of another culture)
into the hosts way of life.
Today, as you will see in subsequent chapters, prejudices and
discrimination based upon ethnicity continue to be a source of
heated conflict in Sudan. Particularly sharp and contentious is
the ethnic divide between North and South Sudanese. The differences are racial and cultural, the latter involving language,
religion, and other differences.
Languages
Historically, Sudan has been one of the most ethnically and
linguistically diverse countries in the world. At one time, it had
nearly 600 ethnic groups speaking more than 400 languages
and dialects. In the 1980s and 1990s some of Sudans smaller
ethnic and linguistic groups disappeared. Migration played a
part, as migrants often forget their native tongue when they
move to an area dominated by another language. Some linguistic groups were absorbed by the process of acculturation
(gradually accepting traits of another culture); others were
absorbed by conquest.
Today, more than 100 different languages are spoken in
Sudan, including Nubian, Ta Bedawie, and dialects of the
Nilotic and Nilo-Hamitic languages. Arabic is the countrys
official language, and is spoken by more than half of the
population. English is widely spoken by the educated and
elite, particularly those with business or other global interests. Nevertheless, English is being phased out as a foreign
language taught in the southern schools in an attempt to
Arabicize the region.
Religion
Religion is central to the lives of Sudanese people. Most of the
countrys most bitter conflicts are related to religious differences. Of the entire Sudanese population, 70 percent is Sunni

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Sudan
Muslim, 25 percent follow traditional indigenous beliefs, and 5
percent are Christian.
Before the arrival of Christianity and Islam, the Sudanese
worshipped deities (ancestral spirits) and believed that all living and non-living objects had a soul. Today these religions
have changed considerably and embrace many practices from
Islam and Christianity. Many Sudanese still honor their dead
ancestors to avoid their curses and other sanctions. Shamans
(spiritual leaders who are believed to hold special powers) and
priests are very common. These religious leaders are believed
to have a deep understanding of the spirit world. Often gifts
will be presented to the priest to offer to the spirits in order to
secure blessings.
Islam in Sudan
Both black Africans and Arabs alike practice Islamic traditions.
The Muslim peoples of Sudan include the Fur, the Nubians,
Beja, Berti, Zaghawa, Masalit, Daju, the Nuba (from the northern side of the Nuba Mountains), and West Africans who live
in Sudan. While Sudanese practice Islam in their own ways, in
many respects, Islam in itself is a way of life. Therefore, those
who practice Islam will experience it in many other aspects of
their culture besides in their religion.
The word Islam means submission to God. Islam shares
certain prophets, traditions, and beliefs with Judaism and
Christianity. The main difference between Islam and these
other two faiths is that Muslims believe that Muhammad is the
final prophet and the embodiment of God, or Allah.
The foundation of Islamic belief is called the Five Pillars.
The first, Shahada, is profession of faith. The second is prayer,
or Salat. Muslims pray five times a day, always toward the holy
city of Mecca, in Saudi Arabia. It is not necessary to go to the
mosque to do so; the call to prayer echoes out over each city
or town from the minarets (towers) of the holy buildings,

People and Culture

Islam is the largest religion in Sudan, with the remainder of the

population following Christianity or traditional animist religion.
Northern Muslims have ruled political and economic institutions since
Sudan achieved its independence in 1956, which has led to major
conflicts in the country. Above, Muslims in Darfur listen to the local
imam in the Muhajariah mosque.

calling people to prayer. The third pillar, Zakat, is the principle of giving money to the poor. The fourth is fasting, which
is observed during the month of Ramadan each year. (The
timing of Ramadan follows the Islamic calendar, which is
different than the Western calendar. Therefore, the month of
Ramadan takes place at a different time in the Western calendar each year.) During Ramadan, Muslims abstain from food
and drink, among other activities, during the daylight hours.
The fifth pillar is the Hajj, the pilgrimage to the holy city of
Mecca, which all able Muslims must make at some time in
their life.

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Sudan
All Muslims are required to respect the Five Pillars of Islam,
although it is common that many do not. It is more likely that a
Muslim who lives in an urban setting will pray at the prescribed
times. The consistent observance of prayer is the mark of a true
Muslim.
There are no priests in Islam. Fakis and sheiks are holy
men who dedicate themselves to the study and teaching of
the Koran, Islams holy book. The Koran, rather than any religious leader, is considered to be the ultimate authority, and is
believed to hold the answer to any question or dilemma one
might have. Muezzins give the call to prayer and also are scholars of the Koran.
The most important observation in the Islamic calendar
is that of Ramadan. This month of fasting is followed by the
joyous feast of Eid ul-Fitr, during which families visit and
exchange gifts (much like Christmas in the Christian world).
The celebration known as Eid al-Adha commemorates the end
of Muhammads Hajj. Other celebrations include the return of
a pilgrim from Mecca and the circumcision of a child.
Weddings also involve important and elaborate rituals,
including hundreds of guests and several days of celebration.
The festivities begin with the henna night, when the grooms
hands and feet are dyed. This is followed the next day with the
brides preparation, in which all of her body hair is removed
and she, too, is decorated with henna. She also takes a smoke
bath to perfume her body. The religious ceremony is relatively
simple; in fact, the bride and groom themselves are often not
present, but are represented by male relatives who sign the
marriage contract for them. Festivities may continue for several
days. On the third morning, the brides and grooms hands are
tied together with silk thread, signifying their union.
The mosque is the Muslim house of worship. Outside the
door there are washing facilities, as cleanliness is necessary
before prayer, because it demonstrates humility before God.
One also must remove ones shoes before entering the mosque.

People and Culture

According to Islamic tradition, women are not allowed inside
these holy buildings. The interior has no altar; it is simply an
open carpeted space. Because Muslims are supposed to pray
facing Mecca, there is a small niche carved into the wall that
points out in which direction the city lies. (Sudanese, for example, pray toward the northeast.) Among the Dinka and other
Nilotic cattle herding peoples, cattle sheds serve as shrines and
gathering places.
Greetings are interactions with religious overtones. The
common expressions all have references to Allah, which are
taken not just metaphorically but also literally. Insha Allah (if
Allah wills) is often heard, as is alhamdu lillah (may Allah be
praised).
Death and the Afterlife
In the Muslim tradition, death is followed by several days of
mourning when friends, relatives, and neighbors pay their
respects to the family. Female relatives of the deceased wear
black for several months to a year or more after the death. Widows generally do not remarry, and they often dress in mourning clothes for the rest of their lives. Like most Christians,
Muslims believe in an afterlife. They believe in a day of judgment in which the body and soul will be assigned to an eternal
destinationa paradise or hell.
Other Practices
When a child is born, the father will whisper the adhaan, or call
to prayer, and the name Allah in the right ear of the baby. In traditional practice, after seven days of the childs birth, the babys
hair will be shaved off and its weight in gold will be given to
charity. The name of the child is also chosen on the seventh day.
Other Religions in Sudan
The religion of the indigenous people, or the original people,
is animist. This means that people believe in spirits who live

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Sudan
in natural objects such as trees, rivers, rocks, and also animals.
Often an individual clan will have its own totem (an object
believe to be sacred), which represents the clans first ancestor.
The spirits of ancestors are worshiped and believed to exercise
an influence in everyday life. There are multiple gods who
serve different purposes. Specific beliefs and practices vary
widely from tribe to tribe and from region to region. Certain
cattle-herding tribes in the south place great symbolic and
spiritual value on cows, which sometimes are sacrificed in
religious rituals.
Many indigenous ceremonies focus on agricultural events.
Two of the most important occasions are the rainmaking ceremony, to encourage a good growing season, and the harvest
festival, after the crops are brought in.
Christianity is practiced by only 5 percent of the Sudanese
population. Denominations active within Sudan include the
Roman Catholics, Episcopalians, Coptic Christians, Presbyterians, and Sudanese Pentecostals. Other Christian groups include
the Africa Inland Church, Greek Orthodox, Seventh Day
Adventists, the Sudanese Church of Christ, and the Evangelical
Church. The Jehovahs Witnesses are also present.
Christianity is most common among the southern Nilotic
peoples, the Madi, Moru, Azande, and Bari. Both Christianity and the indigenous religions are more concentrated in
the south. This is partly because during the colonial period,
British law forbade missionaries and all peoples living in
the south to go northward beyond 10 North latitude, so
they concentrated their efforts in the south (people living in
the north were also forbidden to travel south). Most of the
Christians are of the wealthier, educated class, as much of
the conversion is done through the schools. Many Sudanese,
regardless of religion, hold certain superstitions, such as belief
in the evil eye. The evil eye, according to believers, can cause
harm or bad luck on the person to whom it is directed. This
term has been around for about 1,000 years among many

People and Culture

cultures, particularly in the Middle East, East and West Africa,
South Asia, Central Asia, and the Mediterranean region in
Europe. It is common to wear an amulet or a charm as protection against its powers.
Traditional Practices
The Sudanese have many different cultural practices, thereby
making it very difficult to generalize practices for the whole
country. For each practice discussed, there are exceptionsin
some cases, many. What follows is a list of the ways in which the
majority of people conduct their activities.
Marriage
In traditional tribal society, the parents of a couple traditionally arrange the couples marriage. This is still the case today,
even among wealthier and more-educated Sudanese. Matches
are often made between cousins, second cousins, or other family members, or if not, at least between members of the same
tribe and social class. Parents conduct the negotiations, and
it is common for a bride and groom not to have seen each
other before the wedding. There is generally a significant age
difference between husband and wife. A man must be economically self-sufficient and able to provide for a family before
he can marry. He has to be able to furnish an acceptable bride
price of jewelry, clothes, furniture, and, among some tribes,
cattle. Among the middle class, women usually are married
after they finish school, at age 19 or 20. In poorer families and
in rural areas, the marriage age usually is younger. Polygamy (a
man having multiple wives) was a common practice in the past.
Divorce, although still considered shameful, is more common
today than it once was. Upon termination of a marriage, the
bride price is returned to the husband.
Extended families often live together under the same roof,
or at least nearby. Husband and wife typically move in with the
wifes family for at least a year after marriage. After their first

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Sudan
child is born, they may move elsewhere, although usually to a
house close to the wifes parents.
Inheritance
Islamic law states that the oldest male son inherits his fathers
wealth. Other inheritance traditions vary from tribe to tribe.
In the north, among the Arab population, property goes to the
eldest son. Among the Azande, a mans property (which consists primarily of agricultural goods) was generally destroyed
upon his death to prevent the accumulation of wealth. Among
the Fur, property is usually sold upon the death of its owner.
In this tribe, land is owned jointly by kin groups and therefore
not divided upon death.
Kin Groups
In various regions of Sudan, traditional clan structures function differently. In some regions, one clan holds all positions of
leadership; in others, authority is spread among various clans
and sub-clans. Kinship ties are drawn through connections on
both the mothers and the fathers side, although the paternal
(fathers) line is given stronger consideration.
Infant Care and Child Rearing
There are several religious practices to protect newborn babies.
For example, Muslims whisper Allahs name in the babys right
ear, and Christians make the sign of the cross in water on his
or her forehead. An indigenous tradition is to tie an amulet or
a fish bone from the Nile around the childs neck or arm.
Women carry their babies tied to their sides or backs with
cloth. They often bring them along to work in the fields. Boys
and girls are raised fairly separately. Both are divided into
age-specific groups. There are celebrations to mark a groups
graduation from one life stage to the next. For boys, the transition from childhood to manhood is marked by a circumcision
ceremony.

People and Culture

Education
The literacy ratethe number of people who can read and
writein Sudan is only 46 percent overall (58 percent for men
and 36 percent for women), but the overall education level of
the population has increased since independence. In the mid1950s, fewer than 150,000 children were enrolled in primary
school, compared with more than 2 million today. Christian
missionaries established most of the schools in the south during colonial times, but the government closed those schools in
1962. Today the south has fewer schools than the north.
In villages, children usually attend Islamic schools known
as khalwa. They learn to read and write, to memorize parts of
the Koran, and to become members of an Islamic community.
Boys usually attend the khalwa between ages 5 and 19. Typically, girls receive less education than boys, as families often
consider it more valuable for their daughters to learn domestic
skills and to work at home. As payment at the khalwa, students
or their parents contribute labor or gifts to the school. There
also is a state-run school system, which includes six years of
primary school, three years of secondary school, and either a
three-year college preparatory program or four years of vocational training.
Early in the twentieth century, under Anglo-Egyptian
rule, the only educational institution beyond the primary
level was Grodon Memorial College, established in 1902 in
Khartoum. The original buildings of this school are today
part of the University of Khartoum, which was founded in
1956. The Kitchener School of Medicine (opened in 1924),
the School of Law, and the Schools of Agriculture, Veterinary
Science, and Engineering are all part of the university. The
capital city alone has three universities. There also is one in
Wad Medani and another in the southern city of Juba. The
first teacher training school, Bakht er Ruda, opened in 1934
in the small town of Ed Dueim. In addition, a number of
technical and vocational schools throughout the country

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Sudan

Until Sheikh Babiker Badri opened a school for his daughters in his
house in 1907, girls were not allowed to attend school or could only
go to the khalwa (religious school). Today his school is now the
biggest university for women in Sudan, called Ahfad University for
Women. Above, a class learns cardiopulmonary resuscitation at the
Faculty of Nursing at Ahfad University.

offer training in nursing, agriculture, and other skilled professions. Ahfad University College, which opened in 1920 in
Omdurman as a girls primary school, has done a great deal
to promote womens education and currently enrolls about
1,800 female students.
Food and Dining
Food is an important part of many social interactions. Visits
to a persons home typically include tea, coffee, or soda, if
not a full meal. It is customary to eat from a common serving
bowl, using the right hand (which is used in all clean activities), rather than utensils. In Muslim households, people sit

People and Culture

on pillows around a low table. Before the meal, towels and a
pitcher of water are passed around for hand washing.
The ritual of hospitality is as important in Sudan as it
is in other Arab and African countries. Although there is
a measure of similarity in all the Arab and North African
countries, each has its unique characteristics. For example,
no other country prepares coffee as the Sudanese do, and if
this country has acquired culinary fame, it is for its Jebena
Sudanese. For this drink, the Sudanese fry their coffee beans
in a special pot over charcoal and then grind it with cloves
and certain spices. They steep it in hot water and serve it lovingly in tiny coffee cups after straining it through a special
thresh grass sieve.
In Sudan, if you are an important guest, a sheep will
be slaughtered in your honor. Many dishes will then be
prepared, each more delicious than the last. Favorite meats
are lamb and chicken, and rice is the staple starch. Breads
include the Arabian khubz, and the Sudanese also make
Kisra, an omelette-like pancake that is part of the Sudanese
dinner. Vegetables, raw and cooked, are of infinite variety.
Okra (which came to the United States from Africa) is an
important ingredient in Bamia-Bamia, an okra lamb stew.
Maschi, a triple tomato dish stuffed with beef, is a fun recipe
to make.
As in most Arab countries, fruits are peeled and cut in
small slices for dessert, but the Sudanese also love sweets. Every
housewife knows how to make Creme Caramela (Sudanese
caramel custard). Other popular favorites are their unusual
teas, which can be made quite simply.
Now it is your turn! Do you want the true taste of Sudan?
Here are a few recipes to try at home:
Salatet Zabady Bil Ajur (Cucumber-Yogurt Salad)
This is a delightful, refreshing summer salad that is also popular in Egypt, Turkey, and the Balkans.

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Sudan
Ingredients:
2 cups plain yogurt
1 clove garlic, finely minced
1 large cucumber, peeled, seeded, and shredded or
finely diced
salt and freshly ground pepper
Method:
In a bowl, combine all the ingredients; cover and refrigerate
for two to four hours. At serving time, taste and adjust the
seasoning, and then serve immediately.
Koftah (Ground Meat Balls; serves 810)
Ingredients:
2 lb beef
2 onions
1 slice soft bread
salt and pepper to taste
Method:
Mince beef and onions until they reach a smooth consistency. Soak bread in water and add to meat, together with
the seasoning. Mix well and shape into rounds 2 to 3 inches
(5 to 7.5 cm) in diameter. Grill or fry on skewers or in a
double grill until cooked.
Cinnamon Tea
Prepare English tea according to package directions (use
loose tea). Tea should be infused until it is a bright orange
color. Upon serving, place pieces of a cinnamon stick in
small teacups and pour hot tea over the cinnamon. Serve
with lump sugar.
Holidays
The Sudanese celebrate both Christian and Muslim holidays.
During Eid al-Adha (Festival of the Great Sacrifice), it is
customary for a family to slaughter a sheep and donate most

People and Culture

of the meat to needy families. After the month-long fast of
Ramadan, Muslims celebrate Eid ul-Fitr (Breaking of the Fast)
with a large get-together of family and friends. On the day of
Eid, Zakat (which means the sharing of wealth) is collected
from all those able to donate. The Zakat is then distributed to
the poor. Usually Muslims will wear new clothing on the day
of Eid to celebrate a fresh, new beginning. The birthday of the
Prophet Muhammad is mostly celebrated by children with
sweets and cakes.
In southern Sudan, the Christmas holiday starts on December 23 and ends January 15. Christians gather together in
church to celebrate Jesuss birth throughout the night, starting
at midnight on Christmas Eve. On Christmas Day, people celebrate with singing, dancing, and playing drums. Friends and
relatives visit each other and share food, drink, clothes, and
stories. Unlike Christmas in the Western world, Christians in
Sudan do not celebrate with a Christmas tree, and some may
not even know who Santa Claus is.
Sudanese Art
Silverwork, ivory carving, and leatherwork are most commonly
practiced by artists in the north, while wood carving is more
common in the south. Music among Muslim groups mainly
involves Koran recitations. Sudans dancers known as whirling dervishes are famed throughout the world for their spellbinding dances, in which they are accompanied by rhythmic
drumming, as they gradually work themselves into a trance.
Dervishes are Muslim devotees.
Indigenous Sudanese music involves drums and complex
rhythms. Such traditional practices as zur (exorcisms) involve
drums and rattling instruments. Many Muslims argue that
music is forbidden by Islam, while many other Muslims say
that the Koran mentions no restrictions on music. When Sharia
(Islamic law) was introduced to Sudan in 1989, however, many
poets and musicians were imprisoned.

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Sudan

Football, called soccer in the United States, is the most popular sport
in Sudan. The Sudan national football team is the Sokoor al-Jediane,
or Desert Hawks. The Desert Hawks won the African Cup of Nations in
1970, but have not been as successful since.

Sports
Several Sudanese-born basketball players have played in the
U.S. National Basketball Association (NBA). These include
Deng Gai, Luol Deng, and Manute Bol. Hurdler Todd Matthews-Jouda switched nationalities from American to Sudanese in September 2003 and competed at the 2004 Olympics
for Sudan.
Football (soccer), however, is the most popular sport. The
Khartoum state league, which began in the late 1920s, is considered to be the oldest soccer league in the whole of Africa. The
Sudan Football Association started in 1954. Sokoor al-Jediane
(which means Desert Hawks) is Sudans national football
team. Controlled by the Sudan Football Association, it is one of
three teams (the others being Egypt and Ethiopia) to have played

People and Culture

in the first African Nations Cup in 1957. In 1970, Sudan hosted
the competition, and the national team won the competition.
Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces in Sudan
Geographers define a people with a common language, history,
ethnic background, and strong sense of group identity as a
nation. Thus, the Arab and Muslim northern people comprise
a nation. Similarly, the non-Muslim south constitutes another
nation. A state, on the other hand, is an independent political
body with a well-defined territory. States with multiple nations
are called multi-nation states. Those nations that are divided by
political boundaries are called multi-state nations. For example,
the Sudanese Arabs are a multi-state nation, because they are
separated by the Egypt-Sudan boundary. A state with only one
nation is called a nation-state. True nation states are rare. Japan
may be one example.
A common language, religion, and cultural heritage act
like a binding force, a glue that unifies people. Geographers
call such cultural magnets centripetal forces. In contrast, centrifugal forces divide people. Multiple languages and religious
differences are important centrifugal forces, but can also be
centripetal forces. In Sudan, the northerners are divided from
the Sudanese people who practice different religions in the
south. Thus, conflict between Christians and Muslims, especially over Sharia law, is a major cause of turmoil in Sudan.
(Religious differences are also an important reason for political
instability in Nigeria, where the southern part is mostly Christian and the northern part is mostly Muslim.)
Generally, a common enemy, a national sports team,
national anthems and other symbols, and general satisfaction with the government are centripetal forces. Centripetal
forces promote nationalism as people take pride in identifying with the state. In contrast, centrifugal forces cause division and may lead to a breakup of the state, as people identify
more with ethnic or regional groups instead of their country.

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Sudan
Frequently, regional groups demand more autonomy (selfrule) from the central government. Such pressures can cause
civil war, or the central government might transfer power to
such regional groups.
Sudan has numerous centrifugal forcesreligion, language, and a northern-based government that some citizens
believe to be out of touch and insensitive to southern needs and
aspirations. Perhaps the one significant centrifugal force is the
Sudanese national soccer team. When the Sokoor al-Jediane are
playing, Sudan is one united nation.
Sudan is thus an intriguing example of a multi-nation
state. The ongoing crisis in Darfur is practical evidence of the
strength of centrifugal forces. The future of Sudan depends on
how effectively these tensions are resolved or managed, and
how the Sudanese government promotes and celebrates centripetal forces.

4
History
and Politics

udan has a long and turbulent history. In this chapter, history

and politics are combined. Whether discussing early empires,
the colonial era, or developments in Sudan since it gained independence in 1956, government and politics have played a key role in
determining the countrys history.
Ancient History
Few countries in the world can match Sudan in terms of its human
history. Archaeologists (scientists who study earlier peoples and culture) believe that humankind originated in equatorial eastern Africa.
How long ago this occurred is subject to heated debate, and really is
not that important as far as we are concerned here. What is known
is that humans (Homo species) have been around a very long time.
There is evidence that ancient peoples were able to move out of Africa

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Sudan
and into Eurasia more than one million years ago. Their route
northward almost certainly followed either the Nile River or the
coast of the Indian Ocean. Either way, they would have passed
through territory that is now Sudan. Unfortunately, regardless
of the route traveled, any record of their presence would have
disappeared long ago.
Sudans archaeological record dates back about 60,000
years. Details become clearer the more recent the evidence.
For example, a burial site in northern Sudan dated to around
13,000 years ago may offer evidence of the worlds earliest
documented warfare. Nine thousand years ago, people were
engaged in early agricultural pursuits, growing grain and herding cattle, while continuing to hunt and fish the waters of the
Nile. With improved sources of food, they were able to settle
down in villages. Farming and village life are the foundations
upon which early empires were built.
Early Empires
Sudan has for much of its history been influenced by its neighbors. Strongest cultural ties are with its northern neighbor,
Egypt. But various cultural influences also have come from the
Arabian Peninsula (such as Islam and the Arabic language),
as well as Chad, the Congo, and Ethiopia, its neighbors to the
south. Distant influences also are evident. For example, coastal
Sudan has long been exposed to distant lands through its opening on the Red Sea. It also benefitted from cultural exchanges
and commerce due to its position at the eastern end of a great
trade route that stretched westward along the open savannah
south of the Sahara. Goods transported in both directions
came from many sources and generated tremendous wealth
among early North African empires. (Archaeologists have
found artifacts from as far away as China in Timbuktu, one of
the locations involved in the early sub-Saharan trade.)
What is now northern Sudan was in ancient times the home
of a major kingdom, or, should we say, kingdoms. Actually, it is

History and Politics

Archaeologists have proven that Nubia, an area in northern Sudan,

had a settled culture in ancient times. Artifacts such as astronomical
devices, rock reliefs, statues, pyramids, and written records have been
found in what is called the homeland of one of Africas earliest black
civilizations. Early depictions of Nubians show them having goldhooped earrings, dark skin, and braided hair, like these statues of
Nubian soldiers found in Egypt.

best to think in terms of a high level of culture that flourished

for several thousand years, from about 2700 b.c. to around 350
a.d. The kingdom was centered on the upper Nile River basin
in an area that stretched from near present-day Khartoum into
southern Egypt. Control changed from time to time, as did
the name of the kingdom. The site of the center of power also
shifted occasionally. In Chapter 2, you read about the Kingdom
of Kush and its base near the hill named Jebel Barkal, located
along the Nile River north of Khartoum. Around 600 b.c., the
center of power shifted to Meroe. Today, a number of pyramids
and other structures stand as evidence of the long vanished
kingdom.

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Sudan
The Coming of Christianity and Islam
Religion is one of the most fundamental of all culture traits.
Faith can tie people together with a common bond, or be a
source of bitter conflict that drives them apart. As you will
see in various contexts throughout this book, within Sudan
religion has exerted both influences on the countrys people.
Missionaries brought Christianity to the region in the sixth
century and were very successful in converting a large part
of the population. By the seventh century a new faith, Islam,
emerged in the Arabian Peninsula. It began to spread like
wildfire, sweeping into and across North Africa, including
Sudan where it soon replaced Christianity. Muslims also
introduced many other traits including their language, Arabic, and Sharia law.
Steps Toward Independence
In 1882, Great Britain occupied Egypt and by 1898 had
extended its rule southward to include Sudan. Until 1955,
Sudan was ruled by the British as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
Almost from the beginning, many Sudanese disliked this
arrangement. By the dawn of the twentieth century, flames
of nationalism were being stoked by a growing cry for independence.
At the same time, Sudan was experiencing a strong northsouth polarization of ethnic, religious, and other cultural differences. Up until this time, the British had kept north and
south Sudan separate, developing the fertile lands around the
Nile Valley in the north, while neglecting the south, east, and
Darfur to the west. Consequently, northern Sudan was well
educated, mostly Arabic speaking, and Muslim, and had solid
political and economic infrastructures. In contrast, southern
Sudan was home to mainly poorly educated Christian and
animist African groups. And the region was geographically
isolated from the rest of the country, economically underdeveloped, and politically powerless.

History and Politics

In order to unite northern and southern Sudan into one
political unit for independence, Great Britain organized the
Juba Conference in 1947. The conference agreed that northern
and southern Sudan should form one state, with one legislative assembly for the entire colony. Subsequently, however,
southern Sudanese representatives were largely excluded from
the political process and discussions to determine the future
of the modern state of Sudan. When the British realized they
could not relieve the growing tensions between the north and
the south, they reluctantly granted Sudan independence. On
January 1, 1956, the British handed political power over to a
minority of northern Arab-Muslim elites (who historically had
closer ties to Egypt).
Southern leaders agreed to go along with independence,
but they insisted that parliament must keep its promise of
seriously considering a federal constitution that would allow
southerners to be recognized as a secular state with shared
power. In a federal state, such as the United States, much if
not most power rests with the political sub-divisions (such as
states), rather than the central government. If Sudan were a
federal state, that would enable other cultures and languages to
flourish alongside Islam and Arabic.
After independence, northern politicians immediately
opposed federalism (in which power is shared between national
and state governments). They argued that it would lead to separation. The politicians in the south began to establish alliances
with the other underdeveloped regions of the south in support
of federalism. The Federal Party thus formed, which opposed
the first post-independence elections in 1957. A transitional
constitution was written by politicians in the north, stating that
Islam was to be the official religion of the state, Arabic would
be the official language, and Sharia one of its main sources of
law. Southerners were outraged and unamimously rejected it.
This, however, was just the beginning of Sudans seemingly
endless political troubles.

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Military Rule Under General Abboud
(19581964)
In 1958, northern miltary leaders led by General Ibrahim
Abboud took control of the Sudanese government in a bloodless coup (forced overthrow of a government). General Abboud
was determined to Arabize and Islamize the south. Conversions to Islam were encouraged. Christian missionaries were
severely restricted in activity and, in 1964, they were thrown
out of the country entirely. The military began to burn opposition villages, and a number of senior political figures and students fled to the bush to join other mutineers of the Sudan
African Nationalist Union. The civil war between the north and
the south began at this time, in 1962. Due to the poor economic
policies and harsh repression of political opponents, General
Abboud was ousted during a general strike called the October
Revolution of 1964. A transition government, led by Sirr alKhatim al-Khalifa, oversaw elections that led to a civilian coalition government headed by Muhammad Ahmad Mahjub. The
coalition collapsed two years later.
Sadiq al-Mahdi and the Islamic Constitution
(19661969)
Sadiq al-Mahdi, a northerner and devout member of the Sufi
sect of Islam, became prime minister in 1966. He prompted
democracy and political Islam. When Sadiq al-Mahdi took
over leadership, he and his followers formed a group, or parliamentary bloc, called the New Forces Congress (NFC). The
NFC was comprised of al-Mahdis faction of the Umma Party,
the Sudan African National Union (SANU), and the Islamic
Charter Front (ICF). It was committed to passing a new constitution, to working toward peace in the south, to addressing
regional issues, and to holding elections under parliament
supervision by March 1968. But there was strong opposition. Southerners and Muslim leaders from Darfur, the Nuba
Mountains, and the Red Sea Hills opposed the constitution

History and Politics

and the government. These leaders wanted Islamists and
southerners to work toward common goals and get to know
each other better.
Unfortunately, each segment of the NFC was working
toward achieving its own goals. Al-Mahdi wanted to be seen as
a symbol of modernization and the heir of the ancient regime.
SANU was more interested in regional independence and
peace in the south, thus voted against Islamic provisions to the
constitution. The goal of the ICF was to see the constitution
passed because it was the key to its drive toward a complete
Islamic state in Sudan. During an attempt at developing a new
constitution, 40 Christian delegates boycotted the second reading in parliament in January 1968 in protest to its dominant
Islamic spirit.
The constitution continued to be debated, with the south
calling for less Islamic wording and more clauses related to
Christian causes and the north refusing to remove references to
Sharia law. Al-Mahdi supported the Islamic constitution, and a
final agreement was reached where an Islamic constitution was
to be passed with the stipulation that points of disagreements
would be put to a referendum (to put a public measure to a
popular vote).
Military Rule under Colonel Jafar Nimeiri
(19691985)
Just two days after the Constituent Assembly adopted the constitution, Colonel Jafar Nimeiri and the army assumed power
in a bloodless coup. The country was now ruled by the military
Revolutionary Command Council. Nimeiri sought to apply a
socialist approach to government and dissolved all traditional
political parties. He suspended the existing constitution and
took steps to reduce and eventually eliminate the economic
power of the religious sects.
Now in full control, Nimeiri established a single-state party.
This made it possible for him to nationalize the basic sectors

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of the economy, thereby making them government owned and
controlled. He also began to formulate strategies for social
development. Nimeiri called this the Sudanese Socialist Union.
The Sudanese began to acquire weapons from their new ally,
the Soviet Union. This cozy relationship would not last long.
Nimeiri began to dissolve links with the Soviets when he was
almost overthrown by a communist-led coup. With the civil
war still raging, Nimeiri decided that political negotiations
would be the only way to resolve conflicts.
In 1972, both the Sudanese government and the rebel
forces of the south, known as the Southern Sudan Liberation Movement (SSLM), met in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, for
negotiations. The SSLM wanted complete autonomy, with a
single federal government between the two. They argued that
without a federal system, the central government would in
practice be a northern government, not a national one. The
negotiations proceeded to define what powers the central and
regional government should have. In the end, the south was
granted a large measure of autonomy. The southerners were
given the right to have their own elected assembly and executive body. In addition, they were given recognition that their
beliefs, languages, and traditions were equal in importance to
those of the north.
The first round of fighting came to an end with the establishment of a regional government for the south. The agreement was ratified as the Regional Self-Government Act in
March 1972 and was incorporated into Sudans first permanent
constitution in 1973. Following this agreement, Sudan received
substantial amounts of aid and investment. Yet, the Southern
Regional Government received on average only about 23 percent of the central governments grant for the special development budget throughout the 11 years of regional government.
In 1979, the U.S. oil company Chevron discovered petroleum deposits in the Bentiu District of the Upper Nile.
When this occurred, Nimeiri attempted to deny the souths

History and Politics

The civil wars in Sudan have been the longest and deadliest wars of
the twentieth century (19551972; 19832005). Although the second
civil war officially ended in 2005, violent struggles continue in Darfur
between the Sudanese military and Janjaweed (a northern Afro-Arab
Sudanese militia group) on one side and the Sudan Liberation Army
(SLA) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) on the other. Above,
JEM fighters drive their armored vehicle to the Sudan-Chad border in
northwest Darfur.

ownership of the oil. He redrew the boundaries between the

north and south so that the reserves fell within the territorial control of the north. The south was convinced that the
central government intended to plunder the newly discovered
reserves for the benefit of the north, with the south standing
to gain very little.
Nimeiri stirred up several other issues involving the use of
and control over the Upper Nile water. He took land belonging
to the indigenous farming and herding population and used it
for the expansion of mechanized commercial farming. He also
abolished the legally elected regional government and assembly
in Juba and subdivided the south into three regions (each with

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a Nimeiri-appointed governor). Finally, in September 1983,
Nimeiri imposed Sharia law on the whole population of Sudan,
a move called the September Laws. This was the last straw for
the southern Sudanese. In 1983, the region once again plunged
into a long and bitter civil war between north and south.
By 1982, Sudan had received more U.S. aid than any other
country in sub-Saharan Africa$160 million in annual economic assistance and $100 million in military aid. However,
when Nimeiri denounced Israel in 1983, the United States cut
off this aid, creating massive economic difficulties. Meanwhile,
refugees were flooding in from Ethiopia, which was undergoing severe drought and famine, placing further strain on
Sudans dwindling resources. Drought and famine were also
plaguing much of the northern half of Sudan, including Darfur (north and south), Kordofan, and the Red Sea Hills. Faced
with these problems, Nimeiris power finally crumbled. Parliamentary elections held in 1986 declared the Umma Party as
the new leading government with, once again, Sadiq Al-Mahdi
as the leader.
Sadiq al-Mahdi and Hassan al-Turabi
(19861989)
Following his election, al-Mahdi met with John Garang, the
leader of the Sudan Peoples Liberation Movement (SPLM),
whose armed wing was called the Sudan Peoples Liberation
Army (SPLA). Garang and al-Mahdi discussed a peace plan in
which al-Mahdi claimed he would repeal the September Laws.
Under pressure, however, al-Mahdi suddenly backed down
from the proposed arrangement.
His brother-in-law Hassan al-Turabi, who was a big influence on al-Mahdi, had a different idea. As leader of the newly
organized National Islamic Front (NIF), he committed himself
to the establishment of an Islamic state and was determined to
enforce his interpretation of Islamic law, which included a penal
code. He also opposed any sort of negotiations with the south.

History and Politics

General Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir
In 1980, when Sadiq al-Mahdi seemed to be ready to begin
negotiations with the south, he was ousted in a military coup
led by General Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir. General alBashir suspended the 1986 constitution and pushed for negotiations with the SPLM. Al-Bashir met with many criticisms
from the West and other groups who were concerned about the
displaced Sudanese people.
The new government also faced accusations of supporting
terrorism. In fact, Osama bin Laden, the leader of al Qaeda, had
moved to Sudan in 1991. During this period, al Qaeda established connections with other terrorist organizations with the
help of its Sudanese hosts and Iran.While in Sudan, al Qaeda
was involved in several terrorist attacks and guerrilla actions
including the bombings of the U.S. embassies in Nairobi,
Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Sudan was implicated
in the June 1995 assassination attempt on Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak. Its support for terrorists and increasing
international isolation led to a U.S. cruise-missile attack on a
Sudanese pharmaceutical factory in 1998. The U.S. claimed
that the Sudanese factory was financed by bin Laden and was
manufacturing chemical weapons. Sudans government denied
all accusations. In response to U.S., Egyptian, and Saudi pressures, bin Laden left Sudan in 1996.
The civil war began to spread northward. In November 1996, the National Democratic Alliance, the Democratic
Unionist Party, the Umma Party, the Sudan Federation Forces,
and the Legitimate Command of the Sudanese Army joined
with the SPLM. They joined together mainly to battle the
oppressive forces of the National Islamic Front (NIF), which
was violating the political and civil rights of the south. President al-Bashir dismissed Hassan al-Turabi after a falling out.
Al-Turabi had ambitions for an Islamic revolution throughout
Africa and the Middle East, while al-Bashir held to the traditional view of Sudan as the home of the Arab elite.

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Sudan

On March 4, 2009, the International Criminal Court (ICC) charged

Sudanese president Omar Hassan al-Bashir with five counts of crimes
against humanity and war crimes. It was the first time the court
indicted a sitting head of state. Al-Bashir has rejected the charges, and
the prosecution is unlikely to be carried out.

History and Politics

After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, U.S.
president George W. Bush declared to the world, Either you
are with us, or you are terrorists. With this warning, al-Bashir
began to attempt to improve relations with the United States.
By July 20, 2002, negotiations between the south and the north
resulted in the signing of the Machakos Protocol. The protocol
reaffirms the priority status of unity, but grants the south the
right of self-determination after a six-year period. By October
2002, the government and the SPLA (the armed wing of the
SPLM) agreed to a ceasefire while negotiations continued.
The southern rebels and the government in Khartoum
seemed to patch things up in January 2005 with a detailed
peace agreement that ensured a permanent ceasefire and sharing of wealth and power. John Garang became the first vice
president of the south. President al-Bashir formed a government of national unity as part of the deal. The SPLM later
suspended its participation in the government, claiming that
Khartoum was not honoring the 2005 peace deal. They later
resumed participation in December 2007.
Will al-Bashir Be Arrested?
The International Criminal Court (ICC) has charged President
Omar al-Bashir with war crimes and crimes against humanity, and has issued an international warrant for his arrest. After
months of deliberation, the judges convicted al-Bashir for
playing an essential role in the murder, rape, torture, pillage,
and displacement of large numbers of civilians in Darfur. The
immediate reaction was huge pro al-Bashir rallies in Khartoum.
President al-Bashir also expelled 13 humanitarian aid groups,
such as Oxfam and Doctors without Borders, from Darfur. The
departure of these agencies will create even more hardship, since
in some places they provide the only medical services.
Only time will tell if al-Bashir will be arrested. In theory,
he is subject to arrest if he ventures outside his country. In

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reality, that likely wont happen, particularly if he is careful in
picking his countries and airports in which to land. Although
many African leaders dont like what is happening in Sudan,
the African Union and many African governments feel a kinship with al-Bashir. He therefore knows he is safe from the long
reach of the Belgium-based ICC. So confident is he, in fact, that
after the warrant was issued, while presiding at a dam dedication, he said the ICC should take the arrest warrant, dissolve
it in water, and drink it. Meanwhile the bleeding and suffering
continue in Darfur, and Sudan remains a country divided and
in turmoil.
In April 2010, Sudan conducted an election for president
and the National Assembly. For the Sudanese, this election
was very important. It marked the end of the five-year transitional period following the end of the most current bitter civil
war. Many people, particularly those in the south, hoped that
it would bring a change of government. However, President
Omar al-Bashir and his party, the National Congress, won the
election receiving early 70 percent of the votes. According to
many observers, fraud was widespread. Politically, things seem
to change very little in Sudan.

5
The Darfur Crisis

n 2004, Darfur, in western Sudan, became a central focus of

international attention and outrage. The people of Darfur suffered incredible atrocities committed by the Sudanese government and its supporters. There were widespread killings, torture,
rape, and imprisonment. The horrible mayhem also included widespread looting, forced displacement, the burning of homes and villages, and the theft and deliberate destruction of crops and cattle.
It became a humanitarian crisis of unimaginable dimensions. The
United Nations estimates that the five-year conflict left 300,000
people dead and 2.7 million more displaced. Although it is unusual
to have a separate chapter devoted to a specific conflict, the atrocities
and human suffering in Darfur warrant such attention.
The humanitarian toll was made worse by the remoteness of
the area, restrictions by the Sudanese government on humanitarian

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operations, and conditions on the ground. Attacks by armed
assailants on aid workers drastically reduced operations, and
completely eliminated access to some areas of Darfur. In many
areas, roads were under the control of roaming militias or
armed opposition groups and numerous checkpoints were
established for extorting money. Humanitarian aid convoys
were regularly hijacked for the supplies they carried as well
as for the vehicles themselves, and the drivers were assaulted,
kidnapped, or murdered.
Despite international outrage and demands around the
globe to end the brutality, the deadly conflict continued. Civilians became victims of shocking human rights violations and
brutality.
The Roots of the Darfur Crisis
Culturally, Darfur is an extremely complex place. Some 50 to 80
different ethnic and tribal groups create a complex mosaic of
peoples unparalleled almost anywhere else in the world. Such
diversity can lead to conflict, as it has in this troubled region.At
the most basic level, two groups make up Darfurs population:
Africans and Arabs. Africans, most of whom are settled farmers, were the original inhabitants of the region. Arabs, mainly
nomadic camel and cattle herders, began pushing into the area
in the fourteenth century. The Africans were rapidly converted
to Islam, and today nearly all Darfurians are Muslims. For
centuries, the two groups lived in relative peace. Anywhere in
the world where settled farmers and nomadic herders live sideby-side, however, disputes arise. Most such conflicts arose over
the often-contentious competition for resources between fixed
farming communities and pastoral nomads. Such disputes
were resolved through negotiations involving local leaders. In
times past, people of Darfur were identified by race (physical appearance), or culture (including language and means of
subsistence). Today, most Darfurians claim mixed ancestry as a
result of centuries of intermarriage.

The Darfur Crisis

This piece of art shows the devastation and horrors of the atrocities
in Darfur. The Janjaweed attacked and burned villages; men, women,
and children were shot; women and girls were raped; and Sudanese
forces dropped bombs on the people and their homes.

Darfurs recorded history begins in the fourteenth century.

For several centuries, Darfur existed as a self-governing state.
By the mid-seventeenth century, Darfurs geographical location
made it a thriving commercial hub. Situated between Mediterranean Europe and sub-Saharan Africa, slaves, ivory, ostrich
feathers and other items moved northward to the Mediterranean
as trade goods. Slaves were captured in raids against its neighbors and in wars of conquest within the surrounding region. In
January 1917, Darfur became part of Sudan, which in turn was
absorbed into the British Empire. The British, however, had little
interest in Darfur. As a result it became a somewhat remote economic and political backwater and a pawn in power games.
It was not long before Darfur became embroiled in the conflicts raging around it. Many of the soldiers who fought for the

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government against the south were Darfurian recruits. Libyas
controversial leader, Colonel Moammar al-Gadhafi (Qaddafi),
used Darfur as a military base for his wars in Chad. His objective
was to promote Arab supremacist tendencies. The attempt had
devasting results, inflaming ethnic tensions, flooding the region
with weaponry, and sparking the Arab-Fur War (19871989),
in which thousands were killed and hundreds of Fur villages
were burned. (Darfur means Land of the Fur, the indigenous
peoples of the region.) The peoples suffering was made worse by
a devastating famine in the mid-1980s, and the Sudanese government ignored Darfur and the plight of its suffering people.
When General Omar al-Bashir seized power in Sudan in
1989 he banned opposition parties, halted efforts toward peace
to the region, and proclaimed jihad (holy war) against the nonMuslim south, regularly using Muslim Arab militias to do the
fighting. Although al-Bashir depended on Muslim Darfur for
political support, the program of Arabization further marginalized Darfurs African population.
Who Are the Janjaweed?
Janjaweed are fighters who often turn to violence in support
of their fervent belief in Arab supremacy. The word janjaweed
means hordes or ruffians, but also sounds like devil on
horseback in Arabic. Each of these meanings describes the
group well. Most members are recruits from nomadic Arabic
tribes, angry former soldiers, or criminal elements. They first
appeared as a military force during the Arab-Fur War in the
late 1980s. The Sudanese government recognized that the Janjaweed could be a powerful force in helping advance its vicious
political agenda. It armed and trained the fighters and then
turned them loose on the people of Darfur for a period of three
years, from 1996 to 1998. In so doing, the Sudanese government used a military strategy in which it used ethnic militias
to do its dirty work. Using Janjaweed fighters, the government
could save money and also deny any role in the conflicts.

The Darfur Crisis

Pictured are the remains of a village in Tiero, in eastern Chad, after it

was attacked by the Janjaweed and their Chadian allies. The Sudanese
Arab horsemen called the Janjaweed and the Chadian rebel forces are
working together to oust the governments in NDjamena, the capital of
Chad, and Darfur in Sudan.

Darfur was ripe for rebellion. The region was ravaged by

drought and ethnic conflicts. It was an area in which grinding
poverty and decades of political and cultural marginalization
had taken a heavy toll on the people. In response to growing
frustrations, two main rebel groups formedthe Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement
(JEM). Both were responsible for a sharp increase in the number and ferocity of rebel attacks against government targets. By
early 2003 the SLA and JEM had joined forces. Fighting as an
alliance, they were able to inflict considerable damage on the
increasingly ineffective Sudanese army.
By 2003, the government was losing control of the country. Faced with this bleak prospect, leaders decided to launch

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a counter attack against the combined forces of the SLA and
JEM. The government fell back on an age-old source of conflictcompetition over increasingly scarce land and water
resourcesto fuel the flames of dissention. Using this excuse,
the government gained support of the Janjaweed, who immediately began to attack settlements the government claimed had
links to the rebels.
Critics blame the crisis in Darfur on the Sudanese government. The United States has labeled the crisis as genocide (an
attempt to destroy an entire people). Refugees from Darfur say
that following air raids by government aircraft, the Janjaweed
would ride into the villages on horses and camels, slaughtering
men, raping women, and stealing whatever they could find.
The Sudanese government denies being in control of the Janjaweed. Sudan and Chad accuse each other of supporting their
rebel groups. This has further increased the difficulty of the
situation in Darfur.
Despite international outrage and demands to end the brutality, the deadly conflict continues. Darfur remains one of the
worlds worst humanitarian catastrophes. Civilians have become
victims of horrendous human rights violations at the hands
of the Sudanese government and the Janjaweed. As mentioned
previously, the atrocities committed by these two aggressors have
been monumental. One can only wonder when peoples inhumanity to other people will end, and when the killings, torture,
rape, looting, and other human rights abuses will end in Darfur.
What caused the Darfur Crisis?
Many people blame competition for natural resources as the
primary trigger of conflict in Darfur. Some blame global warming for triggering environmental problems that make natural
resources even scarcer. In reality, the factors driving Darfurs
conflict are much more complex.
In its 50 years of independence, Sudan has been plagued
by constant conflicts. They are rooted in economic, political,

The Darfur Crisis

social, and military domination by the small, powerful, and
elite group of northern Sudanese that has been governing the
country. Fighting in Darfur has continued off and on for at least
30 years. Until 2003, fighting was confined mainly to a series of
local and tribal conflicts. Then these hostilities escalated into a
full-scale military confrontation in all three Darfurian states.
The conflict also frequently spills over into neighboring Chad
and the Central African Republic.
The great drought and famine of 1984 and 1985 led to
localized conflicts between herders and farmers in a struggle
for diminishing resources. These hostilities led to the Arab-Fur
War of 1987 to 1989.
The tragedy that began in 2003 was caused mainly by the
governments response to rebellion. There were, however, many
other causes of the conflict. They include historical grievances,
local perceptions of race, demands for a fair sharing of power
between different groups, and the inequitable distribution of
economic resources and benefits. Other issues involve disputes
over access to and control over increasingly scarce natural
resources (land and water) and the spreading of arms and
the militarization of young people. Finally, there was a total
absence of democratic processes and numerous other issues
related to governance. Local issues have been drawn into the
wider political situation of Sudan.
Competition between herders and farmers is key to understanding so many conflicts in East Africa, including the crisis in
Darfur. Violence between tribes and ethnic groups are the most
visible dividing lines, but the stories of these conflicts cannot be
told without including underlying stresses on the environment
and the population.
The Climate Change Factor
Sudan, along with other countries in the Sahel belt, has suffered
several long and devastating droughts during recent decades.
The most severe drought occurred between 1980 and 1984,

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and was accompanied by widespread displacement and famine.
The scale of historical climate change, as recorded in northern
Darfur, is extraordinary: The drought has turned millions of
acres (hectares) of already marginal semidesert grazing land
into desert. Desertification has added significantly to the stress
on the livelihoods of herding societies, forcing them to move
south into wetter lands in order to find pasture.
The United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) has
identified categories of natural resources supposedly linked to
the conflicts in Sudan. The list includes oil and gas reserves,
Nile water, hardwood timber, rangeland and rain-fed agricultural land, and the associated water points. But in Sudan, use of
land and economic resources are so complex that any summary
of the issue is little more than a watered-down simplification.
Traditional herding and farming societies in Sudan are not
always clearly separated. In many areas, families, clans, and
even entire tribes grow crops and raise animals.
Three groups may be identified in rural Sudan. First, there
are the mainly farming societies/tribes; second, there are the
nomadic livestock-rearing society/tribes; finally, are the owners
and workers involved in mechanized agricultural schemes. The
latter group includes business or government programs that
support the development, mechanization, storage, transport,
insurance, marketing, and use of new technologies to increase
agriculture in a country. Directly or indirectly, these three
groups depend on rainfall for their livelihood. While most of
the recorded local conflicts take place within and between the
first two groups, the mechanized farming group has triggered
fighting by uncontrolled land grabs from the other two groups.
For example, in the Nuba Mountains and in Blue Nile State,
combatants reported that the expansion of mechanized agricultural schemes onto their land sparked the fighting, which
then escalated and became part of the major north-south
political conflict.

The Darfur Crisis

Throughout Sudans recorded history, herders resisting the
shrinkage and destruction of rangelands have been at the center
of local conflicts. They compete with other groups for choice
grazing land, move and graze livestock on cropland without
consent from farmers, and force other herders and farmers off
previously shared land.
Migration and Environmental Destruction
In addition to untold human suffering, the conflict has taken
a toll on the environment. Fighting often involved a scorched
earth campaign in which fire was used as a weapon. This
tactic was carried out by militias over large areas and resulted
in huge numbers of civilian deaths, widespread destruction
of villages and forests, and the displacement of huge numbers of victims fleeing to refugee camps for protection, food,
and water.
The sheer number of displaced people in a refugee camp
further degrades the environment. Extensive deforestation
results from harvesting fuel wood for cooking, as well as from
making bricks for housing. Today some camps in Darfur have
run out of fuel wood supplies within walking distance, resulting in major fuel shortages.
Sudans Forgotten Slaves
(The following tragic story of slavery in Sudan is based upon
a BBC News report by Joseph Winter.) Nineteen years ago,
Akech Arol Dengs wife and son were seized from their home in
southern Sudan by an Arab militia. He has not seen them since.
Deng believes that they are still alive and enslaved in northern
Sudan. In 2007, the United Nations believed that 8,000 people
(and as many as 200,000 according to some estimates) were
working as slaves in the country. Although slavery has been
banned worldwide for more than a century, according to the
U.N. the horrendous practice is quite widespread in portions of

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The Dinka is the single largest tribal group in southern Sudan,

numbering about 2.5 to 3 million and 25 different sections. Some
Dinka mark or scarify their face to celebrate graduation into
adulthood. Within other groups, some female Dinka mark their face
to signify a particular status. Today, many of the Dinka who had been
abducted or given away by their parents are moving back south.

Africa, including Sudan. And sadly, no one appears to be doing

anything to free todays slaves.
Sudans government does not accept claims of slavery.
It does admit that during the war thousands of people were
abducted, but attributes the practice to an ancient tradition of
hostage-taking by rival ethnic groups. A senior Sudanese government official, while denying that slavery exists in the country, acknowledged that the situation [is] the same as when
people were taken from West Africa to America.
In 1999, an internationally supported program was established to free abductees. Several thousand were found and

The Darfur Crisis

returned home. By 2005, however, the program ran out of
money, because for various reasons many donors pulled out.
Finding the parents and homes of children abducted up to
20 years ago is difficult and in many cases impossible. Many
children, forced to adopt Islamic names, have forgotten their
real names. Often they have no idea where they came from, or
who their parents are. Some can be identified by facial scars
from marks cut into their faces when young (a tradition among
some tribes). Many youngsters simply end up with foster parents. Slavery is just one of many tragic outcomes of Sudans
long history of conflict.

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6
Sudans
Economy

ery surprisingly, considering its past and present conditions,

Sudan has one of the fastest growing economies in the world.
The economic boom began when the first barrels of oil were
exported to Singapore in 1999 and growth has continued since then.
Between 2006 and 2007, the economy grew more than 10 percent.
This was fueled mainly by oil exports and huge investments by Asian
countries such as China and Singapore. Nevertheless, poverty is widespread. A recent estimate suggests that about 40 percent of the population lives below the poverty line. About 80 percent the population
depends on subsistence agriculture, which has been severely affected
by recent droughts and conflicts.
One way to measure the severity of economic deprivation is the
Human Poverty Index (HPI-1). The HPI-1 measures a countrys
health conditions by the proportion of people who are not expected to

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Sudans Economy
survive past age 40. Sudans HPI-1 as of 2004 was 34.4 percent.
Another measure is the Human Development Index (HDI),
developed by the United Nations. It compares life expectancy,
literacy, education, and standard of living for 182 countries
worldwide. In 2009, Sudan ranked 150, lower than any country
in the Americas including struggling Haiti. So, you can see that
while Sudans economy prospers, the Sudanese government
seems to care very little about the Sudanese people, particularly
those in the south. In this chapter you will learn about Sudans
past and present economic conditions.
Sudans Economy Through Time
Sudan has not always been dirt poor. In fact, over the past several thousand years there have been times when at least some
of its people prospered. The Nile River has long been an artery
of trade between present-day Sudan and Egypt. Khartoum is
located at the confluence (juncture) of the White and Blue
Nile rivers, both of which served as links to lands and riches
lying to the south. From very early times, Sudan was actively
involved in trade focusing upon the Nile and Red Sea. Looking
westward, it was also in an ideal position to trade with empires
located along the southern margin of the Sahara Desert. The
Nubian empires, including Kush and later Meroe, grew and
prospered because of these trade links. Gold, ivory, and incense
were major trade items that moved northward to Egypt. So
were slaves who served as servants, concubines, and soldiers in
Egypt. Grain was a major trade item from Egypt.
Meroe expanded linkages with the Red Sea coast, where it
carried on a lively exchange with traders from Arab lands and
as far eastward as India. There is evidence, although it remains
hotly disputed among archaeologists and historians, that iron
metallurgy began in Meroe. Ancient ironworks have been discovered there, and it is believed that iron smelting techniques
may have diffused from Meroe westward across the Sahel and
savanna lands to West Africa.

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Culture and Economic Change
When judging Sudans economy, one must keep in mind that
a commercial economyone measured by dollars (or local
currency), rather than survivalis recent. This is particularly
true in Africa where many people, even today, are pretty much
self-sufficient and live outside the cash economy. Their labor
and its results are not measured monetarily. Hence, they do
not appear in a nations gross domestic product or any other
measure of wealth. This is extremely misleading. Many people
who depend upon their own labor, such as farming and herding, are able to provide for themselves quite well. Such rural
families may, indeed, be much better off in terms of providing
for themselves than are many of their counterparts who live in
a city and earn wages.
For millennia, such people survived and most lived quite
well in the land that is now Sudan. Three things have happened
to minimize their living standards: cultural change, almost constant conflict, and political chaos. During recent centuries and
certainly since the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, culture
has changed. Self-reliant traditional folk cultures were left in
the economic wake of urban, industrial, commercial peoples.
And as is described above, with these cultural adjustments
also came a change in the way economic (providing the things
one needs to survive) success is measured. Simply stated, in
times past, all peoples practiced a subsistence economy; some
remained traditional, whereas others moved ahead.
A second problem, and one that has been incredibly disruptive to the lives of so many Sudanese, is the seemingly endless
conflict. It is difficult if not impossible for a countrys economy
to grow or its citizens to prosper when their land is torn by
strife. Would you want to go into a field to work on crops or
watch over your livestock knowing that at any moment you
could be kidnapped or even killed?
Finally, good government and economic growth go handin-hand. When a government is effective and a country is

Sudans Economy

politically stable, people are willing to invest in its development. Neither citizens nor foreigners, on the other hand, are
willing to invest their financial resources in a corrupt and
poorly governed country.
There are, of course, many other reasons for Sudans relatively poor economy. Many nomads have moved into urban
areas. They swell the need for services, yet lack the education
and skills needed to compete successfully in an urban economy.
The civil war has been extremely disruptive, because it has
slowed or even closed down many economic activities. Basically, as has been stressed time and time again in this book,
Sudan has suffered because of ineffective government and
seemingly constant civil conflict.
Overview of the Economy
In 2009, Sudans per capita gross domestic productpurchasing power parity (GDP-PPP) was $2,300. (Purchasing power
parity is the amount of goods and services that could be purchased with U.S. dollars.) The country ranks 181 among the
some 220 countries for which data are available. Although its
standing is quite low, Sudan ranks in the top 25 percent of African states in this category.
Figures such as GDP-PPP can be extremely misleading,
particularly when they are applied to a poor country such
as Sudan. Forty percent of Sudanese, for example, live below
the countrys poverty line. About 19 percent of the people are
unemployed, but this only tells part of the countrys story of
poverty. When underemployment is added, nearly half of all
Sudanese lack adequate employment and incomes. This category includes people who have jobs, but are unable to make a
decent living.
In Sudan, the economy is experiencing rapid change. Such
improvements surely will accelerate if peace comes to this wartorn land and its government becomes more responsible to its

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people. Lets take a brief look at each of the three major sectors
of the economy: primary, secondary, and tertiary.
Primary Industries
Primary industries are those based upon the extraction or use
of natural resources. They include agriculture (both farming
and herding), mining, logging, and fishing. Generally speaking,
the more developed a country is economically, the less it will
depend upon primary economic activities. In the United States,
for example, less than 1 percent of the population is engaged
in any of the primary industries, and only 1.2 percent of the
GDP is produced by them. In Sudan, 80 percent of the labor
force is engaged in agriculture (data are not available for other
activities within the primary sector). Yet farming and herding
contribute only about one-third of the countrys GDP. This
suggests that most agriculture is for subsistence, rather than
commercial production. For the most part, it is primitive and
relatively unproductive. People raise crops or herd livestock for
their own consumption, rather than for the market. This reliance upon subsistence farming ensures that a large percentage
of the countrys population will remain at or below the poverty
line for years to come.
In the past, agriculture has been the backbone of Sudans
economy, traditionally accounting for more than 90 percent of
the countrys exports. During recent decades, several factors
have contributed to a decline in Sudans agricultural productivity. They include a lack of investment in agricultural technologies and development, civil conflicts, droughts, and a sharp
drop in rural population.
Most of Sudans commercial agricultural production
occurs along the Nile River and its upper tributaries, particularly in the area of Khartoum, and in the east-central region.
Many crops are grown for the domestic market. Grain crops
include millet, wheat, and sorghum. Cassava (sweet manioc,
or tapioca), sweet potatoes, and groundnuts (peanuts) also

Sudans Economy

Agriculture remains Sudans most important sector. The crops are

susceptible to drought, however, due to reliance on unreliable rainfall.

are basic staples of the Sudanese diet and are grown primarily
for local consumption. So are mangos, papayas, and bananas.
Cotton is Sudans major crop, although its production has
decreased during recent years. Other commercial crops grown
for export include sugarcane (for sugar), gum arabic, sesame,
and peanuts.
Nomadic herding has long been a traditional economic
activity throughout much of northern Africa, including
Sudan. Today, however, livestock-related activities are in
sharp decline throughout the country. The severe droughts
and widespread conflicts of recent decades have taken their
toll on herders and herding. Some previously nomadic people
have begun to farm. Most former nomads, however, have
moved to Khartoum or some other urban area. This change
has been so rapid that Sudan is one of the worlds fastest
urbanizing countries.

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Some commercial logging occurs in the south, but it is not
a major contributor to the countrys economy. The same can
be said for the limited commercial fishing activity in the Nile
River and Red Sea. Neither activity is of more than local importance. Mining and oil extraction are also primary industries.
Sudan has small amounts of copper, gold, and other minerals,
but their economic importance is negligible. Recent development of rich petroleum deposits, however, has created a huge
economic boom in Sudan. What it means to the country is
discussed later in this chapter.
Secondary Industries
Secondary industries include processing, manufacturing, and
construction. Basically, they involve taking primary products
and turning them into useful items. This activity involves about
29 percent of the Sudanese workforce, but contributes only 7
percent of the countrys GDP. Again, we find that Sudanese
industry is very ineffective.
Most industrial development is based upon the processing
of agricultural products. Cotton ginning and textile industries, for example, process domestic cotton for export. Sugar
and edible oils also are processed from sugarcane and sesame
seeds. Recently, the country has begun manufacturing small
automobiles, trucks, and heavy military equipment at plants
in Khartoum. A cement industry supports Sudans thriving
construction boom. And Sudans oil boom has spurred the
development of refineries in Khartoum and Port Sudan. Pharmaceuticals also are manufactured and exported.
Within the secondary sector of the economy, the construction industry is experiencing huge growth. During recent years
Sudan has benefitted greatly from direct foreign economic
investment. More than $3.5 billion was invested in 2006 (the
most recent year for which figures are available at the time of
writing). Construction of desperately needed new highways
and bridges is booming. Khartoum is experiencing a huge

Sudans Economy

Hundreds of Sudanese hold banners praising President al-Bashir to

celebrate the opening of a hydroelectric dam on the Nile River at Meroe
in northern Sudan on March 3, 2009. The hydropower project, the
largest to be built along the Nile in 40 years and the largest international
project that Chinese contractors have ever participated in, will increase
power generating capacity from about 30 percent to 90 percent. Still,
this project has displaced about 6,000 farmers.

building boom. Plans are underway to build a new oil refinery

at Port Sudan. But during the first decade of the twenty-first
century, no project has been more ambitious or costly than
Sudans new Meroe Dam.
With the help of about $1.8 billion, mostly from China,
Sudan has constructed the huge Merowe Dam on the Nile River
about 220 miles (350 km) north of Khartoum. The multipurpose dam is 5.6 miles (9 km) wide and has the capacity
to generate 1,250 megawatts of much-needed hydroelectric
energy. When filled, the reservoir will extend upstream (southward) for nearly 110 miles (177 km) and hold about 20 percent

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of the Niles annual flow. It will improve the domestic water
supply for millions of people and also supply water to irrigate
crops. When President al-Bashir inaugurated the dam upon its
completion in 2009, he declared it a project of the century and
a pride of Sudan, the Arabs, and the world.
Tertiary Industries
Tertiary industries are those that contribute services of any
kind. They include financial institutions, health care, police
and fire protection, and education. Sales are included, as
are transportation and communication, secretarial assistance,
various media, restaurants, and various businesses that serve
the tourist industry. Throughout the economically developed
world, about 75 percent of the workforce is engaged in the service sector. And a comparable percentage of a countrys GDP
also is produced by tertiary activities. In the United States,
for example, roughly 77 percent of both the workforce and
GDP involve the provision of various services. For Sudan, the
data are more than a decade old, but it is probable that only
about 15 percent of the workforce is engaged in service-related
industries. Because most people involved in the tertiary sector
are urban and educated, they contribute disproportionately to
a nations economy. In Sudan, the estimated 15 percent of the
workforce engaged in the tertiary sector contributes nearly 40
percent of the countrys GDP. In the future, this proportion
certainly will increase.
Most of Sudans service industries are found in and around
Khartoum. With a metropolitan area population approaching
9 million, the majority of which are literate, the region has a
huge, able, and eager workforce.
Sudans Oil Boom
The search for oil began in Sudan more than a half century ago
and became more intense during the mid-1970s. By the early
1980s, the long and costly search paid off when an American

Sudans Economy
firm, Chevron, struck oil in Upper Nile Province in southern
Sudan. A second find, the Abu Jabra oil field, was made later on
the edge of South Dafur and Southern Kordofan. Production
and export got underway in 2000. Its importance to the Sudanese economy is evident in the fact that by 2010, oil accounted
for more than 80 percent of the countrys export earnings.
From the fields, oil is transported by pipelines to refineries
in Khartoum and Port Sudan. Nearly all of the petroleum is
exported to China, with some going to other East Asian countries. According to some estimates, production already has
peaked. Revenues, however, will continue to fill the countrys
financial coffers for years to come. Some experts believe that,
with the end of hostilities in the country, further explorations
may discover new deposits within the country.
Prosperity Is Unequal in Sudan
During recent years, many Sudanese have begun to prosper
as they never have before. This is particularly true for those
living in the northern part of the country. Sadly, however,
most residents of the countrys war-ravaged south and the
Darfur region live in grinding poverty. The south remains
underdeveloped and poor. For many southern Sudanese,
there seems to be little hope for the future. They believe, and
justifiably, that their country and its government have forgotten them. Worse yet, their government seems not to care at all
about their plight.
Southern Sudan: Exploited and Poor
Historically, the south has been subservient to the people and
the cities in northern Sudan. During the time of slave trading,
non-Muslim people in the south frequently were captured and
exported as slaves to the Arabs. In terms of access, even today
nearly all transportation routes focus upon Khartoum and
other northern cities. Yet the south possesses far and away the
countrys greatest wealth of natural resources, including its rich

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oil deposits. The north, however, continues to be the major
focus of Sudans development and economic growth.
This is the reason for the huge differences in economic
development between northern and southern Sudan. The
north (Khartoum/Omdurman) has always received the best
care, especially due to its prime location near the Nile, as well as
its closeness to Egypt. The south, on the other hand, has always
been exploited. With the discovery of oil in southern Sudans
As Sudd region, this exploitation of resources favoring the
north certainly has continued. Many southerners have actually
suffered as a result of oil development. Thousands of villagers
were forcefully evicted from their land to make way for oil field
development. Many lost their homes and saw their traditional
economic livelihoods jeopardized.
Development Challenges
Sudan imports foodstuffs, manufactured goods, refinery and
transport equipment, medicines and chemicals, textiles, and
wheat. The country needs to become more self-sufficient in the
production of these commodities. It exports oil and petroleum
products, cotton, sesame, livestock, groundnuts, gum arabic,
and sugar. Textiles are another import to Sudan, even though
the countrys major crop is cotton, and ancient skills such
as spinning and weaving are deeply rooted in the Sudanese
heritage. For decades, cotton exports contributed about 20
percent of Sudans foreign trade. Yet, although Sudanese cotton
is recognized internationally for its high quality, the country is
importing foreign textiles. Clearly more attention needs to be
directed toward the agricultural sector.
Today, Sudan depends upon only a couple items as the
mainstays of its export economy. This dependence can have
very serious consequences. When prices rise, the country prospers, as it has with recent oil exports. But when prices drop
sharply, the results can be catastrophic not only to the economy,
but to government and society as well. Today, Sudans export

Sudans Economy
economy is almost totally reliant upon oil exports. When the
oil runs out, what then will Sudan rely upon?
In conclusion, Sudan is a country with numerous economic possibilities. Sadly, throughout most of its history, it has
fallen far short of reaching those potentials. Most of its people
continue to be impoverished, in poor health, poorly educated,
and limited in terms of meaningful life options. Greater prosperity will come if Sudan can achieve a lasting peace and if the
countrys government becomes responsible and responsive to
the needs of it people.

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7
Living in
Sudan Today

t is impossible to write a Living in Sudan Today chapter that

applies to all groups of people in the country. Ways of living
among different groups of Sudanese vary greatly. In Khartoum
and other northern cities, life is pretty much like it is in cities everywhere. There are, of course, cultural differences such as language and
religion, but urban life is fairly similar whether in Khartoum, Kobe,
Kaliningrad, or Kansas City. For many Sudanese, particularly those
living in the north, life is improving. But the differences between the
have and have not elements of Sudans population remain huge.
Were you to visit the capital city, Khartoum, you would see a
bustling urban area that is modern in nearly all respects. You would
notice people going about their business pretty much as they do in
the United States, Canada, and elsewhere. Many construction projects attest to the countrys current economic boom. There, hopes

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Living in Sudan Today

for a peaceful and more prosperous future rise along with the
citys skyline. Elsewhere, in places such as Darfur and many of
the more remote areas of the south, conditions are desperate.
Grinding poverty, poor health and sanitation, illiteracy, and
shattered dreams are commonplace.
To greatly simplify Sudans tremendous cultural diversity,
we must think in terms of dualisms. For example, there are
nomadic desert people of the north and the sedentary savanna
and woodland farming people of the south. The north is dominated by people of Nubian physical features, whereas those of
the south are Negroid. Most northerners are of Arabic culture;
they follow the Islamic faith and speak Arabic. In the south
African culture dominates; native religions are most commonly
followed, and Bantu languages are spoken. Of greatest importance, however, is the dualism of economic well-being that
exists between the richer north and dirt poor south.
Health Issues
Widespread poverty, civil conflicts, and government inaction
have combined to make health care facilities nearly nonexistent
in Sudan. This is particularly true in the south, where nearly all
medical facilities were destroyed during the civil war. Eventually, a few were rebuilt by the Sudan Peoples Liberation Movement (SPLM) and controlled by government forces in Malakal,
Waw, and Juba. Following the war, rebuilding efforts were
severely hindered by the lack of funds and inadequate medical
supplies. Because of the conflict and widespread poverty, the
private medical care sector also was in shambles. More recently,
the situation in Darfur has added to the countrys medical miseries. Malnutrition, war-related injuries, and disease
are widespread. The most common illnesses continue to be
malaria, dysentery, and tuberculosis. AIDS also is widespread,
particularly in the south. It also presents a growing problem in
Khartoum, because many refugees from the south have sought
safety in the city.

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Malaria
Although the incidence of malaria has decreased since 2000,
the disease continues to be Sudans number one killer. In 1998,
the government began to strengthen malaria control and the
effort has been quite effective. A national 10-year strategic
plan was developed in 2001, which resulted in the Malaria Free
Initiative in 2002. These and other initiatives are extremely
important to the physical well being of the Sudanese people.
Unfortunately, floods that hit Sudan in 2007 caused an increase
in the mosquito population and an upsurge in malaria infections. In response, the government and participating health
organizations distributed 1.6 million mosquito nets in affected
areas of the country.
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is another major killer in Sudan. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2007 there
were 243 cases per 100,000 people reported in the country.
In southern Sudan alone, an estimated 18,500 people get
the disease and 5,300 do annually. Unlike malaria, which is
insect-transmitted, tuberculosis is a contagious disease passed
from individual to individual. It is caused by bacteria and is
spread through the air when people who have the disease spit,
cough, or sneeze. TB attacks the lungs, but can also affect the
central nervous system, the lymphatic system, the joints and
bones, and even the skin. In southern Sudan case detection
is still very low, but once identified, treatment achieves an
80 percent success rate. Destruction of the health infrastructure due to war, the lack of equipment such as microscopes,
and the lack of health personnel all have contributed to the
epidemic.
Meningitis
Sudan is located within the Meningitis Belt that stretches
from Senegal to Ethiopia. Meningitis is an inflammation of

Living in Sudan Today

the membranes that cover the brain and the spinal cord. It is
an infection caused by viruses or microorganisms. Outbreaks
commonly occur during the dry season as dust storms blow
around bacteria attached to dust particles. In 2007, southern
Sudan reported 12,000 meningitis cases. Currently health organizations working in Sudan have stockpiled 500,000 vaccines in
case an outbreak occurs.
The Health Care System
Although many efforts have been made to improve the health
care system, there are few services whether in government or
non-government controlled areas. The government-controlled
health network is arranged into three tiers. The first tier provides primary healthcare units, dressing stations, dispensaries,
and health centers that include labs and X-ray units, but no
in-patient ward. The second level has two separate parts. One
component is rural hospitals and the other consists of specialized and teaching hospitals that offer more developed services.
About 95 percent of all facilities are of the primary level category, whereas the two higher levels make up only about 5
percent of the health care network.
The Plight of Women and Children
An African proverb says: When two elephants fight, it is the
grass that suffers. For most practical purposes, women and
children are the grass that suffers from Sudans unending
conflicts and wars. Typically, they are the ones who are most
affected by hostilities. In Darfur, for example, the Janjaweed use
rape as a weapon of war. Yet President Omar al-Bashir denies
this, saying that rape is unknown to the people and culture of
Sudan or Darfur. Therefore, it does not exist, simply because
the countrys president denies its existence!
Women are commonly victims of sexual and gender-based
violence, especially in conflict zones. Unfortunately for these
victims, it is a cultural taboo to discuss rape. In fact, many

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victims are shamed by their families if they report being raped.
It also has been reported that in Darfur, many women have
mental health problems. A recent study revealed that many
displaced women in south Darfur and western Sudan suffer
from depression and experience suicidal thoughts. In addition,
displaced women suffer from many health problems due to
general neglect. They have high pregnancy rates, poor health
services while they are pregnant, and high rates of childbirth
with no skilled attendants. As a result, the region has an alarmingly high infant mortality rate.
A 2003 demographic health survey of Sudan revealed that
nearly two-thirds of all girls between the ages of 9 and 13 in
rural areas are married. Many young girls are forced to marry
at an early age because their poor families need some sort
of income. One tragic result of this practice is that in 2008,
southern Sudan had the worlds highest pregnancy-related
death rate.
Sharia and Sudanese Life
Sudan has been in the news recently because of Sharia enforcement issues. Here, two examples are cited that have gained
international attention. They illustrate how strict the law is and
why many people, particularly non-Muslims in Muslim dominated countries, oppose the imposition of Sharia.
Forbidden Slacks
In July 2009, Lubna al-Hussein and 12 other Sudanese women
were arrested for wearing slacks in public. Ten of the women
immediately pled guilty to the crime, were given 10 lashes,
and released. Al-Hussein requested a trial. As a journalist for
the United Nations, she was in a position to publicize her case,
which rapidly gained international attention. A judge found
al-Hussein guilty of violating Sudans decency laws. But faced
with a mounting international public outcry, he imposed
a fine the equivalent of about US$200, but spared up to 40

Living in Sudan Today

Sudanese journalist Lubna Ahmed al-Hussein (center) leaves the court

after a final hearing in the trousers case on September 7, 2009. AlHussein had been arrested with 12 other women for wearing pants
in a Khartoum restaurant in July. She was spared a whipping but was
fined 500 Sudanese pounds ($200). The journalist commented that she
would rather go to jail than pay the fine.

lashes that could have been administered in accordance with

Islamic law.
Islamic law calls for women to dress modestly, but the law is
vague. According to Article 152 of Sudans penal code, anyone
who commits an indecent act which violates public morality
or wears indecent clothing [emphasis the authors] can be fined
and lashed up to 40 times. The strict law was implemented in
1991 by President al-Bashir, two years after he took power in an
Islamic fundamentalist-inspired coup.
At the hearing, dozens of men in traditional Muslim clothing confronted about 150 of Husseins mostly female supporters. As the women chanted No to whipping! the men shouted

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that women in trousers were prostitutes and demanded harsh
punishment for al-Hussein. Riot police intervened and about
40 women were arrested and later released. At least one woman
was taken to the hospital after being beaten.
As you can imagine, al-Husseins case has gained international attention from many groups, including those that promote womens right. What would you do if you were arrested
for being female and wearing your favorite pair of jeans? Would
you admit to guilt (in the existing system), and simply pay the
fine, take your flogging, or go to jail? Or would you fight for
what you believe to be your rights?
Wrong Name for a Teddy Bear
Recently, a British schoolteacher faced up to 40 lashes and six
months in prison for allowing her students to name a class teddy
bear Muhammad. Authorities said that naming a stuffed animal Muhammad was an insult to Islam. It all began in September
2007 when Gillian Gibbons, who taught at one of Sudans most
exclusive private schools, began a project on animals.
As part of the project, she asked the class to name a teddy
bear. Almost unanimously, the class decided upon Muhammad, one of the most common names in the Muslim world
and the name of Islams holy prophet. As part of the exercise,
Gibbons told her students to take the bear home, photograph
it, and write a diary entry about it. The entries were collected in
a book called My Name Is Muhammad. Most of her students
were Muslim children from wealthy Sudanese families. When
some parents saw the book, however, they complained to the
government, insisting that naming a toy animal Muhammad
was an insult to the prophet. When convicted, thousands of
Sudanese took to the streets of Khartoum demanding death
to the teacher who, they believed, had insulted Islam. But after
being sentenced to 15 days in jail, however, she was pardoned
by President al-Bashir.

Living in Sudan Today

The Landmine Problem
Sudans never-ending wars have left a legacy of dangerous and
often deadly landmines. The problem began as early as World
War II. Most landmines in the north were laid when the British
and Germans were fighting in the border area between Sudan
and Libya and Egypt. Unfortunately, those mines were not
removed and today, nearly seven decades later, they continue
to kill nomadic people and livestock. Recent conflicts have only
added to the landmine problem. In the south, mines have killed
many people since the war ended in 2005. Officials claim that
the government is committed to the extraction of landmines
in the area. But it is unable to cover the entire area because of
the cost and lack of funds. Sadly, because culture and traditions
dictate that women work on farms, most landmine victims are
female.
A 1997 landmine assessment by a branch of the U.N. found
that landmines and explosives pose a threat in about one-third
of Sudan. Southern Sudan alone had an estimated 500,000 to 2
million landmines. In fact, the government estimates that there
are two landmines for each person in southern Sudan! By 2010,
Sudan counted more than 700,000 amputees from mines and
similar explosives.
Despite the removal of tens of thousands of the deadly
devices, in 2009 it was estimated that some 2 million landmines
remain. They pose a threat in an area of about 40,000 square
miles (100,000 sq km). Four large areas of the country have
huge landmine problemsthe south, southwest, southeast,
and northwest. Despite the ongoing efforts to de-mine, the
problem remains very serious. The de-mining effort is poorly
funded and faces many obstacles. Although large areas have
been cleared, some areas such as Darfur are being replanted
with the deadly devices. Additionally, wind and water move
mines around, and records of which areas have been cleared are
out of date and unreliable.

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Farmers and shepherds throughout the country are primary targets of Sudans landmines. Passable roads have been
major targets for planting mines and continue to be in Darfur.
Mines are also placed under fruit trees and by scarce water
sources. Many times the mines are not even buried in the soil:
They are placed among tufts of thick grass or wrapped in plastic bags and set in shallow pools or streams.
The threat of landmines makes life in Sudan unpredictable. Do you stay on the grass or on the road? Do you avoid the
forests, the fields, or the streams? There are no right answers
in Sudan. Consequently, the threat of disability or death from
landmines has left rural populations, including farmers and
herders, confused, frightened, and often inactive. Humans
are not the only victims of Sudans landmines. Animals also
are affected by them. It is estimated that landmines kill an
estimated 200 to 400 cows every day. As a result, livestock
populations have declined. This is particularly troubling in a
country where personal wealth and status is often determined
by the size and well-being of ones livestock. Landmines have
also affected the regions natural environment. Much of the
wildlife, for example, has either been killed or has fled the
region.
Female De-miners
Clearing the landmines is a difficult and very dangerous task
performed only by very brave people. De-miners face serious
injury or even death from their activities. One might think that
only real macho men would work as de-miners. In Sudan,
however, women do much of the de-mining. As you can imagine, the work is dangerous and extremely demanding. Most of
it is done by teams, many of which are composed entirely of
females. Team members work in shifts of perhaps 45 minutes
to an hour in the scorching sun while wearing a heavy protective vest. While working, they wear thick face shields that make
it impossible to drink water until their welcome break. They

Living in Sudan Today

In 2005, training for the first female de-mining team in Sudan began.
They have had to struggle to convince others they can do the job,
which is regarded by many as a role for a man. Clearing landmines,
especially in one of the most dangerous regions in the nation, Mile38,
is hard work but the work of providing communities with land for
agriculture and trade is worth the effort.

walk along the ground slowly, searching every inch of ground

to ensure that it is safe.
Quality of Life Determined Today
by Geography
To summarize living in Sudan today, the quality of life very
much depends upon where you liveyour geography. If
you live in the north, life may be fine. You worry about the
effects of drought, but you live in relative peace and security.
This is particularly true if you are a Muslim. If you live in the
south, however, your life is unpredictable. Violence, limited

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transportation and communication facilities, limited public
services, and grinding poverty all present challenges. If you
live in one of Darfurs refugee camps, life is almost unbearable.
There are severe food shortages, poor sanitation conditions,
and the constant fear of violence and crime. In Sudan, geographylocation, location, locationreally does matter!
Khartoum and Omdurman
The twin cities of Khartoum and Omdurman form Sudans
population, political, economic, and cultural core. Khartoum is
the national capital, but Omdurman is the countrys largest city,
with an estimated population of 3 million. Originally established
in 1884 as a military headquarters, Omdurman grew rapidly
as an unplanned town of adobe (mud) houses. Today, it is a
major commercial center. The Islamic University of Omdurman,
founded in 1912, is widely known and respected.
Khartoum was founded in 1821 as an outpost for the Egyptian military. It became a major regional trading center and
Sudans capital when independence was gained in 1956. The
estimated population of Khartoum in 2009 was about 2.2 million, with a total of around 8 million living in the immediate
surrounding areas (which includes Omdurman).
Other important northern cities include Port Sudan, the
countrys chief seaport located on the Red Sea. The city is linked
to Khartoum by both highway and railroad. Kassala, located east
of Khartoum near the border with Eritrea, is an important agricultural area, with cotton being the major crop. It, too, is linked
to Khartoum by both highway and rail linkages.
Juba and Waw
Juba is a city of about 250,000 and the regional capital of
southern Sudan. Surprisingly, Juba is not linked to the north
by either railroad or improved highway. Instead, it has much
closer ties to neighboring Kenya, Uganda, and the Democratic
Republic of the Congo. Today Juba is a commercial center for

Living in Sudan Today

Khartoum (which means end of an elephants trunk in Arabic) serves

as the political, cultural, and economic capital of Sudan. It is located
at the meeting point of the White Nile and the Blue Nile. The city has
a thriving economy, with several projects taking place, including the
construction of a new airport, five hotels, and the $4 billion Al-Mogran
Development Project.

tobacco, coffee, and chilies. Its location on the Nile and road
connections with outlying areas have helped it become a commercial center for the surrounding agricultural areas.
Other major cities of the south include Nimule, located on
the border with Uganda and on the Nile, and Bor, located north
of Juba along the Nile. Malakal is a city located in east-central
Sudan in the As Sudd marsh. The west-central city of Nyala is a
road and railway terminus and a safe haven for Darfur refugees.
Will Peace Last?
The peace deal signed by the north and south in January 2005
brought a period of relative calm and stability to the region

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Sudan
despite recent scattered violence. About 2 million displaced
people have returned to south Sudan. They hope to rebuild
their lives and play a part in creating a new country. Most residents of Akobo and elsewhere in the south do not want southern Sudan to remain joined to the north. Life continues to be
hard in southern Sudan and development lags far behind that
in the north. For example, south Sudan is the size of Texas or
Canadas Alberta Province, yet it has only 12.5 miles (20 km) of
hard-surface roads! Transportation is either by boat along the
Nile and its tributaries, or along dirt roads that become impassible during the rainy season. The UN peacekeeping force there,
one of the biggest in the world, travels by plane or helicopter.
For most Sudanese, particularly those in the south, life today
continues to be difficult and uncertain. The situation in Darfur remains chaotic, with widespread human suffering. A vast
cultural chasm continues to separate north and south. The gap
includes government influence and services, economic opportunity, language, religious following, and human well-being.

8
Sudan
Looks Ahead

oday, life in Sudan is changing for most people, and many of

the changes are for the best. Nomads are settling down, with
many of them becoming farmers. Many rural people, including some former nomads, are moving to the cities. Only about 4 of
10 Sudanese live in urban places today, but the urban population is
growing rapidly. The way of life experienced by city people is often
much better than that of their rural counterparts. This is particularly
true in extremely poor countries and lands torn apart by conflict.
Unfortunately, Sudans government continues its longstanding
tradition of being quite flawed, and 21 years of civil war and the
current conflict in Darfur certainly have imposed a huge social and
economic burden on the country and its people. The government
still denies aiding the Janjaweed in its widespread atrocities, including
rape and murder.

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Sudan
Nonetheless, new development programs have begun to
encourage investments and generate revenue for the Sudanese
people. Ever-increasing amounts of time and money are
being poured into humanitarian efforts. Optimism is growing
because Sudan has so many natural resources, including huge
deposits of oil and natural gas. Throughout its history as a selfgoverning country, Sudans government officials have endured
many hardships to maintain the country as an Islamic state.
Unfortunately, ever-increasing amounts of corruption have
failed to bring Sudan into an Islamic state of being.
The Future of Sudans Economy
There is no doubt that Sudans economy has suffered many
setbacks, resulting in the country being impoverished. Two
decades of bitter civil war in the south, followed by the Darfur conflict, have taken a severe toll on economic activity. The
country lacks an adequate transportation and communication
infrastructure. This is true even in many urban areas. Much
of the population continues to rely on subsistence agriculture
and a largely self-sustaining barter economy. These issues and
others ensure that much of Sudans population will remain at
or below the poverty line for years.
Nonetheless, Sudans average per capita income is rising
rapidly. Sudan began exporting crude oil in the last quarter of
1999, resulting in a huge boost to the countrys gross domestic product. However, not everyone is enjoying the fruit of
Sudans newfound prosperity. Most of the benefits find their
way to Khartoum and the 8 million people living in its metropolitan area.
Politics and Peace
Sudans peace process has gained some momentum. Much of
the progress is the result of the U.S. peace proposal begun in
2001 by John Danforth, former President George W. Bushs
special envoy for peace in Sudan. Previous initiatives in 1992,

Sudan Looks Ahead

Modern Khartoum caters to the expatriate (foreign) communities

and wealthy locals. New cafs, ice cream parlors, and restaurants are
continually being opened as well as centers to get together, like sailing
clubs and international clubs. Still, it is important to remember that
northern Sudan is governed by Sharia law and is very strict.

1994, and 1998 sought to end the conflict, yet failed to achieve
lasting peace for Sudan.
However, the recent U.S. involvement in the search for
peace in Sudan has brought some hope. In addition to the
U.S. efforts, the Swiss negotiated a ceasefire agreement for the
conflict in the Nuba Mountain region. The British government
has also become involved. There are also intensive diplomatic
efforts and activities by other European countries, such as Norway. Several African countries also are involved in the effort to
bring peace to Sudan. We can only hope that all these efforts
will lead to a just and lasting end of hostilities.
Sudan is the largest country in Africa and a nation of tremendous diversity in terms of its culture, including religion,

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Sudan
ethnicity, and languages. In order to accommodate these
diverse elements, the aspirations and demands of many different peoples must be met. That, in itself, is a tall order. The
responsibility falls to the Sudanese people to explore remedies
for the underlying root causes of the conflict that has divided
them for so long.
One such solution is a genuine constitution that will
embrace all Sudanese regardless of their culture, including
language, religion, social orientation, or ethnic origin. As a
result of the widespread diversity, there is a need for a much
more equal distribution of power. Different ethnic groups,
for example, must be allowed to exercise a greater degree of
self-governance. The governments that have ruled Sudan since
independence have tried various forms of governance. They
have ranged from military dictatorships to democratic regimes.
Yet none of them have been successful.
The repeated failures can be attributed to the fact that
power has always remained with the central government,
despite promises of decentralization and federation. This may
be due to the lack of political leaders who speak for the desires
and aspirations of all people of Sudan, rather than their own
self-interests. If unity is to be achieved for Sudan, there is a
genuine need for a unitary constitution that will encourage a
strong democratic political environment. More importantly,
this unifying constitution needs to enshrine the ideals and
aspirations of all the people. The Sudanese government needs
to take steps to ensure that all of the regions obtain their share
of power and an equal share of the economic development and
wealth of the nation. This will be a huge catalyst for providing
greater self-rule for Sudanese in all parts of the country.
Improving the quality of the educational system and ensuring universal access to education for all Sudanese children
is vitally important. Fortunately, this is the focus of several
ongoing projects. One such project, sponsored by the Department for International Development (DFID), is called Rewrite

Sudan Looks Ahead

Pictured, two friends in Sudan. One is African, the other is Arabicboth

are Sudanese.

the Future. Run by the organization Save the Children and

backed by DFID funding, the project provides schools for
children who might otherwise be unablefor a variety of
reasonsto pursue an education. Such groups include girls,
disabled children, and former child soldiers. The project seeks
to train more teachers to a professional standard and to get parents to fully support and encourage their childrens education.
Teacher training has seen thousands of people, including both
women and men, acquire the skills to help unschooled children
catch up on years of missed lessons.
To change parental attitudes, each participating school has
set up special volunteer groups. The group participants go out
into local communities and spread a message about how lifechanging an education can be. The project uses special methods to squeeze eight years of education into four. Following

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Sudan
their successful use by Save the Children, the government of
southern Sudan is now using these special education methods
on a wider scale. Thanks to the project, total enrollment for
both formal and nonformal education more than doubled
from 2006 to 2007, from about 32,000 to more than 66,000.
Girls enrollment increased from nearly 12,000 to about 20,000
during this same period.
The United Nations ranks countries in a human development index (HDI). The ranking compares countries in terms of
education and literacy, as well as life expectancy and standard of
living. Sudan is ranked 150 among the 182 countries included in
the listing. During recent years, its position has improved, but,
obviously, the country still has a long way to go.
Sudan has experienced some positive recent developments.
For example, it has improved relations with its neighbors,
mainly Egypt and Libya, and mutual cooperation agreements
have been signed with these countries. Sudans focus on these
policies, combined with more oil exploration and extraction,
are the most encouraging trends for the future.
As we leave Sudan, think about its huge potential. Think
about a country rich in oil, that supports universal education,
wants to provide quality health care for all, and seeks to guarantee peace, security, and human rights to all of its citizens.
Think about a country where children run around and play
freelywithout fear of landmines, rape, or violence. Think
about a country that lives peacefully with its neighbors, with no
refugees or displaced people. While dreaming about all these
possibilities, remember and hope for the children of Darfur.

Facts at a Glance
Note: All data 2009 unless otherwise indicated
Physical Geography

Location Northeastern Africa, bordering the Red Sea

Area 967,500 square miles (2,505,813 square kilometers),
slightly more than one-quarter the size of the United
States
Boundaries Border countries: Central African Republic, 723 miles
(1,165 km); Chad, 845 miles (1,360 km); Democratic
Republic of the Congo, 390 miles (628 km); Egypt, 791
miles (1,273 km); Eritrea, 375 miles (605 km); Ethiopia,
997 miles (1,606 km); Kenya, 144 miles (232 km);
Libya, 237 miles (383 km); Uganda, 270 miles (435 km)
Coastline 530 miles (853 km)
Climate Tropical in south; arid desert in north; rainy season varies by region
Terrain Mainly flat, featureless plain; mountains in far south,
northeast and west; desert dominates the north
Elevation Extremes Lowest point: Red Sea, 0 meters; highest point: Mount
Kinyeti, 10,456 feet (3,187 m)
Land Use Arable land: 6.78%; permanent crops: 0.17%; other:
93.05% (2005)
Irrigated Land 11,576 square miles (18,630 sq km) (2003)
Natural Hazards Dust storms and periodic persistent droughts
Natural Resources Petroleum; small reserves of iron ore, copper, chromium ore, zinc, tungsten, mica, silver, gold, hydropower
Environmental Issues Inadequate supplies of potable water; wildlife populations threatened by excessive hunting; soil erosion;
desertification; periodic drought

People

Population 41,087,825

Population Growth Rate 2.14%

Net Migration Rate 0.63 migrant(s)/1,000 population
Fertility Rate 4.48 children/woman

Birth Rate 33.74 births/1,000 population

Death Rate 12.94 deaths/1,000 population

Life Expectancy Total population: 51.42 years; male:


at Birth 50.49 years; female: 52.4 years
Median Age Total: 19.1 years; male: 18.9; female: 19.2

117

Facts at a Glance

Ethnic Groups Black, 52%; Arab, 39%; Beja, 6%; foreigners, 2%; other,
1%
Religions Sunni Muslim, 70% (in north); Christian, 5% (mostly in
south and Khartoum); indigenous beliefs, 25%
Languages Arabic (official), English (official), Nubian, Ta Bedawie,
diverse dialects of Nilotic, Nilo-Hamitic, Sudanic languages
Literacy (Age 15 and over who can read and write) Total population: 61.1% (male: 71.8%; female: 50.5%) (2003 est.)

Economy

Currency


GDP Purchasing

Power Parity (PPP)

GDP Per Capita

Labor Force

Unemployment
Labor Force by Occupation

Sudanese pound

$88.08 billion (2008 est.)

$2,200 (2008)
11.92 million (2007 est.)
18.7% (2002 est.)
Agriculture: 80%; industry: 7%; services: 13% (1998
est.)
Agricultural Products Cotton, groundnuts (peanuts), sorghum, millet, wheat,
gum arabic, sugarcane, cassava (tapioca), mangos,
papaya, bananas, sweet potatoes, sesame, sheep, livestock
Industries Oil, cotton ginning, textiles, cement, edible oils, sugar,
soap distilling, shoes, petroleum refining, pharmaceuticals, armaments, automobile/light truck assembly
Exports $12.15 billion (2008 est.)
Imports
$9.339 billion (2008 est.)
Leading Trade Partners Exports: China, 56.3%; Japan, 30%; Indonesia, 4.9%
(2008). Imports: China, 24.9%, Saudi Arabia, 8%, UAE,
5.9%, India, 5.8%, Egypt, 5.3% (2008)
Export Commodities Oil and petroleum products, cotton, sesame, livestock,
groundnuts, gum arabic, sugar
Import Commodities Foodstuffs, manufactured goods, refinery and transport
equipment, medicines and chemicals, textiles, wheat
Transportation Roadways: 7,394 miles (11,900 km), 2,684 miles
(4,320km) is paved; railways: 3,715 miles (5,978 km);
airports: 121 (19 with paved runways); waterways:
2,527 miles (4,068 km, of which 1,723 km is open yearround on White and Blue Nile rivers) (2008)

118

Government
Country Name Conventional long form: Republic of the Sudan; conventional short form: Sudan; local long form: Jumhuriyat
as-Sudan; local short form: As-Sudan
Capital Khartoum
Type of Government Government of National Unity
Head of Government President Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir (since October
16, 1993)
Independence January 1, 1956
Administrative Divisions 25 states

Communication

TV Stations
Radio Stations
Phones
Internet Users

3 (1997)
14 (AM: 12; FM: 1; shortwave: 1) (1998)
356,100 main lines; 11.186 million cell phones (2008)
4.2 million (2008)

119

History at a Glance

b.c.
<1 million years
2600 b.c.a.d. 350
a.d.
700s
1500s

1874
18981955

1956
1958

1962

1964

1969
1971

1972

1978
1983

1983
1985

1989

1993

1998

Early humans pass through what is now Sudan.

An Egyptian and Nubian civilization called Kush flourishes.
Christianity and Islam both introduced.
People called the Funj conquer much of Sudan, and
several other black African groups, including the Dinka,
Shilluk, Nuer, and Azande, settle in the south.
Egypt conquers Sudan.
Great Britain and Egypt rule Sudan as the AngloEgyptian Sudan.
Sudan gains independence from Great Britain.
General Ibrahim Abboud leads military coup against the
civilian government elected earlier in the year.
Civil war begins in the south, led by the Anya Nya
movement.
The October Revolution overthrows Abboud and a
national government is established.
Jafar Nimeiri leads the May Revolution military coup.
Sudanese Communist Party leaders executed after
short-lived coup against Nimeiri.
Under the Addis Ababa peace agreement between the
government and the Anya Nya, the south becomes a
self-governing region.
Oil is discovered in Bentiu in southern Sudan.
Civil war breaks out again in the south, involving
government forces and the Sudan Peoples Liberation
Movement (SPLM), led by John Garang.
President Nimeiri imposes Islamic law (Sharia).
After widespread popular unrest, Nimeiri is overthrown
by a group of officers; a Transitional Military Council is
set up to rule the country.
National Salvation Revolution takes over in a military
coup.
Revolution Command Council dissolved after Omar alBashir is appointed president.
U.S. launches missile attack on a pharmaceutical plant
in Khartoum, alleging that it was making materials for
chemical weapons. New constitution endorsed by more
than 96 percent of voters in referendum.

120

1999 Sudan begins to export oil.

2000 Incumbent President al-Bashir is re-elected for another
five-year term.
2001 United States extends unilateral sanctions against Sudan
for another year, citing its record on terrorism and
human rights violations.
2002 Talks in Kenya lead to a breakthrough agreement
between the government and southern rebels on ending the 19-year civil war. The Machakos Protocol provides for the south to seek self-determination after six
years.
2003 In February, rebels in western region of Darfur rise
up against government, claiming the region is being
neglected by Khartoum.
2004 Army moves to stop rebel uprising in western region
of Darfur; hundreds of thousands of refugees flee to
neighboring Chad. UN official says pro-government
Arab Janjaweed militias are carrying out planned killings of African villagers in Darfur.
2005 Government and southern rebels sign a peace deal,
which includes a permanent ceasefire and agreements
on wealth and power sharing, including oil resources.
Power-sharing government is formed in Khartoum.
Autonomous government is formed in the south.
2006 Sudan rejects a UN resolution calling for a UN peacekeeping force in Darfur, saying it would compromise
sovereignty.
2007 Sudan agrees to allow some UN troops to reinforce
African Union peacekeepers in Darfur. U.S. president
George W. Bush announces fresh sanctions against
Sudan. UN Security Council approves a resolution
authorizing a 26,000-strong force for Darfur. Sudan says
it will cooperate with the joint UN-African Union mission in Darfur.
2008 UN takes over Darfur peace force. The International
Criminal Courts top prosecutor calls for the arrest of
President al-Bashir for genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes in Darfur; the appeal is the first ever
request to the ICC for the arrest of a sitting head of
state. Sudan rejects the charges.

121

History at a Glance
President al-Bashir announces an immediate ceasefire
in Darfur, but the regions two main rebel groups reject
the move, saying they will fight on until the government
agrees to share power and wealth in the region.
2009 The International Criminal Court in The Hague issues an

arrest warrant for President Omar al-Bashir on charges
of war crimes and crimes against humanity in Darfur.

122

Bibliography
Aryeetey-Attoh, S. ed. Geography of Sub-Saharan Africa. 2nd ed. Upper
Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education, 2003.
Chapin Metz, Helen, ed. Sudan: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the
Library of Congress, 1991.
Ferrett, Grant. One Teacher to 100 Pupils, BBC News, August 6, 2009.
Available online. URL: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8184489.stm.
Herro, Alana. Desertification is Important Factor in Darfur Crisis.
Worldwatch Institute, June 4, 2006. Available online. URL: www.worldwatch.org/node/4087.
Iyob, R. and G. M. Khadiagala. Sudan: The Elusive Quest for Peace. Boulder,
Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2006.
Johnson, D. H. The Root Causes of Sudans Civil Wars. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 2003.
Jok, J. M. Sudan: Race, Religion, and Violence. Oxford, England: Oneworld
Publications, 2007.
Kebbede, G. Sudans Predicament: Civil War, displacement and ecological degradation. Brookfield, Vt.: Ashgate Press, 1999.
Oppong, J. R. Africa South of the Sahara. Philadelphia: Chelsea House
Publishers, 2005.
Pettersson, D. Inside Sudan: Political Islam, Conflict, and Catastrophe.
Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1999.
Warburg, Gabriel. Islam, Sectarianism, and Politics in Sudan since Mahdiyya.
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003.
Winter, Joseph. No Return for Sudans Forgotten Slaves, BBC News,
Southern Sudan, Available online. URL: http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr//2/hi/africa/6455365.stm.

123

Further Reading
Ajak, Benjamin, Benson Deng, et al. They Poured Fire on Us from the Sky:
The Story of Three Lost Boys from Sudan. New York: Public Affairs, 2005.
Bixler, M. The Lost Boys of Sudan: An American Story of the Refugee
Experience. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006.
Carney, Timothy, Victoria Butler, et al. Sudan: The Land and the People.
Seattle, Wash.: Marquand Books, 2005.
Clammer, Paul. Sudan: The Brandt Travel Guide. Chalfont St. Peter, Bucks,
UK: Brandt Travel Guides, 2005.
Di Piazza, F. D. Sudan in Pictures. Minneapolis, Minn.: 21st Century
Publishing, 2006.
Flint, J. and A. de Waal. Darfur: A New History of a Long War. African
Arguments. London: Zed Books, 2008.
Prunier, G. Darfur: A 21st Century Genocide. 3rd ed. Crises in World
Politics. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press: 2005.

Steidle, B. and G. S. Wallace. The Devil Came on Horseback: Bearing Witness

to the Genocide in Darfur. Jackson, Tenn.: Public Affairs, 2007.

Web sites
BBC News Online: Sudan Country Profile
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/820864.stm
CIA World FactbookSudan
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/su.html
CoolPlanet: Oxfam: SudanPeople and Society
http://www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/kidsweb/world/sudan/sudpeop.htm
Global Issues Sudan
http://www.globalissues.org/news/2009/10/06/3065
Human Rights Watch
http://www.hrw.org/africa/sudan
U.S. Department of State, Sudan
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2861.htm

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Picture Credits
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Infobase Publishing
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Infobase Publishing
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Christine Osborne Pictures/Alamy
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Picture Contact/Alamy
Michael Freeman/Corbis
Getty Images
The Print Collector/Alamy
Getty Images
Richard BakerSudan/Alamy
Nicholas Pitt/Alamy
Stephen Morrison/epa/Corbis
Richard Estall Photo Agency/Alamy
Getty Images
Getty Images
Newscom
Getty Images
Jack Maguire/Alamy
Getty Images
David Myers Photography/Alamy

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Index
Abboud, Ibrahim, 66
afterlife, belief in, 49
age structure, 39
agricultural ceremonies, 50
agricultural production, 9091
agriculture, 29, 30, 82
Ahfad University College, 54
al Qaeda, 1314, 71
al-Bashir, Omar. See Bashir, Omar alancestor worship, 50
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 64
animal life, 2829
animism, 4950
Arabic language, 12, 45
archaeological record, 62
area of Sudan, 9
art, 57
As Sudd wetlands, 22, 31
atmosphere, 2223
atmospheric pressure, 23
babies, 49, 52
Bashir, Omar alcharged with war crimes, 8, 14,
7374
coup by, 71, 78
on rape, 101
terrorism and, 7173
bin Laden, Osama, 13, 71
birth rates, 37, 102
Blue Nile, 3132, 87
Bol, Manute, 58
Bor, 109
British rule, 6465, 77
Bush, George W., 73, 112
bush meat, 29
centripetal and centrifugal forces,
5960
child marriage, 102
child rearing, 52
childbirth, 37, 49, 102
China, 8, 1617

Christianity
arrival of, 64
denominations, 50
missionaries, 50, 53, 64, 66
in southern Sudan, 50
Christmas, 57
civil war, 1112, 66, 7073
climate and weather, 2226
climate change and Darfur, 8183
climatic zones, 22
coffee, 55
constitutions, 65, 6667, 114
construction industry, 9293
convection cells, 26
cracking soils, 30
cultural change, 88
dams, 3132, 93
Danforth, John, 112
Darfur, population of, 44
Darfur crisis
overview, 12, 7576
causes of, 8081
centrifugal forces and, 60
climate change and, 8183
death rates from, 39
Janjaweed fighters and rebel
groups, 7880
rape, 101102
roots of, 7678
slavery and, 8385
death rates, 37, 3940
death traditions, 49
decency laws, 102104
deforestation, 3435, 83
demographics of well-being, 3840
Deng, Akech Arol, 83
Deng, Luol, 58
Department for International
Development (DFID), 114115
dervishes, 57
desert climate, 23
desert landscapes, 2627

126

Index
desertification, 3334
deserts, 2022
development
economic, 4344
human, 40
industrial, 92
displaced people, 13, 4142, 83
diversity in Sudan, 9, 76, 99
divorce, 51
Doctors without Border, 1516
droughts, 26, 70, 8182
dry season, 23
dust storms, 26

climate change and Darfur, 8183

deforestation, 3435, 83
desertification, 3334
droughts, 26, 70, 8182
ethnic groups, 4445
evil eye, 5051
exports, 96

economy
culture and economic change,
8889
future of, 112
gross domestic productpurchasing power parity (GDPPPP), 8990
history of, 87
imports, exports, and challenges,
9697
oil boom, 86, 9495
population growth rate and, 38
poverty, 8687, 9596
primary, secondary, and tertiary
industries, 9094
settlement and economic development, 4344
unequal prosperity, 9596
education, 40, 5354, 114116
Eid al-Adha (Festival of the Great
Sacrifice), 48, 5657
Eid ul-Fitr (Breaking of the Fast),
48, 57
English language, 45
environmental conditions. See physical landscapes and geography
environmental problems
animal habitats and, 29
causes of, 33

failed state, Sudan as, 14

fakis, 48
families, extended, 5152
farming, 29, 30, 82, 9091
fasting, 47
fauna, 2829
Federal Party, 65
federalism, 65
fertility, 38
fire, 28
Five Pillars of Islam, 4648
flash floods, 25
food and dining, 5456
football (soccer), 5859, 60
Fur-Arab War, 78, 81
Gadhafi (Qaddafi), Moammar al-,
78
Gai, Deng, 58
Garang, John, 70, 73
genocide, 80
geographic location, 911
geography, physical. See physical
landscapes and geography
Gibbons, Gillian, 104
greetings, 49
Grodon Memorial College, 53
gross domestic productpurchasing power parity (GDP-PPP),
8990
haboobs (dust storms), 26, 34
Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), 47, 48
health care system, 101
health issues, 99101
highlands, 1920

127

Index
hills, 20
history and politics
Al-Mahdi, reelection of, 70
Al-Mahdi and Islamic
Constitution, 6667
ancient history, 6162
British rule, 6465
changes in government, 1213
Christianity and Islam, arrival of,
64
civil war, 1112, 66, 7073
Darfur history, 77
early empires, 20, 6263, 87
independence, 65
military rule under Colonel
Nimeiri, 6770
military rule under General
Abboud, 66
military rule under General alBashir, 7174
SPLM vs. NIF, 7073
holidays, 48, 5657
hospitality, ritual of, 55
human development, 40
Human Development Index (HDI),
40, 87, 116
human origins and Sudan, 6162
Human Poverty Index (HPI-1),
8687
humanitarian assistance
in Darfur, 7576
Doctors without Border and,
16
expulsion of aid groups, 73
need for, 13
Hussein, Lubna al-, 102104
Imatone Range, 19
imports, 96
independence of Sudan, 65
industrial development, 92
infant mortality, 3940
inheritance, 52

International Criminal Court (ICC),

8, 14, 73, 74
Islam. See also Sharia (Islamic law)
arrival and spread of, 64
khalwa (Islamic schools), 53
music and, 57
in northern Sudan, 12
practice of, in Sudan, 4649
Islamic Charter Front (ICF), 6667
Islamic Law. See Sharia
Janjaweed fighters, 7880, 101, 111
Jebal Marrah, 20
Jebel Barkal, 20
Jebel Erba, 20
Jebena Sudanese, 55
Jonglei Canal, 31
Juba, 24, 26, 69, 108109
Juba Conference (1947), 65
Justice and Equality Movement
(JEM), 7980
Khalifa, Sirr al-Khatim al-, 66
khalwa (Islamic schools), 53
Khartoum
overview, 108
as modern, 9899
Nile River and, 87
population, 44
rainfall in, 25
temperatures and climate in, 24
universities in, 5354
kin groups, 52
Kinyeti, Mount, 19
Koran, 48
Kush, Kingdom of, 20, 63, 87
land features, 1922
landmines, 8, 1416, 104107
languages, 12, 45
latitude, 22
law, Islamic. See Sharia
(Islamic law)
Libyan Desert, 20

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Index
civil war, 1112, 66, 7073
cultural diversity, 99
ethnic divide, 45
quality of life and, 107108
unequal prosperity, 9596
Nubian Desert, 20
Nubian empires, 87
Nyala, 109

life expectancy, 3839

lowlands, 2022
Machakos Protocol, 73
Mahdi, Sadiq al-, 6667, 70, 71
Mahjub, Muhammad Ahmad, 66
Malakal, 109
malaria, 100
manufacturing, 92
marriage, 48, 5152, 102
Matthews-Jouda, Todd, 58
mechanized agricultural group, 82
meningitis, 100101
Meroe, 63, 87
Meroe Dam, 32, 93
migration, 38, 4042, 45, 83
missionaries, Christian, 50, 53, 64,
66
mosques, 4849
mourning, 49
muezzins, 48
multi-nation states and multi-state
nations, 59, 60
music, 57

oil boom, 86, 9495

oil resources, 1617, 33, 6869
Omdurman, 108

National Islamic Front (NIF), 70, 71

nations, 59
natural resources, 1617, 3233,
6869
neighboring countries, 11, 42, 62,
116
New Forces Congress (NFC), 6667
Nile River
control over, 69
Khartoum and, 44, 87
Meroe Dam, 32, 93
as water feature, 3032
Nimeiri, Jafar, 6770
Nimule, 109
nomadic herding, 82, 91
north-south polarization and conflict
British rule and, 6465

peace process, 109110, 112114

petroleum (oil) resources, 1617, 33,
6869
physical landscapes and geography
land features, 1922
natural resources, 3233
soils, 2930
variation in, 1819
vegetation, 2628
water features, 3032
weather and climate, 2226
pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj), 47, 48
politics. See history and politics
polygamy, 51
population, 37
population change, 33, 34, 3738
population distribution, 44
population pyramids, 39
Port Sudan, 9, 32, 92, 108
poverty, 8687, 9596
prayer, 4647, 49
precipitation (rainfall), 23, 2526, 30
primary industries, 9092
pull forces, 4041
push forces, 41
Qaddafi (Gadhafi), Moammar al-,
78
rainfall, 23, 2526, 30
Ramadan, 47, 48

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Index
rape, 101102
rate of natural (population) change
(RNI), 3738
recipes, 5556
Red Sea, 9, 3233
refugee camps, 42
refugees, 13, 42, 70
Regional Self-Government Act, 68
religion. See also Christianity; Islam
animism, 4950
arrival of Christianity and Islam
in Sudan, 64
babies, rituals for protection of,
52
diversity and differences, 9, 4546
Revolutionary Command Council,
67
Rewrite the Future project, 114115
rivers, 19, 3032
Sahara Desert, 20, 26
Sahel region, 3334
Salat (prayer), 4647, 49
sanitary conditions, 3940
savanna landscape, 2728
Save the Children, 115116
schools, 5354
scorched earth campaigns, 83
secondary industries, 9293
semidesert belt, 27
September Laws, 70
service industries, 9394
settlement, 4344
Shahada (profession of faith), 46
shamans, 46
Sharia (Islamic law)
constitutions and, 65
enforcement issues, 102104
imposition of, 70
inheritance under, 52
music and poetry under, 57
sheiks, 48
size of Sudan, 9

slacks, forbidden, 102104

slavery, 41, 77, 8385, 87
soils, 2930
Sokoor Al-Jediane (Desert
Hawks), 5859, 60
south vs. north. See north-south
polarization and conflict
Southern Regional Government, 68
Southern Sudan Liberation
Movement (SSLM), 68
sports, 5859
Sudan, region vs. country, 17
Sudan African Nationalist Union
(SANU), 6667
Sudan Liberation Army (SLA),
7980
Sudan Peoples Liberation Army
(SPLA), 70, 73
Sudan Peoples Liberation
Movement (SPLM), 70, 71, 73,
99
Sudanese Socialist Union, 68
superstitions, 5051
teddy bear controversy, 104
temperatures, 2425
terrorism, 1314, 71, 73
tertiary industries, 9394
total fertility rate (TFR), 38
trees, pyrophytic, 28
tribal groups, 44
tropics, 22
tuberculosis (TB), 100
Turabi, Hassan al-, 70, 71
Umma Party, 70
unemployment and underemployment, 90
universities, 5354
vegetation, natural, 2628
violence, sexual and gender-based,
101102
wadis, 31

130

Index
water supply problems, 26
weather and climate, 2226
weddings, 48, 51
wet season, 23, 25
wetlands, 22
whirling dervishes, 57
White Nile, 31, 87

wildlife, 2829
women, 101102, 106107
Yambo, 2526
Zakat (the sharing of wealth), 47,
57

131

About the Contributors

Joseph R. Oppong is associate professor of geography at the University of
North Texas in Denton, and a native of Ghana. He has nearly two decades
of university teaching experience in Ghana, Canada, and the United
States. His research focuses on medical geography, the geography of disease and health care. Professor Oppong has authored numerous books
for the Chelsea House Modern World Nations and Major World
Cultures series. He also has served as chairperson of the Association of
American Geographers Special Interest Groups on both Africa and Medical Geography.

Series editor Charles F. Gritzner is Distinguished Professor of Geography Emeritus at South Dakota State University. He retired after 50 years
of college teaching and now looks forward to what he hopes to be many
more years of research and writing. Gritzner has served as both president
and executive director of the National Council for Geographic Education
and has received the councils highest honor, the George J. Miller Award
for Distinguished Service to Geographic Education, as well as other honors from the NCGE, the Association of American Geographers, and other
organizations.

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