Updated - EE3741 - L5 - Fault Analysis PDF

Fault analysis
Subject lecturer: Dr. XU Zhao

Department of Electrical Engineering
Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Email: eezhaoxu@polyu.edu.hk
Room: CF632
Tel: 27666160
outline
Symmetric fault analysis

Fault current limiting concept
Symmetric components and sequence networks
Unbalanced fault calculation(1 phL-G,L-L,
phL G L L double L
L-G)
G)
Electrical Engineering, HKPU
EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu
Fault Types
zThere are two main types of faults
Symmetric/balanced faults: system remains balanced; these
faults are relatively rare, but are the easiest to analyze so
well
ll consider
id them
h
fi
first.
Unsymmetric/unbalanced faults: system is no longer
balanced; very common, but more difficult to analyze
zThe most common type of fault on a three phase system

by far is the single line-to-ground (SLG), followed by the
line-to-line
line
to line faults (LL), double line
line-to-ground
to ground (DLG) faults,
and balanced three phase faults
Circuit representation of power system

faults
Fault causes
Line short circuit by small animals,
animals and vegetations due to e.g.
e g sag by
overloading: North America Mega blackout
Lightening event sequence
1.
Lighting hits line, setting up an ionized path to ground
z
30 million lightning strikes per year in US!
z
a single typical stroke might have 25,000
25 000 amps,
amps with a rise time
of 10 s, dissipated in 200 s.
z
multiple strokes can occur in a single flash, causing the lightning
to appear to flicker, with the total event lasting up to a second.
2.
Conduction path is maintained by ionized air after lightning stroke

energy has dissipated, resulting in high fault currents (often > 25,000
amps!)
Lightning Strike Sequence, contd
3.
Within one to two cycles (16 ms) relays at both ends of line detect
high currents, signaling circuit breakers to open the line
z
nearby locations see decreased voltages
4.
Circuit breakers open to de-energize line in an additional one to two

cycles
z
breaking tens of thousands of amps of fault current is no small
feat!
z
with line removed voltages usually return to near normal
5.
Circuit breakers may reclose after several seconds, trying to restore

faulted line to service
Fault Analysis
zFault
zF
lt currents
t cause equipment
i
t damage
d
due
d
to
t
both thermal and mechanical processes
zGoal of fault analysis is to determine the
magnitudes of the currents present during the
fault
need to determine the maximum current to insure
devices can survive the fault
need to determine the maximum current the circuit
breakers (CBs) need to interrupt to correctly size the
CBs
7
Transients in RL circuit
CB rating selection should account for not only steady
state current but also momentarily high current during
fault events
1 Steady-state
1.
Stead state current
c rrent component (from standard
phasor analysis)
i ac ( t ) =
where Z =
I ac =
2 V cos((t + )
Z
R 2 + ( L ) 2 =
R2 + X 2
V
Z
DC
component
AC
component
8
2 Exponentially decaying dc current component

2.
i dc (t ) = C1e
where T is the time constant, T = L R

The value of C1 is determined from the initial
conditions:
t
2V
i (0) = 0 = iac (t ) + i dc (t ) =
cos(t + Z ) + C1e T
Z
2V
C1 =
cos( Z ) which depends on
Z
Hence i(t) is a sinusoidal superimposed on a decaying

dc current. The magnitude of idc (0) depends on when
th switch
the
it h is
i closed.
l d For
F fault
f lt analysis
l i we're
' jjustt
2V
concerned with the worst case: C1 =
Z
i (t ) = i ac (t ) + idc (t )
i (t )
=
=
10
2V
2V t T
cos(t ) +
e
Z
Z
t
2V
(cos(t ) + e T )
Z
t
2V
The function i(t) =
(cos(t ) + e T ) is not periodic,
Z
so we can't't formally
f
ll define
d fi an RMS value.
l
H
However,
as an approximation define
I RMS (t ) =
=
2
2
iac
(t ) + idc
(t )
2
I ac
2t
2 T
+ 2 I ac e
This function has a maximum value of 3 I ac

Therefore the dc component is included simply by
multiplying the ac fault currents by 3
11
Generator model
Assumed
A
d knowledge
k
l d
about
b t basic
b i generator
t
modeling
Fault current contribution from energy
generation and storage devices like generators
Models of generators important for fault analysis
Thevenin equivalent model for generator/motor;
a constant voltage source plus a time varying
Xd
reactance
+
Ea
2 Ea' sin(t + )
12
VT
The time varying reactance is typically approximated

using three different values, each valid for a different
time period:
13
X"d
= direct-axis subtransient reactance
X d'
= direct-axis transient reactance
Xd
= direct-axis synchronous reactance
~2 cycles
~30 cycles
Generator Modeling, contd
For a balanced three

three-phase
phase fault on the generator
terminal the ac fault current is (see
(sinepage
source)
245)
iac (t ) =
1 1
1
+ '
e
X
Xd Xd
' d
2Ea
t "
1
1
Td
e
X " X '
d
d
Td'
sin( t + )
where
Td" = direct-axis subtransient time constant ( 0.035sec)
14
Td' = direct-axis transient time constant ( 1sec)

Generator Modeling, cont'd

The phasor current is then
I ac
1 1
1
+ '
e
X
Xd Xd
' d
= Ea
t "
1
1
Td
e
X " X '
d
d
Td'
The maximum DC offset is

2 Ea'
e
I DC (t ) =
"
Xd
TA
where TA is the armature time constant ( 0.2 seconds)

15
Generator Short Circuit Currents
16
Balanced iA+iB+iC=0
Generator Short Circuit Currents
17
Generator Short Circuit Example

zA 500 MVA
MVA, 20 kV,
kV 3 generator is operated with an internal
voltage of 1.05 pu. Assume a solid 3 fault occurs on the
generator's terminal and that the circuit breaker operates
after three cycles(60Hz system).
system) Determine the fault
current. Assume
X d" = 0.15,
X d' = 0.24,
Td" = 0.035
0 035 seconds,
d Td'
X d = 1.1 (all per unit)

= 2.0
2 0 seconds
d
TA = 0.2 seconds
18
Generator S.C. Example, cont'd

Substituting in the values
1 t 2.0
1 1
+
1.1 + 0.24 1.1 e
I ac (t ) = 1.05
t
1 1 e 0.035
0.15
0 15 0.24
0 24
I ac (0) = 1.05
= 7 p.u.
0.15
I base
500 106
= 14,433 A I ac (0) = 101,000 A
3
3 20 10
I DC (0) = 101 kA 2 e
19
0.2
= 143 k A I RMS (0) = 175 kA

Generator S.C. Example, cont'd

Evaluating at t = 0.05 seconds for breaker opening
1 0.05 2.0
1 1
+
1.1 + 0.24 1.1 e
I ac (0.05) = 1.05
0.05
1 1 e
0.035
0.15 0.24
I ac (0.05) = 70.8 kA
I DC (0.05) = 143 e
0.05
0.2
kA = 111 k A
I RMS (0.05
(
) = 70.82 + 1112 = 132 kkA
20
Network Fault Analysis Simplifications

z
To simplify
T
i
lif analysis
l i off ffault
lt currents
t in
i
networks we'll make several simplifications:
1 Transmission lines are represented by their series
1.
reactance, shunt reactance omitted
2. Transformers are represented by their leakage
reactance, mutuall reactance omitted
d
3. Synchronous machines are modeled as a constant
voltage behind direct
direct-axis
axis subtransient reactance
4. Induction motors are ignored or treated as
synchronous machines
5 Other
5.
O h (nonspinning)
(
i i ) lloads
d are iignored
d
21
Network Fault Example

For the following network assume a fault on the
terminal of the generator; all data is per unit
except for the transmission line reactance
generator has 1.05

terminal voltage &
supplies 100 MVA
with 0.95 lag pf
Convert to pper unit: X line

22
19.5
=
= 0.1 per
p unit
2
138
100
Network Fault Example, cont'd
Faulted network per unit diagram
To determine the fault current we need to first estimate

the internal voltages for the generator and motor
For the generator VT = 1.05, SG = 1.018.2
*
I Gen
23
1.018.2
=
= 0.952 18.2
1 05
1.05
E 'a = 1.1037.1
Network Fault Example, cont'd
The motor
motor'ss terminal voltage is then
1.050 - (0.9044 - j 0.2973) j 0.3 = 1.00 15.8
The motor's internal voltage is
1.00 15.8 ((0.9044 - j 0.2973)) j 0.2
= 1.008 26.6
W can then
We
th solve
l as a linear
li
circuit:
i it
1.1037.1 1.008 26.6
If =
+
j 0.15
j 0.5
= 7.353 82.9 + 2.016 116.6 = j 9.09
24
Fault Analysis Solution Techniques

z
z
Circuit models used during the fault allow the network to

be represented as a linear circuit
There are 3 main methods for solving for fault currents:
1 Simple method: use equivalent voltage source(assume
1.
rated operation conditions) at fault location, use
simplified network model (loads are not considered for
+/- networks),
networks)
(IEC60909/VDE0102)
2. Complete/Superposition: Fault is represented by two
opposing voltage sources; solve system by
superposition
first voltage just represents the pre-fault operating
point
second system only has a single voltage source
25
Superposition Approach
Faulted Condition
Exact Equivalent to Faulted Condition

Fault is represented
by two equal and
opposite voltage
sources, each
h with
ith
a magnitude equal
to the pre-fault voltage
26
Superposition Approach, contd

Since this is now a linear network
network, the faulted voltages
and currents are just the sum of the pre-fault conditions
[the (1) component] and the conditions with just a single
voltage
oltage source
so ce at the fault
fa lt location [the (2) component]
Pre-fault
P
f lt (1) componentt equall to
t the
th pre-fault
f lt
power flow solution
Obvious the
pre-fault
f lt current
fault
t
is zero!
27
Superposition Approach, contd

Fault (2) component due to a single voltage source
at the fault location, with a magnitude equal to the
negative of the pre-fault voltage at the fault location.
I g = I (1) + I g(2)
g
28
I m = I m(1) + I m(2)
( )
(2)
( )
((2))
I f = I (1)
+
I
=
0
+
I
f
f
f
Two Bus Superposition Solution
Before the fault we had E f = 11.05

050,
I (1) = 0.952 18.2 and I m(1) = 0.952 18.2
g
Solving for the (2) network we get

I g(2)
I m(2)
I (2)
f
Ef
1 050
1.05
=
=
= j7
j0.15
j0.15
E f 1.05
1 050
=
=
= j 2.1
j0.5
j0.5
= j 7 j 2.1 = j 9.1
I g = 0.952
0 952 18.2
18 2 j 7 = 77.35
35 82.9
82 9
29
This matches
what we calculated
earlier
Extension to Larger Systems
The superposition approach can be easily extended

to larger systems. Using the Ybus we have
Ybus V = I
For the second (2) system there is only one voltage
source so I is all zeros except at the fault location
#
0
I = I f
0
#
30
However to use this

pp
we need to
approach
first determine If
Determination of Fault Current
D fi the
Define
th bus
b impedance
i
d
matrix
t i Z bus as
1
Z bus =
Ybus
Z11
Then #
Z n1
V = Z busI
(2)
V
#
1
(2)
" Z1n 0
V
2
% # I f = #
(2)
" Z nn 0 V
n 1
# (2)
Vn
For a fault a bus i we g

get -If Zii = V f = Vi(1)
31
Determination of Fault Current
Hence
Vi(1)
If =
Zii
Where
Zii
driving point impedance
Zij (i j )
transfer point imepdance
Voltages during the fault are also found by superposition

Vi = Vi(1) + Vi(2)
32
Vi(1) are prefault values

Three Gen System Fault Example
For simplicity assume the system is unloaded

before the fault with
E g1 = Eg 2 = Eg 3 = 1.050
Hence all the prefault currents are zero.
33
Three Gen Example, contd
Ybus
0
15 10
= j 10 20 5
5 9
0
1
Zbus
34
0
15 10
= j 10 20 5
5 9
0
0 1088 00.0632
0632 0.0351
0 0351
0.1088
= j 0.0632 0.0947 0.0526
0.0351 0.0526 0.1409
1.05
1 05
For a fault at bus 1 we get I1 =
= j 9.6 = I f
j 0.1088
V
35
(2)
0 1088 0.0632
0 0632 0.0351
0 0351 j 99.6
6
0.1088
= j 0.0632 0.0947 0.0526 0
0.0351 0.0526 0.1409 0

1 050
1.05
= 0.600
0.3370
1.050 1.050 00
V = 1.050 + 0.6060 = 0.4440
1.050 0.3370 0.7130
36
Analysis of Unsymmetric Systems

zExcept for the balanced three
three-phase
phase fault,
fault faults result in an
unbalanced system.
zThe most common types of faults are single line-ground
(SLG) and
d li
line-line
li
(LL)
(LL). O
Other
h types are d
double
bl li
line-ground
d
(DLG), open conductor, and balanced three phase.
zSystem
y
is only
y unbalanced at point
p
of fault!
zThe easiest method to analyze unbalanced system operation
due to faults is through the use of symmetrical components
37
Symmetric Components
zMethod of symmetric components by C.
C F.
F Fortescue in 1918: an
unbalanced of n related phasor can be resolved into n systems of
balanced phasors called symmetric components of the original
phasors.
phasors
zThe key idea of symmetrical component analysis is to decompose
the system into three balanced (therefore per phase analysis can
still used as for symmetric analysis)sequence networks for
analysis . The networks are then coupled only at the point of the
unbalance (i.e., the fault)
zThe three sequence networks are known as the
positive sequence (this is the one weve been using)
negative sequence
zero sequence
38
Representation of symmetric components
39
40
41
42
43
44
e.g.
45
46
Sequence Impedances
The impedance offered to the flow of a sequence current creating
sequence voltages
positive, negative, and zero sequence impedances
Augmented network models
wye-connected balanced loads
transmission line
3-phase transformers
generators
47
Balanced load
48
Balanced load contd
49
Transmission line
50
Transmission line contd
51
Sequence diagrams for generators
Ia0
Ia1
+
+
+
Ia2
52
53
Grounded generator
54
Zn depends on Actual grounding conditions: solid grounding Zn=0
55
56
57
Transformer
58
Transformer contd
59
Zero sequence network

Dependent on the winding connection on each side
wye or delta
Dependent on the ground connection
ungrounded or grounded
Types of connections
wye-grounded to wye-grounded
wye-grounded
d d tto wye
wye-grounded to delta
wye to wye
wye to delta
d l
delta to delta
60
Zero sequence network
61
Unbalanced fault analysis

Single-line-to-ground
Single line to ground faults
Double-line-to-ground faults
Line-to-line faults
62
Single line to ground
Unloaded generator
63
Va_abc=Eabc-Zabc*Iabc
AVa012=A*Ea012-A*Z012Ia012
AVa012=A
Ea012-A Z012Ia012
and Ea012=[0;Ea;0]
64
Double line to ground
65
66
67
Line to line fault
68
69
Vabc A*Va0123
Vabc=A*Va0123
70
Bolted fault Zf=0
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
Fault analysis with fault impedance
78
+
79
0
80
81
Z matrix for fault analysis

Form
F
the
th Positive
P iti
Sequence
S
and
d the
th Zero
Z
Sequence bus impedance matrices
The Negative Sequence matrix is the same as the
Positive sequence matrix
Use the diagonal

g
element of the faulted
bus with the following modified fault
equations
82
83
84
Unbalanced Fault Summary

z SLG: Sequence networks are connected in series, parallel to three times
the fault impedance
z LL: Positive and negative sequence networks are connected in parallel; zero
sequence network is not included since there is no path to ground
z DLG: Positive, negative and zero sequence networks are connected in
parallel, with the zero sequence network including three times the fault
impedance
85

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Fault analysis

Subject lecturer: Dr. XU Zhao

Symmetric fault analysis

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

zThe most common type of fault on a three phase system

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Circuit representation of power system

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Conduction path is maintained by ionized air after lightning stroke

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Lightning Strike Sequence, contd

Circuit breakers open to de-energize line in an additional one to two

Circuit breakers may reclose after several seconds, trying to restore

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

2 Exponentially decaying dc current component

where T is the time constant, T = L R

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Hence i(t) is a sinusoidal superimposed on a decaying

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

This function has a maximum value of 3 I ac

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

The time varying reactance is typically approximated

= direct-axis subtransient reactance

= direct-axis transient reactance

= direct-axis synchronous reactance

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator Modeling, contd

For a balanced three

Td' = direct-axis transient time constant ( 1sec)

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator Modeling, cont'd

The maximum DC offset is

where TA is the armature time constant ( 0.2 seconds)

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator Short Circuit Currents

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator Short Circuit Currents

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator Short Circuit Example

X d = 1.1 (all per unit)

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

EE3741 Ass. Prof Zhao Xu

Generator S.C. Example, cont'd

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

= 143 k A I RMS (0) = 175 kA

Generator S.C. Example, cont'd

Electrical Engineering, HKPU

driving point impedance

transfer point imepdance