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ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL

TECHNICAL PAPER

Title no. 93-M34

Impact of Environmental and Operating Conditions

in Oil Refineries on Concrete Properties

by Osama E. K. Daoud and Iman A. Ibrahim

Concrete deterioration was observed in footings in one of the oldest oil
refineries (1949) in the Arabian Gulf. A field survey was carried out to
record the degree of deterioration and the physical conditions in more than
1000 footings. Samples are cut from the footings to study their condition
and determine the cause of deterioration. The impact of the refinerys environment on the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties has been
identified, and recommendations for prolonging concrete life are given.
Results show that exposed concrete not only degraded noticeably when
compared with buried concrete, but also the correlation between these
properties has changed It is found that the relationship between the voids
ratio and compressive sfrength is insensitive to the degree of exposure. The
opposite is true for the bulk density relation with strength. The relationships of other properties varied between these two. It was clear that highperformance concrete would be more suitable for use in such industrial
facilities where durability plays a more dominant role in the design.
Keywords: absorption; bulk density; carbonation; concrete properties;
deterioration; drying; exposure; modulus of elasticity; reinforced concretes; strength; ultrasonic pulse velocity; voids ratio; wetting.

INTRODUCTION
Concrete has been used for the past 80 years in many different fields of construction and has proven its long-term serviceability and durability. However, concrete used in major
industrial projects is subjected to harsh conditions that make
it prone to construction defects and/or poor service life. This
may arise from three sources:
1. Industrial projects are normally designed and built by
large international contractors who specialize in this area.
The contractors normally sublet the civil/structural work to
other contractors whose work may not be of the same caliber.
2. The concrete in these projects is subjected to harsh operating conditions not experienced in other normal works;
the designers may not be aware of these conditions.
3. In most cases, the maintenance staffs in the industrial facilities have mechanical, electrical, or chemical backgrounds.
Thus, defects in the concrete elements are not diagnosed until
later stages when the damage is quite advanced.
Oil refineries in the Arabian Gulf states represent a major
source of income to these countries; these large facilities
have been built since the 1950s by international contracting
companies from North America and Europe. Many of the faACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996

cilities are still in operation, many have been expanded, and

few have been put out of service. Due to the high initial investment in the facilities, their design life is normally much
longer than other structures. However, with the exception of
a recent paper published by OConnor,1 there is a lack of information on the field performance of concrete in these facilities. OConnors work presented an extreme case of failure
due to the use of seawater in concrete mixing in an industrial
facility in the Arabian Gulf. The current paper presents the
findings of a research study carried out on concrete cores cut
from foundations in one of the oldest oil refineries in the
Gulf states. It presents the actual performance of concrete
subjected to a refinery environment and the changes observed in the concrete properties due to the exposure.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
In this investigation, seven out of 63 production units in an
old refinery (built in 1949) located on the Gulf shore in
Kuwait were initially selected and included. They are:
Unit Name
Abbreviation Age (yrs)
Hydrocarbon Platforming
Plat
32
Crude Distillation Unit No. 3
CDU3
32
Fractionating Unit No. 1
FUl
27
Fractionating Unit No. 2
FU2
24
Washery
Wash
40
Bitumen plant
Bit
11
Production loading pump house PLPH
32
The ages previously shown were as of 1990. The concrete
elements under investigation are the footings supporting the
equipment, which vary in shape, dimension, and condition.
The information available on the design specifications and
construction data was limited. The concrete grade specified
for the units was 21 MPa. Ordinary portland cement was
ACI Materials Journal, V. 93, No. 4, July-August 1996.
Received Feb. 7, 1995, and reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright
1996, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of
copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion will be published in the May-June 1997 ACI Materials Journal if received by
Feb. 1, 1997.

307

Osama E. K. Daoud is Head of Management of the Construction and Contracts

Department, Dar Al-Handasah Consultants (Shair and Partners), Cairo, Egypt. He
received his BSc from Ain Shames University, Egypt, in 1972 and his PhD from the
University of Southampton, England, in 1978. He is a corresponding member of
RILEM Technical Committee TC 124, Strategies for the Repair of Corrosion-Damaged Reinforced Concrete Structures. He has published more than 20 papers in the
field of concrete technology, quality control, fracture mechanics applications to reinforced concrete, and performance of building materials.
Iman A. Ibrahim is Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Cairo. She received her BSc from the University of Cairo in 1978, her MSc
from Ohio State University in 1981, and her PhD from Cairo University in 1988. Her
research interests include concrete technology and the mechanics of failure in composite materials.

Fig. 1Concrete footing showing surface failure

and loss of cover with high degree of steel corrosion
used in all units except for the Bitumen Plant, where sulfateresisting cement was specified. The mix proportion was
specified as 1:2:4 for cement:sand:gravel, respectively, with
a cement content of 300 to 320 kg/m3 . No information on the
w/c ratio was given and no special additives were used to enhance the resistance to moisture. In very limited cases,
waterproof paint was required in the specifications. Two of
the units investigated were out of operation due to the aging
of the equipment. The concrete suffered from surface cracking, spalling, steel corrosion, discoloration and disintegration. Other types of distress were found but in fewer
elements. Most of the footings were buried under the ground
with a few centimeters exposed. This was particularly true
for footings supporting tall structures, such as towers or footings supporting mechanical equipment such as pumps. Footings supporting long equipment, such as heat exchangers,
had pedestals emerging above-ground carrying the equipment; these were more prone to environmental attack than
other footings.
In addition to the harsh arid environment of the Arabian
Gulf, the concrete in the refinery is subjected to severe
308

macroenvironmental conditions rarely found in other locations. They are:

1. Heat arising from the heating towers that results in thermal cracking due to the varied thermal coefficient of expansion of concrete components.
2. Sulfate attack could result from the sulfuric gases, such
as H2 S and SO2 , produced during the refinery operations that
are byproducts of the oil industry. Due to the high humidity
in the refinery due to its proximity to the Arabian Gulf, sulfuric acid and acid rain are formed and attack the concrete.
The most important chemical reaction of SO2 on concrete in
the presence of humidity leads to the formation of calcium
sulfate, which is easily washed away by water due to its
greater solubility; thus, causing leaching of the surface.2
Consequently, the strength of concrete is reduced considerably, particularly under prolonged action of SO2 .3,4 Moreover, the calcium sulfate that is produced crystallizes as
gypsum if it has not washed out, which, in turn, interacts
with the cement, producing thaumasite, which causes severe
softening of the paste. 2 The rate and extent of deterioration
due to sulfate attack depends on the concentration of sulfate,
the type of sulfate salts, permeability, and porosity of concrete. The most severe condition occurs when concrete is exposed on one side to water pressure and on the other side to air.5
3. Wetting and drying arising from leaking connections
and cyclic washing of the concrete floors with seawater
used to wash spilled residues of hydrocarbons. Due to its
high cost, potable water is not used for this purpose. Fire hydrants with seawater under pressure were used daily. This
results in alternate expansion and contraction and hydration
and dehydration, causing mechanical damage when the salt
crystals form and dissolve within the pores of the paste and
porous aggregate.
4. Chloride and sulfate attacks resulting from the alternate
wash by the seawater causing continuous buildup of salts on
the concrete surface. With time, as the salts penetrate the
concrete, steel corrosion and concrete cracking take place.
5. Vibration from pumps and motors with high frequencies
causing internal cracking to the concrete.
6. Steam and gases from leaking pipes and steam-relief
valves disintegrate the concrete surface and could create
large holes through loss of concrete components.
In addition to these harsh conditions, the concrete rarely received any maintenance. Most of the maintenance is devoted
to the mechanical equipment, during which the concrete elements may be harmed. Chemicals used in the maintenance
process are often spilled on the floor, and this is usually accompanied by water. Mechanical damage could also result
during the removal of some of the equipment for cleaning or
replacement. This happens often with heat exchangers. It was
noticed that one of the two pedestals carrying the heat exchanger was always badly cracked. Upon investigation, it
was revealed that the internal piping system is pulled out from
the cracked side for cleaning. As a result, some of the 1000
footings in the selected units showed an alarming degree of
deterioration. Fig. 1 to 4 show examples of the extreme cases
observed. The batch work used in the maintenance has escalated to a very costly and time-consuming operation. This research study was initiated to help prepare a repair strategy and
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996

Fig. 3Concrete footing supporting pump showing high

degree of spalling due to corrosion of steel reinforcement

Fig. 2Pedestal carrying heat exchanger with exposed part

badly cracked with high degree of steel corrosion
management system to maintain the units in safe and operational conditions for the next 20 years.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
This research investigates the reasons for concrete deterioration in oil refineries and identifies the major causes of
failure through an investigation on field-cut samples. The
significance of this work arises from the limited information
available in literature on the impact of the local environment
of industrial facilities, such as the oil refinery, on the properties of concrete. Most of the available data in literature are
deduced from laboratory investigations where the changes in
properties are due to one type of exposure and, in most cases,
produced under unrealistic conditions to accelerate the reaction with concrete. This field investigation reports the actual
performance of concrete under combined attack for 40 years
in severe operating and environmental circumstances.
RESEARCH PLAN
A data collection sheet that can be supported by a computerized system was developed as an inspection tool. This was
necessary to handle the large amount of data resulting from
the field investigation. All visible defects, their degree, and
their possible causes were included. The equipment supported
by the footing and its degree of importance were listed to establish the priorities for the sampling and repair work. Also,
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996

Fig. 4Concrete footing showing surface degradation

due to loss of cement mortar and corner spalling
the proposed method for repair work was initially identified
to assist in obtaining an estimated cost for budgeting purposes.
The data collected was used to identify the locations from
which concrete samples were to be taken. A total of 102
cores, 100 mm in diameter, were cut under stringent safety
conditions to prevent any sparks. The samples were cut
from exposed and buried portions of the footings, as well as
damaged and intact portions of the footings. The cores were
coded to reflect this information and were photographed on
arrival to the laboratory. The code name included the unitabbreviated name, the direction of the cut (H = horizontal, V =
vertical), the position with respect to ground (A = above, B =
below), and the footing serial number. Each core was visually inspected and measured. The carbonation depth, existence of cracks, color, maximum aggregate size, type of
aggregate, existence of reinforcement, and degree of compaction were recorded on arrival. Each core was divided
into three portions, and each portion was subjected to the
following experimental tests.
309

Table 1
Number of cores
Unit name

No. of
footings

Total

Percent of cored
elements

Plat

138

Buried

Exposed

18

13.0

CDU3

10

238

20

8.4

15

FU1

101

14

13.9

FU2

316

22

7.0

16

Wash

55

12.7

Bit

169

10

6.0

PLPH

61

11

18.0

102

Average
9.46 percent

44

58

Total

1078

Table 2
Degree of importance

High

Medium

Element condition

Total inspected elements

51

13

Number of cored elements 15

Percent of cored elements

30

Low
P

173 87 16 421 239 65

70

100

10 38

6
1.4

12

1.7 18

Total inspected elements

65

276

725

Cored elements

25

24

22

Percent of cored elements

38

8.7

Portion 1: This was the top 50 mm of the core that was

subjected to the environment. This portion was used to determine the chemical composition and salt attack by analyzing
powdered samples obtained by power drilling at three different levels along the length: 0 to 10 mm,;10 to 30 mm; and 30
to 50 mm. They were labeled A, B, and C, respectively. The
profiles of chloride, sulfate (SO4 ), calcium carbonate
(CaCO3 ) contents, and pH value were determined using wet
chemistry, and the cement content was determined using the
ASTM C 85 method.
Portion 2: This comprised the next 150 mm of the core
and it was used to determine the compressive strength
(ASTM C 39), modulus of elasticity (ASTM C 469), dry
density, and pulse velocity (ASTM C 597).
Portion 3: This was the bottom 60 to 70 mm of the core
and it was used to determine the voids ratio, water absorption, and specific gravity using ASTM C 642. These properties were determined by submerging the concrete in boiling
or cold water, both of which alter the chemical composition
of the matrix. Hence, they were not used for chemical analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Visual survey and sampling
The field inspection results indicated that only 8 percent of
the total population is in poor condition. Most of these were
low-importance footings, including pipe racks, footings supporting small tanks, heat exchangers, small pumps, and columns carrying small structures. These footings can be
replaced or repaired without a serious impact on the unit operation. The medium-importance footings totaled 276 and
supported large pumps, heat exchangers, storage tanks, and
others. These would not be difficult to replace or repair since
partial shut-down can be arranged. The high-importance
footings totaled 65 and require a full shut-down for replacement. They support large vessels, stacks, or heavy structures;
310

only one footing in this category was found in poor condition. The previous information indicates that the visual inspection showed that concrete has generally performed well
in the harsh conditions of the refinery.
The strategy of selecting the core locations from the total
number involved considered the condition and the degree of
importance of the footings. The high-importance footings in
poor conditions were given the highest priority. Tables 1 and 2
show the number of cores taken from each unit and the distribution of the cores with the degree of importance and the
general condition of the footing. As can be seen, the percentage of cored footings is reduced with improved conditions
and a lower degree of importance.
The total number of cores from footings in poor, medium,
and good conditions were uniform. In addition to the previous considerations, the coring position was also taken into
account. To obtain sound statistical results, it is always advisable to take samples representative of the entire unit and
from each concrete batch cast during construction; in the absence of the actual construction sequence, it had to be assumed. Table 1 shows the number of cores was proportional
to the number of footings within each unit. However, some
variations were made for exceptionally large units, such as
CDU3 and FU2, where a lower percentage of cored footings
was used to reduce costs. The opposite is true for small units,
such as PLPH and Washery, where a larger percentage was
used to have a more representative number of cores. On the
average, 10 percent of the footings were cored. Out of the
102 cores cut, 82 were subjected to the physical and mechanical tests, and half of these were cut from the exposed portion
of the elements. Because of certain limitations and surface
conditions, not all cores could be used for chemical analysis.
Hence, 42 cores were analyzed chemically and 27 were cut
from the exposed part of the footings.
Chloride and sulfate attacks
Fig. 5 shows the chloride content expressed as a percentage of the cement weight (defined in the original mix design
at 320 kg/m3 ) at the three depths for all 42 samples. Results
indicate that the highest concentration always occurred at the
shallowest depth (A), except for a few cores, e.g., Core
PLAT (114)HA in the Platformer unit. The core taken from
this footing (Fig. 6) indicates that the concrete suffered from
poor concrete proportions. Loose paste was also removed
during the coring, indicating a lower cement content and a
higher voids ratio.
Chloride content as high as 8 percent was recorded for a
sample in the Washery unit. The chloride content in many
samples taken from the exposed portions of the footings exceeded the upper limit of 0.15 percent allowed in ACI 318.6
This may explain the high percentage of steel corrosion in
these elements. A chloride content less than 0.1 percent by
weight of cement is considered negligible, whereas a chloride content between 0.1 and 1 percent has a significant influence on concrete durability.7 The chloride content
threshold for active corrosion of reinforcing bars is defined
as approximately 0.8 kg/m3 of free chloride at the level of reinforcement, 8 which is equivalent to 0.27 percent of the cement content in the concrete.
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996

Fig. 6Core sample cut from badly deteriorated footing in

Platformer unit showing loss of mortar during coring operation due to low cement content

Fig. 5Chloride content at Depths A, B, and C for exposed

and buried concrete
Samples taken from the buried portions contained a much
lower chloride content; Fig. 7(a) shows the mean values of
the readings. This explains the lack of corrosion cracking in
the buried portions and shows that the chloride contamination is due to external rather than inherent factors. This is
mainly caused by the daily wash by seawater or due to the
surrounding chloride-polluted environment (a result of the
refinery location on the Gulf shore).
Fig. 8 shows that the sulfate content for exposed concrete,
expressed in terms of SO4 , is consistently higher than that for
buried concrete. The 4 percent limit, identified by most
codes, was exceeded in many areas in five production units;
the units where SO 2 and H2 S gases were released in the air
during their operation. They were essentially the same as
those with high chloride contamination. Fig. 7(b) shows that
the mean sulfate content in samples taken from above- and
below-ground ranged from 2.5 to 3.5 percent of the cement
weight. A gradual reduction in SO4 was observed at deeper
locations, where exposed and buried concrete produced
almost the same result. Higher sulfate was observed at Depth A
for exposed concrete, which may be due to the exposure to
the sulfate-bearing air and to SO2 from the nearby stacks.
The highest SO4 concentration was obtained at the Bitumen
Plant, which contained the highest polluted atmosphere (observed in the field survey). Also, buried concrete produced
relatively higher sulfate content at Depth A in this unit,
which may result from surface water infiltrated through the
joint between the footing and the floor slab. The sulfate conACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996

Fig. 7Mean values for chemical results at Depths A, B,

and C for concrete located above- and below-ground
tent at Depth C may originate from the basic constituents of
the concrete: cement, water, and aggregates.
Webster and Kukacka9 indicated that dry gases will not
substantially harm building materials, yet, in combination
with moisture, they tend to form an aggressive solution that
penetrates into the binding agents and deteriorates the concrete. In general, dry SO2 (sulfur dioxide) is not deleterious
to cement products. However, since 1 volume unit of water
will dissolve 45 volume units of gas, the sulfurous acid solution thus formed is aggressive to concrete. At industrial
plants, where sulfur dioxide escapes through smoke stacks
and combines with atmospheric moisture, forming a sulfurous acid (H2 SO3 ) that gradually reacts with oxygen to form
sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ), both create acid rain, which is aggres311

Fig. 8Sulfate content at Depths A, B, and C for exposed and

buried concrete

Fig. 9CaCO3 content at Depths A, B, and C for exposed

and buried concrete

sive to steel and concrete. This was one major source of the
loss in density and strength experienced in this plant. This is
explained through the following reactions

served at the surface (discussed later) may have contributed

to the high sulfate attack on the concrete. These voids could
be the result of poor curing during the construction phase or
high water/cement ratios. 4 It could also result from the continuous leaching of calcium sulfate or gypsum. Aggression
due to SO2 attack is further increased if the ambient temperature is higher than 25 F, which is the case in Kuwait.
An acidic moisture containing hydrogen sulfide and nitrogen dioxide is precipitated on the footings from the highly
humid atmosphere. When permitted to penetrate the concrete, it is highly corrosive. Concrete saturated with precipitation tends to dry in summer, and this gives rise to
efflorescence of salts on the outside surfaces, which may explain the high concentration of salts at the outer surface of
the concrete, as well as the lower cement content. It may also
explain the low density of exposed samples due to leaching,
as will be seen later.

SO H O
2
2
1
CaCO 3 + ---------------------------- CaSO 3 ---H 2 O +
2
O H O
2
2
CO 2 ------------------------ CaSO 4 2H2 O

(1)

CaCO 3 + H 2 SO 4 + H 2 O CaSO4 2H 2 O + CO 2

(2)

and

The previous component in Eq. (2) will react with cement

components and produce ettringite, also known as calcium
sulfo-aluminate, following this reaction
3 ( CaSO 4 2H 2O ) + 3CaOAl 2 O3 6H2 O + 20H2 O

3CaO Al 2 O 3 3CaSO4 23H 2 O

(3)

Ettringite is easily soluble in chloride and is washed away

during the daily seawater wash. The high voids ratio ob312

Carbonation
Fig. 9 and 7(c) show the localized and mean CaCO3 concentrations, respectively. Results indicate a gradual decrease
in CaCO3 with depth in both exposed and buried concrete.
However, the rate of reduction in CaCO3 is higher in samples
taken from exposed areas. At Depth C, exposed and buried
concrete contained almost the same CaCO 3 concentrations;
26.5 percent, which is normally experienced in hardened
concrete. Exposed concrete contained CaCO3 up to 100 perACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996

cent of cement weight. It is interesting to note that samples

with low CaCO3 at Depth C are those with the high sulfate
content at the same depth. This is clear in Samples
WASH(19)HA, CDU3(89)HA, BIT(50)HA,
and
PLAT(114)HA, and this could be attributed to the observations made by researchers that carbonation may enhance the
early resistance of concrete to sulfate attack by blocking the
voids; hence, reducing the penetration of external gases to
the interior.10-12 CO 2 dissolved in water first leads to the formation of a thin layer of CaCO3 in the area of concrete close
to the surface. Moreover, the carbon dioxide dissolves the
calcium hydroxide present in the hardened cement paste,
forming CaCO 3
CO 2 + C a( OH )2 CaCO 3 + H 2 O

(4)

Additional CO2 dissolves the CaCO3 to form Ca(HCO3 )2 ,

which is removed by water, causing leaching to the concrete
surface. Grube et al.10 stated that lime-attacking carbonic acid
dissolves the calcium from its bonds. As a result, the concrete
is progressively destroyed from the surface to the inside.
The carbonation limit was also determined by applying
phenolphthalein to freshly cut concrete. It was found that for
all buried samples, no carbonation was recorded. The carbonation depth in exposed concrete ranged from 5 to 52
mm. However, Hensel12 had reservations on determining
the carbonation depth using phenolphthalein, since the solution shows a color change towards a reddish-pink at a pH
value of only 9. He also claimed that the reddish color, proving the existence of calcium hydroxide, may be wrongly interpreted. This is because in reality, the color change taken
for a carbonation front could be caused by the alkali carbonates and/or alkali hydroxides, while the calcium is already
present as CaCO 3.
Cement content and pH
Fig. 10 shows the wide variation in cement content in mortar
with respect to depth and location. For exposed concrete, cement content as little as 3 percent cement content was obtained in the Bitumen Plant and CDU3 at Depth A. The
sample shown in Fig. 6 from the Platformer unit produced
cement contents of 12 and 20 percent at Depths A and C, respectively. This indicates the poor mix proportions in this
footing, and hence, explains the high chloride content at
deep levels. At Depth C, the cement content ranged from 20
to 50 percent. However, for buried concrete, the cement at
Depth A ranged from 20 to 45 percent, except for two samples at the PLPH unit, which was recovered at deeper levels.
Fig. 7(d) shows that the mean average of cement content for
buried concrete is maintained at 30 percent, which complies
with the mix proportions given in the specifications, where
the cement-to-sand ratio was 1:2. For exposed concrete, the
mean cement ratios at Depths A, B, and C were 13, 23, and
29 percent, respectively. The loss of cement near the surface
may be due to leaching or abrasion during the daily seawater
wash under pressure.
The pH values for buried concrete ranged from 11 to 12,
except for Sample PLPH(22)HB, which was below this
range at the surface layer. It is interesting to note that this
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996

Fig. 10Cement content at Depths A, B, and C for exposed

and buried concrete
particular sample was the one that contained the least cement
in Fig. 10. The visual inspection of this sample showed that
it was taken from a badly deteriorated footing, as seen in Fig. 1.
As will be seen later, this footing produced some of the lowest results for compressive strength, modulus of elasticity,
and ultrasound pulse velocity (UPV) among all cores. The
pH values for buried concrete ranged from 11 at Depth A to
12.1 at Depth C. Exposed concrete at different depths produced pH values ranging from 9 to 12.5. This finding supports the visual inspection observations where steel
corrosion was noted only on the exposed concrete. Fig. 2
shows a case where a badly cracked footing had a corrosion
crack stopped at the ground surface. The pH mean average
for buried and exposed concrete is shown in Fig. 7(e).
From the previous information, it can be seen that exposed concrete contained four to five times the degree of
chloride contamination, 10 to 14 percent more SO4, 50 to 70
percent higher CaCO3 , 10 to 50 percent less cement/mortar
ratio, and 7 percent less pH at the surface layer when compared to buried concrete. This indicates that exposed concrete is prone to attack by the macroenvironment, and
hence, additional protection is required to maintain the concrete in serviceable condition.
Mechanical and physical properties
Fig. 11 and 12 compare the mechanical and physical properties measured for exposed and buried concrete. Buried
concrete produced higher strength, pulse velocity, modulus
of elasticity, and density, and lower voids and absorption for
313

Fig. 11Voids ratio, absorption, and bulk density for

exposed and buried concrete (1 lb/ft3 = 0.016 T/m3 )

Fig. 12Compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and

UPV for exposed and buried concrete (1 ft/s = 0.30S m/s; 1
ksi = 6.895 MPa)

almost all the cores. It is interesting to note that samples with

higher strength and density are essentially those with low
voids and absorption. Modulus of elasticity and pulse velocity
follow the same pattern. In a few exceptional cases, this rule
was not applicable. Sample WASH(7)HB produced lower
strength, modulus of elasticity, UPV, and bulk density than
some exposed elements in the same unit. It had a high voids
content and absorption percent, which indicates the poor
quality of concrete used in its construction. Also, it had one
of the highest SO4 contents at Depth C (Fig. 8) and a relatively
low cement content (Fig. 10). On the other hand, Sample
FUl(18)HB, taken from buried concrete, produced the highest
mechanical properties and density and the lowest voids and
absorption percentages. It also contained low SO4 and chloride. Sample BIT HA (25), taken from the exposed part of
the footing, had the lowest mechanical and physical properties compared with other samples from the unit, and had almost the highest voids and absorption ratios and CaCO 3
content at the surface.
The mechanical properties for the whole sample, totaling
82 cores, were analyzed statistically by performing the
z-test. The test was used to ascertain that the properties obtained for exposed and buried concrete are significantly different. The two samples were classified as two independent
samples with known standard deviation. Results showed that
with a confidence limit of 95 percent or more, the process averages of the two samples are not equal. This implies that although the two concretes were originally from the same

source and had the same properties, they are now significantly
different in characteristics due to the exposure to the refinery
environmental conditions.
Fig. 13 summarizes the variations in the physical and mechanical properties of concrete due to exposure to the refinery environment. The voids ratio increased from 12.7 to 16.5
percent for buried and exposed concrete, respectively, while
absorption increased from 5 to 7 percent. Thus, both properties increased by approximately 30 percent relative to buried
elements. The modulus of elasticity was reduced from
15,900 to 10,800 MPa, which represents a 31 percent reduction. Although the strength mean average for exposed concrete was 31 MPa, which is higher than the specified strength
(21 MPa), it is 25 percent lower than that of buried concrete
(41.6 MPa). This is attributed to the effect of the SO2 attack,
leaching, and internal cracking due to cyclic heating and
wetting and drying.
Knfel and Rttger3 noticed that porous mortars (with w/c =
0.58) displayed a strength reduction of 15 percent when exposed to SO2 with alternate wetting. Kayyali13 reported that
exposure of concrete to chloride may lower the strength, and
this is more pronounced if the concrete has not been cured
properly during its early life, as may be the case in the concrete under study. Bulk and dry densities were reduced by
0.90 and 2.50 percent, respectively. It was concluded that the
conditions of transport of the attacking and dissolved substances (SO 2) often have a much greater influence on the loss
of mass than the concentration of the attacking substances. 10

314

ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996

Fig. 13Percentage of change in properties to exposed concrete compared to buried concrete

This phenomenon is due to a protective layer of SiO2 gel that
may be removed mechanically by subjecting the footings to
a jet of seawater during the daily wash.
Cohen and Mather14 reported that the failure criteria for
the loss of mass and strength dropped resulting from sulfate
attack. Previous research (Reference 14) defined loss of
mass limits at 5 and 2.5 percent for beams and cubes, respectively. The loss of mass for a beam is double that for a cube
because of the higher surface-to-volume ratio. Strength drop
limit was defined at 25 percent. Accordingly, assuming that
the buried concrete properties represent the original material,
exposed concrete in this refinery has performed unsatisfactorily. This shows that the initial observation of the visual
survey, indicating that, generally, the concrete has performed satisfactorily, may not be true, and that laboratory
evaluations should be used to verify the visual inspection results.
The high degree of deterioration in the properties of exposed concrete may be due to the use of the siliceous aggregate of Kuwait. The properties of this aggregate weaken the
concrete resistance against leaching and acid attack. It was
claimed15 that rocks containing carbonates (calcite) are more
resistant to acid gases than the components of the hardened
cement paste and are, therefore, recommended as aggregates
for concrete exposed to SO 2 and H2 S. The same is claimed
for concretes subjected to leaching due to carbonic acid.16
Daoud 17 reported that these aggregates were not available in
Kuwait until very recently.
Traditionally, it was always thought that strength reductions due to the effect of SO2 are negligible.3 Grube et al. 10
expressed their views that if concrete is exposed to acids, the
resulting loss of mass may be irrelevant to its use. This is often the case for structures such as foundations. The results
previously obtained prove that these traditional views should
not always be taken for granted, at least for the exposed portion of the footing. The high percentage of variations in the
properties are the result of the highly corrosive environment
in the refinery.
Correlation between physical and
mechanical properties
In this section, the results from 82 cores were analyzed to
correlate different properties and the relationships obtained
were compared with available information in literature. Fig. 14
shows that the higher the voids content, the lower the
strength, and that the relationship between voids content and
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996

Fig. 14Relation between compressive strength and voids

ratio for concrete above- and below-ground (1 ksi = 6.895 MPa)

Fig. 15Relation between compressive strength and bulk

density for concrete above- and below-ground (1 lb/ft3 =
0.016 T/m3 ; 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa)
strength, derived for exposed and buried concrete, is unique.
However, the results for the exposed concrete had a lower
range for strength and a higher range for voids content. This
indicates that the relationship between both properties is not
sensitive to the cause but more so to the magnitude of the
voids content. The exposed concrete experiences higher
voids due to leaching resulting from environmental attack.
Fig. 15 shows that higher bulk density, which is associated
with better compaction, generally exhibits higher strength.
The relationship between bulk density and strength is more
sensitive to the degree of exposure than the voids content.
Although the rate of change remained essentially the same
for exposed and buried concrete, the above-ground best-fit
was shifted downwards and to the left (Fig. 15). This implies
that exposure to the refinery environment reduced the density
and strength of concrete concurrently. Also, exposed concrete will produce lower strength than buried concrete if both
have the same density. This may be due to the fact that the
loss of mass is caused normally by loss of the binder (cement) due to leaching. Although the cement content at deeper
levels for exposed concrete was nearly the same as for buried
concrete [Fig. 7(d) and 10], it seems that its binding effect
(adhesion), as well as the collective performance of the concrete mass (cohesion), are weakened by the attack of SO2
and internal cracking due to cyclic heating and wetting and
drying. This shows the importance of insulating the exposed
part of concrete from the environment and the use of a low
w/c ratio to reduce the ingress of gases to the interior.
Fig. 16 shows that the higher the absorption, the lower the
strength and that the relationship between the two properties
varies according to the degree of exposure. Concrete with the
315

Fig. 16Relation between compressive strength and

absorption for concrete above- and below-ground (1 ksi =
6.895 MPa)

Fig. 18Relation between compressive strength and UPV

for concrete above- and below-ground (1 ft/s = 0.305 m/s;
1 ksi = 6.895 MPa)
dicate good quality concrete, and velocities from 3000 to
3700 m/s indicate concrete of questionable quality. As can
be seen from Fig. 13, most of the buried concrete cores indicated good to excellent quality, while exposed concrete
ranged from questionable to good quality. This indicates
that the exposure to the local environment degraded the concrete, emphasizing the need to protect the concrete to maintain its quality.

Fig. 17Relation between compressive strength and modulus of elasticity for concrete above- and below-ground (1 ksi
= 6.895 MPa)
same absorption will produce a higher strength if not exposed. The increase in strength is approximately 15 percent
at an absorption value of 6 percent and the increase in
strength increases to 23 percent for an absorption of 4 percent.
The rate of change in the modulus of elasticity (E) with
strength is higher for exposed than buried concrete, as seen
in Fig. 17. The same is true in Fig. 18, where the UPV relationship is plotted with strength. For high-strength concrete
(fc > 50 MPa), the UPV for buried and exposed concrete was
almost the same. In the refinery case study, relatively lowstrength concrete (fc = 21 MPa) was used. This may have
contributed to the noticeable drop in the physical and mechanical properties of the concrete due to their exposure to
the refinery environment.
The results produced by Kayyali18 plotted in Fig. 18 compared well with the buried concrete results. Laboratorycured samples by Kayyali produced the highest rate of
change (the slope) in the resulting linear correlation and the
relationship was gradually shifted upward for buried and exposed concrete, i.e., as the degree of exposure was increased.
This shows that a consistent trend may be seen in these relationships; the higher the degree of exposure to environmental
conditions, the lower the slope of the relationship between
strength and UPV. Sullivan 19 provided upper and lower limits
for pulse velocity with concrete from in situ results. These
limits compare well with the determined results, as shown in
Fig. 18.
Mather20 identified concrete conditions from UPV data.
Excellent quality concrete usually provides UPV of 4600 to
4900 m/s. Velocities ranging between 3700 to 4600 m/s in316

CONCLUSIONS
1. This study revealed that slow degradation of the properties of concrete located above-ground should be expected in
oil refineries. This was not based on the results of some laboratory accelerated tests that may be criticized for being unrealistic, but on test results on concrete samples under actual
field exposure conditions.
2. Exposed portions of concrete exhibited four to five
times chloride content, 10 to 14 percent more sulfates, 50 to
70 percent higher CaCO 3, 10 to 50 percent lower cement
content, and 7 percent less pH value than buried concrete.
3. Exposed concrete showed a reduction in strength, density, modulus of elasticity, and UPV of 25, 2.5, 31, and 13
percent, respectively, when compared to buried concrete.
On the other hand, voids and absorption increased by 29 and
30 percent, respectively. This shows that the concrete has
suffered major degradation in the performance that contradicts the results of the initial observation made during the
visual survey. Thus, a laboratory evaluation of concrete
samples is necessary to reach a thorough assessment of the
concrete condition.
4. The relationship between concrete strength and voids
ratio is unique and insensitive to the cause of the increased
voids. However, the loss of cement due to leaching or the
degradation in the cementing action due to sulfate attack and
internal cracking can cause a noticeable reduction in strength
and density. Hence, it is essential to protect concrete exposed
to harsh conditions from the external environment to maintain its properties.
5. In oil refineries and similar industrial installations, highperformance concrete may be more appropriate to endure the
existing harsh environmental conditions in such facilities. In
the long run, this will result in savings in maintenance and
associated shut-down costs. Designers should consider durability as the major criteria for concrete in such facilities.
Higher cement content (not less than 400 kg/m3 ), lower
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996

water/cement ratio (not more than 0.45), and consistent quality concrete production may be necessary to enhance the durability of concrete.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are thankful to Dar Al-Handasah Consultants for providing
facilities to produce this paper and to the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) in Kuwait for financing this research. The authors are also
grateful to Mr. Gamal Al-Qazweeni and Mr. Khaled Hijab for their help and
assistance in the field survey and laboratory evaluation and to the staff of the
KISR Building Department and the KISR Central Analytical Laboratory for
their help.

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