PRINCIPLE OF STRATIGRAPHY

Created as substituted Principle of Stratigraphy Final Exam

Department of Geological Engineering , Padjadjaran University

BY
Faizin Mulia Rizkika
270110140030

FACULTY OF GEOLOGY ENGINEERING

PADJADJARAN UNIVERSITY
2015

Table of Contents
THE SSI HISTORY FROM 1973 TO 1996.......................................................6
1.1 Lithostratigraphy............................................................................... 9
1.1.1

The Principle Purpose...............................................................9

1.1.2 The Authorized And Not Authorized Units..................................10

1.1.3 Limits And Distribution Of Units.................................................11
1.1.4 The Levels of Lithostratigraphy Units........................................11
1.1.5 The Nomenclature of Litostratigraphy Units..............................13
1.2

Biostratigraphy............................................................................. 15

1.2.1 The Principle of Purpose............................................................15

1.2.2 The Authorized and Unauthorized Units...................................15
1.2.3 The Level and Types of Biostratigraphy Unit.............................16
1.2.4 The Procedure for Determination of Biostratigraphy Unit.........18
1.2.5 The Authorized Units of Subsurface.........................................19
1.3

Chronostratigraphy......................................................................19

1.3.1

The Principles of Purpose.......................................................19

1.3.2

Stratotype and Limits of Unit.................................................20

1.3.3

Level, Dissemination, And Order Of Chronostratigraphy Unit 20

1.3.4

Procedure Proposing Authorized Chronostratigraphy Unit......21

1.4

Geochronostratigraphy.................................................................23

1.5

Litodemik..................................................................................... 23

1.5.1

Litodemik Unit Division..........................................................23

1.5.2

Limits and Level of Litodemik Unit.........................................24

1.5.3

Nomenclature of Litodemik Unit.............................................24

CHAPTER II................................................................................................ 25
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY........................................................................25
2.1 sequence stratigraphy.....................................................................25
2.2. Sequence boundaries.....................................................................29
2.3. Methods and Application of Stratigraphy........................................30

2.3.1 Methods..................................................................................... 30
2.3.2 Environmental Applications.......................................................32
2.3.3

Global Sea-Level Analysis......................................................33

CHAPTER III............................................................................................... 35
VOLCANOSTRATIGRAPHY..........................................................................35
3.1 General Information.........................................................................35
3.2 Units Morfostratigraf.......................................................................43
CHAPTER IV............................................................................................... 46
The Development of Geological time and The Explanation of Geological
time division............................................................................................. 46
4.1 The Development of Geological time...............................................46
4.1.1 The Relative Dating...................................................................47
4.1.2 The Absolute Dating..................................................................50
4.2 The Explanation of Geological time division....................................50
CHAPTER V................................................................................................ 54
The Depositional Environment and the Facies Models..............................54
5.1 The Facies........................................................................................ 54
5.2 The Facies Models............................................................................57
5.3 The Facies Association.....................................................................57
5.4 The Depositional Environment.........................................................57
5.4.1 Continental (terrestrial) Environments.......................................59
5.4.1.1 Fluvial Systems....................................................................60
5.4.1.2 Eolian Desert Systems.........................................................61
5.4.1.3 Lacustrine Systems.............................................................61
5.4.1.4 Glacial Systems...................................................................62
5.4.2 Marginal Marine Environments..................................................63
5.4.2.1 Deltaic Systems...................................................................64
5.4.2.2 Beach and Barrier Island Systems.......................................65
5.4.2.3 Estuarine Systems...............................................................66
5.4.2.4 Lagoonal Systems...............................................................67

5.4.2.5 Tidal Flat Systems...............................................................68

5.4.3 Silisiclastic Marine Environments...............................................69
5.4.3.1 The Shelf Environment........................................................70
5.4.3.2 The Oceanic (Deep Water) Environment.............................72
5.4.4 Carbonate and Evaporite Environments....................................74
5.4.4.1 Carbonate Environment.......................................................74
5.4.4.2 Evaporites Environment......................................................75
CHAPTER VI............................................................................................... 77
TECTONOSTRATIGRAPHY...........................................................................77
6,1 Pre-Rift, Syn-Rift, Post-Rift Facies.....................................................77
6.2 Transgression................................................................................... 79
.............................................................................................................. 84
6.3 Regression....................................................................................... 89
6.3 Parasequence set.........................................................................94
CHAPTER VII.............................................................................................. 95
MEASURED SECTION METHOD..................................................................95
7.1 DEFINITION...................................................................................... 95
7.1.1 Stratigraphic Section Measure Method......................................95
7.1.2 Trajectory measurement planning.............................................97
7.1.3 Thickness Counting...................................................................97
7.1.1.1 Measurements on flat terrain..............................................97
7.1.1.2 Measurements on Slopes.....................................................98
7.2. The Purpose of Measuring.............................................................102
CHAPTER VIII........................................................................................... 104
MS Application........................................................................................ 104
CHAPTER IX............................................................................................. 107
BASIN AND BASIN ANALYSIS....................................................................107
9.1

Causes........................................................................................ 109

9.2 Methods of formation.....................................................................109

9.2.1 Lithospheric stretching............................................................109

9.2.2 Lithospheric compression/shortening and flexure...................110

9.2.3 Strike-slip deformation............................................................111
9.2.4 Ongoing development.............................................................112
9.2.5 Study of sedimentary basins...................................................112
BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................ 115

CHAPTER 1

THE SSI HISTORY FROM 1973 TO 1996

Sandi Stratigraphy Indonesia (SSI) was published in 1973 and since
then has never been in revision. Therefore, in accordance with the progress of the
science of stratigraphy now feels it is time to revisit the relevance Password
Stratigraphy Indonesia (SSI 73) is. This gap does not mean experts stratigraphy in
Indonesia did not follow the changes that occur, but its sure are based on the
perception of whether the change and development of the concept of other countries
is felt still covered by SSI 73 or the change itself has not reached the stage clear for
the revision SSI 73.
Goal of Stratigraphy Indonesia mainly give conception division rules applying
rocks in the order so that the discussion of the stratigraphy in Indonesia becomes
more clear, easy to understand and simple application. For that we are from a small
committee for revision of SSI '73 wanted a widespread response from all concerned.
CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM REVISION SSI 1973
Indonesian Stratigraphy Password 1973 (SSI 73) based on the results of the
International Subcommission on stratigraphic Classification 1961 (ISSC 61) led by
HD Hedberg in Copenhagen and refers also to the North America Commission on
stratigraphic Nomenclatur 1961 (NACSN 61) and the results of agency similar from
other countries. Meanwhile NACSN has made revisions in 1976 and the last in 1983.
The ISSC has been several times to load 61 additions and changes, such as 1976
(Hedberg, 1976), 1987 (Amos Salvador, 1987) and the last in 1994 (Amos Salvador,
1994).
Stratigraphy Code Change International and other countries, was not lost on
the author, but according to our most can still be covered by SSI SSI 73 73. As we
know, recognize three strata units and 1 unit of time (geochronology). The strata unit
is a unit lithostratigrapy, Biostratigraphy Units and Units Chronostratigraphy.

Magnetostratigrafi unit developed by NACSN 83, in our opinion still covered in

Chronostratigraphy SSI unit 73. Similarly, other units such as Polaritychronostratigraphic unit (NACSN 83), Formal Distinguished Unit by Age, it still can
be categorized in Chronostratigraphy SSI unit in 1973.
Classification and nomenclature of igneous and metamorphic still an issue.
NACSN 83 clearly define the concept of classification and nomenclature of its own
with named as Lithodemic Unit, but more likely 87 ISSC rock units are categorized
as litho and ISSN Unit 94 does not include this unit.
Interesting problem is associated with the onset of Sikuenstratigrafi concept.
Peter R. with colleagues from Exxon Production Research Company, thinking and
developed a technique of stratigraphy and then make it a principle based on the
approach of the double seismic data analysis (multifold). This seismic stratigraphic
unit named "depositional Sequence" (DS) (Mitchum, 1997). Depositional definition
Sequence (DS) is a unit that consists of a sequence of continuous bauan
(conformable), without any time lapse deposition. DS in the form of unconformity
boundary (unconformity). Based on his research on a global scale, and then generate
the curve of global sea level change. Loud crackling of the DS is because it is the lack
of supporting data biostratigraphy and outcrops in making this eustatis curve, despite
great efforts done like in the western part of the basin America Cretaceous (Project
WIK) and Sequence stratigraphy of European Basin Project, chaired by T. Jacquin
and PR Vail itself.
This new stratigraphic concepts has spurred more detailed stratigraphic study
of data berasarkan rocks, logs and microfossils. This study has shown that the process
of formation of the DS is more frequent and more numerous dibadingkan with only
the result of motion eustatis only (Mitchum and Van Wagoner, 1991) so that there is a
conclusion that, changes in the motion of sea level is relative, therefore the

stratigraphy of an area not Just simply due to changes in global sea level (eustatic),
but also by local tectonic and sedimentary volume that occur in an area.
Research based on detailed data such as logs and outcrop data has changed the
concept of seismic stratigraphy. Seismic stratigraphy into the concept Straigrafi
sequence (Sequence stratigraphy) with basic unit sequence which is strongly
influenced by changes in global sea level, tectonics and sedimentation (Wilgus et al,
1988). This concept changeshave spurred its use in exploration and field development
of oil, so that since 1988, nearly all the sediment Batun scientific magazines in the
world, contains at least one article related to the stratigraphic sequence in each
publication.
NACSN 83 filed Allostratigrafi unit sequence in which meaning is covered,
but not fully, while 94 ISSC suggested the name "Synthem" for units commensurate
with Allostratigrafi Unit of NACSN 83. Many researchers consider that
Allostratigrafi more practical, but less able to provide an overview of stratigraphic
relationships real (Martinsen et al, 1993). This is because the unit Allostratigrafi only
a restricted field of disharmony unit while the sequence stratigraphy include
lithologies related occurrence, such as turbidite deposition due to shrinkage of the
sea.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy in the broad sense is a science which deals with the rules,
relationships and events (genesis) kinds of rocks in nature in space and time, while in
the narrow sense is the science pemerian rock layers.
Stratigraphy Classification

Stratigraphy is applying classification grouping of rocks in various ways, to

facilitate pemerian, rules and relationships of rocks against each other. Applying the
above-mentioned group known as Unit Stratigraphy.
Stratigraphy Unit Limits
Stratigraphy Unit limits determined in accordance with the limits deployment
of the unit characteristics as defined. Stratigraphy Unit limit certain types do not have
to coincide with the limits of other types Stratigraphy Unit, can even cut one another.
Stratigraphic Nomenclature
Stratigraphy nomenclature is the naming of stratigraphic units, both formal
and informal, so that there is uniformity in the name as well as the sense of names
such as: formation / formation, Zone / zone, systems and so on.
Stratigraphic Nomenclature Units and Not Authorized Official
Password recognized name in both official and unofficial. Usage rules official
and unofficial unit each stratigraphic unit, the unit in question adheres to the limits.
Naming unofficial unit should not disrupt legitimate.

1.1 Lithostratigraphy

1.1.1 The Principle Purpose

Lithostratigraphy division referred to classify rocks on Earth are applying into

units called jointed on the characteristics of lithology. At Unit litho unit based on the
determination of the characteristics of the rocks that can be observed in the field.
Determination limit the spread does not depend on the time limit.

Explanation :
Lithological characteristics include rock type, rock type combination, the
uniformity of rock lithology symptoms and other symptoms of rock body in the field.
Lithostratigraphy unit may consist of sedimentary rocks, metasedimen, the origin
of volcanic rocks (pre-recent) and rocks that certain processes and combinations
thereof. In the case of mixing the origin of rocks by a particular process that is
difficult to separate the use of the word "complex" may be used as the equivalent of
the level of the unit (eg. Complex Lukulo).
Lithostratigraphy unit generally in accordance with the Law of superposition, and
thus igneous, metamorphic layering that does not indicate the nature grouped into
units of Litodemik.
As in the case of minerals, then the fossils in the rock units are treated as a
component of rocks.
1.1.2 The Authorized And Not Authorized Units

Authorized lithostratigraphy unit is the unit of a unit that meets the password
requirements, while not authorized litostratigraphy unit is a unit that does not entirely
meet the password requirements.
Explanation : Not authorized unit as far as possible to be jointed to the
lithological characteristics; If the characteristic lithological not used, the
characteristics obtained by means of mechanical, geophysical, geochemical or other
research, can also be used as an not authorized joint unit.

1.1.3 Limits And Distribution Of Units

Limit lithostratigraphy unit is a touch between two units of different

characteristics of lithology, which is used as the basic unit of the second
differentiator. Limit unit is placed on a real field, the limit is a field that is expected to
position (arbitrary limit). The units are gradually changing or fingering, transition
can be separated as a separate unit if it meets the requirements of the Password. The
deployment of a unit lithostratigraphy solely determined by the continuation of the
traits that characterize the determining lithology. In practical terms, the deployment of
a unit is limited by the lithostratigraphy basin boundary precipitation or other
geological aspects. Limits of the law (geography) should not be used as reason for the
end of the lateral spread (spreading of) a unit.
Explanation :
Limit lithostratigraphy unit need not coincide with the boundaries of other
stratigraphic unit (eg limit time unit).

1.1.4 The Levels of Lithostratigraphy Units

The sequence official lithostratigraphy unit level, each from large to small is:
group, formation and Members. Formation is the basic unit in the division unit
lithostratigraphy.
Formation must have uniformity or lithological characteristics of real, good
consisting of one kind of rock types, looping of the two types of rock or more.
Formation can be exposed on the surface, continuing to the bottom surface or entirely
below the surface. Formation must have value stratigraphy which has fairly extensive

areas and usually can be mapped at a scale of 1: 25,000. A formation thickness ranges
from less than a meter to several thousand meters, therefore the thickness of the
formation is not a restriction requirement.
Members are part of a formation lithology which is different from the general
characteristics formation is concerned, as well as having significant lateral spread
(Fig. 1).
Members are always a part of a formation, but the formation does not necessarily
need to have a member. If a formation has one member or more, then the other part of
the formation need not be stated as a Member. Limit the lateral spread (spreading of)
a Member shall not exceed the limit spreading of Formation.
The group is an official lithostratigraphy level higher than the formation and
therefore consist of two or more showing the formation uniformity lithological
characteristics (Fig. 2).
The group should consist of two or more formations that have been there and
therefore one can not stand alone group. Formation must be remembered that it is the
basic unit does not need to be authorized and included in a group and also not always
divided into Members. If there is one group that wedge formation, the number and
types of arrangement formation is not always fixed. For example, a Group-Y in the
area I consists of Formation D, E and F, in region II consists of Formation E and F.
Formation can be increased to a group if it meets the requirements. The group name
using the name of formations that have been recognized. For example, a formation
which increased to group, its new name so Group A.

1.1.5 The Nomenclature of Litostratigraphy Units

Nomenclature of lithostratigraphy unit is binomial. For the Group level,

Formation and Members used the term level and recognized geographic name.
An authorized lithostratigraphy unit with the location formation in the area of
type A is called "Formation A", Diman "A" is the name of geography. Geographical
name of a unit shall consist of one word. When the name consists of two syllables
then in lithostratigraphy unit name, the names into a single unit; eg Bengawan Solo,
Mount Masigit be Mengawansolo, Masigit. To avoid duplication, geographical names
that have been used to name the official lithostratigraphy unit may not be used for the
official name of the other lithostratigraphy unit, either the same or different level
despite the geographical position of the names are different from one another.
Writing both words an authorized lithostratigraphy unit name must begin with a
capital letter whereas the unofficial unit names always in small letters, except written
at the beginning of the sentence. If for the same lithostratigraphy unit there are two
names, then the proposed official name previous to wear. Name geographic
distribution of units in the past, which have been popular or known in the literature,
should be maintained. Status is confirmed or amended according to the appropriate
rules lithostratigraphy unit. Geographical name may be changed or even lost, but the
changes should not affect the name of the existing lithostratigraphy unit.
1.1.6 The Nomination of Authorized Lithostratigraphy Units
Proposing an authorized lithostratigraphy unit must be done in ways that declared
openly and in writing. The statement should include the following:
1. a statement of intent proposing a formal unit;
2. name and unit level proposed;
3. the existence or location stratotipe type and lithological characteristics of the
provision of the unit in general;
4. stratotipe geographic location or type of location;

5. the relationship between the proposed unit by unit and a description of the
6.
7.
8.
9.

boundary line units;

deployment unit to a vertical direction (thickness) and lateral (the spreading);
geological ages until the unit level Age or smaller;
information regarding the names used before;
procedures for issuing must be authorized.
As far as possible apart stratotipe also argued hipostratotipe cutting or additional

base. Forms of publication may include periodic scientific publishing, geology

magazine or book, which is open to the public, and can be picked without any
restrictions.

Fig

The

relation

between

Formation, Member, and similarity

time in lithostratigraphy unit. a, s
and c = correlation line.

Fig . The relationship between

groups and formations; ABCDE is
the name of the ABC and DEF
Formation

of

each

can

be

separated into two groups: Group

X and group Y.

1.2 Biostratigraphy
1.2.1 The Principle of Purpose

Biostratigraphy division intended to characterize the layers of the earth are

applying into units named based on the content and distribution of fossils.
Biostratigraphy unit is united body of rock layers based on fossil content or features
ciripaleontologi as a differentiator against the body's joints surrounding rock. The
content of the fossil in question here is the fossils contained in the rocks of the same
age (contemporary) with the deposition of rocks. Fossils reworked, if it has an
important meaning units can be used in deciding biostratigraphy (unauthorized).
1.2.2 The Authorized and Unauthorized Units

Authorized biostratigraphy unit is a unit that meets the requirements of the

password while unauthorized biostratigraphy unit is a unit that does not fully meet the
requirements. Continuation biostratigraphy unit is determined by the content of
deployment fossil characters.
1.2.3 The Level and Types of Biostratigraphy Unit

Zone is the basic unit biostratigraphy. Zone is a layer or body of rock

characterized by one or more fossil taxon. The sequence official biostratigraphy unit
level, each from large to small is: Super-Zone, Zone, Sub-zone and Zonula. Based on
the characteristics of the unit that made the joint unit paleontology biostratigraphy,
distinguished: Set Zone, Range Zone, Peak Zone, Interval Zone, Debris Zone and
Solid Zone.

Oppel zone, taxon range zone, concurrent range zone and pedigree zone are the
kinds of range zone.
Set Zone
Set Zone is a single layer or a plurality of layers consisting unity by typical fossil
natural collection or collection of something kind of fossil. The usefulness of Set
Zone, other than as a pointer early life environment can be used as an identifier of
time. Limits and continuity of Set Zone is determined by a set of boundaries there is
togetherness (social) the main elements in a reasonable continuity. The name of Set
Zone should be taken from one or more elements of the fossil primary identifier herd.
Natural fossil collection is meant here are fossils that have the same
environmental and contained in the layers of rock's age when the deposition of the
rock layers. Had a collection composed by taxon A, B and C then the name of the
zone set is named Set Zone A, Zone B Set or Set Zone C or a combination of taxontaxon typical example Set Zone AB.
Range Zone
Range Zone is a layer of rock that includes the stratigraphic range of selected
items from the entire fossil collection. Usefulness of Range Zone mainly is for bodies
correlation of rock layers and as a basis for the placement of rocks in geologic time
scale. Limits and continuity of Range Zone is determined by the range of upright and
horizontal spread of taxon (taxon-taxon) Characteristic. Name of Range Zone is taken
from the range of one or more types of fossils that became the main characteristic of
the zone.
Range Zone can be a range of one element taxon, set the range of taxon, set the
range of taxa, taxon-taxon society, genealogy taxon or any other characteristic that
indicates the range of paleontology. Debris fossils can not be used in determining the
Range Zone. For example Taxon Range Zone is Range Zone of margaritae

Globorotalia, while the range of double -taxon zone is Range Zone of

Globigerinoides Sicanus - Globigerinetella insueta.
Peak Zone
Peak Zone is a layer of rock that body indicates the maximum development of a
particular taxon. The Usefulness of Peak Zone is to indicate the position of the body
Chronostratigraphy rock layers and can be used as a guide depositional environments
of ancient, ancient climate. Vertical and lateral limits of Peak Zone wherever possible
are objective. Peak Zone name is taken from the name of the taxon which develops a
maximum in the zone.
Changed fossils can not be used for deciding Peak Zone. In general, the
definition of maximum development is the population of a taxon and not the entire
range.
Interval Zone
Interval Zone is the interval between the appearance of the start / end of two
taxon identifier. Interval Zone usability in general, is for the bodies correlation of
rock layers. Upper or lower limit of Interval Zone determined by the appearance of
the beginning or end of the taxon-taxon identifier. Interval Zone name is taken from
the names of the taxon identifier which is an upper and lower limit of the zone.
The appearance of the start / end of a taxon is the start / end of the emergence of
taxon-taxon identifier on stratigraphy incisions. Areas where the points where the
appearance of the start / end is to be referred to as biohorison and is often known as
biodatum. The usefulness of the correlation of inter-regional or global age should be
absolute (pentarikhan radiometric) are included. For example naming of Interval
Zone characterized by early appearance is Interval Zone of Globigerinoides Sicanus /
Orbulina suturalis, characterized by the appearance of the final sample is Interval
Zone of Truncorotaloides rohri / Globigerinita howei.

Debris Zone
Debris Zone is a body of rock layers that are characterized by a number of fossil
debris, much different than the body of the rock layers above and below it.
Debris zone generally associated with a decrease in sea level is relatively
sizeable and often are local, regional to global. Debris Zone is an unofficial
biostratigraphic unit.
Solid Zone
Solid Zone is a layer of rock that is characterized by the abundance of fossil
population density is much more than a body of rock above and below it. Solid Zone
is generally caused by at least other than fossil material deposition.
1.2.4

The Procedure for Determination of Biostratigraphy

Unit

Proposing a formal biostratigraphy unit should be stated openly and in writing.

The statement includes the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

a statement of intent proposing a formal unit;

The proposed name of unit level;
the stratotype or location type, giving characteristics of fossils and lithology;
the relationship between the proposed unit with other units and information

5.
6.
7.
8.

about the limits of the unit;

the spreading laterally and spread to the vertical direction;
conjunction with other stratigraphic unit eg geological age (Age or smaller);
information regarding the names used before and
issuance procedures must be authorized.

1.2.5 The Authorized Units of Subsurface

Authorized subsurface biostratigraphy unit is a unit obtained by the data below

the surface. In addition to the procedure set forth in Article 29, still needed additional
covering full description of the well type or mine type, cross-section of the subsurface
geology / cross section of geological wells, sectional geophysical (eg seismic) or the
other, if necessary, storage of rock samples (tahibor), bor core and sample the like.
Full details include geographic location, name of the company responsible for the
subsurface data, the depth of the borehole, geography and nivo quarry where the rock
sample. Geological cross section showing the spread of vertical wells and spreading
of lateral and show its relationship with other stratigraphic units. Storage of fossil
specimens and rock samples should be open for study (general). Wells mine types and
types have the same meaning as the location type.

1.3 Chronostratigraphy
1.3.1 The Principles of Purpose

Chronostratigraphy division is classification by applying layers of rock into a

unit named based on the time interval geology. This geologic time interval can be
determined based on geochronology or other methods showed the same time. This
division is a framework to develop a sequence of geological events locally, regionally
and globally. For each Unit Chronostratigraphy geochronology units are
incomparable: Eotem with Period, Eratem with Time, Systems with Times, Series
with Tense and level with Age.
1.3.2 Stratotype and Limits of Unit

In Chronostratigraphy known unit stratotype and limits stratotype. Unit stratoype

is an incision (cross-section) stratigraphic interval bounded by upper and lower limits
stratotpye on the place of origin of the name of the unit. Limits stratotype are lower

and upper limits of the type of unit. Limit Chronostratigraphy unit is isokron field.
Limits of

Chronostratigraphy unit set by stratotype, based on objective

considerations.
In practice it is not always possible to obtain a continuous incision that can be
used as unit stratotype. Because it is a cross-sectional unit stratotype is generally a
compound which is composed of several incisions in the limits stratotype. Limits
stratotype can be determined by one or more methods of determining the time limit.
The diversity of methods used would be to make sure the truth limits stratotype.
Limits stratotype

must be selected from an incision continuous stratigraphic

deposition results without any gaps. Body of rock that exists between the upper limit
and lower limit of a unit may differ Chronostratigraphy lithological characteristics
from one place to another.
1.3.3 Level, Dissemination, And Order Of Chronostratigraphy
Unit

The level of Chronostratigraphy unit, each from large to small is: Eonotem,
Eratem, Systems, Series and Stage. This unit can be given a prefix Super when the
level is considerably higher than the specific units, but lower than the next larger unit.
In the case of the reverse prefix used is Sub.
Field layer is essentially a field of similarity of time, therefore, one layer
continuous, easily recognizable characteristics and has the spreading widely, it can be
a pointer in common time and called the waveguide layer. Lapse between
twowaveguides

layers called the interval between Selang Antara . Layer

characterized by uniformity geomagnit polarity which have a common time interval is

called Polarity. Stratigraphic unit magnet (Superkronozone, Kronozone and
Subkronozone) as a unit Chronostratigraphy. Continuation of Chronostratigrafy unit

of stratotipe is only possible, if there is evidence that there is a similarity.

Chronostratigraphy division in the password are as listed in Table 1.
1.3.4 Procedure Proposing Authorized Chronostratigraphy
Unit

For the nomination of an official Chronostratigraphy unit required:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

statements about the purpose of establishing a unit

the selection of the name of the unit
definition of upper and lower limits in lokasitipe unit
identification characteristics and basic age determination (absolute) unit
correlation
scientific publishing

1.4 Geochronostratigraphy

Geochronostratigraphy is connecting the layers of rock which refers to the

similarity of geological age.
Procedures and explanations:
Chronostratigraphy correlation procedure is as follows:
1. Correlate / connect the points of similarity time of any existing columns (the
picture is represented by the red line, and this line is known as the age of the
geological similarity line)
2. Correlate the layers of rock types litoginya same and are the same age, such as
conglomerate on-1 with conglomerate wells in the Well-2, because of the same
geological age, namely the Lower Miocene.
3. In the column Middle Miocene age sandstone on-1 with sandstone wells in the
Well-2, and limestones at the Well-1 and limestones on the Well-2 can be correlated.
4. Correlation of rock layers should not be cut off lines of age (the picture is
represented by the red line).

1.5 Litodemik
1.5.1 Litodemik Unit Division

Litodemik unit division intended to classify igneous, metamorphic and other

rocks were altered strong into units called jointed to the characteristics of lithology.

Rock compilation Litodemik Unit does not follow the rules of the Law of
superposition and contacts with lithostratigraphy unit can be extrusif, intrusive,
metamorphic or tectonic.
1.5.2 Limits and Level of Litodemik Unit

The limits of Litodemik unit of touch between two different units lithological
characteristics, which can be extrusi contact, intrusion, metamorphic, tectonic or
contact gradually. The contact between these two rock units are gradually litodemik /
graded, which is quite different lithological characteristics and meet the password
requirements can be grouped into a separate unit.
The sequence authorized Litodemik Unit level, each from large to small is:
Supersuite, Suite and Litodem. Litodem is the basic unit in the division Litodemik
Unit, a unit under litodem an unauthorized unit. Litodem must have uniformity
characteristics of lithology which can be either intrusive rocks, metamorphic and
extrusi or uniformity as far as possible have the lithology. This unit can be exposed at
the surface and may continue below the surface and can be mapped. The units are
defined based on the analysis of chemical / chemical properties and geophysical an
unofficial unit.
Suite is the authorized litodemik unit level higher than the Litodem, therefore
composed of two or more associations allied litodem. Grouping into Force Litodemik
Suite is aimed at showing the relationship naturally from the association litodemik
units that have similar characteristics in common and similarities litologinya genesis,
for example metamorphosis Bayat Suite consists of Litodem filit, Litodem Schist and
Litodem Genis. Supersuite is Litodemik unit level higher than the Suite, therefore
Supersuite Suite consists of two or more.

1.5.3 Nomenclature of Litodemik Unit

Nomenclature Litodem basic unit consisting of geographical names and the main
characteristic lithological composition, eg Diorite Cihara. The main feature of the
composition is meant here is the common trait that is easily recognized (especially in
the field) for example Schist, Genis, Gabro and others. Naming the level Suite,
consisting of the name of the level, followed genesis litodem group and geography
related

names,

such

as

intrusion

Cikotok

Suite,

Suite

Metamorphosis

Karangsambung. Naming Supersuite consists of a combination of the name and

geographic levels. Supersuite geographical name should not be the same as the name
Suite or Litodem.

CHAPTER II
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY

2.1 sequence stratigraphy

Sequence stratigraphy is concerned with the large-scale, threedimensional arrangement of sedimentary strata, and the major factors that
influence their geometries such as sea-level change, contemporaneous fault
movements, basin subsidence and sediment supply (cf. reviews by Emery &
Myers 1996; Miall 1997). The observational basis of sequence stratigraphy is
the ubiquitous arrangement of strata into units bounded above and below by
unconformities that can be traced out into conformable surfaces in a

basinward

direction.

These

surfaces

are

defined

as

the sequence

boundaries and the strata between them constitute a depositional sequence.

The geometrical relationships are observable from seismic reflection
profiles, extensive (e.g. hillside) field exposures, or are inferred by
correlations from smaller locations. A generalized model of a depositional
sequence, including details of the internal geometries, is shown in Fig. 6. No
temporal or thickness scale is given in this figure because sequences develop
in a hierarchical fashion at a great range of scales (e.g. Van Wagoneret al.
1990). The principal factor thought to govern the genesis of a depositional
sequence is relative sea-level change. Relative sea-level change is the net
result of global sea-level change combined with local subsidence or uplift of
the depositional area (Posamentier & Vail 1988).
An important practical aspect of sequence stratigraphy is the
recognition of key surfaces. In the Exxon model of sequence stratigraphy (e.g.
Haq et al. 1988) the unconformity surface represents the proximal area of a
sequence boundary and passes into expanded sedimentary successions in more
basinal settings; it develops when proximal accommodation is no longer
available. Accommodation is a loosely-defined term meaning space available
for sediment to accumulate: this space is capped by a dynamic
'accommodation limit', a surface which passes through the shoreline and is
itself dependent on sediment supply and transport processes. The proximal
region of the sequence boundary is characterized by erosion of the underlying
strata and may include such features as river valleys cut into previously
deposited marine strata of the underlying surface. Conversely, the distal
region of the sequence boundary may be represented by the increased volume
of sedimentary debris eroded from the more landward sites.

In addition to the sequence boundary, two other important surfaces

occur within a sequence. The more distal portion of the maximum flooding
surface represents, like the sequence boundary, a break in deposition or very
slow sedimentation, but unlike the sequence boundary it develops at the far
end of the sediment transport path as a result of sediment starvation, and may
be characterised by condensed marine deposits containing an abundant pelagic
fauna and well-developed early (sea-floor) authigenic mineralisation,
especially with glauconite and phosphate. The more landward portions of the
maximum flooding surface may, by contrast, be hidden within a thick
succession of relatively shallow marine or non-marine strata. (It is the
maximum flooding surface that normally defines the limits of Galloway's
(1989) genetic stratigraphical sequences: see below). A third important
surface is the transgressive surface, which is generally taken to be the first
significant marine flooding surface within the sequence.
Within sequences, further, more subtle geometrical and facies
relationships have been used to define systems tracts (Van Wagoner et al.
1988; cf. Helland-Hansen & Gjelberg 1994; Helland-Hansen & Martinsen
1996). Geometrical arrangements of facies or smaller-scale sedimentary
cycles (`parasequences') may be such that systems tracts can be recognized in
single vertical sections at outcrop or within a borehole (Van Wagoneret al.
1990). A four-systems-tract subdivision of depositional sequences is now
commonly employed (Hunt & Tucker 1992, 1995). Overlying the sequence
boundary is the lowstand systems tract, characterized by inferred rising
relative sea-level and shoreline regression (the latter continuous from the
preceding systems tract). Thetransgressive systems tract comprises strata
whose depositional environments migrate overall in a landward direction (i.e.
are transgressive) and whose component stratal surfaces onlap pre-existing
deposits; the base is defined by the transgressive surface and relative sea-

level at the shoreline is also inferred to have been rising. The transgressive
systems tract is terminated at its top at the maximum flooding surface, above
which strata of the highstand systems tract shift basinward again, with
successive stratal surfaces terminating in progressively more distal locations,
forming a geometrical pattern known as downlap (note the general similarities
with the lowstand systems tract). The final, forced regressive systems
tract is represented by an arrangement of strata whose shoreline positions
migrated progressively downwards as well as basinwards and so is produced
during falling relative sea-level and regression (the surface defining the base
had been termed the basal surface of forced regression).
The timing and nature of gravity-flow deposits within a depositional
sequence is a matter of some discussion. Early models (e.g. Posamentier &
Vail 1988) placed major phases of debris flow and turbidity current deposition
as occurring during relative sea-level fall and lowstand. More recent work
(e.g. Helland-Hansen & Gjelberg 1994) has shown that, conceptually, gravitydriven deposition may occur at any stage of relative sea-level change,
depending on the development of steep and unstable slopes. In Fig. 6 fan
systems are shown in the more conventional position corresponding to relative
sea-level fall.
Carbonate sediments respond in a different manner to siliciclastic
sediments in response to relative sea-level change because the sedimentary
grains are produced in situ rather than transported from a hinterland. Many
carbonate-producing processes require warmth and light in shallow-water
settings and are particularly sensistive to changes in nutrient supply. Thus the
large-scale geometries of carbonate systems are very different from those of
siliciclastic systems (Schlager 1992). During relative sea-level rise carbonate
production may be extremely effective, such that large volumes of shallow

water carbonate accumulate, and there is sufficient production for export of

carbonate grains to deep water settings. During relative sea-level falls, large
regions of potentially productive shelf may be exposed and effectively shut
down, so that little sediment can accumulate in either shallow-water or deepwater settings. However, it is probable that in the past some sea-level rises
have been associated with increases in nutrient supply and/or siliciclastic
sediment that have led to the demise of the carbonate platform systems, to
form adrowning unconformity (Schlager 1989). The lower depositional
angles of the siliciclastic sediments may create stratal geometries that mimic
those expected when sea-level falls below the shelf-slope break of purely
siliciclastic systems.
It has been claimed by some that global sea-level change is the
dominant influence on the formation of all depositional sequences (e.g. Haq et
al. 1988), but this is not accepted as fact by the majority of workers in the
field. The extent to which global sea-level change may influence the
sequence stratigraphical record will depend on both time and location. In
many depositional settings (for example, active plate margins) more localised
relative sea-level changes commonly dominate the stratigraphical record. On
the other hand high magnitude, high rate sea-level fluctuations have
undoubtedly occurred during periods of glaciation and deglaciation (glacioeustatic sea-level changes).
Sequence stratigraphy is now widely used as a means of subdividing,
correlating and dating sediments (e.g. Hesselbo &

Parkinson 1996),

especially within the hydrocarbons industry. However, it has yet to be applied

to Quaternary successions to any great extent. Although it has most
commonly adopted in marine coastal settings, attempts have also been made,

with mixed success, to apply the principles in fluvial, glaciomarine and

lacustrine situations.
It should also be noted that sequence stratigraphy is often applied
uncritically; in particular, age assignment of strata based solely on correlation
with a supposedly global sea-level curve has not proved to be a robust
method.

2.2. Sequence boundaries

Sequence boundaries are deemed the most significant surfaces.Sequence
boundaries are defined as unconformities or their correlative conformities. Sequence
boundaries are formed due to the sea level fall. For example, multi-story fluvial
sandstone packages often infill incised valleys formed by the sea level drop
associated with sequence boundaries. The incised valleys of sequence boundaries
correlate laterally with interfluves, palaeosols formed on the margins of incised
valleys. The valley infills are not genetically related to underlying depositional
systems as previous interpretations thought. There are four criteria distinguishing
incised valley fills from other types of multi-story sandstone deposits: a widespread
correlation with a regional, high relief erosional surface that is more widespread than
the erosional bases of individual channels within the valley; facies associations reflect
a basinward shift in facies when compared with underlying units; erosional base of
the valley removes preceding systems tracts and marine bands producing a time gap,
the removed units will be preserved beneath the interfluves; increasing channel fill
and fine grained units upwards or changes in the character of the fluvial systems
reflecting increasing accommodation space. Sandstone bodies associated with incised
valleys can be good hydrocarbon reservoirs. There have been problems in the
correlation and distribution of these bodies. Sequence stratigraphic principles and
identification of significant surfaces have resolved some issues.

2.3. Methods and Application of Stratigraphy

2.3.1 Methods
The preceding discussion indicates that the concepts involved in sequence
stratig raphy are fairly complex. Students can be reasonably expected to ask at this
point exactly what advantage sequence stratigraphy has over other stratigraphic meth
ods that makes it worthwhile to develop an understanding of these concepts. The
fundamental aim of sequence stratigraphy is to provide a high-resolution
chronostratigraphic (time-stratigraphic) framework for carrying out facies analysis.
Vertical facies analysis must be done within conformable packages of stratal units to
accurately correlate coeval (equivalent age), lateral facies relationships along a single
depositional surface. Other researchers have accomplished this end for many years by
using transgressive and regressive cycles of strata for regional cor relation of time and
facies. The proponents of sequence stratigraphy maintain that sequence stratigraphy is
a much better way of doing this (e.g., Van Wagoner et al., 1990, p. 6). A fundamental
aspect of sequence stratigraphy is the recognition that sedimentary rocks are
composed of a hierarchy of stratal units including laminae, beds, bedsets ,
parasequences, parasequence sets, and system tracts. With the exception of laminae,
each of these units is a genetically related suc cession of strata bounded by
chronostratigraphically significant surfaces. Facies above these surfaces or
boundaries have no physical or temporal (time) relation ship to the facies below.
Therefore,

correlation

of

these

surfaces

provides

the

high

resolution

chronostratigraphic framework necessary for facies analysis.

The actual practice of sequence stratigraphy requires that stratigraphers be
able to recognize the stratal expression of parasequences, parasequence sets, sys tem
tracts, and sequences. Early work relied mainly on seismic sequence and seis mic
facies analysis, as discussed in the preceding section-recognition of sequence
boundaries on the basis of stratal terminations, for example. Seismic stratigraphy

alone does not offer the necessary precision to recognize and analyze smaller scale
sedimentary units; therefore, well logs, cores, and outcrops are also used to ana lyze
sequences. Identification of shallowing upward units allows recognition of
parasequences. Groups of parasequences can be observed to stack into retrogra
dational, progradational, and aggradational patterns to form parasequence sets, which
correspond roughly to a system tract (Van Wagoner et al., 1990, p. 3). Sys tem tracks
are identified by distinct associations of facies and position within a sequence. Thus,
using an appropriate combination of seismic data, well logs, cores, and outcrop
information, it is possible to generate a high-resolution chronostrati graphic
framework of sequences and parasequence boundaries, defined solely by the
relationship of the strata.
2.3.2 Environmental Applications
Sequence stratigraphic concepts were originally applied primarily to analysis
of siliciclastic sediments deposited along continental margins, because these silici
clastic environments are particularly affected by cycles of relative sea-level change.
As sea level swings from highstand to lowstand, a succession of system tracts are laid
down
The deep-marine environment is affected far less by changes in relative sea
level of a few hundred meters than is the shelf environment. Nonetheless, sea level
changes do affect deposition in deep-ocean basins, particularly deposition of
turbidites in submarine fan systems. Although submarine fans can develop dur ing
sea-level highstands, turbidity currents appear more likely to move sediment from
shelf environments to the deep ocean basin during lowstands of sea level than during
highstands. Analysis of deep-marine turbidite systems appears to be the main
application of sequence-stratigraphy methods to the deep-sea environment (e.g.,
Emery and Meyers, 1996, p. 178).

Although sequence-stratigraphic concepts have been applied to marine epi

continental (cratonic) environments (e.g., Witzke, Ludvigson, and Day, 1996),
problems arise with such applications because of the low rates of subsidence of
cratonic areas. Sloss (1996) points out that vast areas of cratonic platforms appear to
have subsided at rates of 5 m/m.y., or less, for epoch and period-length spans of time.
Under such conditions, the b a thometric relief required for clinoforms, downlap
surfaces, lowstand tracts, and other characteristics of basins with a shelf break are
rarely attainable except under special circumstances. Sloss suggests that meaningful
progress is inhibited by forcing cratonic stratigraphy to conform to principles,
definitions, and practices developed for a different set of conditions.
Application of sequence-stratigraphic techniques to fluvial systems presents
particular problems because the base level for fluvial sedimentation, and thus ac
commodation, is more difficult to define than that for marine systems. The con
ceptual equilibrium surface that defines the upper limit of accommodation space in
fluvial systems is commonly taken as the graded profile, or profile of equilibrium, of
a stream. (A graded profile is the longitudinal profile of a grad ed stream or of a
stream whose gradient at every point is just sufficient to enable the stream to
transport the load of sediment made available to it.) The level to which a stream can
ultimately grade is called the bayline, which is effectively sea level for streams that
drain into the ocean. Changes in a stream's graded profile can either create or remove
accommodation space. Such changes can include changes in discharge, sediment
supply, channel form, and uplift, as well as the po- sition of the bayline (sea level).
Application of sequence-stratigraphy concepts to nonmarine systems is being actively
researched but is still controversial. The gen- eral view is that the lower reaches (100150 km) of fluvial systems are most likely to be greatly affected by base-level
changes and that it is this portion of fluvial sys- tems that is most likely to be
preserved in the stratigraphic record (see Shanley and McCabe, 1994, and Vincent,
Macdonald, and Gutteridge, 1998).

2.3.3 Global Sea-Level Analysis

One of the most controversial applications of sequence stratigraphy concepts
is the analysis of ancient sea levels. As discussed through out this book, changes in
sea level have an important bearing on sedimentation patterns. Studies of sea-level
changes have special relevance with respect to analy sis of cyclic successions in the
stratigraphic record. Sea-level changes through time have been studied particularly
intensively by P. R. Vail and his associates at the Exxon research laboratory in
Houston (e.g., Vail, Mitchum, and Thompson, 1977a, 1977b; Haq, Hardenbol, and
Vail, 1988). These authors used seismic data and sur face outcrop data to integrate
occurances of coastal onlap, marine (deep-water) onlap, baselap, and toplap into a
model that involves asymmetric cycle oscilla tions of relative sea level.
Vail and his group inferred changes in relative sea level by reference to coastal
onlap charts. These charts were constructed by estimating from seismic profiles the
magnitude of sea-level rise, as measured by coastal aggradation (the thickness of
coastal sediments deposited during sea-level rise). The amount of sea level drop is
determined by measuring the magnitude of downward shifts in coastal onlap, that is,
the elevation (vertical) difference between the point of maximum coastal onlap
reached at maximum sea level and the point of maximum sealevel fall, which is
determined from the seismic records by the position where the next (younger) onlap
unit lies above the unconformable surface produced during the sea-level fall (Vail,
Mitchum, and Thompson, 1977a; Vail, Hardenbol, and Todd, 1984).

CHAPTER III
VOLCANOSTRATIGRAPHY
3.1 General Information
Volcanostratigrahic is the study of sequences of recorded volcanic activity, especially
the activity witnessed by the volcano. The mapping of the volcanic stratigraphy is
based on the genesis and paleovulkanismenya. Naming unit volcanostratigraphic
preceded by precipitation, rock types, and the source of the eruption or geography.
The research of volcanostratigraphic consist of:

1. Mapping, determining the incidence and spread

2. Genesis of Volcanic Products
3. Age products Gunungap
Mapping of Volcanostratigraphic determine:
1. isopach tephra deposition
2. Isopleth fragments of pumice
3. Analysis of grain size
4. Colour, mainly caused by burning
5. Form shards Pengelasan
6. The nature of the bedding, such a massive, well-padded, etc.
7. The structure of the opening, antidunes, bomb sags, scouring, baking, etc.
8. Structure in sross laminated, the flow structure
Volcanostratigraphic unit are units mapped layers consisting of volcanic rocks formed
on land (subaerially) or in water (subaqueously) by volcanic processes.
Several kinds of volcanostratigraphy units known:
1. The flow of lava, lava flood, the flow of lava pahoehoe, aa lava flows, lava flows
lumps
2. Deposition subaqueous and interglacial (basalt)
3. lava, formed from tuff breccia, lapilli breccia stone and lapilli tuff with various
compositions

4. Deposition avalanche debris, boulders and ash deposition with a composition

similar to lava
5. Pyroclastic flows, similar to the avalanche of mud and sediment flow, but the
percentage of coarse fragments over silica berkomposisi less
6. Ignimbrite, ash flows, similar to pyroclastic flows but the percentage of coarse
fragments less
7. The precipitate fall-ash, consisting of pumice, ash, sometimes cinder basalt,
forming a precipitate tephra

Facies models for strato volcano based on the results of studies on Fuego,
Guatemala (According to the Vessel and Davies, 1981)
Volcanic facies can be divided into central facies, proximal facies, facies medial and
distal facies rock composition based on constituent (Bogie & Mackenzie, 1998)

Volcanic facies division into central facies, proximal facies, facies medial and distal
facies along rock composition constituent (Bogie & amp; Mackenzie, 1998)

The central facies of the discharge openings magma from the earth to the surface.
Therefore, this area is characterized by the association of igneous rocks which form
lava domes and a wide variety of volcanic rock semi breakthroughs as well as
volcanic neck, sills, dikes and subsurface dome. The shallow rock breakthrough can
be found on the walls of the crater or caldera volcano today, or in the ancient volcano
that has been eroded further. In addition, because the aperture area ranging from the
conduit or diatreme up to the crater is the site of the formation of the hydrothermal
fluid, it resulted in the formation of the rock alteration or mineralization. If the
erosion in the central facies is very advanced, older rocks underlying volcanic rock
can also be exposed.

A proximal facies volcanic region closest to the location of the source or the central
facies. Association of rocks on volcanic cones perselingan composite is dominated by
lava flows with pyroclastic breccias and agglomerates. The rock group is very
resistant, so that usually form the highest generation on an ancient volcano.
Medial facies, because it is away from the location of the source, lava flows and
agglomerates have been reduced, but pyroclastic breccia and tuff very dominant, and
breccia lava also has begun to develop.
As the deposition area farthest from the source, distal facies sediment is dominated by
volcanic debris as well as lava breccias, breccia fluviatil, conglomerate, sandstone,
and siltstone. The primary sediment facies volcanic tuff is generally in the form.
Lithologic characteristics in general is certainly no exception in case of a major
eruption pyroclastic flow resulting precipitate or sediment avalanches melampar
volcano away from the source. On the island of volcanoes or underwater volcanoes,
in this distal facies volcanic rocks can be interspersed with rock nongunung fire, as
well as carbonate rocks.
Table 1 and Table 2 gave the picture a special feature of being owned by a volcanic
sediment based on texture, grain size, and appearance in the field.
Table 1
lithologies
Piyoclastic flow

characteristic
similar to precipitate al

description
Distal, Proximal; 1 -1000

avalanche, distinguished by

km2, thick 10 - 200m

smoothness and scattered

boulders. Limited to the
lower slopes and tofografi,
lobate shape.

Ignimbrites, dust flow

Bursts of hot gas, a mixture

Distal, Proximal; 100

of boulders, lapilli, pumice,

-100.000 km2, thick 10 -

many layered dust deposition. 100m

Came from the central
volcano, a parasitic cone, or
fractures. Can be kneaded till
very hard, compact, massive.
Bedding produced by the
difference in welding and
crystalline zones. Smooth
surface covered with dust and
pumice. Limited to the
topography of the area is low.
Deposition of dust fallout

Dust cover, derived from the

Distal, proksimal, centre ;

crater or parasitic cone, can

center cinder basaltic 1 -

be kneaded, Compacted by

1000 km2, 1000 1.000 km2,

hoarding and cementation.

thick 0,1 - 10 m.

Coated fragments by size,

composition, color and
volume eruption released.
The smooth surface covering
topography.
Table 2
Lithologies
Pahoehoe Basalt

Characteristic
Description
Molten lava in large volumes Distal; 100 100.000 km2 ,,
at high speed out of the
fractures along the 0.5 to 10

thick between <10 100 m.

km, occupying an area of

Pahoehoe Lava (Basalt

lower topography.
The volume of molten lava

Distal, Proksimal; 1 1000

Andesite)

less than pahoehoe basalt,

km2, thick < 10 m.

out of the center fracture or

Aa Lava

eruption.
Lava fluids in small

Proksimal; 1 100 km2,

amounts, generally out of the thick < 10 m.

central eruption or a fracture
perlapisan solution was
Lava Boulder

observed.
Less volume, out of the

Centre; 1 10 km2, thick 10

center of lobate pattern

m 100 m.

forming on the slope, surface

irregular, elongated fissures.
Bedding solution clearly
Subaqueous Sediment

Lava

observed.
Deposited in the water,

Centre; 1 100 km2, thick

forming lava pillow / crown

10 m 50 m.

or precipitate Tuya.
Deposited in fluvial, tufa

Distal, Proksimal; 1 1000

rock, pumice, breccias and

km2, thick 10 m 100 m.

conglomerates rich rock

fragments. Derived from the
center of the volcano or the
slopes of the volcano,
Compacted well, massive,
poorly plated. Limited to
areas of low topography,
common fluvial flow

structure along the sides and

Debris Avalanche Sediment

edges.
Bursts of hot gas, a mixture

Centre; 1 100 km2, thick

of boulders, lapilli, pumice,

10 m 50 m.

dust. Derived from the center

of the volcano, the crater, or
a parasitic cone. Can be
kneaded, compacting being,
looks massive. Not
continuous layered with
pumice rock or dust volk
lens. Irregular surface,
parallel flute cast. Limited to
the slopes of the volcano and
buckling slope / base
volcano.

3.2 Units Morfostratigrafi

Stratigraphy is a grouping of rock classifcation according to various ways
to facilitate the provision and relationships layers one against Other flow
(Soerjono Madjojo, 1378). It may therefore be carried out stratigraphic
classifcation based on morphologic appearance. Unit morfostratigraf frst
proposed by Astadireja (1980), as a business classifying rocks are
composed by the landscape. Further morfostratigraf expressed as a
means or system quaternary volcanic sediment sequences grouping
based on the instructions landscape. Landscapes derived from volcanic
sediment as a the result of the eruption or eruption phase unit will have

certain characteristics, and can be recognized easily. Thus landscape of

volcanic sediment an eruption phase will show different characteristics of
the landscape deposition gunungapai of eruptions before or afterwards.
Landscape of sludge volcanic eruption of the various phases of
successively superimposed on top of each other, so it has a value
stratigraphy. Depth in unit morfostratigraf shown to simplify the rules,
administration, and the relationship between each of volcanic sediment.
Observations can stratigraphy identifed by analysis of volcanic
bentangalam, so it can then be made of the stratigraphic units based on
the observation of landscape. The basis for the implementation of the
stratigraphic units are:
1. Sediment is the result of a volcanic eruption phase
2. Each phase of eruption that then always be above the phase
earlier
3. Each phase of the eruption have certain traits
As the basic unit concept morfostratigraf unit is Morfoset (morphocet =
morfological and facet). Morfoset is a landscape composed of a precipitate
or sediment complex result of the volcanic eruption or phase of the
eruption, the possession of the characteristics of a particular landscape,
which can be distinguished by a landscape composed of a precipitate or
sediment complex volcanic eruption or eruption phase results before and
after, or other volcanic systems. Morfoset must be recognized well with
aerial photos and feld, and can be mapped at a scale of 1: 25,000. If a
morfoset composed of a complex of rocks are like lava, breccia or tuff, and
if any of these rocks alone have the landscape certain indistinguishable
from one another, the landscape of each the rock is called morfonit
(morphonit = morfological unit). So morfonit is part of morfoset, which is a
landscape that characterizes a certain rocks and are usually distinguished
from one another. Morfoset combination of several specifc pages that

make up the landscape called morfotem (morphotem = morphological

system). Morfotem is a landscape that is produced by a series of
processes or volcanic system. In naming the unit morfostratigraf follow
the binomial system. For morfonit, because it is formed by rock units, it
should be followed with the name of rock. Examples of its application for
regional morfostratigraf G. complex Bromo-Tengger-Semeru, as follows:
Morfotem G. Jambangan:
Morfoset Jambangan
Morfoset Ajak-Ajak
Morfoset Semeru

Lava Morfonit
Morfonit pyroclastic
Morfoset Tengger
Morfonit pyroclastic
The boundaries between morfostratigrafi unit can be recognized easily as
unconformity morphology. Precipitated the younger always fill in the previous layer
to form the pattern expressed topographic map contours. Contour pattern formed by
deposition of younger will cut contour patterns of older sediment, and so on.
Therefore, the relative age of rocks forming a strato volcano body can be determined
by morphological approach and can be arranged the morfostratigrafi.

CHAPTER IV
The Development of Geological time and The Explanation of
Geological time division.
4.1 The Development of Geological time
In 1869 John Wesley Powell, who was later to head the U.S. Geological
Survey, led a pioneering expedition down the Colorado River and through the Grand
Canyon. Writing about the rock layers that were exposed by the downcutting of the
river, Powell said that the canyons of this region would be a Book of Revelations in
the rock-leaved Bible of geology. He was undoubtedly impressed with the millions
of years of Earth history exposed along the walls of the Grand Canyon.
Powell realized that the evidence for an ancient Earth is concealed in its rocks.
Like the pages in a long and complicated history book, rocks record the geological
events and changing life forms of the past. The book, however, is not complete. Many
pages, especially in the early chapters, are missing. Others are tattered, torn, or
smudged. Yet enough of the book remains to allow much of the story to be
deciphered.

Interpreting Earth history is a prime goal of the science of geology. Like a

modern-day sleuth, the geologist must interpret clues found preserved in the rocks.
By studying rocks, especially sedimentary rocks, and the features they contain,
geologists can unravel the complexities of the past.
Geological events by themselves, however, have little meaning until they are
put into a time perspective. Studying history, whether it be the Civil War or the Age
of Dinosaurs, requires a calendar. Among geologys major contributions to human
knowledge is the geologic time scale and the discovery that Earth history is
exceedingly long.
The geologists who developed the geologic time scale revolutionized the way
people think about time and how they perceive our planet. They learned that Earth is
much older than anyone had previously imagined and that its surface and interior
have been changed over and over again by the same geological processes that operate
today.
4.1.1 The Relative Dating
During the late 1800s and early 1900s, various attempts were made to
determine the age of Earth. Although some of the methods appeared promising at the
time, none proved reliable. What these scientists were seeking was a numerical date.
Such dates specify the actual number of years that have passed since an event
occurredfor example, the extinction of the dinosaurs about 65 million years ago.
Today our understanding of radioactivity allows us to accurately determine numerical
dates for rocks that represent important events in Earths distant past. We will study
radioactivity later in this chapter. Prior to the discovery of radioactivity, geologists
had no accurate and dependable method of numerical dating and had to rely solely on
relative dating.

Relative dating means placing rocks in their proper sequence of formation

which ones formed first, second, third, and so on. Relative dating cannot tell us how
long ago something took place, only that it followed one event and preceded another.
The relative dating techniques that were developed are valuable and still widely used.
Numerical dating methods did not replace these techniques; they simply
supplemented them. To establish a relative time scale, a few basic principles or rules
had to be discovered and applied. Although they may seem obvious to us today, they
were major breakthroughs in thinking at the time, and their discovery and acceptance
was an important scientific achievement.
One method that was attempted several times involved the rate at which
sediment is deposited. Some reasoned that if they could determine the rate that
sediment accumulates and could further ascertain the total thickness of sedimentary
rock that had been deposited during Earth history, they could estimate the length of
geologic time. All that was necessary was to divide the rate of sediment accumulation
into the total thickness of sedimentary rock. Estimates of Earths age varied each time
this method was attempted. The age of Earth as calculated by this method ranged
from 3 million to 1.5 billion years. Obviously this method was riddled with
difficulties.
To develop a geologic time scale that is applicable to the entire Earth, rocks of
similar age in different regions must be matched up. Such a task is referred to as
correlation. Within a limited area, correlating the rocks of one locality with those of
another may be done simply by walking along the outcropping edges. However, this
might not be possible when the rocks are mostly concealed by soil and vegetation.
Correlation over short distances is often achieved by noting the position of a
distinctive rock layer in a sequence of strata. Or, a layer may be identified in another
location if it is composed of very distinctive or uncommon minerals.

By correlating the rocks from one place to another, a more comprehensive

view of the geologic history of a region is possible. No single locale exhibits the
entire sequence, but correlation reveals a more complete picture of the sedimentary
rock record. Many geologic studies involve relatively small areas. Such studies are
important in their own right, but their full value is realized only when the rocks are
correlated with those of other regions. Although the methods just described are
sufficient to trace a rock formation over relatively short distances, they are not
adequate for matching rocks that are separated by great distances. When correlation
between widely separated areas or between continents is the objective, geologists
must rely on fossils.
Fossils, the remains or traces of prehistoric life, are important inclusions in
sediment and sedimentary rocks. They are important tools for interpreting the
geologic past. Knowing the nature of the life forms that existed at a particular time
helps researchers understand past environmental conditions. Further, fossils are
important time indicators and play a key role in correlating rocks of similar ages that
are from different places.
The existence of fossils had been known for centuries, yet it was not until the
late 1700s and early 1800s that their significance as geologic tools was made evident.
During this period an English engineer and canal builder, William Smith, discovered
that each rock formation in the canals he worked on contained fossils unlike those in
the beds either above or below. Further, he noted that sedimentary strata in widely
separated areas could be identified and correlated by their distinctive fossil content.
Based on Smiths classic observations and the findings of many geologists
who followed, one of the most important and basic principles in historical geology
was formulated: Fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable
order, and therefore any time period can be recognized by its fossil content. This has
come to be known as the principle of fossil succession. In other words, when fossils

are arranged according to their age by applying the law of superposition to the rocks
in which they are found, they do not present a random or haphazard picture. To the
contrary, fossils show changes that document the evolution of life through time.
Once fossils were recognized as time indicators, they became the most useful
means of correlating rocks of similar age in different regions. Geologists pay
particular attention to certain fossils called index fossils. These fossils are widespread
geographically and are limited to a short span of geologic time, so their presence
provides an important method of matching rocks of the same age. Rock formations,
however, do not always contain a specific index fossil. In such situations, groups of
fossils are used to establish the age of the bed. In addition to being important and
often essential tools for correlation, fossils are important environmental indicators.
Although much can be deduced about past environments by studying the nature and
characteristics of sedimentary rocks, a close examination of any fossils present can
usually provide a great deal more information.
4.1.2 The Absolute Dating
In addition to establishing relative dates by using the principles described in
the preceding sections, it is also possible to obtain reliable numerical dates for events
in the geologic past. For example, we know that Earth is about 4.5 billion years old
and that the dinosaurs became extinct about 65 million years ago. Dates that are
expressed in millions and billions of years truly stretch our imagination because our
personal calendars involve time measured in hours, weeks, and years. Nevertheless,
the vast expanse of geologic time is a reality, and it is radiometric dating that allows
us to measure it.
Radiometric dating methods have produced literally thousands of dates for
events in Earth history. Rocks from several localities have been dated at more than 3
billion years, and geologists realize that still older rocks exist. For example, a granite

from South Africa has been dated at 3.2 billion years, and it contains inclusions of
quartzite. (Remember that inclusions are older than the rock containing them.).
Quartzite itself is a metamorphic rock that originally was the sedimentary rock
sandstone. Sandstone, in turn, is the product of the lithification of sediments produced
by the weathering of existing rocks. Thus, we have a positive indication that much
older rocks existed.
Radiometric dating has vindicated the ideas of James Hutton, Charles Darwin,
and others who inferred that geologic time must be immense. Indeed, modern dating
methods have proved that there has been enough time for the processes we observe to
have accomplished tremendous tasks.

4.2 The Explanation of Geological time division.

Geologists have divided the whole of geologic history into units of varying
magnitude. Together they comprise the geologic time scale of Earth history (Figure
4.1). The major units of the time scale were delineated during the nineteenth century,
principally by scientists working in Western Europe and Great Britain. Because
radiometric dating was unavailable at that time, the entire time scale was created
using methods of rela tive dating. It was only in the twentieth century that radiometric
dating permitted numerical dates to be added.
The geologic time scale sub divides the 4.5-billion-year history of Earth into
many different units and provides a meaningful time frame within which the events of
the geologic past are arranged. As shown in Figure 4.1, eons represent the greatest
expanses of time. The eon that began about 540 million years ago is the Phanerozoic,
a term derived from Greek words meaning visible life. It is an appropriate description
because the rocks and deposits of the Phanerozoic eon contain abundant fossils that
document major evolutionary trends.

Another glance at the time scale reveals that the Phanerozoic eon is divided
into eras. The three eras within the Phanerozoic are the Paleozoic ( paleo = ancient,
zoe = life ), the Mesozoic ( meso = middle, zoe = life ) and the Cenozoic (ceno =
recent, zoe = life ). As the names imply, the eras are bounded by profound worldwide
changes in life forms. Each era is subdivided into periods. The Paleozoic has seven,
the Mesozoic three, and the Cenozoic two. Each of these 12 periods is characterized
by a somewhat less profound change in life forms as compared with the eras.
Finally, periods are divided into still smaller units called epochs. As you can
see in Figure 4.1, seven epochs have been named for the periods of the Cenozoic. The
epochs of other periods, however, are not usually referred to by specific names.
Instead, the terms early, middle, and late are generally applied to the epochs of these
earlier periods.

Fig. The geologic time scale. The numerical dates were added long after the time
scale had been established using relative dating techniques. ( Data from Geological
Society of America )

Notice that the detail of the geologic time scale does not begin until about 540
million years ago, the date for the beginning of the Cambrian period. The more than 4
billion years prior to the Cambrian is divided into three eons, the Hadean, the

Archean, and the Proterozoic. It is also common for this vast expanse of time to
simply be referred to as the Precambrian. Although it represents about 88 percent of
Earth history, the Precambrian is not divided into nearly as many smaller time units as
is the Phanerozoic eon. The quantity of information geologists have deciphered about
Earths past is somewhat analogous to the detail of human history. The further back
we go, the less we know. Certainly more data and information exist about the past 10
years than for the first decade of the twentieth century; the events of the nineteenth
century have been documented much better than the events of the first century A.D.,
and so on. Thus it is with Earth history. The more recent past has the freshest, least
disturbed, and most ob servable record. The further back in time the geologist goes,
the more fragmented the record and clues become.

CHAPTER V
The Depositional Environment and the Facies Models
5.1 The Facies
In stratigraphy, a concept that originated in the 19th century to express
changes in the lithologic composition of rocks and embedded organic remains within
a stratigraphic unit over the areal extent of the unit. The term facies was suggested
by the Swiss geologist A. Gressly between 1838 and 1841. Gressly associated the
origin of facies changes with differences in the conditions of rock formation and
compared the facies changes to the changes that can be observed on the present-day
sea floor. Therefore, he grouped and named the facies according to the environment
in which the rocks accumulated, for example, littoral and pelagic facies.
In Russian geological literature, the term facies in Gresslys sense was first
used in 1868 by N. A. Golovkinskii to designate changes in the Permian deposits of
the Volga and Kama river basins. Gresslys concept of facies was multifaceted,
encompassing the petrologic composition of rocks, the organic remains embedded in
rocks, the origin of deposits, and changes in deposits within a specific stratigraphic
framework. As a result, the term facies was later used in different senses. The term
is most widely used to designate the physicogeographical conditions under which
ancient sediments accumulated, together with all environmental characteristics, such

as the environments dynamics, chemical conditions, life-forms, and depth; it has

been used in this sense by, for example, N. M. Strakhov (1948), D. V. Nalivkin
(1955), V. E. Khain (1973), and N. V. Logvinenko (1974).
Because the physicogeographical conditions are established on the basis of
preserved features of the rocks and embedded fossils, the term facies can have
either of the two following meanings: (1) the rock that occurs in a specific
environment or (2) the environment in which recent or ancient sediments
accumulated and which may be inferred from the sediment or rock. These two
definitions are very similar and complement each other.
Facies often designate the conditions that prevailed in different stages of
lithogenesis. For example, weathering facies are identified when the weathering stage
is studied, diagenetic facies are identified when the stage in which sediment is
transformed into rock is studied, and epigenetic facies are identified when subsequent
transformations of sedimentary rocks that have already formed are studied. The
Finnish geologist P. Eskola introduced the concept of metamorphic facies, applicable
to metamorphic rocks. The term facies is widely used to designate particular
characteristics of the recent and ancient environments in which sediment accumulated
and to designate various features of the sediments and rocks.
In 1933, L. V. Pustovalov introduced the concept of fossil geo-chemical
facies, which constitute a stratum or suite of strata and which, throughout their extent,
have an identical geochemical characteristic that was imparted during rock formation.
The term geochemical facies is widely accepted among petroleum geologists
because it indicates the geochemical characteristics of the environment in which
sediments accumulated and of diagenesis, which are important for the accumulation
of the organic matter from which petroleum originates.
American geologists F. Pettijohn, L. Sloss, and W. Krumbein introduced the
concept of lithofacies, which signify the common characteristics of the lithologic

composition of rocks of a specific stratigraphic unit in a given region. Examples

include arenaceous and argillaceous facies. Lithofacies may also include facies
identified according to minerals, rock textures, or rock structures. The concept of
lithofacies is used especially often in articles on petroleum geology. Biologic facies,
or biofacies, are also distinguished. Such facies are fossil biocenoses reconstructed
according to preserved organic remains; examples include coralline and graptolitic
facies.
Thus, facies are distinguished according to the environment in which
sediments accumulated, the composition of sediments, the stages of rock alteration, or
organic remains. Less often, facies are distinguished according to other features. For
example, physiofacies are based on the physical state of the environment and include
warm-water and subaerial facies; tectofacies are based on tectonic characteristics and
include geosynclinal, shelf, and fore-deep facies.
The term facies is also taken to mean beds whose composition and
physicogeographical conditions of formation differ from those of neighboring beds of
the same stratigraphic interval, which may vary in areal extent. This meaning has
been used by N. S. Shatskii (1955), G. F. Krasheninnikov (1971), and G. P. Leonov
(1974). In this approach, a facies is considered a geologic body whose composition
and formation conditions differ from those of adjacent beds of the same age. This
important restriction applies to both fossil and recent facies.
The branch of geology that considers the physicogeographical environments
in which sedimentary rocks formed is called the study of facies (D. V. Nalivkin). The
procedures for reconstructing the environments for past periods in the earths history
is called facies analysis (lu. A. Zhemchuzhnikov). Facies analysis is one of the
principal methods of historical geology.
Walther's Law of Facies, named after the geologist Johannes Walther (18601937), states that the vertical succession of facies reflects lateral migrations in

environment because when a depositional environment migrates laterally, sediments

of one depositional environment come to lie on top of another. A classic example of
this law is the vertical stratigraphic succession that typifies marine trangressions and
regressions.

5.2 The Facies Models

A facies model is a general summary of the characteristics of a given
depositional system. Such summary models act as a norm for the purposes of
,comparison and interpretation. They provide a kind of "mental picture" of the
properties of rocks deposited in a given environment. Few of us have had enough
field experience, have read enough books and papers, or have good enough memories
to carry around a mental picture of each important depositional environment.
Fortunately, we can draw on the experiences of many geologists through their
published data and ideas to construct facies models that will provide the reference
framework we need for interpreting ancient depositional environments.

5.3 The Facies Association

The Facies Association is a group of sedimentary facies used to define a
particular sedimentary environment. For example, all the facies found in a fluviatile
environment may be grouped together to define a fluvial facies association.

5.4 The Depositional Environment

The characteristic properties of sedimentary rocks are generated through the
combined action of the various physical, chemical, and biological processes that

make up the sedimentary cycle. Weathering, erosion, sediment transport, deposition,

and diagenesis all leave their impress in some way on the final sedimentary rock
product. The sedimentary processes and conditions that collectively constitute the
depositional environment play the primary role in determining the textures,
structures, bedding features, and stratigraphic characteristics of sedimentary rocks.
The close genetic relationship between depositional process and rock properties
provides a potentially powerful tool for interpreting ancient depositional
environments. This linked set of reactions between environments and facies is
commonly referred to as process and response. If geologists can find ways to relate
specific rock properties to particular depositional processes and conditions, they can
work backwards to infer the ancient depositional processes and environmental
conditions that created these particular rock properties.
Environmental analysis thus involves identifying response elements or
properties that have environmental significance. These properties include sedimentary
structures and textures (which reflect depositional processes such as current flow and
suspension settling of grains), sedimentary facies associations (such as fining and
coarsening-upward successions of facies, which indicate shifts in environmental
conditions), and fossils (which are useful indicators of salinity, temperature, water
depths and water energy, and turbidity of ancient oceans). These properties can be
used to construct facies models for each major depositional environment.
Sedimentary rocks have been deposited through time in three major
depositional settings: continental or terrestrial, i.e., on land; marginal-marine, the
boundary between the sea and the land; and marine, the ocean proper. Each of these
first-order depositional settings is divided into several major environments, which in
tum are divided into subenvironments. The following four chapters discuss the major
environments in the continental, marginal-marine, and marine settings. Although not
labeled specifically as such, facies models of various kinds are used throughout these

chap ters to summarize distinguishing characteristics of the principal sedimentary

facies generated in these major sedimentary settings.

Fig. 5.1 Simplified Classification of Ancient Depositional Environment

5.4.1 Continental (terrestrial) Environments

It tum now to the study of continental or terrestrial depositional systems.
Geologists recognize four major kinds of continental environments: fluvial (alluvial
fans and rivers), desert, lacustrine (lake), and glacial. Although treated in this book as
separate depositional systems, similar kinds of sediments can be generated in more

than one of these environments. For example, eolian (windblown) sediments can
accumulate both in desert environments and in some parts of glacial environments.
Lacustrine sediments form in lakes in any environment, including deserts and glacial
settings. Fluvial sediments are deposited mainly in river systems of humid regions,
but they are generated also in rivers within desert areas and glacial environments.
Facies deposited in continental environments are dominantly siliciclastic
sediments characterized by general scarcity of fossils and complete absence of marine
fossils. Nonsiliciclastic sediments such as freshwater limestones and evaporates occur
also in continental environments, but they are distinctly subordinate to siliciclastic
deposits. Continental sedimentary rocks are less abundant overall than are marine and
marginal marine sediments, but they nonetheless form an importantpart of the
geologic record in some areas. Tertiary fluvial sediments of the Rocky MountainGreat Plains region of the United States, Jurassic eolian sandstones of the Colorado
Plateau, Tertiary lacustrine sediments (Green River Formation) of Wyoming and
Colorado, and the late Paleozoic glacial deposits of South Africa and other parts of
ancient Gondwanaland are all examples of continental deposits. Some terrestrial
sediments have economic significance. They may contain important quantities of
natural gas and petroleum, coal, oil shale, and uranium. We now examine, in turn,
each of the major continental environments.

5.4.1.1 Fluvial Systems

Fluvial deposits, also referred to as alluvial deposits, encompass a wide

spectrum of sediments generated by the activities of rivers, streams, and associated
gravity flow processes. Such deposits occur at the present time under a variety of
climatic conditions and in various continental settings ranging from desert areas to
humid and glacial regions. Although alluvial settings can be classified in many ways
and many subenvironments of the fluvial system can be recognized, most ancient

fluvial deposits can be assigned to one of two broad environmental settings: alluvial
fan and river. These environments may be interrelated and overlapping.

5.4.1.2 Eolian Desert Systems

Deserts cover broad areas of the world today, particularly within the
latitudinal belts of about 1 0-30 degrees north and south of the equator, where dry,
descending air masses create prevailing wind systems that sweep toward the equator.
Deserts also lie in the interiors of continents and in the rain shadows of large
mountain ranges where they are cut off from moisture from the oceans. Deserts are
areas in which potential rates of evaporation greatly exceed rates of precipitation.
They cover about 20-25 percent of the present land surface.
Because of their generally low rainfall, commonly less than about 25 cm/yr,
we tend to think of deserts as extremely dry areas dominated by wind activity and
covered by sand. In reality, a variety of subenvironments exist within deserts, such as
alluvial fans; ephemeral streams that run intermittently in response to occasional
rains; ephemeral saline lakes, also called playas or inland sabkhas; sanddune fields;
interdune areas covered by sediments, bare rocks, or deflation pavement; and areas
around the fringe of deserts where windblown dust (loess) accumulates. Large areas
of the desert environment may indeed be carpeted by windblown, or eolian, sand.
Such areas that cover more than about 1 25 km2 are called sand seas or ergs; smaller
areas are called dune fields. Ergs and dune fields cover about 20 percent of modern
deserts or about 6 percent of the global land surface. The remaining areas of deserts
are covered by eroding mountains, rocky areas, and desert flats. The largest desert in
the world, the Sahara (7 million km2) , contains several ergs arranged in belts. The
larger belts cover areas as extensive as 500,000 km2.

5.4.1.3 Lacustrine Systems

Lakes cover about 1-2 percent of Earth's surface. Because the world's
continents are presently in a higher state of emergence than was typical of much of
Phanerozoic time, lake sedimentation is more prevalent today than it was during
much of the geologic past. In fact, ancient lake sediments appear to be of only minor
importance volumetrically in the overall stratigraphic record, although they have been
reported in stratigraphic successions ranging in age from Precambrian to Holocene.
Although not abundant in the geologic record, lake sediments are nonetheless
important. Lake chemistry is sensitive to climatic conditions, making lake sediments
useful indicators of past climates. For example, several studies have shown that
ancient episodes of wet and dry climates can be deciphered on the basis of lake
sediment chemistry and mineralogy. Also, some lake deposits contain economically
significant quantities of oil shales, evaporite minerals, coal, uranium, or iron. Many
lake sediments also contain abundant fine organic matter that may act after burial as a
source material for petroleum (Katz, 1990).

5.4.1.4 Glacial Systems

The glacial systems have placed last in this discussion of continental

environments because the glacial environment, in a broad sense, is a composite
environment that includes fluvial, eolian, and lacustrine environments. It may also
include parts of the shallow-marine environment. Glacial deposits make up only a
relatively minor part of the rock record as a whole, although glaciation was locally
important at several times in the geologic past, particularly during the late
Precambrian, late Ordovician, Carboniferous/Permian, and Pleistocene (Eyles and

Eyles, 1992). Glaciers presently cover about 10 percent of Earth's surface, mainly at
high latitudes. They exist primarily as large ice masses on Antarctica ( 86 percent of
the world's glaciated area) and Greenland ( 1 1 percent of the world's glaciated
area) and as smaller masses on Iceland, Baffin Island, and Spitsbergen. Small
mountain glaciers occur at high elevations in all latitudes of the world. About 50
percent of the world's fresh water is tied up in glacial ice, of which most is in
Antarctica (Hambrey, 1994, p. 31). By contrast to their present distribution, ice sheets
covered about 30 percent of Earth during maximum expansion of glaciers in the
Pleistocene and extended into much lower latitudes and elevations than those
currently affected by continental glaciation.
The glacial environment is confined specifically to those areas where more or
less permanent accumulations of snow and ice exist. Such environments are present
in high latitudes at all elevations (continental glaciers) and at low latitudes (mountain
or valley glaciers) above the snowline-the elevation above which snow does not melt
in summer. Mountain glaciers form above the snowline by accumulation of snow.
They move downslope below the snowline only if rates of accumulation of snow
above the snowline exceed rates of melting of ice below. The factors affecting glacier
movement and the mechanisms of ice flow (e.g., Martini et at., 2001; Menzies, 1995)
are not of primary interest here. Our concerns are the sediment transport and
depositional processes associated with glacial movement and melting and the
sediments deposited by glaciers.

5.4.2 Marginal Marine Environments

The marginal-marine setting lies along the boundary between the continental
and the marine depositional realms. It is a narrow zone dominated by river, wave, and
tidal processes. Salinities may range in different parts of the system from fresh

through brackish to supersaline water, depending upon river discharge and climatic
conditions. Intermittent to nearly constant subaerial exposure characterizes some
environments of the marginal marine setting. Others are continuously covered by
shallow water. Many marginal-marine environments are further characterized by
high-energy waves and currents, although some lagoonal and estuarine environments
are dominated by quiet-water conditions.
Because of the large quantities of siliciclastic sediment delivered by rivers to
the coastal zone throughout geologic time, the volume of marginal marine deposits
preserved in the geologic record is significant. The principal depositional settings for
marginal-marine sediments are deltas; beaches, strand plains, and barrier bars;
estuaries; lagoons; and tidal flats. Estuaries and lagoons are particularly characteristic
of transgressive coasts; deltas are features of prograding coasts. A wide variety of
sediment types-including conglomerates, sandstones, shales, carbonates, and
evaporites--can accumulate in these various marginal marine environments.

5.4.2.1 Deltaic Systems

The word delta was used by the Greek philosopher Herodotus about 490 B.C.
to describe the triangular-shaped alluvial plain formed at the mouth of the Nile River
by deposits of the Nile distributaries. Most modern deltas are less triangular and more
irregular in shape than the Nile delta. Nevertheless, the term (alluvial) delta is still
applied to any deposit, subaerial or subaqueous, formed by fluvial sediments that
build into a standing body of water. Deltas are "discrete shoreline protuberances
formed where rivers enter oceans, semi-enclosed seas, lakes or lagoons and supply
sediment more rapidly than it can be redistributed by basinal processes" (Elliott,
1986a). Thus, deltas can form in lakes and inland seas as well as in the ocean, but

they are most important in the open ocean. Much of the siliciclastic sediment
transported to coastal zones throughout geologic time has been deposited in deltas.
Ancient deltaic deposits have been identified in stratigraphic successions of
many ages, and deltaic sediments are known to be important hosts for petroleum and
natural gas, coal, and some minerals such as uranium. Although ancient deltaic
sediments are common in the rock record, much of what we know about delta
systems comes from study of modern deltas. Deltas are particularly common in the
modern ocean owing to post-Pleistocene sea-level rise coupled with high sediment
loads carried by many rivers. High sea level increases sedimentation rates on deltas
because sediment is trapped by the rising water, inhibiting sediment removal by
currents.
Modern deltas occur on all continents, with the possible exception o f
Antarctica. (Trough-mouth, glacially influenced submarine fans are present on the
Weddell Sea continental margin of Antarctica; however, these fans may not be true
deltas.) Deltas form where large, active drainage systems with heavy sediment loads
exist. These conditions appear to be met particularly well on trailing-edge or passive
coasts such as the east coasts of Asia and the Americas where tectonic activity is low.
Fewer than 10 percent of major modern deltas occur on collision coasts, where
tectonic activity is high and drainage divides are close to the sea (Inman and
Nordstrom, 1971; Wright, 1978). Under such conditions, the large drainage systems
necessary to supply heavy sediment loads are not developed. Their potential
importance as oil and gas reservoirs has generated considerable interest in deltaic
deposits since the 1950s. Consequently, the literature on deltas and deltaic deposits is
extensive.

5.4.2.2 Beach and Barrier Island Systems

Mainland beaches are long, narrow accumulations of sand aligned parallel to

the shoreline and attached to land. Bodies of beach sand are typically cut across here
and there by headlands and sea cliffs, estuaries, river deltas, tidal inlets, bays, and
lagoons. Barrier-island beaches are similar to mainland beaches but are separated
from land by a shallow lagoon, estuary, or marsh. They are also commonly dissected
by tidal channels or inlets. Beaches may form within delta systems, along a
depositional strike from deltas, or in other marine or even lacustrine settings that have
no connection with deltas. They are the most dynamic of all depositional
environments and are subject to both seasonal and longer range changes that keep
them in a state of virtually constant flux. In contrast to deltas, which are influenced by
both fluvial and marine processes, beach and barrier-island systems are generated
predominantly by marine processes, aided to a minor degree by eolian sand transport.
Modern and Holocene beaches have perhaps been studied more extensively
than any other depositional environment owing to their recreational use; their
accessibility; their economic potential as a source of placer gold, platinum, and
various minerals; and their importance .as an erosion buffer between the sea and the
Land. Much of the study of modern beaches has been carried out by coastal
engineers, geographers, and geomorphologists. Geologists also have a strong
scientific interest in beaches owing to the insight they provide into ancient
depositional processes and environments. Ancient beach deposits also have been
extensively studied. ln addition to their significance as indicators of ancient nearshore
processes and conditions, ancient beach and barrier-island sediments have
considerable economic importance as reservoirs for petroleum and natural gas and as
host rocks for uranium. Although most beaches are composed of sillcidastie
sediments, some modem beaches on carbonate shelves are made up predominantly of
carbonate grains consisting of skeletal fragments, ooids, pellets and other particles.
Carbonate beach deposits are known also from the geologic record (e.g., Inden and
Moore, 1983).

5.4.2.3 Estuarine Systems

Relatively small, partly enclosed coastal embayments are loosely called

coastal bays. Two broad types of coastal bays are recognized: estuaries and lagoons.
Estuaries (term derived from the Latin word aestus, meaning tide, and from the
adjective aestuarium, meaning tidal) are considered in a general sense to be the lower
courses of rivlers open to the s. Dalrymple, Zaitlin, and Boyd (1992) suggest that the
concept of net landward movement of sediment derived from outside the estuary
mouth is necessary to distinguish estuaries from deltas. Therefore, they define an
estuary as "the seaward portion of a drowned valley system which receives sediment
from both fluvial and marine sources and which contains facies influenced by tide,
wave and fluvial processes. The .estuary is considered to extend from the landward
limit of lida1 facies at its head to the seaward limit of coastal facies at its mouth."
According to Dalrymple, Zaitlin., and Boyd, estuaries can form only in the presence
of a re1ative sea-level rise (i.e., transgression). Progradation tends to fill and destroy
estuaries, causing them to change into deltas.

5.4.2.4 Lagoonal Systems

A coastal lagoon is defined as a shallow stretch of seawater--such as a sound,

channel, bay, or saltwater lake--near or communicating with the sea and partly or
completely separated from it by a low, narrow elongate strip of land, such as a reef,
barrier island, sandbank, or spit (Bates and Jackson, 1980). Most modern lagoons are
formed behind spits or offshore barriers of some type and thus are elongated bodies
lying parallel to the coast with a narrow connection to the open ocean. Lagoons also
form behind barrier reefs and atolls. Lagoons commonly extend parallel to the coast,

in contrast to estuaries, which are oriented approximately perpendicular to the coast.

Many lagoons have no significant freshwater runoff; however, some coastal
embayments that otherwise satisfy the general definition of lagoons do receive river
discharge. Lagoons may occur in close association with river deltas, barrier islands,
and tidal flats.
Many factors affect water flow, water mixing, and sediment transport in
lagoons, such as tides, wind waves, freshwater runoff, episodic storms, density
gradients, sea-level changes, and changes in climate and temperature. Even so, water
circulation patterns in lagoons are much less affected by freshwater inflow than they
are in estuaries, and many lagoons receive no freshwater discharge. Also, circulation
with the open ocean is restricted by the barrier. Consequently, the principal movement
of water within lagoons is in the form of tidal currents (which move in and out
through the narrow inlets between barriers) and wind-forced waves.

5.4.2.5 Tidal Flat Systems

Tidal flats form primarily on mesotidal and macrotidal coasts where strong
wave activity is absent. They develop either along open coasts of low relief and
relatively low wave energy or behind barriers on high-energy coasts where protection
is afforded from waves by barrier islands, spits, reefs, and other structures. Thus, they
occur within estuaries, bays, the backshores of barrier-island complexes, and deltas,
as well as along open coasts. They are particulary common in the modern ocean along
the coasts of Europe, Africa, South Asia; North and East Asia, Australia, New
Zealand, large Pacific islands, and western and eastern America (Eisma et a!., 1998).
Tidal flats are marshy and muddy to sandy areas partially uncovered by the
rise and fall of tides. They constitute almost featureless plains dissected by a network
of tidal channels and creeks that are largely exposed during low tide. As tide level

rises, flood-tide waters move into the channels until at high tide the channels are
overtopped and water spreads over and inundates the adjacent shallow flats. Ebb tide
again exposes the channels and intervening flats. In temperate regions, salt marshes
commonly cover the upper parts of tidal flats, and muds and silts accumulate near
high-water level. At the same time, mixed mud and sand are deposited in the middle
tidal-flat region, and sands accumulate in channels and on the lower parts of the tidal
flat. In arid to semiarid regions, tidal flats may become desiccated and marked by
mudcracks and by gypsum and halite crystals that form in muds. The surface of tidal
flats in subarctic regions may be marked by surficial scars, caused by ice floes and
ice-pushed boulders, and ice-rafted pebbles and cobbles. Modern tidal flats are
primarily sites of siliciclastic deposition; however, carbonate sediments and, in a few
areas, evaporites accumulate on some modern tidal flats such as those in the
Bahamas, the Persian Gulf, FloridaBay, and the western coast of Australia (e.g.,
Hardie and Shinn, 1986).
Much of what is known about ancient tidal-flat sediments comes from
research on modern tidal flats. Modern tidal flats have been studied intensively in
many parts of the world since the 1950s, particularly in Germany, the North Sea
coastline of The Netherlands, England, the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, the Yellow
Sea of Korea, and the Gulf of California. Eisma et al. (1998) describes and discusses
many of the major tidal flats of the world. Oil and gas deposits have been discovered
in both siliciclastic and carbonate tidal facies, and uranium is present in some sandy
tidal facies. Therefore, tidal deposits have economic significance as well as general
scientific interest.

5.4.3 Silisiclastic Marine Environments

The marine environment is that part of the ocean lying seaward of the zone
dominated by shoreline processes. Water depth in the marine realm ranges from a few
meters to more than 10,000 m. The salinity of seawater in then open ocean averages
about 35 %o, although higher or lower salinities can occur locally in restricted bodies
of the ocean. Marine life forms are characterized by generally high diversity and large
populations, and most are low-tolerance organisms adapted to conditions of normal
salinity. The energy of the bottom water lying immediately above the ocean floor is
generally low, except on the shallow continental shelf, which is affected by a variety
of tidal processes and wind- and storm wave activity, and on some parts of the deeper
ocean floor that are swept by bottom currents.
The major subdivisions of the oceanic realm are the continental margin and
the ocean basin. The continental shelf extends seaward from the shoreline at a gentle
slope of about 1 o to a point where a perceptible increase in rate of slope, the shelf
break, takes place. The shelf break occurs in the modern ocean at an average distance
from shore of about 75 km, although the distance ranges from a few tens of meters to
more than 1000 km. Average water depth at the shelf break is about 130 m. The
continental slope descends from the shelf break to the deep seafloor with a typical
slope of about 4 . On passive, or divergent, continental margins, the foot of the
continental slope merges with the continental rise, which is a gently sloping surface
created by coalescing submarine fans at the base of the slope. The continental rise
passes gradually into the floor of the ocean basin. Parts of the deep ocean floor
consist of nearly flat areas called abyssal plains, which are covered by sediment.
Other parts of the ocean floor are characterized by volcanic hills that rise above the
seafloor to elevations ranging from a few hundred meters to more than 1000 m. The
central part of the major ocean basins is occupied by a gigantic mid-ocean ridge that
may protrude more than 2.5 km above the seafloor. On active, or convergent,
margins, the continental slope may descend into a deep-sea trench, and the
continental rise is absent. On the basis of water depth, we divide the ocean into two

major zones: the neritic zone and the oceanic zone. The shallow neritic zone extends
from the shoreline to the shelf break. The oceanic zone extends from shelf break to
shelf break and encompasses the deeper part of the ocean.

5.4.3.1 The Shelf Environment

The neritic zone encompasses the shallow-water areas of the ocean lying
shoreward of the shelf break. Although the shelf break on modern shelves lies at an
average depth of about 130 m, as indicated, it may be located on some shelves at
depths as shallow as 1 8 m or as deep as 915 m (Bouma et a!., 1982). In the modern
ocean, the shallow-marine environment occupies mainly the continental shelf area
around the margin of the continents, forming what is referred to as a pericontinental,
or marginal, sea (Heckel, 1972). At various times in the geologic past, broad, shallow
epicontinental, or epeiric, seas occupied extensive areas within the continents,
somewhat like the present-day Hudson Bay area of the North American Arctic region.
The following discussion of the neritic environment is focused primarily on the
continental shelf environment because we can draw on the modern continental shelf
environment as a model. Readers should keep in mind, however, that many of the
shallow-marine deposits preserved in the geologic record may have been deposited in
broad epicontinental seas, for which we may have no truly representative modern
analogs, although some modern continental shelves are very wide (e.g., continental
shelves of the North Sea, Yellow Sea, and Timor-Arafura Sea). We may assume that
similar sedimentological processes operated on continental shelves and in
epicontinental seaways, but, in fact, differences exist between these two
environments. For example, epicontinental seas received sediments from nearly all
sides, whereas continental shelves receive sediments from only one side.
Furthermore, the wave and current regimes in epicontinental seas may have been
different from those on shelves. In addition, modern continental shelves may not

provide a good analog for ancient marginal seas because rapid rise of sea level
following the final episode of Pleistocene glaciation has stranded coarse sediment in
deeper parts of the shelves, creating conditions of sediment-water disequilibrium.
Thus, sediment grain size on some parts of modern shelves is not consistent with
present water depth, energy conditions, and sedimentation processes on the shelves.
Both siliciclastic and carbonate sediments can accumulate in the marine shelf
environment, although most modern continental shelves are covered by siliciclastic
sediments. Carbonate sediments are restricted to a few shelves, mainly (but not
exclusively) in tropical areas.

5.4.3.2 The Oceanic (Deep Water) Environment

In the discussion of depositional environments to this point, It have focused

on the continental, marginal-marine, and shallow-marine environments because much
of the preserved sedimentary record was deposited in these environments. In terms of
size of the environmental setting, however, these nonmarine and shallow-water
marine environments actually cover a much smaller area of Earth's surface than do
deep-water environments. By far, the largest portion of Earth's surface lies seaward of
the continental shelf in water deeper than about 200 m. Approximately 65 percent of
Earth's surface is occupied by the continental slope, the continental rise, deep-sea
trenches, and the deep ocean floor. Even so, most textbooks that discuss sedimentary
environments typically give only modest coverage to oceanic environments. This bias
probably exists because, as a whole, deep-water sediments are much more poorly
represented in the exposed rock record than are shallow water sediments. Deep-water
deposits are less abundant than shallow water deposits in the exposed rock record
because sedimentation rates overall are slower in deeper water; thus, the sediment
record is thinner. [An exception is the submarine fan environment near the base of the

slope where sedimentation rates from turbidity currents can exceed 10 m / 1000 yr
and turbidite sediments can achieve thicknesses of thousands of meters (e.g., Bouma,
Normark, and Barnes, 1985)]. Also, part of the sediment record of the deep seafloor
may have been destroyed by subduction in trenches, and those deep-water sediments
that have escaped subduction have required extensive faulting and uplift to bring
them above sea level where they can be viewed. Deepwater sediments other than
turbidites have not been studied as thoroughly as shallow-water sediments-perhaps in
part because deep-water sediments have less economic potential for petroleum.
Owing to the advent of seafloor spreading and global plate tectonics concepts,
however, the deep seafloor has taken on enormous significance for geologists.
Consequently, intensive research has been focused on the continental margins and
deep seafloor since the early 1960s. Also, the continuing need to add to our fossil fuel
reserves is pushing petroleum exploration into deeper and deeper water, and the
possibility of mining manganese nodules and metalliferous muds from the seafloor is
also causing increased economic interest in the deep ocean.
Deep-sea research has been particularly stimulated by the Deep Sea Drilling
Program (DSDP), which began in 1968 and shifted to the Ocean Drilling Program
(ODP) in 1 984. Since initiation of these programs, several hundred holes have been
drilled by DSDP and ODP teams throughout the ocean basins of the world to an
average depth below seafloor of about 300 m ( 1000 ft) and to maximum depths
exceeding 1000 m. In addition to deep coring by DSDP and ODP, many thousands of
shallow piston cores have been collected from the seafloor throughout the ocean by
marine geologists from major oceanographic institutions of the world. Also, hundreds
of thousands of kilometers of seismic profiling lines have been run in crisscross
patterns across the ooean floor in an attempt to unravel the sub-bottom structure of
the ocean. Although much of this research has been aimed at understanding the larger
scale feahtres of the ocean basins that illuminate the origin and evolutionary history
of the ocean basins along plate tectonics concepts, many data on sedimentary facies

and sedimentary environments have also been collected. Much additional new
information on ocean circulation and sediment transport systems has also been
generated by oceanographers who study ocean bottom currents and bottom-water
masses. Thus, a significant increase in understanding of the ocean basins and the deep
ocean floor has come about since the 1950s. We shall concentrate discussion here on
the fundamental processes of sediment transport and deposition on continental slopes
and the deep ocean floor and the principal types of facies developed in these
environments.

5.4.4 Carbonate and Evaporite Environments

Carbonate rocks make up roughly one-quarter of the sedimentary rocks in the
geologic record. They are an extremely important group of rocks owing to the
information they provide about Earth's history and environments and to their
economic importance as hosts for petroleum and some metallic elements. Evaporite
deposits make up a scant percent or so of the total sedimentary rock record at most,
but they are nonetheless very important. Their presence in the rock record affords
significant insight into Earth's past climates and they too have considerable economic
significance.

5.4.4.1 Carbonate Environment

Although most modem continental shelves are mantled by siliciclastic

sediments, carbonate deposits constitute the dominant sediment cover on a few
shelves. Modem carbonate shelves are located primarily at low latitudes in clear,
shallow, tropical to subtropical seas where little terrigenous siliciclastic detritus is
introduced. Most of these tropical, carbonate-producing shelves, such as Florida Bay

and western Australia, are attached to the mainland. A few smaller shelves surround
oceanic islands-the Bahama Platform and the narrow shelves around Pacific atolls,
for example (e.g., Vacher and Quinn, 1997). Carbonate sediments also form on some
higher latitude (30--60"), cool-water shelves, where they consist predominantly of
shell remains (Lees and Buller, 1972; Nelson, 1988; James and Clarke, 1997). Several
temperate (cool-water) carbonate environments are present in the modem ocean,
including the shelf off southern Australia between 32 and 40 south latitude, portions
of the northwest European shelf, and the Orkney shelf off northeast Scotland.
A few carbonates form in nonmarine environments-in lakes, streams, caves,
soils, and dune settings. These carbonates have value as paleoenvironmental
indicators, but their volume in the ancient record is quite small.
The relatively minor importance of modem carbonate deposition is decidedly
a typical of many geologic periods of the past when widespread deposition of
carbonate sediments characterized sedimentation in broad epeiric seas hundreds to
thousands of kilometers wide. During the middle Paleozoic, for example, carbonate
deposition prevailed in shallow inland seas that spread over much of the continental
interior of North America. In spite of the small areal extent of modern shelf carbonate
environments, carbonate-dominated shelves nonetheless provide outstanding natural
laboratories for studying the mechanisms of carbonate sedimentation. Much of what
we now understand about carbonate textures and the basic processes of carbonate
deposition has come from study of modern carbonate environments. On the other
hand, we must turn to the ancient rock record itself for insight into the environmental
conditions that typified carbonate-dominated epeiric seas.

5.4.4.2 Evaporites Environment

Evaporites form in both nonmarine and marine environments; however, marine

evaporites are commonly of greatest geologic interest. Marine evaporite deposits, like
carbonate deposits, cover relatively small areas of the modern world ocean. Marine
evaporites form where rates of evaporation exceed water input, mainly in warm areas
of the world. Today, marine evaporite deposits are confined to coastal supratidal
settings and sites where marine waters seep into low-lying pools and small basins
(Kendall and Harwood, 1996). Such occurrences include coastal Salinas (salt ponds,
lakes) around the edges of the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the Red Sea, and the
southern and western coasts of Australia, as well as sabkhas (marine to continental
salt flats), which are particularly common in the Persian Gulf. Some small-scale
ancient evaporites formed in similar environments; however, many ancient evaporite
deposits are of giant proportions compared to modem deposits. These giants have no
modern analogs and appear to have formed under rather different conditions
compared to modem evaporites.

CHAPTER VI
TECTONOSTRATIGRAPHY
6,1 Pre-Rift, Syn-Rift, Post-Rift Facies
Before we talk abou prerift, syn rift, postrift facies, we have to know what
tectonostratigraphy is. From the word stratigraphy and tecto we can conclude that
tectonostratigraphyisastratigraphyofalargescalestratacausedbytectonicactivity.From
thepapersthatIread,tectonostratigraphyisarelativelynewandactivelydevelopingfieldin
thegeologyofsedimentarybasins.Thisbranchofgeologystudiestherelationshipsbetween
largelithostratigraphicunits,forexample,faciallyheterogeneoussequences,withparticular
attentiontotheinfluenceoftectonicprocessesupontheoriginofstratigraphicsuccessions.
At the same time, tectonostratigraphy is an integral part of classical geology and its
fundamentalsstartedevolvingverylongagoindifferentcountriesandbyvariousresearchers.
Tectonostratigraphymeanstheidentificationofmegasequencesandtheirinterpretationin
terms of tectonic settings at the time of their accumulation (Watkinson et al., 1977).
Tectonostratigraphy is closely associated with sequence stratigraphy, and sequence
stratigraphyexaminesinterrelationsbetweenrockswithinachronostratigraphicframework
wheretherocksuccessionhasacyclicstructureandconsistsofgeneticallyrelatedelements.
All tectonostratrigraphic studies are based on a single, for each sedimentary basin,
stratigraphic scheme that is constructed based on synthetic data of field geology, well
logging, and seismic profiling. Tying of all these data into an integral system with the

identificationofregionalchrnostratigraphicunitsisthemostimportantstageofprocess.A
chronostratigraphicunitsisarocksuccessionthatwasrecognizeasasubstantialreference
unitforallsedimentthataccumulatedatcertaintectonicconditions,andthechangeofsuch
unitsisrelatedtochangesintheconditions.Hence,atectonostratigraphicunitmayinclude
one or several chronostratigraphic units include rifting, postrifting, syninversion, and
synfolding (synkinematic) sediment series, as well as sedimentary successions filling
foredeeps.Tectonostratigraphicunitsaresubdividedintoseveralranks:forexample,arift
relatedsedimentaryseriescanbesubdividedintodifferentrockcomplexes.Thefollowing
typesoftectonostratigraphicunitscanbeidentifiedonseismicprofiles:preriftingsediments
(whichaccumulatedbeforenormalfaultformation),synriftingsediments(whichaccumulated
synchronouslywithnormalfaultformation),postriftingsediments(whichaccumulatedafter
faultingabovetheriftduethegentlesagging,sedimentsinaforedeep,whichaccumulatedin
aflexurebasinsynchronouslywithgrowthofanoregonicbelt),andsyninversionsediments
(whichaccumulatedsynchronouslywithfoldingdeformations)
Thepreriftphase.Undeformedlithospherictemplate.weneedtoknowthattheinitialphase
oftheformationofrifthighlyrelatedtotheinvolvementofupwellingmatleplumeornotthe
socalled ordinary active rifting (mantle plume Involved: Pure continental rift is usually
markedbytheappearanceofvolcanicactivityandfollowedbysedimentex:eastafricanrift)
andpassiverifting(nonmantleplumeInvolved:ordinarydiakibatbytrasform/strikeslip,
rollbackofslabsubduction,andthemountainchain,andthisdoesnotatallinvolvethe
activityofvolcanic,sedimentaryfillerisdominatedbysedimentdepositionterrestrialex:
Backarchbasin,basinTranstensional,).
Thestretching(orriftingorsynrift)phase.Rapidextensionofthecontinentalplatecausesit
tothin,andhotmantlewellsuppassivelybeneath.Blockfaultingandrapidsubsidenceare
associatedwiththisphase.Thekeyparameteris ,thelengthtowhichaunitlengthof
continentalplateisstretched.nthisphaseonactiveriftingcommonlycharacterizedbythe
presenceofboundingfaultandtheemergenceoffloodbasaltinthecenterofrifting,its
thicknessisvariedtofollowthemorphologyofthebasin,onaflexuremargincouldhave
beeninthedominanceofterrestrialsediment,whichisthinnerdeltaicfluvialthaninthe

boundingfaultwhichtendstobethickerandruggedex:alluvialfan,debrisetc.distinguishit
frompassiveriftingonlytheabsenceofvolcanicactivity(floodbasaltetc).
Thecooling(orpostrift)phase.Oncestretchinghasceased,thecontinentalplatecoolsand
re thickens to achieve thermal equilibrium (analogous to the oceans). This phase is
associatedwithfurthersubsidence,exponentialinform,butthereisnofaulting.inthisphase
iscommonlycalledthephaseof"sagging"whichbeganrestingactivationofboundingfault,
forordinarypassiveriftingwhichmarkedthepresenceofthickmarinesedimentrelatively
constantex:carbonateplatform,etc.,whilethebasehasanactiveriftingphaseFurtherinto
passivemarginbasinwherethesedimentwhichhasarelativelyconstantthicknessex:open
marine.

6.2 Transgression
Transgressivesurface(TS)
Thissurfaceisthefirstsignificantmarinefloodingsurfaceinasequence.Inmostsiliciclastic
andsomecarbonatesuccessionsitoccurswhentherateofcreationofaccommodationspace
isgreaterthantherateofsedimentsupply.Transgressivesurface(TS)liesovertheLowstand
SystemTract(LST)andbeneaththetransgressivesystemstract(TST)(Catuneanu,etal,
2011).
Maximumfloodingsurface(mfs)Seismicallyanmfsisoftenexpressedasadownlapsurface
and is a zone where slow rates of deposition result in thin and fine grained pelagic
hemipelagicsedimentsformingacondensedsection(Mitchum,1977). Themfsmarksthe
bounding surface between coarsening and/or fining upward cycles. This commonly
widespreadzoneisoftencharacterizedbythepresenceofradioactiveandoftenorganicrich
shales, glauconite, hardgrounds and is composed of thin bedded concentrations of fauna

(condensed sections) with high abundance and diversity. This surface marks the time of
maximumfloodingortransgressionoftheshelfandliesbeneaththehighstandsystemstract
(Catuneanu,etal,2011).
The subdividing "surfaces" of the sequence stratigraphic framework that envelopes and
enclosesdiscretegeometricbodiesofsedimentestablishestheirorderofaccumulationfrom
oldesttoyoungest.Interpretationisconductedbydisassembling(backstripped)sedimentary
bodiesandthenreassemblingtheminorderinwhichtheyformed.Thedepositionalsettingis
determined through the iterative reassembly and a consideration of the origin of the
subdividingsurfaces,geometry,lithofaciesandfaunaandevolvingcharacter.Eachstratal
unitisdefinedandidentifiedonlybyphysicalrelationshipsofthestrata,includinglateral
continuityandgeometryofthesurfacesboundingtheunits,verticalstackingpatterns,and
lateralgeometryofthestratawithintheunits"(VanWagoneretal.,1990).

Inadditiontheprocessofinterpretingtheoriginsofthesesurfaces,thedepositionalsetting
and gross sedimentary geometry of the rocks enclosed within the sequence stratigraphic
framework involves Niels Stenos Laws of Superposition and Walther's Law. The latter
proposes that a vertical succession of sedimentary facies likely accumulated in adjacent
depositional settings whether within a parasequence, system tract or a sequence.
Paradoxicallythesurfacesusedtosubdividestratigraphicsectionsarediachronousbutinthe
processofinterpretationthisisoversimplifiedandthediachronouscharacterofthesurfaces
isessentiallyignored. ForinstanceHolbrookandBhattacharya(2012)indicatesubaerial
unconformitiesinfluvialsystemsmeetthesecriteriabutsuggesttheseboundariescanstillbe
usedtoboundsystemsdespiteintensediachroneity.Theresultsoftheuseofthesequence
stratigraphicmethodologyisthatinterpretationofdepositionalsettingandapredictionof
grosssedimentarygeometryareconfirmedinthefieldandwithsubsurfacedata.

Withoutexceptionallthesesurfaces,andinmanycasesthezonesinferredtocontainthem

andthesedimenttheyenclose,transgresstime,inotherwordsarediachronousandinsome
cases may not even have the regional extent proposed for them, and so may be miss
correlated.Alsothesequencestratigraphicsurfaceshavebecomelargelyconceptualsurfaces
imposed upon tangible rocks (HellandHansen, and Martinsen, 1996; Catuneanu, 2006;
Embryetal.,2007;Miall,2004;HolbrookandBhattacharya,2012).ForinstanceHolbrook
andBhattacharya(2012)pointoutthatthesubaerialunconformityismoreoftenthannotisa
conceptual surface and is assumed to be an approximate time barrier that includes the
definingtraitsoforiginatingasasubaerialerosionalsurfacepreservedasanunconformity
thatseparatesyoungerfromolderstratawithsignificanthiatus.

Asaresultallthesequencestratigraphicsurfaces,(SB,BSTSST,TS,andmfs)oftenviolate
Walther's Law, since they record shifts in facies deposition during transgression and
regressionand/orratesofchangeofaccommodation,particularlyatbasinmarginsandalong
strike(Catuneanu,2006).Itisarguedherethatwhilemostofthesesequencesurfacesdonot
exactlyfittheirdefiningcharacteristicstheycanbemappedandboundenclosingfaciesthat
accumulatedoveragenerallyshorttime.Theconceptualcharacterofasurfaceislikelytobe
moresowithincreasinghierarchicalrank(Catuneanu,etal,2011). Despitethesecaveats
sequencestratigraphicsurfaces are useful for general "fuzzy" oversimple correlation. As
interpretive tools they are commonly used and are often referred to in the stratigraphic
literature.Toconcludethedefinitionofthesesurfacesisoversimplifiedandformdiscrete
boundaries that can be traced beyond the scale of a single valley or comparable local
depositionalsystem,andusedtomakeaccuratefaciespredictions.
Contentionarisesfromthenomenclatureofeachofthesequencestratigraphicsurfacesand
thebodiestheycontain. Thisargumentisbasednotsomuchontheconstantlychanging
nomenclature as the developing understanding of sedimentary systems and their
interpretation. However it is unfortunate that, though changes in nomenclature are well
intentioned,thesechangesoftenaddfurthertotheconfusiontoascientificmethodology
alreadyweigheddownwithcomplexmultiwordandmultisyllableterminology.

SequenceStratigraphicUnits
Thegrosssedimentgeometricendmembersarerepresentedbysequences,systemstracts,and
parasequencesareahierarchyofstratigraphicpackagesorunitsofsimilarsedimentstrata
whosegeometriesareofincreasinglyhigherfrequency,andarerelatedtochangesinthe
spaceoraccommodationavailableforsedimentfill;accommodationdrivenbychangesin
eustasyandtectonics(Jervey,1988).Itisshownhowthegeometrichierarchyisexpressedin
thesepackagesbythesubdividingandenvelopingsurfacesfoundinsedimentarysections.
Thesebodiesandtheirlithofaciesarekeystodeterminingandinterpretingthedepositional
setting of the sedimentary sections that contain these bodies. It is contended that if
depositional systems are describehided in terms of the geometric hierarchy of their
lithofaciesandelementsthisleadstoabetterunderstandingofthedepositionaloriginsof
similarsedimentarybodiesintherockrecord

Figure:accommodationis"thespaceavailableforpotentialsedimentaccumulation"driven
byrelativesealevel(Jervey,1998).Curray,(1964),Posamentier&Allen,(1999),Coeetal
(2002), and Catuneanu (2002) suggest rates of sedimentation are a coequal control of
accommodation.

Sequence
The sequences of the sedimentary record are generated by cycles of change in
accommodationand/orsedimentsupplythatalsoformsimilarsequencestratigraphicsurfaces
throughgeologictime.cyclesmaybesymmetricalorasymmetrical,andmayormaynot
containthesystemstractsofafullydevelopedsequence.Afunctionofscale,sequencesand
their bounding surfaces may have different hierarchical orders recording a series of
geologicalevents,andprocessesinsedimentaryrocksthatformarelativelyconformable
succession of genetically related strata. Their upper surfaces and bases are bounded by
unconformitiesandtheircorrelativeconformities(Vail,etal.,1977).Asequenceisformed
byasuccessionofgeneticallylinkeddepositionsystems(systemstracts)interpretedtohave
accumulatedbetweeneustaticfallinflectionpoints(Posamentier,etal.,1988).Thesequences
andenclosedsystemtractsaresubdividedand/orboundedbyavarietyof"key"surfacesthat
boundorenvelopthem. Asdescribehidedabovetheseincludesequenceboundaries(SB),
thebasalsurfacesoffallingstagesystemstracts(BSFSST),transgressivesurfaces(TS)anda
maximumfloodingsurfaces(mfs).Theseerosionalanddepositionalsurfacesmarkchanges
indepositionalregimeor"thresholds"acrossthatboundary.

Slossetal.,(1949,and1963)originallydefineda'sequence'asanunconformitybounded
stratigraphic unit. Mitchum (1977) modified this to define a sequence as a relatively
conformable succession of genetically related strata bounded by unconformities or their
correlativeconformities.


Through the 80's and 90's sequences were defined from several perspectives Catuneanu
(2011):

Depositionalsequences,boundedbysubaerialunconformitiesandtheirmarinecorrelative
conformities(e.g.,Vail1987;Posamentieretal.1988;VanWagoneretal.1988,1990;Vail
etal.1991;HuntandTucker1992)

Genetic stratigraphic sequences, bounded by maximum flooding surfaces

(Galloway1989)

TransgressiveRegressive (TR) sequences, also referred to as TR cycles,

boundedbymaximumregressivesurfaces(JohnsonandMurphy1984;Johnsonet
al. 1985). The TR sequence was subsequently redefined by Embry and
Johannessen (1992) as a unit bounded bycomposite surfaces that include the
subaerial unconformity and the marine portion of the maximum regressive
surface.

Catuneanu (2009 and

2011) felt that the

various types of sequence should be encompassed by the definition. They redefined a

sequenceasasuccessionofstratadepositedduringafullcycleofchangeinaccommodation
or sediment supply. The definition is generic, modelindependent, and embraces the

sequences listed above

that may develop at

any spatial or temporal

scale.Therequirement

that a sequence coincide

withafullstratigraphic

cycle means that a

sequence can be

distinguished

from

component systems

tracts. Existing sequence

stratigraphic schemes

incorporateafullcycleof

change

accommodation

or

sedimentsupplywitha

beginningandtheendof

one cycle manifest by

in

thesamekindofevent.Thisistheonsetofarelativesealevelfall;theendofrelativesea
levelfall;theendofregression;ortheendoftransgression. Incontrast,theboundariesof
any systems tract correspond to different 'events within a relative sealevel cycle. The
definitionofasequenceisupdatedtobethefundamentalstatalunitofsequencestratigraphy
(Catuneanu et al., 2011). As with Vail, et al., (1977) they see this as represented by a
relatively conformable succession of genetically related strata bounded by surfaces but
extendthistocorrespondtoafullcycleofbaselevelchangesorshorelineshiftsdepending
onthesequencemodelbeingemployed.

ThePosamentieretal.'s1988originalinterpretationwasthatsedimentsaccumulatedduring
thefallingstageofsealevelcycleandthiswaswherethesequenceboundaryshouldfall.
Hunt&Tucker,(1992),1995)discusstheroleofforcedregressionsandwherethesequence
boundaryshouldbeplacedwithrespecttosealevelposition.Huntbelievesthattheposition

ofthesequenceboundaryshouldbeplacedatthelowestpositionreachedbysealevel.A
numberofgeologistssupportthiscontention.OneoftheseisPomar(1991)whorecognizes
thatwithintheLateMiocenereefalplatformofMallorca,thesequenceboundaryandthe
downlap surface are both coeval and formed during the falling stage of sea level. Both
surfacesboundtheofflappingsystemstractandmergelandwardintheerosionsurfaceand,
basinward,inthecondensedinterval.Notethecorrelativeconformityonthetopofthebasin
floorfanassuggestedbyVail,1987,versustheHuntandTucker,1992&1995,models.

Systemstracts
Asystemstractisasubdivisionofasequenceindependentofspatialandtemporalscales
representingalinkageofcontemporaneousdepositionalsystems(BrownandFisher,1977).
Itconsistsofarelativelyconformablesuccessionofgeneticallyrelatedstrataboundedby
conformableorunconformablesequencestratigraphicsurfaceswithaninternalarchitecture
thatvariesfromasuccessionoffaciesthatincludehighfrequencycyclesdrivenbyorbital
forcing to a parasequence set or a set of higher frequency cycles. Systems tracts are
interpretedonthebasisofstratalstackingpatterns,positionwithinthesequence,andtypesof
bounding surface (Van Wagoner et al., 1987, 1988, 1990; Posamentier et al. 1988; Van
Wagoner1995;PosamentierandAllen1999).Systemstractsmaybeeithershorelinerelated,
where their origin can be linked to particular types of shoreline trajectory, or shoreline
independent,whereageneticlinktocoevalshorelinescannotbedetermined(Catuneanu,
2011).

ShorelineRelatedSystemsTracts
Shorelinerelated systems tracts are depositional systems that are often tied to shoreline
trajectory,bethisaforcedregression,normalregression,ortransgression,andarecommonly
interpretedtoformduringspecificphasesoftherelativesealevelcycle(Posamentieretal.
1988;HuntandTucker1992;PosamentierandAllen1999;Catuneanu2006;Catuneanuetal.
2009;Catuneanuetal.2011).Thesesystemstractsmayhavedifferentscales,andaredefined
by distinct stratal stacking patterns (Figure). Forced regressive deposits include 'early
lowstand,'latehighstand,'forcedregressivewedge',and'fallingstage'.Normalregressive
deposits include 'late lowstand and 'lowstand, 'early highstand and 'highstand systems
tracts. Transgressive systems tract is composed of regressive stratal stacking patterns
comprise.Fiveofthesesystemstracsaredescribhideedbelow.

FallingStagesystemstract(FSST)
The FSST is formedby forcedregressive deposits that accumulated after the onset of a
relativesealevelfallandbeforethestartofthenextrelativesealevelrise.TheFSSTlies
directlyonthesequenceboundarysensuPosamentierandAllen(1999)andiscappedbythe
overlyinglowstandsystemstract(LST)sediments.HuntandTucker(1992)differwiththis

placingthesequenceboundaryabovetheFSST,wherethisboundarymarksthetermination
of one cycle of deposition and the start of another. Depending on the gradient of the
depositionalprofile,therateofsedimentsupply,andtherateofrelativesealevelfall,a
variety of 'attached' or 'detached' parasequence stacking patterns can be produced
(PosamentierandMorris,2000).Catuneanu(2011)explainthattheterminologyappliedto
thissystemstractvariesfrom'forcedregressivewedge'(HuntandTucker1992)to'falling
sealevel'(Nummedal1992)and'fallingstage'(Ainsworth1994).Thesimpler'fallingstage'
hasbeengenerallyadoptedbymorerecentwork(e.g.,PlintandNummedal2000;Catuneanu
2006).Thissystemstracthasalsobeentermedtheearlylowstandsystemstract(Posamentier
etal.1988;PosamentierandAllen,1999).Thefallinrelativesealevelisevidencedbythe
erosionofthesubaeriallyexposedsedimentsurfaceupdipofthecoastlineattheendofforced
regression,andtheformhideationofa diachronous subaerialunconformitythatcapsthe
highstand systems tract (HST). The subaerial unconformity may be onlapped by fluvial
deposits that belong to the lowstand or the transgressive systems tracts. The subaerial
unconformity may also be reworked by a timetransgressive marine ravinement surface
overlainbyasedimentlag.

LowstandSystemsTract(LST)
TheLSTisformedbysedimentsthataccumulateaftertheonsetofrelativesealevelrise,
during normal regression, on top of the FSST corresponding to an updip subaerial
unconformity. stacking patterns of clinoforms may forestep, and aggrade, particularly in
siliciclasticsystems,thickendowndip,withatopsetoffluvial,coastalplainand/ordeltaplain
deposits.LSTsedimentsoftenfillorpartiallyinfillincisedvalleysthatwerecutintothe
underlyingHSTandotherearlierdeposits,duringtheforcedregression.Thissystemstract
hasalsobeentermedthelatelowstandsystemstract(Posamentieretal.1988;Posamentier

andAllen1999)ortheLowstandProgradingWedgesystemstract(HuntandTucker1992).
Inearlierpapersthe'shelfmarginsystemstract'wasrecognizedasthelowermostsystems
tract associated with a 'type 2 'sequence boundary (Posamentier et al. 1988). With the
abandonmentofthedistinctionbetweentypes1and2sequenceboundaries,thistermisnow
redundant(PosamentierandAllen1999;Catuneanu2006);thesedepositsarenowconsidered
tobepartoftheLST.

TransgressiveSystemsTract(TST)
TheTSTisformedbysedimentsthataccumulatedfromtheonsetoftransgressionuntilthe
timeofmaximumtransgressionofthecoast,justpriortotherenewedregressionoftheHST.
TheTSTliesdirectlyonthemaximumregressivesurfaceformedattheendofregression
(also termed a transgressive surface). A transgressive systems tract is overlain by the
maximumfloodingsurface(MFS)formedwhenmarinesedimentsreachtheirmostlandward
position.stackingpatternsexhibitbackstepping,onlapping,retrogradationalclinoformsthat,
particularlyinsiliciclasticsystems,thickenlandward.Incaseswherethereisahighsediment
supplytheparasequencesmaybeaggradational.

HighstandSystemsTract(HST)
TheHSTincludestheprogradationaldepositsthatformwhensedimentaccumulationrates
exceedtherateofincreaseinaccommodationduringthelatestagesofrelativesealevelrise
(Fig.2).TheHSTliesdirectlyonthemfsformedwhenmarinesedimentsreachedtheirmost
landward position. This systems tract is capped by the subaerial unconformity and its
correlative conformity sensu Posamentier and Allen (1999). stacking patterns exhibit
progradingandaggradingclinoformsthatcommonlythindowndip,cappedbyatopsetof
fluvial,coastalplainand/ordeltaplaindeposits

6.3 Regression
RegressiveSystemTract(RST)
TheRSTliesaboveaTSTandisoverlainbytheinitialtransgressivesurfaceoftheoverlying
TST. The complete sequence is known as a TransgressiveRegressive (TR) sequence
(JohnsonandMurphy1984;EmbryandJohannessen1992).Thesedimentsofthissystems
tractincludetheHST,FSSTandLSTsystemstractsdefinedabove.Therearecaseswhere
thedataavailablearenotsufficienttodifferentiatebetweenHST,FSSTandHSTsystems
tracts.Insuchcasestheusageoftheregressivesystemstractisjustified.However,where
permitted by data, the differentiation between the three types of regressive deposits
(highstand,fallingstage,lowstand)isrecommendedbecausetheyrefertodifferentstratal
stackingpatterns;arecharacterizedbydifferentsedimentdispersalpatternswithinthebasin;
andconsequentlyareassociatedwithdifferentpetroleumplays.Thelastaspectrelatestoone
of the most significant applications of sequence stratigraphy, which is to increase the
resolution of stratigraphic frameworks that can optimize petroleum exploration and
productiondevelopment.

ShorelineIndependentSystemsTracts
Shorelineindependent systems tracts are stratigraphic units that form the subdivisions of
sequencesinareaswheresedimentationprocessesareunrelatedtoshorelineshifts.These
systemstractsaredefinedbyspecificstratalstackingpatternsthatcanberecognizedand
correlatedregionally,withoutreferencetoshorelinetrajectories(Figs.912).Inupstream
controlledfluvialsettings,fluvialaccommodationmaychangeindependentlyofchangesin
accommodationatthenearestshorelineandcreatesequencesandcomponentlowandhigh
accommodationsystemstracts(e.g.,ShanleyandMcCabe1994;Boydetal.2000).
Shorelineindependentsystemstractsmayalsobemappedindeepwatersettingscontrolled
bysubbasintectonism(e.g.,Fiduketal.1999),butnonomenclaturehasbeenproposedfor
these situations. The timing of shorelineindependent sequences and systems tracts is

commonly offset relative to that of shorelinecontrolled sequence stratigraphic units and

boundingsurfaces(e.g.,BlumandTornqvist2000).

Parasequence
A relatively conformable succession of genetically related beds or bedsets (within a
parasequenceset)boundedbymarinefloodingsurfacesortheircorrelativesurfaces(Van
Wagoner,1985).Patternsofthestackingofparasequencesetsareusedinconjunctionwith
boundariesandtheirpositionwithinasequencetodefinesystemstracts(VanWagoneretal.,
1988).Thusaparasequenceiscommonlyidentifiedandseparatedfromotherparasequences
byfloodingsurfacesandisoftencharacterizedbyacycleofsedimentthateithercoarsensor
finesupward.Thusthefloodingsurfacesareusuallyidentifiedbyabruptandcorrelatable
changesofthegrainsizeofthesedimentsoneithersideofthatfloodingsurface.

Thischangeingrainsizeisoftencausedbytheabruptchangesinenergythatareassociated
with the waves or currents of the sea transgressing across the sediment interface. These
abruptchangesingrainsizethatboundaparasequencecanbeidentifiedinwelllogs,outcrop
andseismicandusedtoidentifyaparasequencecycle.Examplesofthesegrainsizechanges
canbeseenintheparasequencesoftidalflats,beaches,anddeltas.

Aparasequenceinitsoriginaldefinition(VanWagoneretal.1988,1990)isanupward
shallowingsuccessionoffaciesboundedbymarinefloodingsurfaces.Amarineflooding
surface is alithological discontinuity across whichthere is anabrupt shift of facies that
commonlyindicatesanabruptincreaseinwaterdepth.Theconceptwasoriginallydefined,
andiscommonlyapplied,withinthecontextofsiliciclasticcoastaltoshallowwatersettings,
whereparasequencescorrespondtoindividualprogradingsedimentbodies.

Incarbonate settings, a

parasequencecorrespondstoa

succession of facies

commonly containing a lag

deposit or thin deepening interval followed by a thicker shallowingupward part, as for

example in peritidal cycles. In contrast to sequences and systems tracts, which may
potentiallybemappedacrossanentiresedimentarybasinfromfluvialintothedeepwater
setting, parasequences are geographically restricted to the coastal to shallowwater areas
where marine flooding surfaces may form (Posamentier and Allen 1999). In the case of
carbonatesettings,peritidalcyclescaninsomecasesbecorrelatedintoslopeandbasinal
facies(e.g.,Tinker1998,ChenandTucker,2003).

Figure:Hierarchyofcyclicity.Eachstratigraphicelementisacomponentofthesubsequent
lowerorderelement.SpecificinterpretationsfromMcKittrickCanyonwereusedtoconstruct
thesequencestratigraphicframeworkfromTinker(1998).
Forthisreason,ithasbeenproposedthataparasequencebeexpandedtoincludeallregional
meterscalecycles,whetherornottheyareboundedbyfloodingsurfaces(SpenceandTucker
2007; Tucker and Garland 2010). However, following the principle that a sequence
stratigraphic unit is defined by specific bounding surfaces, many practitioners favor
restrictingtheconceptofparasequencetoaunitboundedbymarinefloodingsurfaces,in
agreementwiththeoriginaldefinitionofVanWagoneretal.(1988,and1990).

Scaleandstackingpatterns
AsseenaboveinthediagramfromTinker(1998)parasequencesarecommonlynestedwithin
largerscale(higherrank)sequencesandsystemstracts.However,scaleisnotsufficientto
differentiate parasequences from sequences. For example, highfrequency sequences
controlledbyorbitalforcingmaydevelopatscalescomparableto,orevensmallerthan,those
ofmanyparasequences(e.g.,Strasseretal.1999;Fieldingetal.2008;Tuckeretal.2009).
Assuch,evencyclesasthinasametercansometimesbereferredtoassequencesandbe
describhideedandinterpretedintermsofsequencestratigraphicsurfacesandsystemstracts
(e.g.,Posamentieretal.1992a;Strasseretal.1999;Tuckeretal.2009).

Werecommendtheuseofthesequencestratigraphicmethodologytotheanalysisofany
small, meterscale cycles, as long as they display depositional trends that afford the
recognition of systems tracts and diagnostic bounding surfaces. Parasequences consist of
normalregressive,transgressiveandforcedregressivetypesofdeposit,anddisplayvarious
stackingpatterns.

Parasequencesmaybestackedinanupsteppingsuccession,inwhichcasetheyconsistof
normal regressive and transgressive deposits that accumulate during a period of positive
accommodation in responseto variations inthe rates of accommodation and/or sediment
supply.Upsteppingparasequencesmayeitherbeforesteppingorbackstepping(seethefigure
below).

Parasequencesmayalsobestackedinadownsteppingsuccession,inwhichcasetheyconsist
primarilyofforcedregressivedepositsthataccumulateduringaperiodofoverallnegative
accommodation.However,negativeaccommodationdoesnotoccurduringthetimeofform
hideationoftheparasequenceboundary.Thepatternofstackingofparasequencesdefines
longertermnormalregressions,forcedregressionsortransgressions,whichcorrespondto

shorelinerelatedsystemstractsofhigherhierarchicalrank

6.3 Parasequence set

This is often formed by a succession of genetically related parasequences that have a
distinctivestackingpatternthatinmanycasesisboundedbymajormarinefloodingsurfaces
andtheircorrelativesurfaceTheseincludeaggradationalparasequencesets,progradational
parasequence sets, and retrogradational parasequence sets. Patterns of the stacking of
parasequence sets are used in conjunction with boundaries and their position within a
sequencetodefinesystemstracts(VanWagoneretal.,1988).

CHAPTER VII
MEASURED SECTION METHOD
7.1 DEFINITION
The goal of Lithostratigraphic is intended to obtain a detailed
picture of the relationship between each stratigraphic layering of
rock / rock units, the thickness of each stratigraphic unit, vertically
sedimentation history and depositional environment of each
lithologies. In the feld, the measurement of stratigraphy usually
done using the meter rope and compass on outcrop-continuous
outcrop within a track. Measurement arranged perpendicular to
bedding rock stance, so that the correction angle between the
measurement path and direction moves to the bedding was not so
great.
7.1.1 Stratigraphic Section Measure Method
Stratigraphic Section measure is intended to obtain a detailed
picture of the sequence stratigraphic layering unit, the thickness
of each unit of stratigraphy, stratigraphic relations, the history of
sedimentation in the vertical direction, and the depositional
environment. Measuring a cross-section of the stratigraphy in
the outcrops is a signifcant importance in the study of geology.

Stratigraphic Section measurement environment is usually

performed on a continuous outcrops, primarily covering one or
more units of the stratigraphic units. Stratigraphy ross section
measurement method have a lot of variety. However, the most
common method and is often done in the feld is to use the
measuring tape and compass. This method is applied to the
continuous outcrops or number-outcrop outcrops that can be
arranged into a stratigraphic cross-section.
Stratigraphy measurement methods carried out in the
following stages:
1.

2.

3.
4.

5.

6.

Preparing the equipment for the measurement of

stratigraphy, they are: the measuring tape ( 25 meters),
compass, tripod (optional), magnifying glass (loupe), feld
book record, a wooden stick as a tool .
Determining the passage to be traversed in the
measurement of stratigraphy, the passage is marked with
the letter B (Bottom) is representing the Lower part while
the letter T (Top) represent upper part.
Determine the lithological units being measured. Give
stakes or other markings on the boundaries of its lithology.
Stratigraphy in the feld of measurement can be started
from the bottom or top. The elements measured in the
measurement stratigraphy are: the direction of the , the
angle of slope (where the measurement in a hilly track), the
distance between stations measurement, the position of the
rock layers, and other measurement of the geological
elements.
If the stance and the tilt of each unit change foxes along
the cross-section, preferably stance and tilt measurements
performed on the base and the top of the unit and used in
the average calculation.
Make a note for the observations along the trajectory of
stratigraphy measurements covering all types of rocks
found on the track, such as: the type of rock, bedding
circumstances, the thickness of each layer of rock,
sedimentary structure (if any), and other geological

7.

elements deemed necessary , If there are fllings, specify

the distance from the top of the unit. Stratigraphy
measurement data is then presented on paper after going
through the process of calculations and corrections later
described with a certain scale and outcrop data that exist
along the track on-the-plot using geological standart
symbol.
To the depiction in the form of a stratigraphic column,
needs to be done beforehand corrections include correction
angle between the direction of the track with a layer stance
slope, slope correction (if measurements on a hilly track),
the thickness of each layer of rock and so on.

7.1.2 Trajectory measurement planning

Path is determined based on the measurement of the
sequence as a whole outcrop that has been checked for
the following:
a) The position of the layer (Kick and Slope), are steep,
sloping, vertical or horizontal. Direction of the track to
be measured as much as possible perpendicular to jurus
b) It must be examined whether the stance and the tilt is
continuous layer of fxed and variable fox. The
possibility of the structure along the cross-section, like
syncline, anticline, faults, folding and it is important to
determine the sequence stratigraphy.c) Seeking for a
possibility of key beds that can be followed throughout
the region as well as the determination of the
superposition of layers which is often forgotten when
measuring.

7.1.3 Thickness Counting

Thickness of a layer is the shortest distance between the
areas of the base (bottom) and feld (top). Thus the
calculation of the appropriate layer thickness must be done
in a plane perpendicular stance layers. When
measurements in the feld are not carried out in a feld that
is perpendicular to the measured distance obtained must
be corrected prior to the formula: d = dt x cosine ( =
angle between the direction of the tilt and direction
measurements) .
In calculate the layer thickness, angle of slope used is the
angle measured in the direction of measurement
perpendicular to the bedding stance. If the slope angle of
the measured direction is not perpendicular to the bedding
stance, there should be a correction to restore the
greatness of the slope angle perpendicular to the layer
moves. Typically correction was done by using a table can
"dip correction" for the manufacture of cross section.
7.1.1.1 Measurements on flat terrain

Measurement on a flat area, if the distance measured is

the distance perpendicular stance, the thickness
directly in the can by using the formula: T = d sin
(where d is the distance measured in the feld and is
the angle of the layer) , If the measurements are not
upright stance, then the distance measured should be
corrected as described in the above.

7.1.1.2 Measurements on Slopes

There are several possible positions of the slope layer

as shown in Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6. {Note: The slope
angle (s) and the slope of the layer () is in a state
perpendicular to the moment or so-called "true dip" and
"true slope"} .
a. Slope direction of the slope layer
When the slope of the layer () is greater than the
slope angle (s) and the direction perpendicular to the
track moves, the thickness calculation is:
T = d sin ( - s). (Figure 3.5 b)
If the slope of the layer is smaller than sudutlereng and
the direction perpendicular to the track moves, the
thickness calculation is:
T = d sin (s - ). (Figure 3.5 c)

b.
Kemiringan
lapisan
berlawanan
dengan
lereng
arah
lancip
terhadap
jurus
maka:
b)
lereng
dan
sudut
kemiringan
adalah
90
lapisan
tegak
lapisan)
lurus
dan
dengan
lintasan
maka
:tumpul
c)
lapisan
sudut
membentuk
terhadap
lereng
dan
lurus
T
=
d
sin
maka
(180
(Gambar
3.6
d
)arah
mendatar,
=
d jurus,
sin
(s
maka
:: T
0

b. The slope of the layers in the opposite

direction with slope

When the slope of the layers forming the acute angle

of the slope and direction of the track perpendicular
stance then:
T = d sin ( + s) (Figure 3.6 b)
If the amount of slope angle and the angle of the
layer is 900 (slopes intersect upright straight with
layers) and the direction of the track perpendicular
stance then:
T = d (Figure 3.6 c)
If the slope of the layer forms an obtuse
angle to the slope and direction of the track
perpendicular stance, then:
T = d sin (1800 - - s) (Figure 3.6 d)
When the horizontal layers, then:
T = d sin (s)

Often
the

measurement results stratigraphy presented with

accompanying photographs of outcrop as shown in
Figure 3.8. The purpose of the inclusion of photographs
outcrop is to further clarify the parts of the contact
between the layering of rock or bedding that has
meaning in the process of sedimentation.
a. Stratigraphic Column
Stratigraphic column is essentially a column that describes
the composition of various types of rocks and the
relationship between rock or rock units from the oldest to
the youngest according to geological age, the thickness of
each rock units, as well as the genesis of rock formation. In
general, many ways to present a stratigraphic column,
however, there is a common standard is the reference for
the geologists present in the stratigraphic column.
Stratigraphic column section is usually composed of
columns with the following attributes: Age, Formation,
Rock Unit, thickness, Large-Item, Symbol Lithology,

Description /
critical
apparatus,
Fossil
Diagnostic and
Precipitation
environments.
Table 3.1 is a
stratigraphic
column
Southern
Karawang area,
West Java
which is
composed from
left to right as
follows: age, formations, rock units, symbols lithology, rock
descriptions and depositional environment
b. Stratigraphy Tracks Profile
In biological research, observation stratigraphy along the
path traversed need to be made, either by drawing in
sketch form, or by measuring the trajectory profle
stratigraphy. The purpose to make this track is to quickly
see the relationship between rock / lithologies in vertikal
way.
Figure 3.9 is one of the observations example along the
path of the river, where the numbers 1, 2, 3 and so on is
the location of the observation and measurement of rocks
outcrop on the river path. Position of rocks and rock types /
lithologies at any observation stations along the track.

c. Stratigraphy Corellation
Stratigraphic correlation is essentially connecting the dots
similarity of time and stratigraphic units that taking the
similarities of time into account. The intent and purpose of
the stratigraphic correlation is to determine the distribution
of the layers of rock or rock units laterally, so that a
comprehensive picture can be obtained in three
dimensions. Here are some examples of common
stratigraphic correlations among others:
1. Lithology Correlation
2. Biostratigraphy Correlation
3. Chronostratigraphy Correlation

7.2. The Purpose of Measuring

stratigraf
banyak
sekali
Namun
ragamnya.
demikian
metoda
yang
sering
lapangan
dilakukan
adalah
dengan
ukur
Metoda
dan
ini
kompas.
diterapkan
terhadap
menerus
sejumlah
atau
singkapansingkapan
yang di
stratig
suatu
penampang

The goal of measuring a stratigraphic column is to accurately

characterize the thickness of different rock types. This data can be
used to interpret depositional environments, variations in sediment
type, changes in sedimentation rate in space and time, etc. Most
detailed interpretations require an accurate measure of how much
of each rock type is present, bed thicknesses, etc. It is easy to
measure the thickness of flat-lying beds; you can put a ruler next to
them and measure from bottom to top. For beds that have been
tilted or folded, more care is needed.

The general stratigraphic measurements objectives are:

1. Obtaining the data from the detailed lithological
sequence of layering a stratigraphic units (formations),
the group, its members, etc)
2. Obtain the thickness data of each Stratigraphy units.
3. To acquire and learn stratigraphic relationship between
rock units and the sequence of sedimentation in the
vertical direction in detail, to interpret the stratigraphy
deposition.

CHAPTER VIII
MS Application
The goal of measuring a stratigraphic column is to accurately
characterize the thickness of different rock types. This data can be used to
interpret depositional environments, variations in sediment type, changes
in sedimentation rate in space and time, etc. Most detailed interpretations
require an accurate measure of how much of each rock type is present,
bed thicknesses, etc. It is easy to measure the thickness of flat-lying beds;
you can put a ruler next to them and measure from bottom to top. For
beds that have been tilted or folded, more care is needed. Measurements
need to be made perpendicular to the bedding. Otherwise, results will
depend on the amount of folding and the direction you are looking rather
than the depositional processes that formed the rock. Geologists often use
a Jacobs Staff to measure bedding thicknesses. A Jacobs Staff is a 1.5
meter-long pole that is marked off in suitable units, such as decimeters. It
has an attachment for a Brunton at 1.5 m above the base of the pole. The
Brunton is used as a clinometer to measure the angle of the pole from
vertical and helps align the Jacobs Staff perpendicular to bedding for
accurate measurements. To measure bed thickness, place the Jacobs
Staff on the bedding plane at the base of the beds you want to measure.
Next align the staff at right angles to bedding and sight downdip,
perpendicular to strike, to the beds. The distance from the base of the
staff to the sight point on the Brunton is equal to the thickness of strata
between the base of the staff and the point sighted. There are a number
of steps for doing this measurement accurately:
1. Measure the strike and dip of bedding where you intend to measure the
section; record the data and set the clinometer on the Brunton to the
angle of dip.

2. Place the Brunton securely in the attachment on the Jacobs Staff, and
open the compass lid about 60.
3. Place the staff at the base of the unit to be measured and tilt it downdip
(exactly perpendicular to strike) until the clinometer bubble in the Brunton
is centered.
4. Study the point sighted on the ground and decide if the staff can be
placed on it for your next measurement; if so, note the point carefully by
eye or place an object at that point. You have measured 1.5 meters of
section.
5. If the base of the Jacobs Staff can not be placed on the point you
sighted for your next measurement, move the base of the staff along the
lower bedding surface until a suitable point can be sighted.
6. Draw your stratigraphic column, describing the rocks in this unit.
Measure the positions of beds within this 1.5 meter-thick interval using the
Jacobs Staff or a ruler.
7. Move the base of the Jacobs Staff to the sited point, and make your
next measurement.
Proceed similarly to the top of the unit. Using a Jacobs Staff and
Brunton requires sighting through a small hole, and it may be tempting to
save time by estimating the alignment of the staff rather than using the
clinometer. Moderate errors in alignment, however, can cause large errors
in measurements . In addition, when sighting up or down a slope, one
tends to tilt the staff so that it is perpendicular to the grounds surface.
This gives errors that tend to accumulate through a series of
measurements, giving a systematic over or under estimate of true
stratigraphic thicknesses. When the staff is correctly oriented with the
clinometer, the error should be no more than a few centimeters per
measure and will tend to average out in successive measurements. Thus,

it is worth learning to measure accurately now; sighting becomes easier

with practice.

Figure : Errors in measurement (Figure from Compton, 1985, p. 231).

Sighting with a Jacobs Staff becomes increasingly awkward as dips
become steeper. Lines of sight typically become shorter, however, so
accuracy is maintained . For dips greater than 70, the geologist can kneel
and look along strike, viewing the clinometer face on and making the
projection to the ground by estimation . If some beds stick up signifcantly
higher than others, it may be necessary to measure the thicknesses of the
low-lying beds and weathering-resistant beds separately, using modifed
techniques. The UCD Geology Jacobs Staffs have a fxed mount for the
Bruntons. However, you can site distances shorter than 1.5 meters by
removing the Brunton from the mount and carefully holding it along the
edge of the Jacobs Staff in the proper orientation. You can place the
Brunton anywhere along the staff to measure an arbitrary thickness. Be
careful to accurately record the thickness represented by each
measurement, especially if they are different for each measurement.

CHAPTER IX
BASIN AND BASIN ANALYSIS
A geological basin is a large low-lying area. It is often below
sea level basin itself have more than one type such as structural
basin and sedimentary basin.
Geological basins are one of the two most common places inland
which collect sediment (the other is lakes). The type of rocks which
form there tell about the palaeoclimate of the continent. The
geology is of interest to oil prospectors, hydrologists and
palaeontologists.
structural basin is a large-scale structural formation of rock strata
formed by tectonic warping of previously flat lying strata. Structural
basins are geological depressions, and are the inverse of domes.
Some elongated structural basins are also known as synclines.
Structural basins may also be sedimentary basins, which are
aggregations of sediment that flled up a depression or accumulated
in an area; however, many structural basins were formed by
tectonic events long after the sedimentary layers were deposited.

Sedimentary basins are regions of the earth of long-term

subsidence creating accommodation space for inflling by
sediments. The subsidence results from the thinning of underlying
crust, sedimentary, volcanic, and tectonic loading, and changes in
the thickness or density of adjacent lithosphere. Sedimentary basins
occur in diverse geological settings usually associated with plate
tectonic activity. Basins are classifed structurally in various ways,
with a primary classifcations distinguishing among basins formed in
various plate tectonic regime (divergent, convergent, transform,
intraplate), the proximity of the basin to the active plate margins,
and whether oceanic, continental or transitional crust underlies the
basin. Basins formed in different plate tectonic regimes vary in their
preservation potential. On oceanic crust, basins are likely to be
subducted, while marginal continental basins may be partially
preserved, and intracratonic basins have a high probability of
preservation. As the sediments are buried, they are subjected to
increasing pressure and begin the process of lithifcation. A number
of basins formed in extensional settings can undergo inversion
which has accounted for a number of the economically viable oil
reserves on earth which were formerly basins.

Basins appear on a geologic map as roughly circular or elliptical,

with concentric layers. Because the strata dip toward the center,
the exposed strata in a basin are progressively younger from
outside-in, with the youngest rocks in the center. Basins are often
large in areal extent, often hundreds of kilometers across.

Structural basins are often important sources of coal, petroleum,

and groundwater.

9.1 Causes
1. One cause is stretching of the lithosphere (crust + upper mantle).
Examples: North Sea; Nevada basin; Death Valley; Red Sea.
2. Overthrusting of a continental plate, at a plate boundary, causes
the plate to flex. Part goes up, and part goes down. The downward
part becomes a foreland basin. Examples: the Ebro basin next to the
Pyrenees in Spain; the Molasse and Po River basins next to the Alps.
3. Rifting can cause basins, as with the Dead Sea rift.

9.2 Methods of formation

Sedimentary basins form primarily in convergent, divgent and

transform settings. Convergent boundaries create foreland basins
through tectonic compression of oceanic and continental crust
during lithospheric flexure. Tectonic extension at divergent
boundaries where continental rifting is occurring can create a
nascent ocean basin leading to either an ocean or the failure of the
rift zone. In tectonic strike-slip settings, accommodation spaces
occur as transpressional, transtensional or transrotational basins
according to the motion of the plates along the fault zone and the
local topography pull-apart basins.
9.2.1 Lithospheric stretching
If the lithosphere is caused to stretch horizontally, by mechanisms
such as ridge-push or trench-pull, the effect is believed to be
twofold. The lower, hotter part of the lithosphere will "flow" slowly
away from the main area being stretched, whilst the upper, cooler
and more brittle crust will tend to fault (crack) and fracture. The
combined effect of these two mechanisms is for the Earth's surface
in the area of extension to subside, creating a geographical
depression which is then often inflled with water and/or sediments.
(An analogy might be a piece of rubber, which thins in the middle
when stretched.)

An example of a basin caused by lithospheric stretching is the North

Sea - also an important location for signifcant hydrocarbon
reserves. Another such feature is the Basin and Range province

which covers most of the USA state of Nevada, forming a series of

horst and graben structures.

Another expression of lithospheric stretching results in the

formation of ocean basins with central ridges; The Red Sea is in fact
an incipient ocean, in a plate tectonic context. The mouth of the
Red Sea is also a tectonic triple junction where the Indian Ocean
Ridge, Red Sea Rift and East African Rift meet. This is the only place
on the planet where such a triple junction in oceanic crust is
exposed subaerially. The reason for this is twofold, due to a high
thermal buoyancy of the junction, and a local crumpled zone of
seafloor crust acting as a dam against the Red Sea.

9.2.2 Lithospheric compression/shortening and flexure

If a load is placed on the lithosphere, it will tend to flex in the
manner of an elastic plate. The magnitude of the lithospheric
flexure is a function of the imposed load and the flexural rigidity of
the lithosphere, and the wavelength of flexure is a function of
flexural rigidity alone. Flexural rigidity is in itself, a function of the
lithospheric mineral composition, thermal regime, and effective
elastic thickness. The nature of the load is varied. For instance, the
Hawaiian Islands chain of volcanic edifces has sufficient mass to
cause deflection in the lithosphere.
The obduction of one tectonic plate onto another also causes a load
and often results in the creation of a foreland basin, such as the Po

basin next to the Alps in Italy, the Molasse Basin next to the Alps in
Germany, or the Ebro basin next to the Pyrenees in Spain.

9.2.3 Strike-slip deformation

Deformation of the lithosphere in the plane of the earth (i.e. such
that faults are vertical) occurs as a result of near horizontal
maximum and minimum principal stresses. The resulting zones of
subsidence are known as strike-slip or pull-apart basins. Basins
formed through strike-slip action occur where a vertical fault plane
curves. When the curve in the fault plane moves apart, a region of
transtension results, creating a basin. Another term for a
transtensional basin is a rhombochasm. A classic rhombochasm is
illustrated by the Dead Sea rift, where northward movement of the
Arabian Plate relative to the Anatolian Plate has caused a
rhombochasm.
The opposite effect is that of transpression, where converging
movement of a curved fault plane causes collision of the opposing
sides of the fault. An example is the San Bernardino Mountains
north of Los Angeles, which result from convergence along a curve
in the San Andreas fault system. The Northridge earthquake was
caused by vertical movement along local thrust and reverse faults
bunching up against the bend in the otherwise strike-slip fault
environment. In Nigeria, the dominant type of basement rock
intersected by wells drilled for hydrocarbons, limestone, or water is
granite. The three sedimentary basins in Nigeria are underlain by
continental crust except in the Niger delta, where the basement

rock is interpreted to be oceanic crust. Most of the wells that

penetrated the basement are in the Eastern Dahomey embayment
of western Nigeria. A maximum thickness of about 12,000 m of
sedimentary rocks is attained in the offshore western Niger delta,
but maximum thicknesses of sedimentary rocks are about 2,000 m
in the Chad basin and only 500 m in the Sokoto embayment.
9.2.4 Ongoing development
As more and more sediment is deposited into the basin, the weight
of all the newer sediment may cause the basin to subside further
because of isostasy. A basin can continue having sediment
deposited into it, and continue to subside, for long periods of
geological time; this can result in basins many kilometres in
thickness. Geologic faults can often occur around the edge of, and
within, the basin, as a result of the ongoing slippage and subsidence
9.2.5 Study of sedimentary basins
The study of sedimentary basins as a specifc entity in themselves
is often referred to as basin modelling or sedimentary basin
analysis. The need to understand the processes of basin formation
and evolution are not restricted to the purely academic. Indeed,
sedimentary basins are the location for almost all of the world's
hydrocarbon reserves and as such are the focus of intense
commercial interest.

general understanding Experts studying sedimentary rock

sedimentology to know the history of geology and economic

potential of rock tersebut.diperlukan study that is integrated from

various cabangilmu geology, including sedimentology, stratigraphy,
and tectonics. Thus it can be seen as a whole sedimentary rock that
flls a basin that can be used as material to interpret the geologic
history and create the potential for economic evaluation. integrated
studies such as this is known as
analysis of sedimentary basins (basin analysis) in literature
sedimentary basin is a geologic analysis method by the which the
history of a sedimentary basin is revealed, by analyzing the
sediment fll itself. Aspects of the sediment items, namely its
composition, primary structures, and internal architecture, can be
synthesized into a history of the basin fll. Such a synthesis can
reveal how the basin formed, how the sediment fll was transported
or precipitated, and reveal sources of the sediment fll. From such
syntheses models can be developed to explain the broad basin
formation mechanisms. Examples of such environments include
backarc basinal, forearc, passive margin, epicontinental, and
extensional basins.
Sedimentary basin analysis is largely conducted by two types of
geologists who have slightly different goals and approaches. The
petroleum geologist, Whose the ultimate goal is to Determine the
possible presence and extent of hydrocarbons and hydrocarbonbearing rocks in a basin, and the academic geologist, who may be
concerned with any or all Facets of a basin's evolution. Petroleum
industry Often basin analysis is conducted on subterranean basins
through the use of reflection seismology and the data from well
logging. Academic geologists study subterranean basins Reviews

those basins as well as the which have been exhumed and

dissected by subsequent tectonic events. Thus Spake Academics
sometimes use techniques petroleum industry, but in many cases
they are Able to study rocks at the surface. Techniques used to
study the surfcial sedimentary rocks include: measuring
stratigraphic sections, identifying sedimentary depositional
environments and constructing a geologic map.
An important tool in sedimentary basin sequence stratigraphy
analysis is, in the which various sedimentary sequences are related
to pervasive changes in sea level and sediment supply.

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