ZIMBABWE OPEN UNIVESTY

THE ROLE PLAYED BY THE CHURCHES IN GENDER EMPOWERMENT IN

ZIMBABWE A CASE STUDY OF ZION CHRISTIAN CHURCH

by
AMOS SHENJERE
P1388319L

Department, Faculty of Social Science

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS) DEGREE IN DEVELOPMENT
STUDIES

SUPERVISOR: MR T. GUZURA

OCTOBER 2016

CHAPTER ONE
The Problem and its setting

1.1. Introduction
The chapter will provide a general background to the study and the research problem justifying
the need for the research. The chapter will also give a brief overview of the research methods
used in the study presented thereafter are the study objectives, significance of the study and
operational definitions to explain and clarify key concepts used in the study.

1.2. Background to the Study

According to Prisca Maseko (2014), women outnumber men as participants in religious
groupings but their roles in many aspects of church membership and leadership leaves so much
to be desired. Women remain in the minority at the highest religious leadership positions. For
example, in the Baptist churches women are not allowed to take up senior pastor positions and
the Roman Catholic Church does not ordain women as priests. In the Roman Catholic Church
women can only serve as nuns under the leadership of male priests. Historically, much of the
oppression women have faced came as a result of doctrines and practices within churches and
organized religious groupings. For example, practices by the apostolic sect church of Johanne
Marange which encourages acts of forced marriage for young girls has led to girls and women
in that church failing to get reasonable levels of education, according to Sibanda (2011). He
further explained that many apostolic sects exhibit oppressive ideas about sexuality and the

prohibition of women to preach or speak before congregations in the presence of men. Most of
the Christian churches prohibit divorce in cases where womens rights are violated and this then
locks up women in marriages against their will. Birth rates in general tend to be influenced by
religious beliefs. For example, in the sanctified scriptures of Christianity believers are urged to
Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth (Genesis 1:28), implying that it is Godsanctioned to have many children. This ideology has been upheld by so many religious
groupings, much to the disadvantage of the women. Child bearing, especially at uncontrolled
levels, leaves women weaker in all spheres of social settings. This can be contrasted to having
fewer children, which can avail more opportunities for women to pursue careers and other selfempowering interests. In a recent tried case of rape in which the clergy man, Robert Martin
Gumbura of the Independent End Time Message (IETM) church was convicted of rape, the
trial process revealed that one the IETM churchs doctrines is that all women parishioners
belong to the church leader, who is the chief husbandman, and are given to their husbands on
loan, with church leader having the powers to recall them whenever he feels necessary (The
Herald, 13 December, 2013) .This shows that women in this church are treated as objects that are
owned by the church leader who gives them out on a loan. It follows that women in Independent
End Time Message church are not allowed and cannot make independent decisions on marital
issues.

This study therefore seeks to investigate the role of churches in causing gender

inequalities. Women in Bangladesh are in many ways inferior to and dependent on men from
early childhood. When the girl reaches puberty her marriage will soon be arranged and the
family will pay the husbands family a dowry to marry off their daughter to him. The girl will
thereafter pursue the rules of Purdah and live under seclusion. Women that can obtain Purdah
strictly show high social status. Only very poor women have to go outside to work (Hartman &
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Boyce, 1998). Violence against women is common in Bangladesh (SIDA, 2007,). Even if the
constitution promotes equal rights to women, women still suffer from discrimination and
violence that occurs in the home, at the workplace and on the society level as well (Ministry of
Women and Children Affairs, 2008). The women in rural Bangladesh are hard working.
Foremost, they perform heavy household work throughout the days. Womens contribution to the
family income is not recognized to the same extent as mens, but they are however involved in
many activities, such as post-harvest activities, farming, fuel gathering, rice husking, making and
selling handicrafts, and rearing domestic animals.
In Australia women and girls make up just over half (50.2 per cent) of the Australian population.
While women comprise roughly 46 per cent of all employees in Australia, [2] they take home on
average $283.20 less than men each week full-time adult ordinary time earnings. The national
gender pay gap is 18.2 per cent and it has remained stuck between 15 per cent and 18 per cent
for the past two decades. Australian women account for 92 per cent of primary carers for
children with disabilities, 70 per cent of primary carers for parents and 52 per cent of primary
carers for partners. (Australian Bureau 2008)
Several disadvantages to women have however captured the researcher to be interested in the
study because despite government intervention through crafting of constitution and enforcing of
human rights trying to protect women there is still great resistance due to the patriarchy system,
cultural practices, illiteracy among the women to mention but a few. On-governmental
organizations(NGOs) and the Civil society organizations(CSOs) have also tried coming up with
solutions through: educating the rural women, supplementation of government efforts, efforts
organizing the rural women, building various model and experiment, ensure womens

Participation in their empowerment, mobilizing the optimum resources, promoting rural

leadership representing the rural women, promoting technology in rural areas activating the rural
delivery system, providing effective and efficient training to rural women, monitoring and
evaluation, pact assessment, planning and implementation, financing education. Research has
shown that most women are troubled by the nature of family laws which primarily deal with
issues of marriage, divorce and inheritance. The situation was even worse during the colonial era
when women would not get identity documents. They were barred from voting and could not be
counted during a census. Kenyan women who lived during the period when Kenya was a colony
of Britain existed from 1890 to 1963. These women lived in family units that, due to the
influence of British colonial institutions, became patriarchal in structure and when cash-crop
cultivation were controlled by men. ( "The Global Gender Gap Report 2013"). According to
http://www.thomsonsafaris.com, Tanzania is still very much a patriarchal society. Women rarely
receive the same opportunities as men, either in education or professionally, and in some small
pockets, truly brutal practices, such as female circumcision, still take place.
Other challenges faced by women include the absence or limited representation in decisionmaking bodies in the public and private sectors, women also face problems with regards to
division of matrimonial property upon divorce.in India women were made to dance both in
private and public places to please the man. Secondly, in Indian society, a female was always
dependent on male members of the family even last few years ago. Thirdly, a female was not
allowed to speak with loud voice in the presence of elder members of her in-laws. In the family,
every faults had gone to her and responsible. Forth, as a widow her dependence on male
members of the family still more increase. In many social activities she is not permitted to mix

with other members of the family. Other hand, she has very little share in political, social and
economic life of the society. (Hasnain, Nadeem: 2004).
Patriarchal order has left many Zimbabwean women more vulnerable to HIV infection as they
remain subservient to men with no negotiating power in sex matters. Many women are aware of
the existence of HIV and have taken it upon themselves to get tested, but the problem with some
of the women was that they were either afraid to tell their partners of their HIV status for fear of
being blamed or their partners would not agree to using protection during sex."(World Health
Organisation Report 2015). A study on human rights and gender issues in Botswana, Lesotho,
Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe by World Health Organisation found Sub-Saharan
Africa to be the only part of the world where HIV prevalence and AIDS deaths are higher for
women than men. (World Health Organisation Report 2015).
The past three decades have witnessed a steadily increase in the global awareness of the plight of
impoverished women in developing countries and the need for social, economic, political and
gender equity as well as access to fundamental human rights. Women have achieved significant
progress in some parts of world but continue to be marginalized and undervalued in the
developing world Societal beliefs continue to hinder progress in womens empowerment in many
parts of the developing world. Compared to men, women in developing countries work longer,
receive less money, have more responsibilities, have less schooling and have poorer health
(Augusto Lopez-Claros; Saadia Zahidi 2005).

1.3 Statement of the Problem.

While women comprise the majority in the community, they remain largely excluded from policy
formulation and decision making in the community and in the church. Church doctrines and
cultural practices relegate women to the continual subjection of men. Women do not rise above
certain levels of service in the society and mainline Christian churches according to Lesejane
(2005). Thus this research seeks to investigate the role of church in driving women
empowerment.
Churches Programs in Zimbabwe have been supported and encouraged by the government and
NGOs largely as a tool for poverty alleviation and womens empowerment, on the assumption
that economic empowerment would lead to more equitable gender relations both within the
community and the household. It is therefore important to analyze whether and how success in
womens economic activities from the microfinance financial support has resulted in their
improved status and transformation of the existing gender relations within their households.
Gender roles and the lack of power that women have in many traditional societies adversely
affected the participation of women in many societies. Besides the help from the Government,
Civil Society, None Governmental Organizations and Churches help in gender empowerment
they are still challenges faced by women because of cultural practices and the mind-set within
the society. Also poverty especially in the developing countries forces many girl children to leave
school early and to engage into early marriage which sometimes leads to prostitution. Herby the
Carrying of the research is to identify problems being faced by women in Zimbabwe and finding
possible solutions. Hopefully the engagement of the churches will help the gender empowering.

1.4 Research Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study are to:

1. Identify strategies implemented in gender empowerment by the churches.
2. Describe the effectiveness of the church in all gender empowering programs.
3. Assess the effectiveness of the churchs gender empowerment strategies

1.4 Research Questions

1. In what ways are churches doctrine contributing to the gender empowerment?
2. How effectiveness are church programs towards gender empowering?
3. What are the recommendations that will add to gender empowering in Zimbabwe
and all other countries?

For the research to achieve objectives of the study, sought to answer the following questions:

1. How do church teachings, beliefs, policies and practices promote gender equality and
empower women?
2. What factors have contributed to the promotion of gender equality and women
empowerment in Zimbabawe.
3. What factors have influenced promotion of gender equality and women empowerment in
Zion Christian Church
4. How did the Church help woman to archive their goals in terms of empowerment?
5. How did the government Ngos and Civil society organizations helped in the process of
empowering women?

1.5 Delimitations and Limitations of the study

The researcher will use The Zion Christian Church as the case study and will choose the
parish which is in the Bulawayo metropolitan province which has six parishes in the
central business district (CBD). The research will be based from 2012 up to 2016. The
study is limited to examining the impact of socio-cultural factors on effectiveness of
gender sensitive policies. The researcher will be limited to the discussion of the African
concept of morality, the communitarian philosophy in the culture, and in-depth analysis
of gendered illusions.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will bring the benefits to society considering that women
empowerment plays an important role in the economic through land rights which offer a key way
to economically empower women, giving them the confidence they need to tackle gender
inequalities. Often, women in developing nations are legally restricted from their land on the sole
basis of gender. Having a right to their land gives women a sort of bargaining power that they
wouldnt normally have, in turn; they gain the ability to assert themselves in various aspects of
their life, both in and outside of the home. This will also give women empowerment to allocate
responsibilities to them that normally belong to men. When women have economic
empowerment, it is a way for others to see them as equal members of society. Through this, they
achieve more self-respect and confidence by their contributions to their communities. Simply
including women as a part of a community can have sweeping positive effects.
This research is of paramount importance as there is hope that might lead to rethinking of the

implications of the gender inequality. This required a critical engagement with the ambivalent
nature of the African culture and its role in the effectiveness of gender sensitive policies. The
researcher hoped that the research might have generative effects as it has the potential to bring
about changes in participation and action. It was hoped that the research might lead to rethinking
of ways of policy implementation by policy makers thus improve policy formulation and
implementation processes. The research was hoped to have the potential of redirecting and
refocusing the attention of policy makers to areas not previously explored in educational
management that is, questioning core values like communitarianism and morality the very
essence of the African culture. Also a critical engagement with language and discourses which
are valued in the African context such as idioms, proverbs, folktales can have unforeseen impacts
as they may unveil the core of womens problems.

The research has the potential for enabling educational management training institutions to take
account of the issue of gender and culture and to address critical questions of the interplay
between gender, culture and leadership. As gender and culture are significant in policy
implementation, this study may enlighten policy makers to take into consideration the question
of gender and culture in policy planning and formulation. The study is intended to unmask some
of the gendered illusions concerning differential abilities of different sexes which affect policy
implementation, so that both sexes can act positively towards each other knowing the importance
of the equality of sexes.

The study is also important to me as a researcher as it enlightened me on what really affect

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womens advancement in their careers. This thesis is important as it sought to formulate a

concrete foundation upon which the Government, traditional communities, Ngos, CSO, schools
and other stakeholders can work in partnership to address the gender based inequalities and how
to empower women.

1.8 Assumptions
The messages of women empowerment dissemination will influence change of behaviour among
cultural beliefs against women.

1.9 Definitions of key terms

This thesis frequently used different concepts related to churches, gender equality and women
empowerment. In the context of this study, these concepts were defined as follows:

1.9.1 AIDS
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Aids is affecting the majority of the women because they
are vulnerable because of patriarchy system practiced in Africa and the cultural practices.

1.9.2 Gender roles:

Refers to the rights, responsibilities, expectations, and relationships of men and women (Long
2011)

1.9.3 Gender:
Gender is social attributes and opportunities assigned to male and female. These attributes and
relationships are learned through socialization process and are time specific, changeable and
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context specific. This means that each society emphasizes particular roles that each sex should
play. WHO (2002) on the other hand defines gender as those characteristics of women and men
which are socially constructed. This definition is not different from the one above in the sense
that it also emphasizes that gender is determined socially.

1.9.4 Education
Is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and
habits. Educational methods include storytelling, awareness, discussion, teaching, training, and
directed research. (Dewey, John 1944.)

1.9.5 Gender Equality:

This is defined as a social order in which men and women share the same opportunities and the
same constraints on full participation in both the economic and domestic realm. In the context of
this study, gender equality means providing equal opportunities, rights, obligations and value in
all aspects of life and according them equal treatment to both men and women.

1.9.6 Gender Inequality:

This is the direct opposite of gender equality. Gender inequality is disparity between individuals
due to gender. In this study, gender inequality is defined as unfair treatment of individuals, unfair
access to opportunities and unfair constraints based on their gender.

1.9.7 Norms
Are cultural products (including values, customs, and traditions) which represent individuals'

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basic knowledge of what others do and think that they should do as informal understandings that
govern individuals' behavior in society.

1.9.8 Churches:
Churches are a particular system of faith and worship based on belief in the existence of a God or
Gods. Churches dictates morality, ethics, churches laws and accepted lifestyles. Freedom to
churches is a human right that is enshrined in the UN universal declaration of human rights
article 18 (United Nations, 2011). In Zimbabwe, freedoms of churches are guaranteed by the
constitution but churches are expected to be registered with Zimbabwe government. In the
context, churches will be defined as belief in supernatural powers.

1.9.9 Women Empowerment:

Is gaining ability to generate choices and exercise bargaining power, developing a sense of selfworth, a belief in ones ability to secure desired changes and the right to control ones life. It is
about change, choice and power. In the context of this study, women empowerment is defined as
having power and ability to make choices that affect ones life. These choices may be those
related to education, participation, mobility, fertility, economic independence, political
participation, awareness and exercising of rights.

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Chapter two
Review of related chapter
2.0 Introduction
This chapter provides a review of the relevant literature on issues to do with the impact of
Women empowerment and on gender equality. The purpose of literature review is to explore
what has already been written on the topic, what has not been written, and how the current
researcher's inquiry addresses the gap or weakness in the existing knowledge base. Lesejane, D.
(2005). asserts that human community is characterized by a basic structural injustice, a distorted
relationship between the sexes such that men as a group have power over women as a group. Due
to this distortion, women face varied problems in the Zimbabwean context. These problems are
gender based and they arise from gender based socialization, gender based stereotyping, gender
based violence as well as gender based discrimination in all spheres. Loren Cunningham (2006)
point out that many societies are in a state of transition regarding the status of women, hence
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many women in the world are facing a dilemma of identity. According to McNill (1990), every
researcher, of whatever status, should spend time reading what other people have written about
the topic under research. This will assist in identifying gaps and strengths of the study.
Empowering women through the use of educating, awareness programs, training of skills and
providing access to loans and funding will help to close the gender gap.
2.1 Theoretical Framework
The Women's Empowerment (Longwe) Framework was developed by Sara Hlupekile Longwe, a
consultant on gender and development based in Lusaka, Zambia.The Longwe framework is
intended to help planners question what women's empowerment and equality means in practice,
and, from this point, to assess critically to what extent a development intervention is supporting
this empowerment.(Sahay, Sushama 1998) Longwe defines women's empowerment as enabling
women to take an equal place with men, and to participate equally in the development process in
order to achieve control over the factors of production on an equal basis with men. Sara Longwe
argues that much of the development literature examines to what extent equality between women
and men has been achieved according to the conventional sectors of economy and society:
equality in education, employment, and so on. This system of analysing equality by sectors
concentrates on separate areas of social life, rather than on women's equality in the development
process. In the Longwe framework, development means enabling people to take charge of their
own lives, and escape from poverty; poverty is seen as arising not from lack of productivity, but
from oppression and exploitation. (Leach, Fiona E.2003).

15

As a researcher Sara Hlupekile Longwe Women's Empowerment Framework in this research is

relevance because this Gender analysis framework helps planners understand the practical
meaning of women's empowerment and equality, and then to evaluate development initiative
that supports this empowerment. However, the framework focuses on the following:
equality: welfare, access, Conscientization participation and control of which the Churches
are also implementing them all. Empowerment is essential at each of these levels. Welfare
addresses basic needs, and access addresses ability to use resources such as credit, land and
education. Conscientization" is a key element of the framework: recognition that
discrimination creates gender-related problems and women may themselves contribute to
this discrimination. With participation, women are equal to men in making decisions, and
with control the balance of powers between the genders is equal. (Sahay, Sushama 1998).
Thereby this Sara Hlupekile Longwe empowerment Framework is relevant to this study
because the researcher is seeking ways to close the gap of gender inequality and empower
women so that they participate in all sectors with their male counterpart.

2.1.1 WOMENS EMPOWERMENT FRAMEWORK (LONGWE)

The Womens Empowerment Framework was developed by Sara Hlupekile Longwe, a gender
expert from Lusaka, Zambia. The model is explicitly political, arguing that womens poverty is
the consequence of oppression and exploitation (rather than lack of productivity), and that to
reduce poverty women must be empowered. The framework concerns enabling women to
achieve equal control over factors of production and participate equally in the development
process. (Sweet man, Caroline 1997) The framework puts forward five levels of equality that can

16

be achieved (listed from highest to lowest): Control: there should enable equal control over in
decision-making in factors of production. Participation: there should be equal participation in
decision-making

processes

related

to

policymaking,

planning

and

administration,

Conscientization: attaining equal understanding of gender roles and a gender division of labor
that is fair and agreeable to both parties. They should be equal access to the factors of production
by removing discriminatory provisions in the laws, welfare: women should have equal access to
material welfare such as food, income, medical care. (Sahay, Sushama 1998)

2.2 Conceptual Framework

Empowerment in its simplest form means the manifestation of redistribution of power that
challenges patriarchal ideology and male domination. It is both a process and the result of the
process. It is transformation of the structures or institutions that reinforces and perpetuates
gender discrimination. It is a process that enables women to gain access to and control of
material as well as information resources. The concept of women's empowerment throughout the
world has it roots in women's movement. Empowerment of women in the third world countries is
important because the benefits will be felt not only by the women themselves, but by their
households as well. It may take a more enlightened approach to ensure the empowerment of
women in developing countries, but the returns to their families and even the societies as a whole
will be worth it. Empowerment of women is a holistic concept. It is a multi-dimensional
approach and involves a basic retaliation and awareness of women powers, potentialities
capabilities and competences right and opportunities of all round development in all spheres of
life women empowerment. Therefore, it is a process which enables women to have access and

17

control over various factors necessary for empowerment, Educational Women Empowered
Women their economic independence, political participation and social development but such
political participation and social upliftment would be meaningless and almost impossible, if their
economic independence is not achieved. The process of empowerment will be challenging,
which has to be properly addressed at different levels both individual as well as collective
through entrepreneurship The existence of culturally-rooted gender norms means that even when
India and China advance to today's level of U.S. GDP per capita, they might not advance in
terms of their desire to have sons, the decision-making power of women, and so forth. ( Chandra,
S.K.1997.) Eliminating gender inequality might require explicit policy intervention. Moreover,
one might not want to wait patiently as the problem of gender inequality resolves itself via
economic growth. One type of gender-progressive policy is granting legal rights to women. A
powerful example of this tool is India's move to reserve political seats for women. A fraction of
seats at various levels of government are, by mandate, held by women. The most direct impact of
the law change on women's welfare has been to close the gap in women's representation; female
leaders implement policies that better react the policy preferences of their female constituents
(Chattopadhyay and Duo, 2004). Moreover, this reform has begun to reshape attitudes toward
women as leaders (Beaman et al., 2009) and raised the aspirations of and long-term investments
in girls (Beaman et al., 2009)

2.3 Strategies implemented in gender empowerment by the churches

Church in order to achieve gender empowerment has to adjust the church doctrine and change
the practices that encourage the disadvantage of vulnerable groups. According to Sullivan
(2004), many gender-specific human rights violations are grounded in cultural and religious
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practices. Women rights activists, in a number of national settings, have stressed the need to
transform religious law and practice, not only as a means of ending gender-based restrictions on
specific human rights, but also as an essential step towards dismantling systematic gender
inequality. Implemented strategies such as educating girls, in many parts of the world, girls'
access to education is very restricted. Girls face many obstacles which prevent them to take part
in education, including: early and forced marriages; early pregnancy; prejudice based on gender
stereotypes at home, at school and in the community; violence on the way to school, or in and
around schools; long distances to schools; vulnerability to the HIV epidemic; school fees, which
often lead to parents sending only their sons to school; lack of gender sensitive approaches and
materials in classrooms.( http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm).According to United Nations
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (OHCHR), there have been multiple attacks on schools
worldwide during the period 2009-2014 with "a number of these attacks being specifically
directed at girls, parents and teachers advocating for gender equality in education.
(http://www.ohchr.org) The United Nations Population Fund says: About two thirds of the
world's illiterate adults are women. Lack of an education severely restricts a woman's access to
information and opportunities. Conversely, increasing women's and girls' educational attainment
benefits both individuals and future generations. Higher levels of women's education are strongly
associated with lower infant mortality and lower fertility, as well as better outcomes for their
children. By increasing literacy rates among women, empowering women to participate in and
lead public and private institutions makes these institutions more representative and effective.
Increasing girls and womens education and access to resources improves the health and
education of the next generation. Women also play critical roles as effective peace advocates,
community leaders, and champions of civil and human rights. (http://www.ohchr.org).
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The Zion Christian church within their church doctrine have managed to educate the girl child
from the primary level to the university and also securing employment through church primary
and secondary schools. The teaching starts from the Sunday school while they are at church
service and drum majority to empower the girl child through participation to gain confidence.
The Church transforms previously orphaned children and turns them into History Makers
through education, training and the realization of their God-given purpose. It also works with
primary and secondary schools and State universities around the country. The Church operates in
all districts in Zimbabwe. Zion Christian Church interventions include assisting the children with
education scholarships which cover school fees, levies and other related costs needed at school,
college, equipping them with spiritual, social and life skills training including career guidance;
assisting critically needy beneficiaries with food packs and medical assistance and, providing
resource canters and libraries where History Makers access academic and spiritual books and
internet resources.
The Christian religion is an important institution of social development not only in the
empowerment of women but in the overall growth and development of the country economy.
Churches today create job opportunities and also empower their members especially women
economically. The church teaches morality and prudence in management of finance both at
private level and government circle. It also serves as source of encouragement to women in
society
Improving womens access to credit, land and other resources, Methods to empower Women
Land rights offer a key way to economically empower women, giving them the confidence they

20

need to tackle gender inequalities. Often, women in developing nations are legally restricted
from their land on the sole basis of gender. Having a right to their land gives women a sort of
bargaining power that they wouldnt normally have, in turn; they gain the ability to assert
themselves in various aspects of their life, both in and outside of the home. Another way to
provide women empowerment is to allocate responsibilities to them that normally belong to men.
When women have economic empowerment, it is a way for others to see them as equal members
of society. Through this, they achieve more self-respect and confidence by their contributions to
their communities. Simply including women as a part of a community can have sweeping
positive effects.
The doctrine should also incorporate women to also occupy high posts in the church and to be
involved in the decision making body. Doctrine should also desist from oppressing women but
empower them for example the church in Nigeria as an institution has been very instrumental in
the empowerment of women spiritually, financially, economically, psychologically and morally.
Many churches today render soft loans scheme to women even without interest. Many widows
have been empowered through this medium. Most times, they are given money ranging from
N50, 000, N100, 000 or N200, 000 and are made to pay back the capital after twelve calendar
months without any interest. Some Roman Catholic, Anglican and new generation priests and
pastors buy sewing machines, grinding machines among others and give to some of their
dedicated church members as a way of empowering them economically (Kabeer 2005)

In a study conducted by Bina Agarwal, women were given a place in a forest conservation
group. Not only did this drive up the efficiency of the group, but the women gained incredible
self-esteem while others, including men, viewed them with more respect. ( Argawal, Bina. 2010),
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which can be seen and gained in a variety of ways, has been argued to be the most beneficial
form of gender empowerment. Political participation, be it the ability to vote and voice opinions,
or the ability to run for office with a fair chance of being elected, plays a huge role in the
empowerment of peoples. However, participation is not limited to the realm of politics. It can
include participation in the household, in schools, and the ability to make choices for oneself. It
can be said that these latter participations need to be achieved before one can move onto broader
political participation.

When women have the agency to do what she wants, a higher equality between men and women
is established. It is argued that Microcredit also offers a way to provide empowerment for
women. ( Argawal, Bina. 2010). Gender and Green Governance: The Political Economy of
Womens Presence Within and Beyond Community Forestry. New York, NY: Oxford University
Press.) Governments, organizations, and individuals have caught hold of the lure of
microfinance. They hope that lending money and credit allows women to function in business
and society, which in turn empowers them to do more in their communities. One of the primary
goals in the foundation of microfinance was women empowerment. Loans with low interest rates
are given to women in developing communities in hopes that they can start a small business and
provide for her family. It should be said, however, that the success and efficiency of microcredit
and microloans is controversial and constantly debated. (Bateman, Milford. 2010.)
Expanding reproductive health programs and family support policies Reaching women and girls
is critical to achieving impact. HIV/AIDS is the leading cause of death worldwide for women
aged 15-44 years. Globally, adolescent girls and young women aged 15-24 years are twice more

22

likely to be at risk of HIV infection than boys and young men in the same age group.
(http://www.legisocial.fr).Among adult women ages 20 to 59 in low-income countries,
tuberculosis is one of the five leading causes of death. And, in Africa, an estimated 10,000
women and 200,000 of their infants die annually as a result of malaria infection during
pregnancy.
Gender inequalities are a strong driver of HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria. Women and girls
tend to have unequal power in sexual relationships, economic decision-making, and access to
health information and services, all of which greatly influence their vulnerability to disease.
Traditional power dynamics among couples may undermine a womans ability to receive
antenatal care, including services to prevent mother-to-child transmission services (PMTCT)
when an expectant mother is HIV-positive. Gender politics can prevent a woman from accessing
insecticide-treated nets to prevent malaria, or from taking malaria-stricken children to health
services without a partners permission. Transgender women, sex workers, and women who use
drugs are also particularly marginalized, and face challenges in access to health care. The church
plan is designed to address these harmful gender norms and scale up services to reduce genderrelated vulnerabilities to infection. Also the church is advocating for church members to desist
from polygamy and early marriage also discouraging sex before marriage and those who wait
will be honored through the program called kubatanidzwa by the Bishop to those who wait till
they finally organize the wedding. This however encourages youth to desist from unplanned
sex,thereby reducing sexual transmitted diseases and aids.( Maxwell, J. 2009)
Gender parity in access to schooling is the first step toward gender equality in education.
However, the world is still far from achieving gender parity in enrolment and completion rates,
23

particularly at the secondary school level. A review of trends shows that gender parity ratios
remain below 0.90 in Sub-Saharan African and South Asia even though girls primary school
enrolment rates rose steadily over the 1990s and are now relatively high. (Maxwell, J. 2009).
While the trends at the primary level are positive, a number of countries are likely to miss both
the 2005 and 2015 Millennium Development Targets. Projections are for 19 of 133 countries to
have girls to boys primary enrolment ratios in the 0.70-0.89 range in 2005 and for 21 countries
to have ratios below 0.9 in 2015. Twelve countries in this second group are in Sub-Saharan
Africa, which should be viewed as a priority region for interventions. (Maxwell, J. 2009)
The picture is less hopeful if primary school completion is used as the indicator. In 1990 boys
completed primary school at a higher rate than girls in all regions of the world except Latin
America and the Caribbean. In South Asia the difference was almost 14 percentage points in
favor of boys, while in the Middle East and North Africa and Europe and Central Asia, boys
completion rates were about 11 percentage points ahead of girls. Despite these gender gaps,
there have been improvements in girls completion in all regions since 1990, and narrowing of the
gender gap has been due mostly to increases in girls completion rates.( Maxwell, J. 2009)
Less encouraging is progress at the secondary school level. Across the world there is greater
variation in enrolment rates at the secondary than at the primary level. Once again, South Asia
and Sub-Saharan Africa fare poorly, with gender parity ratios below 0.90. East Asia and the
Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, and the Middle East and North Africa have a gender parity
ratio above 0.90. Latin America and the Caribbean and developed countries have reverse gender
gaps girls to boys enrolment ratios higher than 1. ( Sahay, Sushama 1998)

24

A closer look at the numbers, however, shows that girls enrolment rates are still low in most
regions. Although 78 of 149 countries for which there are data have girls to boys secondary
enrolment ratios of 1.0 or greater in 2000, only 33 of the 78 countries have female enrolment
rates above 90 percent. In South Asia the female secondary enrolment rate is 47.1 percent and in
Sub Saharan Africa it is only 29.7 percent. Country projections for gender parity in secondary
education show that 24 of 118 countries are expected to have gender parity ratios below 0.90 in
2005. That number rises to 27 in 2015. These results suggest that achieving gender parity at
high levels of enrolment will take concerted national and international action. (Colander, David.
2013)
A number of interventions that have proven effective for increasing girls participation in primary
school may also apply to post-primary education. These include making schooling more
affordable by reducing costs and offering targeted scholarships, building secondary schools close
to girls homes, and making schools girl-friendly. Additionally, the content, quality, and
relevance of education must be improved through curriculum reform, teacher training, and other
actions. Education must serve as the vehicle for transforming attitudes, beliefs, and entrenched
social norms that perpetuate discrimination and inequality. All interventions taken to promote
gender equality in education must, therefore, be transformational in nature. (Maxwell, J.
2009).There should be guarantee of sexual and reproductive health and rights for girls and
women. A large body of evidence shows that sexual and reproductive health and rights are
central to womens ability to build their capabilities, take advantage of economic and political
opportunities, and control their destinies. Conversely, gender inequality that restricts womens
access to economic resources compromises their sexual and reproductive autonomy. For this

25

reason, sexual and reproductive health and rights is a strategic priority for achieving gender
equality and empowering women.
Maternal mortality rates are high, particularly in developing countries where womens chances of
dying from pregnancy-related complications are almost 50 times greater than in developed
countries. Womens unmet need for contraception is also high. One-fifth of married women in
the Middle East and North Africa and one-quarter of married women in Sub-Saharan Africa are
unable to access the contraception they need. Iron-deficiency anaemia is also widespread,
affecting 50-70 per cent of pregnant women in developing countries. Severe anemia has been
shown to be associated with postpartum haemorrhage and is thought to be an underlying factor in
maternal mortality. Women are also more vulnerable than men to sexually transmitted
infections, particularly HIV/AIDS. Today, almost 50 per cent of the HIV-infected adults
worldwide are women, and in Sub-Saharan Africa, that proportion is 57 per cent. (Maxwell, J.
2009)
Adolescent girls are particularly vulnerable to a range of sexual and reproductive health
problems. In Sub-Saharan Africa about 75 per cent of those ages 15-24 who are infected with
HIV are women. Many sexually active adolescents do not use contraception. Of the roughly
260 million women ages 15-19 worldwide, both married and unmarried, about 11 per cent (29
million) are sexually active and do not want to become pregnant but are not using a modern
method of birth control. Underdeveloped physiology, combined with a lack of power,
information, and access to services, means that young women experience much higher levels of
maternal illness and death than do women who bear children when they are older. Their limited

26

negotiating power exposes them to greater risk of sexually transmitted infection, especially in the
common instance of having partners who are much older and more sexually experienced.
According to the World Health Organizations 2001 estimates, sexual and reproductive health
problems account for 18 per cent of the global burden of disease and 32 per cent of the burden
among women ages 15-44. By comparison, neuropsychiatric conditions account for 13 per cent
of all disability adjusted life years lost, respiratory illnesses for 11 per cent, and cardiovascular
diseases for 10 per cent. Moreover, investing in reproductive and sexual health services is cost
effective. An early study in Mexico found that every peso the Mexican social security system
spent on family planning services during 1972-1984 saved nine pesos for treating complications
of unsafe abortion and providing maternal and infant care. Beyond such savings, reproductive
and sexual health services deliver other medical, social, and economic benefits, including
prevention of illness and death, improvements in womens social position, and increases in
macroeconomic investment and growth. (Colander, David. 2013)
Ownership and control over assets such as land and housing provide economic security,
incentives for taking economic risks that lead to growth, and important economic returns,
including income. Yet, women in many countries around the globe are far less likely than men to
own or control these important assets. Ensuring female property and inheritance rights would
help empower women both economically and socially and rectify a fundamental injustice.
Rectifying this injustice will also have other positive outcomes because womens lack of
property has been increasingly linked to development-related problems, including poverty,
HIV/AIDS, and violence.

27

Secure tenure to land and home improves womens welfare. Land and home ownership confer
such direct benefits as use of crops and rights to the proceeds thereof and having a secure place
to live. Indirect advantages include the ability to use land or houses as collateral for credit or as
mortgage able assets during a crisis. Beyond the direct economic impact, assets in the hands of
women have other welfare impacts. Land ownership can act as a protective factor for women
against domestic violence. Research in Kerala, India, found that 49 per cent of women with no
property reported physical violence, whereas only 7 per cent of women with property reported
physical violence, controlling for a wide range of factors. Some studies found that in societies
where husbands control most household resources, as in Bangladesh, expenditures on childrens
clothing and education were higher and the rate of illness among girls was lower in households
where women owned assets than in households where women did not.
In addition to welfare gains, gender-equal land rights can enhance productive efficiency. Land
title can serve as collateral, improving womens access to credit, which in turn can increase
output. This can be especially crucial in situations where women are the principal farmers, such
as where male outmigration is high, where widows (or wives) cultivate separate plots owned by
others, or where women farm independently of men, as in much of Sub-Saharan Africa.
To improve the nature and conditions of work, employment-enhancing economic growth is a
prerequisite for low-income countries, coupled with social policy that eliminates discriminatory
employment barriers. For poor women, especially those in rural areas, public employment
guarantee schemes can be an important intervention for providing work and increasing income,
although evaluations of country programs reveal a mixed track record. Public employment
guarantee schemes can also be gender-biased. In many programs, women earn less than men,
28

partly because they are excluded from higher-wage and physically difficult tasks. Women are
also more susceptible to cheating and exploitation. In many countries, jobs in the public sector
have historically been a major source of pensions; as the public sector has contracted (due to
structural adjustment, privatization, and cuts in government spending), women have lost pension
coverage.(Colander, David. 2013)
Many countries, especially in Latin America and in Eastern and Central Europe, are reforming
their pension and social security programs. Gender equality has not been a high priority in these
reform efforts. To protect retired women, it is important that the design of old age security
systems take account of gender differences in earnings, labour force experience, and longevity.
The specifics of pension reform vary across countries, and there are too few studies to draw
clear conclusions about the effect of different types of pension programs on women.
Nonetheless, it is clear those programs that have a redistributive component and that require
fewer years of contributions are better able to protect women in old age.
While opportunities for paid employment for women have increased in countries around the
world, the nature, terms, and quality of womens employment have not improved
commensurately. Having access to paid work is critical to family survival, but it is not sufficient
for reducing poverty or empowering women. Decent, productive work for all should be the goal.
Increasing womens representation in political office is now a widely held development goal and
one of the four Millennium Development Indicators for tracking progress toward Goal 3.
Indeed, the Beijing Platform for Action recommended that governments set a target of 30 per
cent of seats for women in national parliaments. This is being pressured by the churches and civil

29

society organisations and also the NGOs.Countries where womens share of seats in political
bodies is less than 30 per cent are less inclusive, less egalitarian, and less democratic. Equality
of opportunity in politics is a human right. Evidence also suggests that womens interests often
differ from mens and those women who participate directly in decision making bodies press for
different priorities than those emphasized by men. Finally, womens participation in political
decision making bodies improves the quality of governance. (Sahay, Sushama 1998)
2.4 To describe the effectiveness of the church in all gender empowering programs
Churches have embarked in the education of the girl child and also offering training to women
through vocational training it is often said that when you educate a woman you educate a nation.
(Ugbemudia Uruemu 2012) When women are given responsibilities in public offices, they do
better than their male counterparts because of their sympathetic nature. Education is the process
of impacting, learning and gaining skills, knowledge, morals and behavior based on preventive
and palliative measures. It enables the child to realize his or her full potential to think, ask
questions and judge independently. It enables him or her to make wise decision makers as well as
develop sense of belonging by learning how to respect, love one another and become a useful
member of the society. The lack of education denies the girl child knowledge and skills needed to
advance their status. ( Ugbemudia Uruemu 2012).
Both individuals and countries benefit from women's education. Individuals who invest in
education receive a net monetary gain over the course of their lifetime. ( P George, and Harry
Patrinos.2004).According to Harry Patrinos,2004,lead education economist at the World Bank
the profitability of education, according to estimates of private rate of return, is indisputable,
universal, and global. The principle holds particularly for women, who can expect a 1.2% higher
30

return than men on the resources they invest in education. (P George, and Harry Patrinos.2004).)
Providing one extra year of education to girls increases their wages by 10-20%. This increase is
5% more than the corresponding returns on providing a boy with an extra year of schooling.
(Levine, Ruth, et al 2008.)
The church through the bible teaching that fighting is not right the church managed to reduce
cases such as: Reduce gender disparities in access to, control over and benefit from
resources, wealth, opportunities and services, economic, social, political, and cultural; Reduce
gender based violence and mitigate its

harmful effects

on individuals

and communities so

that all people can live healthy and productive lives. Increase capability of women and
girls to realize their rights, determine their life outcomes, and influence decision making in
households, communities, and societies.
2.5. To assess the effectiveness of the churchs gender empowerment strategies:
Gender equality should be part of training and education. Young people should be supported in
choosing jobs that are future-oriented and promising, regardless of their gender. There should be
a proactive way about welcoming women. Companies should clearly state that they want to hire,
support and promote women. The use gender empowerment program to facilitate the economic
empowerment of women and girls and to multiply the impact of humanitarian action Churches
should partner with a wide range of key actors to ensure that our efforts to increase gender
equality and female empowerment are coordinated and no duplicative, and reflect country
priorities. This includes host governments; international and host country, civil society; womens
organizations; the donor community, foundations; lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender

31

advocates and the private sector, including women led businesses. Partnerships with local
individuals and organizations will capitalize on and leverage their passion, experience, and
achievements, while building their capacity as advocates, leaders and voices for change. In
working environment salaries and promotions should be monitored and evaluated on a regular
basis to ensure equal treatment. Make flexibility and work-life balance a part of the wider
company culture. Too often, employees have to specifically ask to work part-time or work from
home, which can be awkward. Companies should instead offer a broad range of different options
to suit women as well.
Companies should aim for a 50-50 gender split in all their teams right up to the executive floor.
Offering practical support such as childcare is part of this, as is the right attitude. It should not be
a career killer for a woman to ask for extended leave because he wants to look after his children.
Use the power of networking. Networking, mentoring and coaching opportunities can help
women build confidence and develop their careers. Young people today have a very different
view of what a great career means. Many want equalities in their private and professional lives,
and see a healthy work-life balance as crucial to their happiness. This presents a huge
opportunity for redefining gender roles. The challenge is to address this in all sectors business,
education, research and politics. When it comes to gender equality, people have to work together.
Only then can people provide the next generation with the very best support for shaping their
own path in life and contributing to Zimbabwe continued success regardless of gender. They is
need to teach both girls and boys to aim for ambitious careers, demand better pay and learn to
negotiate. Also to encourage girls to picture themselves as future breadwinners. It should be
natural for a girl to think about becoming a carpenter when she grows up, and for a boy to want

32

to be a nurse. Awareness programs about the importance of gender empowerment should be well
financed to cover all places in the country especially rural areas. Use awareness campaigns to
ensure that the entire beneficiary population understands the purpose and benefits of gender
empowerment. Policy should be designed to enhance womens empowerment and reduce gender
gaps, the policy affirms the critical role women play in accelerating progress in development and
advancing global prosperity and security.
There is no need to neglect men and boys as participants and beneficiaries of gender
empowerment strategies because they should know the importance of gender empowerment and
women empowerment. Create viable and pragmatic monitoring and assessment tools for the
gender intensity measure prototype. And to create opportunity to foster longer term gender
equality gains, throughout preparedness, response and recovery cycles. Educate women about
their human rights, personal strengths, skills, and resources to foster their vitality and resilience
as personal protective factors that offset poverty. Engage women and girls as active partners in
planning and operating programs at all decision-making levels. Encourage development of
ownership, optimism, and confidence in their ability to be effective by providing opportunities
for participating in entrepreneurial, social and other development activities. Encourage and
provide opportunities for expanding and strengthening capacity building community networks
through which information and entrepreneurial skills are shared. Provide and strengthen existing
primary, secondary, and higher education and training of women and girls. Train local women
peer coaches as mental health resources for the community using available technology such as
online communication and instruction. Psychologists, social workers and other mental health
professionals can serve the community by training peer coaches to recognize mental health

33

problems and provide services or referrals. Develop and evaluate a program that deploys trained
psychologists working with peer coaches to provide services and training

2.4 Summery
In concussion, this chapter has discussed that most of the developing countries including
Zimbabwe, have actively promoted womens empowerment and gender equality in all
development arenas. However, although these countries have embraced gender mainstreaming, it
is evident that gender inequalities are still persistent in all aspects of womens life. Cultural
beliefs and religious teachings and beliefs which embed social norms, thus shaping behavior and
practices have been implicated in this discussion to have an impact on the rigidity of gender roles
and attitudes. At the same time religious teachings and beliefs have been seen to promote gender
equality and women empowerment. However, there is causal effect of religious teachings and
beliefs and women decisions on different aspects of their lives. Educations being the center stage
of empowering women, improved cognitive abilities increase the quality of life for women
(Nussbaum, Martha. 2011.).and also leads to other benefits. One example of this is the fact that
educated women are better able to make decisions related to health, both for themselves and their
children. Cognitive abilities also translate to increased political participation among women.
Educated women are more likely to engage in civic participation and attend political meetings,
and there are several instances in which educated women in the developing world were able to
secure benefits for themselves through political movements. (Nussbaum, Martha. 2011).
Evidence also points to an increased likelihood of democratic governance in countries with welleducated women
34

There are also benefits relating to the womans role in the household. Educated women have
been found to experience less domestic violence, regardless of other social status indicators like
employment status. Women with an education are also more involved in the decision-making
process of the family and report making more decisions over a given time period. In particular,
these benefits extend to economic decisions. Besides the intrinsic value of increasing a woman's
agency. (Kabeer, Naila. 2005). Having women play a more active role in the family also brings
about social benefits for family members. In a household where the mother is educated, children
and especially girls are more likely to attend school. In households where a mother is not
educated, adult literacy programs can indirectly help to teach mothers the value of education and
encourage them to send their children to school. There are also a number of other benefits for
children associated with having an educated mother over an educated father, including higher
survival rates and better nutrition. ( Birdsall, Nancy, et al 2005)

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Introduction

35

The focus of this chapter is an exploration of the methodology used in this research. The
Research is using the qualitative research paradigm. The research design, methodology, sampling
techniques, data collection and data analysis procedures were also explored
.3.1 Research Methodology
The research is qualitative in nature because the researcher wishes to uncover and understand the
gender inequality phenomena among the women. Qualitative research is said to be especially
effective in studying the subtle nuances of attitudes and behaviors and examining social
processes over time. Creswell 1994 stated that peoples words and actions represent the data of
qualitative inquiry. This requires methods that allow the research to capture language and
behavior. The chief strengths of qualitative research lie in the depth of understanding it may
permit and also the fact that the design plan may be flexible to suit the objective of the study
(Babbie and Mouton 2001). The analysis of the qualitative data will be based on the in depth
interviews which the research is will have with the sampled key informants and women and men
belonging to different parishes of the Zion Christian Church respectively. Interview guides and
self-administered questionnaires were used to collect primary data from Zion Christian church
members in Bulawayo City centre Branch. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with church
leaders while questionnaires were completed by any other church members who were
conveniently selected while leaving church premises after attending church service. According
to Leedy and Ormrod (2001) face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the
Researcher to establish rapport with participants and therefore gain their cooperation. They
further argue that, with face-to-face interviews, the researcher can seek clarity from respondents
on ambiguous answers and, when appropriate, probe further. The researcher also made use of

36

some Zion Christian church constitutions and distributed church literature as secondary data.

3.2 Research Design

Robert Stake 1995 and Yin 2006 argue that one of the key approaches that guide case study
methodology is that the topic is well explored and the essence of the phenomena is revealed.
Through the use of a case study of the Zion Christian Church, a clear understanding of their
knowledge of women empowerment will be revealed thus helping them to take measures that
protect them from gender inequality.

3.3.1 The phenomenological method

A phenomenological design was used as the study concerned with the descriptive analysis of
experience. Marshall and Rossman (2006) define phenomenology as the study of lived
experiences and the way we understand those experiences to develop a worldview. In this
research the insignificant inclusion of women in women empowerment is not the phenomenon in
itself but it points to something more profound. The insignificant participation of women is a
symptom of something hidden and disguised. Hence phenomenology is the most appropriate
method which can unmask the phenomenon through focusing on experiences and their meanings
through the views of the affected people themselves. Goulding (2004) says experience involves
an I, that is a centre of passivity, activities, possibilities, and habitual ties; various ways in
which objects may be given (perceiving, behaving, imagining, anticipating); and the meaningful
situations and worldly affairs encountered through these processes of experiencing. Husserl and
other phenomenologists emphasized that human experience is fundamentally an embodied,
social, and temporal process that includes a practical and emotional presence, thereby
37

illuminating the utilities and values that are inherent in the world. The assumption is that there is
structure of essence to shared experience (Bryne, 2001). Also truth and understanding of life
emerge from peoples experience. The phenomenological design is invaluable to this research
because: It is essential to understand the participants everyday experiences; it is important to
gain an understanding on the essential truths of the participants lived experiences; According to
Higgs (2000) phenomenology locates the underlying causes in cultural social norms which have
diminished regard for women which is the very essence of this research; and to reconstruct
women as people who have a sense of worth and who are able to participate in economic
empowerment.

3.3 Study Population

Mourton and Marais (1988) define the population as that group of people about whom we want
to draw conclusions. In this study, the population included: All female who managed to get
empowered and are actively participating in in socio-economic. This population was essential as
they were the main focus of this research. Their career aspirations; and what factors hindered
their progress to women empowerment are also considered. Also male are to be included for a
comparative analysis and justification of perceptions of female to their male counterpart. This is
important to show whether there is a difference in perceptions of leadership between males and
females. This is important to evaluate how these perceptions were rooted in socio-cultural factors
reflected in the research questions. The population will be drawn from the central district of
Bulawayo.

38

3.4 Sampling Techniques and Samples

Purposeful sampling is a non-random method of sampling while the research is selects
information-rich cases for in depth study (Patton: 2001). Information-rich cases are those from
which the research is could learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of
the research, thus the term purposeful sampling. Purposive sampling allows us to choose a case
because it illustrates some features or processes in which we are interested (Silverman, 2000; De
Vos, Strydon, Fouche and Delport, 2002). Goulding (2001) says in grounded theory most
sampling should be purposive and defined before data collection commences. The research is
uses purposive sampling in the selection of his research participants. Initially in this study
participants are chosen basing on their prospective in terms of empowerment of women in
different projects and qualifications. Types of purposive sampling uses are criterion sampling,
maximum variation sampling, typical case sampling and negative case sampling. These are
briefly explained in the next section.
3.4.1 Phase 1 sampling procedures - criterion sampling

The first type of purposive sampling employed in this study is criterion sampling. Palys (2008)
says this involves searching for cases or individuals who meet a certain criterion, e.g., that they
have is a particular life experience. The factors considered in the selection of the research
participant are initial qualifications to enter education management and being education
managers. This is done to gain an in-depth understanding of factors that contributed to the
inequalities in holding education management posts across sexes.

39

3.4.2

Phase 2 sampling procedures - maximum variation sampling

The type of purposive sample the research is uses in the second phase of the research is the
maximum variation sampling technique which according to Leard (2011) captures a wide
range of perspectives relating to the impacts of socio-cultural factors on the effectiveness of
gender sensitive policies in education management. Palys (2008) says Maximum Variation
Sampling searches for cases or individuals who cover the spectrum of positions and
perspectives in relation to the phenomenon one is studying. The research is resorted to this type
of purposive sampling because he saw during the initial phase of the research that he has to
consider

variation

in

perspectives

between people

of

different

social

groups

and

backgrounds to capture a wide range of perspectives. It uses to search for variations in

perspectives hence the division of the population based on the following criteria: Geographical
location; teaching experience; and economic status of family.The basic principle of maximum
variation sampling is to gain greater insight about the impact of socio-cultural factors on
the implementation of gender sensitive policies by looking at it from different angles.
This helped the research is to identify common themes that are evident across the sample. The
sample is an interview sample. The factors which are considered in the choice of the sample are:
Accessibility (where the area can easily be reached by the research is), cost (financial feasibility
of reaching the participants). time (as the research is on full time employment and is a part-time
student, Consideration is on time feasibility i.e. the time to reach the participants) ,willingness of
participants (only willing participants will be included in the study for ethical reason)

3.4.3. Phase 3 sampling - typical case sampling

The typical cases are chosen from the maximum variation sample. After gaining information

40

through maximum variation sampling the research is then wills pertinent that makes an in depth
study of four cases he came across during phase 1 and 2 of the research by using typical case
sampling, a type of purposive sampling.
During interviews the research is chose typical cases which he uses in the research as
illustrative case due to the depth of the experiences. three types of purposive sampling uses by
the research is effectively complemented each other in data collection. These sampling
techniques helped the research is to show the typical experiences of both male and female
participants.

3.4.4 Phase 4 sampling - Negative Case Sampling

This is done at the end of the study to ascertain the reliability and validity of the research
findings. Palys (2008) asserts that negative case sampling locates and examines cases that
disconfirm the research is expectations and tentative explanations.

It uses to measure the

reliability of research findings.

3.5 Data collection methods and instruments

Literature research is done at the same time as data collection as part of an iterative, inductive
and interactional process of data collection (Goulding, 2001). The developing theory guided the
research is to appropriate literature that is relevance to the emerging data grounded concepts.
Eaves (2001) says that grounded theory uses a systematic set of data collection and analysis
procedures to develop an inductively derived theory from data. The generation of theory
occurred during actual research and is based on comparative analysis between and among groups

41

of people. Data was collected using interviews, focus group discussion and questviews

3.5.1

Interviews

The researcher is to ask for permission from the selected participants at least a month before the
interview date. Then Interview guides would be sent to the prospective participants before the
interview date for them to have time to reflect on the interview themes. Interview styles uses in
this research are dictated by grounded theory method. Strauss and Corbin (1998) suggest that
research is to move from broad to more specific questions. assured of confidentiality by the use
of pseudonyms in reporting especially on typical cases.

3.5.2 Focus group discussion

A focus group discussion is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked
about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards the role played by the church in
gender empowerment. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting, one on one and
participants are free to talk with other group members. During this process, the researcher will be
taking notes and recording the vital information required.

3.5.3 Questerviews
Questerviews rely on the data collection that apply standardized questions and questionnaires
during interviews. questerviews included both standardized self-completion questions or
questionnaires and in depth interviews. Questerviews are fully transcribed and data analysis
involved the scrutinizing of transcript to identify emergent themes.

3.6 Data presentation and analysis

Best and Kahn (1993:203) assert that the challenge in analyzing qualitative data, is to

42

make sense of the massive amounts of data, reduce the volume of information, identify
Significant patterns and construct a framework for communicating the essence of what the data
reveals. To avert this problem, the research is uses grounded theory technique which

uses the

constant comparison methodology that combines data collection and data analysis. Analysis is
based on open coding techniques and the use of line by line analysis while the research is
analysed words in speeches and interview responses that is meaning to theory formation in
this research hence the use of critical discourse analysis. Theoretical sampling is cumulative,
increases the depth of focus, notes variations and occurs in all three coding phases to
uncover and validate the relationship between concepts and to determine the accuracy of the
relationships. Theoretical sampling is done until theoretical saturation is reached, that is, o
new data emerged, the categories are dense enough to cover variations in data and
relationships between categories is delineated satisfactorily.

3.7 Validity and reliability

Durrheim and Painter (2006:147) define validity as the extent to which a test measures what it
claims to measure. He argues that it is vital for a test to be valid for the results to be accurately
applied and interpreted. The reliability of a research instrument concerns the extent to which the
results of the research are consistent over time and an accurate representation of the total
population under study. While the terms reliability and validity are criterion for quality in
quantitative research, the terms credibility, conformability, consistency and transferability are
essential criterion for quality in qualitative research (Lincoin & Cuba in Golafshani, 2003:601).
Since this study uses both qualitative and quantitative methods, the issues of validity and
reliability are considered in both the qualitative and quantitative methods. The criteria in

43

qualitative research to ensure validity are credibility, transferability, dependability and

conformability. To attain trustworthiness the research is uses negative cases, prolonged
engagement and member checks.
According to Chiovitti and Piran (2003) in qualitative research the term credibility Relates
to the vividness and faithfulness of the descriptions of the phenomena. It relates to the
trustworthiness of the findings. To ensure that research results are trustworthy, this
research is guided by the enquiry process. The emergent themes guided the direction of
research so that a thick description of the phenomena are achieved. The research is tries
by all means to use the researcher uses his own words and stories to guide theory
formulation.
3.7.1 Triangulation
. In this research four types of triangulation are used:
Research is triangulation different research assistants are using in this research to ensure that
the data gathered are not biased towards one research is. Both male and female assistants
are uses to avoid sex bias of the results. Research design triangulation the research is also
based on different research designs which is different theoretical bases. Phenomenology,
grounded theory and critical discourse analysis are all uses to investigate the same
phenomena from different perspectives. This is done to compare findings from these different
approaches and see where this results have coherence and could thus be translated into
meaningful theories. Frost (2010) argues that research design triangulation offer a more in
depth, multidimensional insight into the complexities of the social world. This ensured that
the data is dependable and trustworthy. Methodological triangulation Frost (2010) notes that to
counter biases that may be brought by one method different data collection methods should be
uses. The research is uses both unstructured and semi structured interviews, participant

44

observation and critical discourse analysis.

3.8 Ethical consideration

The research is based his ethical considerations on the contextualized stance. Gonzales-Perez
(2007) says that in the contextualized stance the research is describes and understands events,
actions and processes in the natural process they occur. This is in line with the research design
uses (phenomenology and grounded theory) and the theoretical framework upon which this
research is based (feminist post modernism). The following ethical issues are considered
throughout the research process: Informed consent the research is faithful and truthful in
the conduct of the research. The research is first sought verbal consent of the research
participant. The participants are informed bout the purpose of the research and its benefits
to them. Assessment of risk Newton (2010) warns that the researcher should be sure that the
Interviewees are happy and they should not demand too much from the participants. The research
is assessed the risks of the research process to participant. Which is the participant asked
for secrecy, so that no one knew they are part of the research to ensure that the
participants are comfortable from the stress.
3.9 Summary
The chapter discussed research methodology. The research design uses are multi-faceted while
the research uses phenomenology, grounded theory and critical discourse analysis A qualitative
research paradigm is utilized. This is done to gain a holistic picture of the problem. Purposive
sampling is uses to select participants in the research. The types of purposive sampling uses are

45

criterion, maximum variation and sampling. The research methods employed to collect the data
are unstructured and semi structured interviews, critical discourse analysis and participant
observation. Data analysis is done using grounded theory. Based on the research methods
discussed in this chapter, the next chapter discusses data presentation, analysis and interpretation.

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
4.0Introduction
This chapter looks at data presentation, analysis and interpretation. The data were presented on
the basis of the research questions. The focus of this chapter was to explore the findings of the
research on the role played by churches in gender empowerment in Zimbabwe a case study of
Zion Christian Church. The researcher looked at background information for this research using

46

background questions which formed a basis of the analysis of the impact of socio cultural factors
on the effectiveness of gender sensitive policies in empowering women. Once women are
empowered the process of gender equality is achieved because man will be involved in the
process through giving them knowledge about the importance of women.
4.1.0 Data findings and results
The congregates of Zion Christian Church in City center parish of Bulawayo were given
questionnaires and they were also interviewed. 42 questionnaires were sent to the church
members and 32 managed to return them completed, representing a 76% response rate. 10
questionnaires (24%) questionnaires were not returned. Out of 32 people who returned the
questionnaires 24 were females representing 75% and 8 were males represent 25%.

4.1. 1. Gender Presentation Diagram

Gender

Frequency

Percentage

Males
Females
Total

8
24
32

25
75
100

Fig 1.1 Gender Presentation Diagram

4.2 Age
47

Interviewed people were 32 and the age groups were as follows:20 and below were 2 people,2125 age group were 5,26-30 were 15 people,31-35 were 7 people,36 and above were 3.

Age
20 and below
21-25
26-30
31-35
36 and above
Total

Frequency
2
5
15
7
3
32

Percentage
6.25
15.3
46.88
21.88
9.38
100

Fig 1.2 Age group of participants

4.3Number of years Participants in the area.

Figure 1.3 shows the time the respondents have been the residing in the area. Of which 9
(28.13%) of the respondents have been the residents of the area for 5years and less, 8 (25%) have
been the residents for 6-10 years in the area, 6 (18.75%) have been the residents for the period
ranging from 11-15 years, 9(28.13%) resided in the area for the time ranging from 16 and above
years,

No. of years in the residents

0-5
6-10
11-15
16 And above
TOTAL

48

Frequency
9
8
6
9
32

%
28.13
25
18.75
28.13
100

Fig 1.3 Table showing Number of years Participants in the area.

Fig 1.4 Graphshowing number of years Participants lived in the area.

4.4 Average hours spent by husbands taking care of household and children.
In Fig 1.5 shows that most husbands dont take much time at home doing households chores and
babysitting this revealed by the percentage of hours taken by husbands at home of which only 28
according to participants research stays between 1-3 hours representing 87% of the research,
then 4-5 hours 3 participants acknowledged that the husbands will be at home,6-7 hours only 1
participant was found in this category and 7 and above hours none of the participant was found.
This clearly shows that most husbands still have the belief that all households chores are

49

basically for women including babysitting. This have negative impact on the gender equality
because women will always lag behind in terms of education and employment.

No. of hours
1-3
4-5
6-7
7 And Above
TOTAL

Frequency
28
3
1
0
32

Percentage
87.5
9.375
3.13
0
100

Fig 1.5 Graph showing Average hours spent by husbands taking care of household and children
4.5How did the Church help you to archive your goal as a woman?
Most women through the help of scriptures such as Deuteronomy 8 verse 18 managed to realize
that they can use their hands to work for themselves thereby empowering themselves and also
help their families especially considering the economic hardships facing Zimbabwe at the
moment. Through preaching from church leaders for women to start projects women decide to
come together and approached the RUFO organization and were assisted with money to start
different projects such as cattle, goat, chicken, gardening projects. Some were motivated to an
extent that they converted their savings and started to do their business. Some women said they
had their savings and when they see others starting business that started copying when they
realized that the business was moving. Also church members decided to help one women who
was a widow with free labor to start gardening project which is now a big project in the Nketa
area.

50

Fig 1.6 Pie Chart showing help provided by the church to women and men
Type of Help
Helped financially
Motivated by preachers
Helped through imitation
Labor free from church

Frequency
24
5
1
2

Percentage
75%
16%
3%
6%

members

Fig 1.7 Graph showing help provided by the church to women and men

51

4.6As someone worshiping in an organization championing this issue, how do you think can
others in the aid community better address the issue of gender equality and womens
participation?
Through the implementation of Womens Ministries Department in the church it is committed to
encourage, equip and nurture women to be self-sufficient. There is no obstacle that can deter
women from developing this country for the betterment of their lives, and that of their families
and local communities. The use of women congress can invite various critical stakeholders such
as the Ministry of Small & Medium Enterprises Development to help empower the women to
come up with income generating projects. In this challenging economy, everybody must play a
part in creating wealth, and the promotion of self-sufficiency is one such way of promoting
gender equality. However according to the questioners answered received were that it is better to
create awareness programs, women should also participate in churches so that they take equal
duties with men,have equal access to and control over resources and decision making processes;
enjoy equality under the law; have autonomy to make life choices free of violence; and systems
and structures perpetuating inequality, disempowerment and gender stereotyping are challenged.

52

Fig 1.8 Bar Graph Showing how to address issue of gender equality
4.7Important business that women embarked on.

Family poultry has been increasingly recognized as one of the entry points to address the
problems of malnutrition, food insecurity, low income and povertyas a whole, in fact, Gawande
et al(2007) and Dei et al(2009) argue that family poultry is a profitable venture and eventually a
tool for livelihood improvement and poverty alleviation .This has been the case of the people of
Zion Christian Church who decided to venture in to poultry projects men and women are now
earning a better living and their children are going to school. This has also helped in the
reduction of child mortality rate because women are now into research and are aware of how to
feed themselves and their babies. (Gawande S et al.2007).And according to Fig 1.9 the biggest
percentage is on chicken rearing because its cheaper and faster to harvest. Number of

53

participants is 12 representing 37.5%. Goat and Pig rearing got 5 (15.6%) benefiting families but
looks like it is being done by a few because of labour involved. Vegetables and other Green
produce is also vital because its benefiting the community and its faster to receive returns 10
respondents (31. 25%).Cattle fattening Is costly thats why few managed to start the projects
6.25%. Candle making project have 9.4% because they say its not I deal since most candles are
being imported from South Africa at a cheap value.

Projects

Frequency

Percentage

Chicken rearing
Goat and pig rearing
Vegetables and other Green produce
Cattle fattening
Candle making Project
Total

12
5
10
2
3
32

37.5%
15.6%
31.25
6.25
9.4
100

Fig 1.9 Table Showing business that women embarked on

54

Fig 2.0 Pie ChartShowing Business women embarked on.

4.8 How do you address the problem when it is the women themselves who are not fighting
for their rights, or they are themselves the ones skeptical having women represent them in
government?
4.8.1. Enabling the political empowerment
Enabling the political empowerment of women helps to address the issue of women know their
rights and remove skeptical spirit in them that they cannot take the leading role in the
government. The political empowerment of women is regarded as the main route to improving
their status, it provides them with a voice within key decision-making processes. History has
shown that strong women leaders have the fortitude to propel countries (and by extension, the
businesses that operate within those countries) onto a positive trajectory. (Zahidi, S., Ibarra, H.
2010.)

55

4.8.2. Educating women.

Given that women account for more than one-half of the talent pool globally, the future
competitiveness of a country will increasingly depend on how well it educates its young women.
Education and skills development is one of the most important and sustainable interventions
needed to effectively assist women in restoring their lives and positively influencing the future of
young girls.
4.8.3. Uplifting the role of women in society through entrepreneurship.
The disturbance of established norms can have unintended positive effects on the status and role
of women in their societies. New roles hold new opportunities. For example, womens social and
economic responsibilities may increase when they are obliged to take over the responsibility of
supporting their households. Often this requires learning new skills that enable women to
perform jobs previously held by men or that prepare them for entrepreneurial income-generating
activities. This can help women achieve greater financial independence and lead to long-term
changes in the gendered division of labor. However, care should be exercised at programme
implementation to ensure the women truly see the fruits of their labor. In many African countries,
women have taken the lead farming role, but the men pick up the pay check. Basically, the
women are doing the work, learning a new skill and feeling empowered but they are not
capitalizing on their work financially. In Somalia, women who had traditionally helped support
their families through the sale of agricultural products expanded their sales to include livestock

56

and other products when the men were away fighting in the conflict. When the men returned
after the conflict, the women continued to work in these new areas because for various reasons
many men were unable to work.
(Barra, H., Obodaru, O. 2001)
4.8.4. Leadership Advancement
Promote the creation of female-led sustainable enterprises by supporting venture capital funds
that allocate funding and technical assistance to this Segment. Engage women in the policy
design process by supporting the creation of womens organizations in sustainability
4.8.5. Household and Child Development
Assess the possible integration of a sustainability and energy curriculum in the educational
system with gender considerations. Develop training materials and programs to promote and
improve public understanding on sustainability and resource management with considerations on
how mothers can play a key role. Apply the educational curriculum to how they run their
household and educate their children

57

15.63%25%

15.63%

6.25%

31.25%

Fig 2.1 Smart Chart GraphicShowing solutions to addressing women participating in

government.

4.9 Can you highlight the strategies the church employed in the women empowerment and
gender equality?
According to research carried on by the researcher the church played important role in women
empowerment and gender equality through employing legal and rights awareness programs to
keep the congregates aware, providing necessary information and skills that empowers the
congregates, educating the congregates from academic level to tertiary education especially to
those disadvantaged were helped by the church to go to school and to assist them start projects
and some were helped to secure employments church also provided necessary information and
access to services such as the E-learning,internet,practical leasons,helping taking drivers
licence,passports to mention but a few. Families were also assisted in marriage and kinship rules,
norms and process to enable understanding of gender equality within families. Church also
facilitated creation of employment in support of the government program of the Zimbabwe
Agenda for Socio-Economic Transformation. (Zim Asset).

Strategy

58

Frequency

Percentage

Legal and rights awareness

Information and skills
Education
Information and access to services
Marriage and kinship rules, norms and

7
4
5
6
7

21.88
12.5
15.63
18.75
21.88

processes
Employment/control of own labor
Total

3
32

9.38
100

Fig 2.1 Tableshowing strategies employed by the church empowering women

4.10
How effective are these strategies helping?
The strategies were very effective although some still need to be strengthened. Legal and
rights awareness worked very well 21.88% participants said its very effective and,
Information and skills 12.5%, Education15.63%, information and access to services 18.75%,
marriage and kinship rules, norms and processes 21.88% and 9.38% to employment and
control of own labour. Thereby there is need to create more employment and also
information and skills. Below is the table showing percentage representative.

Strategy
Legal and rights awareness
Information and skills
Education
Information and access to services
Marriage and kinship rules, norms and

Percentage
21.88
12.5
15.63
18.75
21.88

processes
Employment/control of own labor
Total

9.38
100

Fig 2.2 Table showing effective of strategies in women empowerment

59

4.11Has the government Ngos and Cso been visible in the process of empowering women?
Enabling the political empowerment of women by the government. The political empowerment
of women is regarded as the main route to improving their status; it provides them with a voice
within key decision-making processes. However, Zimbabwe has made progress since the
attaining of independence and collectively, these efforts are offering new opportunities for
womens progress. This has also shown the uplifting the role of women in society through
entrepreneurship. Given that women account for more than one-half of the talent pool globally,
the future competitiveness of a country will increasingly depend on how well it educates its
young women. NGOs focused on working solely with the government of Zimbabwe in all areas
specifically educating women and girl child.

Name of NGOs

Frequency

Percentage

RUFOS

10

31.25

Trinity Trust

21.88

The Girls Development Initiative

18.75

Youths For Today and Tomorrow

21.88

Heifer International

6.25

Total

32

100

Figure 2.3 ShowsNgos and CSo visible in the empowering of women

4.12 Explain the government role.

60

Governments with other stakeholders helped to enact gender neutral inheritance laws and land
rights; work to modify or weaken the institution of dowry; provide incentives for girls and young
women to improve their educational attainment and become gainfully employed; and use
communication and education campaigns to transmit positive messages about the value of girls
and the real and potential contributions of women to their birth families as well as to showcase
womens successes. The business community is well placed to assist in this campaign and
expand it by using a variety of media and different approaches to make people reassess the
usefulness of existing norms and values regarding sons and daughters. Governments can take
steps to develop or expand the social safety net so that it can provide security in old age.
Adopting measures that give preferential treatment to girls and women in terms of scholarships,
gender-based quotas for employment or financial incentives aimed at improving their economic
situation could also be considered. The business community could provide some of these
incentives.
4.13 Explain the Non-governmental role.
There is significant impact of NGOs on women in Zimbabwe. After joining NGOs, drastic
changes are seen in the life style and living standard of women. started earning money, becoming
independent and self-motivated. They can take their own decisions in some matters and give
their suggestions in family concerns. The study found significant difference in NGOs efforts
towards implementation of interventional measures in the area of health and to increase literacy
level of women. But even after a lot of effort of NGOs in the area of women empowerment, still
the situation need to be improved at the paramount level. Now Women Empowerment has been
the central agenda for both government and NGOs. Voluntary action promoted by voluntary

61

agencies engaged in development play a significant role at the grass roots level in the regions of
Zimbabwe which is dependent upon the active participation of the people through NonGovernment Organizations (NGO). Through NGOs the community benefited by accessing cash
to boost their business some benefited places to do their business and also school fees were
catered for by NGOs in partnership with the government. The NGOs helped the in the gender
empowerment and women empowerment the Pie Chart shows that the NGOs helped with
facilitating awareness programs with 31.25% of participants who participated in the research
acknowledging that Ngos helped in the awareness programs,18.75% is the help that NGOs
provided in the Skills training to all the community despite of their gender this included both
man and women and included all ages,21.88% showed that NGOs helped in the education sector
which is bringing to fill up the gender gap that was created by cultural practices, Also NGOs
helped by providing funding to the community for starting projects, education to mention but a
few and this is represented by 15.625%,Ngos also helped in the women participation to increase
their chances to participate in the political and to ensure total representation in the government
12.5% participants acknowledges.
The political empowerment of women is regarded as the main route to improving their status; it
provides them with a voice within key decision-making processes. History has shown that strong
women leaders have the fortitude to propel countries and by extension, the businesses that
operate within those countries ontoa positive trajectory

62

Key:
12.5%18.75%31.25%

21.88%15.63%
Fig 2.4 Pie Chartshowing NGOs role in empowering women

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1

Introduction

This chapter will first give a summary of the whole study. The conclusions reached and the
Recommendations will then be presented. Areas for future research will be presented last.
5.2 Research summary
The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of churches as a driver of women
empowerment and gender equalities. It was a case study of Zion Christian Church. The main data
collection tools were questionnaires and interview guides for face-to-face interviews. The
questionnaires were completed by ordinary church members and interviews were conducted with

63

church leaders. The researcher used purposive convenience sampling method to select the study
sample. The questionnaires were analyzed by first coding the questions and forming themes
under which the data was analyzed and interpreted. Manuscripts from interviews were analyzed
using the thematic context analysis. The results showed that the beliefs and doctrines about
creation enshrined in some Apostolic Sects act as drivers of gender inequalities. Some mainline
Traditional Orthodox Christian churches do not support equal participation of women in church
leadership and does not believe in women employment because some still believe that they will
not listen to their husbands, will engage in prostitution with their male work mates or bosses.
Also, in some Traditional Protestants and Charismatic Protestant churches, the results showed
that the Bible is selectively applied when dealing with issues of gender.
5.3 Major conclusions
In line with the findings presented in the previous chapter, the study makes the following
conclusions:
5.3.1 Equality of men and women in the community
Christian men selectively apply the Bible to justify their supremacy over women. In the key
reference Bible verse, Genesis 2vs22-23, an account of a woman being created from a man is
given. The fact that Adam was given power to name the woman the same manner he did all the
other creatures are interpreted as that Adam was given dominion over Eve just like he had over
all other animals. Hence women are subjected to men.
5.3.2 Participation of men and women in the church

64

This study concludes that although most of the Christian churches support women participation
in the church activities, men still play the leading role.

In most cases, women take a

subordination role to men. For example, women predominantly do the singing and praise while
men teach them doctrines.
5.3.3 Women in church leadership positions
Although some churches revealed that they allow women to take leadership positions, a lot still
needs to be done. The study concludes that women do not rise to certain leadership levels
including pastorship.
5.3.4 Doctrines that affect self-esteem of women.
Some women in the church believe that women should not actively participate in the church
supporting the Bible in 1Timothy 2v11 that women are supposed to learn in silence. Women
have come to accept this follower position to men even outside the church services.
5.3.5 The role of churches in shaping gender roles
Some Christian church constitutions strictly prescribe the expected bearing of women including
dressing and hair style. The study concludes that Christian women are excluded from taking up
certain jobs which only men can do because their prescribed dressing would restrict them.
Historically, much of the oppression women have faced came as a result of policies within
churches and organized religions. Forced marriage, oppressive ideas about sexuality, quashing of
rights to speak, and lack of stake in family and church leadership are all issues women have
faced through the centuries. On the other hand, research in recent decades has shown that women
who are involved in religion report higher levels of happiness. Researchers could examine this
dichotomy to discover core values held by women who choose to affiliate with a religion and

65

those who do not. Researches could look at what specifically and indirectly makes women
happier when their lives are tied to religious beliefs and settings (Sharma, 1987).
5.4 Recommendations
In this study however the researcher made the following recommendations:
5.4.1 Government and other Policy makers
The government should consider enforcing and monitoring church constitutionalism to ensure
that churches do not propagate extreme doctrines on gender inequality.
5.4.2 Development Practitioners
Women pressure groups should consider running programs that educate church-going
women of their rights. The pressure groups should also educate church leaders to consider
amending church constitutions in a bid to incorporate gender sensitive doctrines.

5.4.3 Civil Society Organizations and Non-Governmental Organizations

Women Empowerment has been the central agenda for both government, civil society
organizations and NGOs. Voluntary action promoted by voluntary agencies engaged in
development play a significant role at the grass roots level in all the regions for the success of
rural development which is dependent upon the active participation of the people through NonGovernment Organizations (NGO). The various roles such as: educating the rural women,
supplementation of government efforts, ensure womens participation in their empowerment,
promoting technology in rural areas and providing effective and efficient training to rural
women, monitoring and evaluation, impact assessment and planning and implementation.
5.4.4 Church leaders
66

Church leaders should consider mainstreaming of women in leadership positions without

conditions. They should also consider revisiting provisions of their church constitutions to allow
full women participation in church activities. While religion can be oppressive to individual and
gender rights, Christian religion has, nonetheless, helped to pave the way for social changes and
civil rights. Although Apostle Paul wrote that women should remain silent in the churches; they
are not allowed to speak, but must be in submission, as the law says (1Corinthians 14:34), he
also made the point that there is neither male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus
(Galatians 3:28) and instructed husbands and wives to have mutual care for each other
(Ephesians 5:21-33). The Christian churchs prohibition against divorce, which may have bound
women into marriages against their will, was also designed to protect women from finding
themselves cast out of a home.
5.5 Areas for further research

This study investigated in general the role played by Christian beliefs and doctrines in driving
gender inequality. It would be interesting if future research in the area of gender and religion
could explore in particular the impact of Christian beliefs and doctrines on the participation of
women in economic activities.

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Lesejane, D. (2005). Through Men, by Men, for Men: Christianity and the quest for gender
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Questionnaire
To whom it may concern
RE: REQUEST FOR ASSISTANCE IN RESEARCH PROJECT
My name is Shenjere Amos Pin number P1388319L. I am a final year student at the Zimbabwe
Open University (ZOU). I am currently doing a Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in
Development Studies. As part of my course, I am required to carry out a research. My project is
entitled The role played by Churches on gender empowerment in Zimbabwe. The case
study of Zion Christian Church.
May you kindly assist me by completing this questionnaire? The research is purely for academic
purposes and therefore, the results will be treated with utmost confidentiality and
professionalism.
Your assistance in completing these questions is greatly appreciated.
Thank you for your help.
Instructions
1. Please do not write your name on this questionnaire.
2. Indicate with a tick
in the appropriate box or fill in the spaces provided to
indicate response where necessary.
3. Please answer all questions.

71

1. Please indicate your age?

20 and below

21-25

26-30

31-35

36 and above

2. How long have been in the resident of this area?

0-5
6-10
11-15
16 and above
3. On average, how many hours a week does your husband spend taking care of the
household and the children?
1-3
4-5
6-7
Above
4. How did the Church help you to archive your goal as a woman

5. As someone worshiping in an organization championing this issue, how do you think

can others in the aid community better address the issue of gender equality and
womens participation?

6. Whats the most important business or other discovery youve made in the past
year?

72


..
7. How do you address the problem when it is the women themselves who are not
fighting for their rights, or they are themselves the ones sceptical having women
represent them in government?

8. Can you highlight the strategies the church employed in the women empowerment
and gender equality?

9. How effective are these strategies helping?

10. Has the government Ngos and Civil society organisations been visible in the process
of empowering women?
YES
NO
I yes, explain

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11. Explain the government role.

12. Explain the Non-governmental role.

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