Definitions: HR Management, Performance Management, Training,

Development
Human Resource Management is:

The strategic approach to the management of an organizations employees.

Its objective is to recruit, motivate, develop and retain employees whose performance
is necessary for the attainment of the organizations goals.
Performance Management is:

The process of establishing performance expectations with employees.

The design of interventions and programs to improve performance.

Monitoring the success of the interventions and programs.

Training is:

The acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities to improve performance on ones

current job.

A planned effort undertaken by a company to facilitate their employees learning of jobrelated competencies.
Development is:

The acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities required to perform future job
responsibilities and the long-term achievement of individual career goals and organizational
objectives.

Training is a means to acquire skills that can have an immediate impact in the
company whereas
Development focuses on preparing the employee for future situations
Human resource development is part of a larger system known as training and development
"Poor training led to Ocean Ranger disaster."
Broadcast Date: Dec. 21, 1983
The Ocean Ranger Disaster On February 15, 1982, the largest oil rig in the world, Mobils Ocean
Ranger, was lost at sea along with its 84 employees, off the coast of Newfoundland. Poor training and
sub-par safety gear were blamed for the disaster.

U.S. Coast Guard blames poor training and safety gear for Ocean Ranger disaster &
smashed poor whole
The Ocean Ranger's vulnerability to a rogue wave illustrated
(Source: Wikipedia).
1.

For comparison, the Draupner wave 59 ft/18 m

2.
28 ft/8.5 m
Location of the ballast control room

Training is not education.

Education: BROADER

focuses on the development of

ones intellect (knowledge
acquisition).

is an individual activity which

involves the use of ones mind

Training: FOCUSED

whereas

deals with learning how to perform

specific skills (skill acquisition).

is a way to develop skills that are

used for social and economic benefit.

Education is a lifelong process. Education is a broad term that really subsumes

everything that involves us learning.
To educate: setting out with the goal to teach someone a specific thing
Occurring in a variety of ways: watching tv, reading a book, interacting with a
college. Elements that add value to an individual over time: some basic skills like
reading and writing, understanding and so forth, how to gain access to information
development has to do with the sequences activities, specific activities.
Development is more enters a long process and a in the sequential process.
Training refers more specifically to things. Development on a cognitive standpoint
is something that occurs naturally
Training tends to be much more specific, development is a longitudinal
process, and the sum of all of that is education. Training basically scales back that
larger educational environment and identifies the competencies that need to be
applied in a particular environment.
Methodology is a way of looking and thinking about things. University: principles
and thinking skills.

The ability of an individual in a fixed setting to acquire and apply information is

extraordinarily limited.
In terms of informal learning the learning that we acquire over time occurs not by
design but rather by virtue of our interaction with the environment. Our self

assessment (I spoke early on about self-efficacy), when we understand ourselves to

be able to do something, we are motivated to engage in that activity more often
and so forth, in a sense that is self-reinforcing and so forth.
It is engagement that results in learning, having a person do it on their own or
cooperatively as I already talked about is what really leads to a rich and deep
learning. Learning that they retain over a long period of time and indeed can
transfer.

The Benefits of Training and Development (cont'd)

When an organization invests in training and development benefits affect: organization,
employees, the society in which it operates.
When an organization invests in the training and development of its employees, either by
implementing it themselves and/or by providing an environment that fosters it, the benefits
reverberate at numerous levels directly and indirectly.
Studies have shown that companies that invest in training their employees will have
higher revenues and profits and productivity

Intrinsic (within themselves how it affects them: attitudes, opinion of themself)

Greater knowledge and skills

Higher self-efficacy

Feel more useful

More positive attitudes towards their job and organization

Extrinsic (motivators that are related to life benefits: money, insurance)

Higher earnings

More marketable

Greater job security

Enhanced promotion prospects

Organizational strategy

Help organizations achieve their short- and long-term goals.

Increase organizational effectiveness

Better productivity, fewer errors, fewer accidents, less supervision needed.

Return on investment.

Employee recruitment and selection

A companys training and development program can help recruit new employees, and

retain the ones they have.

Educated population

Helps to create an educated and skilled workforce.

Provides skills that also serve employees outside of the work environment.

Better standard of living

A better-trained workforce is more productive, thereby improving the economy and the
standard of living.

Training in Canada
Reasons for the need of development & training
Demographics, information technologies, globalization

Demographics
Aging workforce as baby boomers retire (employee turnover).

Rate with which workers are leaving the workforce is greater than the ability of
new employees to fill that void.

Will likely have to rely on immigration.

Causing a loss of expertise and knowledge.

Greater need for knowledge management initiatives.

Unemployment rate > Ratio: #people seeking work /# people able(can) work
(labour force)
Number of people in workforce has been reduced because less people seeking for
employment(retirement)

Evolution of Information Technologies

New products

New ways of gathering information

New ways of communicating

New ways to efficiently carry out the tasks of ones job.

This requires constant updating of skills to remain competitive.

What is driving training and development in Canada
Globalization. compete with all respects with all other countries in the world.
we have been a resource agricultural society for a long time as opposed to
strictly service.
Service: economy is shifting into a service base market.
To behave creatively means putting together skills that you have in different
ways(each job requires to adapt many skills brought together in different ways)

Quebecs 1% Law
Legislation (Bill 90) was introduced in 1995 to catalyze the stagnant workplace training sector.

La Loi favorisant le dveloppement de la formation de la main-doeuvre.

Law requires the investment of a minimum of 1% of a companys total payroll on the training of its
employees.

In cases where the payroll exceeds $1 million CAD. (medium size organizations)

Failure to comply would result in a tax equivalent to the unspent amount.

Collected monies are pooled into a common fund used to finance workplace training initiatives
throughout the province.

Results of Quebecs 1% Law

Over a 6-year span starting in 1997, workplace training in Quebec enjoyed the fastest growth rate in
Canada in workplace training.

Increased by 57%.

Despite significantly narrowing the gap, the province was still below the national average.

Training participation among companies was not evenly distributed.*

very little difference between those organizations that spend a great deal and those
that spend very little.
One study revealed that Canadian employers are not leaders in training and development.
According to this study, percentage of adult workers participate in job-related training 30%

Employer Reluctance to Training Investment

lack confidence in their specific training needs and how best to organize and provide for it
when it is identified.

concerned about employees offer their services elsewhere after receiving the training.
Some companies have countered this with firm-specific training.

Small and medium-sized enterprises lack the economies of scale that make training more
feasible for larger firms

High Performance Work System

An interrelated system of HR practices and
policies which typically includes:

rigorous recruitment and selection

procedures

performance-contingent incentive
compensation

performance management

a commitment to employee involvement

Workplace training is not an independent

activity.

It is influenced by a broader
organizational and environmental context,
and a human resource system.

extensive training and development

programs

A) Environmental Factors
1.

2.

3.

4.

Laws
Quebec's 1% Law is an example of legislation that has a direct effect on a company's
attitude towards training its employees.
Global competition (and globalization)
International competitors, customers, suppliers and employees require increased
cross-cultural awareness training.
Technology
Employees must be trained in using new technologies if they are to be adopted.
Demographics
An ageing workforce means that there will be a significant "brain drain" as

experienced workers retire. Transferring the know-how to new employees will be a challenge.
5.

Labour market
Changes in demographics of the Canadian workforce will require adaptations in the
amount and type of training required.

6.

Economy
The economic downturn of 2009-10 caused higher unemployment and a
return to school for many to upgrade their skills in an attempt to find a new job.

7.

Change
Trends, new laws, economic changes and other events (external to the
company) that affect the organization.

8.

Social Climate
Specialized training programs that deal with diversity, security, and
stress management are examples of the effects of the social climate on training needs.

Organizational Factors
1.

Strategy

2.

One of the most influential factors of training and development.

The alignment of human resources practices with an organizations business
strategy is called: Strategic Human Resources Management (SHRM).
Training becomes strategic when it is related to the business strategy.
Structure

Changes in employee tasks and responsibilities due to structural change within the
organization.

Emphasis on teamwork may require additional training in communication,

supervision and cross-training (skills needed to complete all tasks that work team is
responsible for).

3.

Culture

4.

The shared beliefs, values and assumptions that exist in an organization are referred
to as the organizational culture.
Human Resources Management System

All functional areas of HR work together to create an HR system

Driven by organizational strategy and SHRM

Is what constitutes a High Performance Work System (HPWS)

Leads to a Strategic Model of training and Development

Strategic Model of Training and Development

Chain Reaction:

An organizations business strategy has a direct impact on its human resource management
(HRM) strategy.

The HRM strategy has an impact on the organizations strategy for the learning and
training of its employees.

Once a strategy for the learning and training of employees has been identified, this will
determine the nature of the training and development programs to design and deliver.

Instructional Systems Design (ISD) Model

A rational and scientific model of the training and development process
consisting of:
Training needs
analysis(learners)

Training design and

delivery (how to deliver
content)

Training evaluation (tests

are successful? + make
desirable changes)

Training that is aligned with the business strategy is created using an instructional design
process. Benchmarks against other companies are known as high-leverage training.
There are several prescriptive design models. There is no consensus as to which is preferred.
Some design model examples are:

ARCS

Component
Display Theory

Dick and Carey

(see below)

The Dick and Carey Instructional

Systems Design Model

Elaboration
Theory

Etc.

(click on image to enlarge)

ADDIE process
1.

Analyze the situation (learners, content, resources, environment).

2.

Design the instruction (objectives, method).

3.

Develop the learning material (content, multimedia, resources).

4.

Implement the training (face-to-face, online, blended delivery).

5.

Evaluate the outcome (make changes if necessary).

Key Points
To fully understand the concepts covered in this lesson it is important to have acquired a solid
background on a number of key points such as:

Training and development has benefits for the employee, the organization, as well as society
as a whole.
Overall, Canadian businesses have not fared well in the training of their employees.

Demographic shifts in the Canadian workforce, in addition to other environmental and

organizational factors, will increase reliance on training.

The government of Quebec introduced special legislation to penalize companies that did not
invest in the training and development of its employees (the 1% Law).

Training and development works in the context of a larger system (HPWS).

The instructional systems design (ISD) model is a systemic approach to the creation of
training and development practices.

What is a learning
organization?

What are the

three building
blocks to building
a learning
organization?

What can
managers do to
promote an
organizational
learning culture?

What concrete
practices can be
put into place to
become a learning
organization?

How can a
manager promote
learning despite
the organizational
culture?

Definition: Organizational Learning

The process of creating, sharing, diffusing, and applying knowledge in organizations.

It is not simply a focus on current needs or deficiencies, but also on continuous learning.

It is a main characteristic of an adaptive or agile organization; one that is able to identify

the need to alter its practices based on shifts in its environment.

Team level is not associated with organization learning (organizational, group and individual
levels are)

The Learning Organization

An organization that acquires, organizes, and shares information and knowledge, and uses new
information and knowledge to change its behaviour in order to achieve its objectives and
improve its effectiveness.

Able to transform itself by acquiring and disseminating new knowledge and skills
throughout the organization.

Has enhanced capacity to learn, adapt, and change its culture.

Has the ability to make sense of, and respond to, surrounding environment.

Organizational learning results in continual improvements in:

Work systems

Products services

The goal: A more successful organization

The Five Disciplines (Senge, 1990)

Teamwork

Management practices

Principles of a Learning Organization

Everybody is considered a learner.

People learn from each other.

Learning is part of a change process.

Continuous formal and informal learning.

Learning is an investment.

Experimentation is valued.

Failure is tolerated if it leads to learning.

Four Key Dimensions of a Learning Organization

1

Vision: Requires clear vision of organizations strategy and goals.

Culture : Fosters information sharing and continuous learning.

Learning Systems/Dynamics : Seek solutions to problems through a systemic

view of the organization and its environment.

Knowledge Management/Infrastructure : Technology, systems and processes to

support the capture, dissemination and evaluation of knowledge.

Ensure that the right person has the right knowledge at the right time.

Definition: Knowledge
Sum of what is known; a body of truths,
information, and principles.

More than just information! It is information

that has:

Found in the minds of employees.

been edited and put into context.

Transferred and stored in information

systems in the organization.

Embedded in tools and standard

operating procedures and processes.

analyzed and interpreted in a way that

makes it meaningful, and therefore
valuable to the organization.

EXPLICIT KNOWELDGE: Things that you can buy or trade, such as patents or copyrights and
other forms of intellectual property.

Knowledge that has been codified and documented.

Can be written into procedures or stored in databases.

Is transferred fairly accurately.

Small proportion of corporate knowledge is explicit.

TACIT KNOWLEDGE: Known only by the individual and is not necessarily known by the
organization.

Valuable wisdom learned from experience and insight that has been defined as intuition,
know-how, little tricks, and judgment.
Difficult to transfer.

People are often not aware of the tacit knowledge they possess and how valuable it is
to others.
Difficult to articulate.

Accounts for greater proportion of corporate knowledge.

Often this knowledge is critical to competitive advantage.

Example: One can learn a new language through their experience with others without the need of
learning the grammar and formal sentence structure. On the other hand, one cannot open a book
and memorize the grammar and expect to be fluent without practicing it with a native speaker.

Definition: Intellectual Capital

An organizations knowledge, experience, relationships, process discoveries, innovations,
market presence, and community influence.

The source of innovation and wealth production.

Has to be formalized, captured, and leveraged to produce a more highly valued asset.

Not like other assets it grows with use.

It is increasingly viewed as the organizations most valuable asset.

The Types of Intellectual Capital

Definition: Knowledge Management (KM)

Involves the creation, collection, storage, distribution, and application of compiled know-what and
know-how or, seeks to identify and connect individuals based on their expertise and areas of
activity.

Knowledge Management/Infrastructure
Refers to systems and structures that integrate people, processes, and technology.

Why is KM important?
In a knowledge-based economy, knowledge (or know-how) rather than access to labour,
capital, technology, or raw materials, is the basis of competitive advantage.

Knowledge in the form of intellectual capital has assumed a greater value.

The Life Cycle of

Knowledge

A. Knowledge Acquisition
1

Environment
scanning:

Internal; includes individuals, teams, departments, etc.

External; includes sources of information from other

organizations, customers, industry watchers, etc.

Formal learning
(training &
development):

Key part of the knowledge-acquisition process

Based on a curriculum, defined by others same time and place

Informal learning:
Never over, ongoing

Represents a small, but critical proportion of how employees

learn

Represents the largest proportion of employee learning

80% what you learn for your job

learn to speak your language, be who you are, your culture

Often spontaneous, immediate and task-specific

Can be based on trial and error, search or social network

Literature:.

Learning that occurs naturally as part of work and is not planned or designed by the
organization. (Saks & Haccoun)

Learning which takes place in the work context, relates to an individuals performance of their
job and/or their employability, and which is not formally organized into a programme or curriculum
by the employer. It may be recognized by the different parties involved, and may or may not be
specifically encouraged. (Dale & Bell, 1999)

Learning that takes place outside a dedicated learning environment and which arises from the
activities and interests of individuals and groups, but which may not be recognised as learning.
(McGiveney, 1999)

Human conversation: bringing humans together social networks

Most company put money in formal learning rather than informal learning. People in
organization should change environment of offices to influence interactions among employees

Small economies disadvantage: no econ of scale (changes with evolution of society) small
companies will be rejuvenated.

No informal trainers: training is something you do for someone else. learning internalize do
yourself.

Web: informal learning =web 2.0 participatory web brings people together

Comparing Formal and Informal Learning

Factor

Formal Learning

Informal Learning

Control

Controlled by organization

Controlled by learner

Relevance

Variable

High

Timing

Delay between learning and use of

knowledge acquired

Learning used immediately on the job

Structure

Highly structured

Unstructured

Outcomes

Specific

Not specific

B. Knowledge Interpretation

Mental models are deeply engrained assumptions, generalizations, or images that

influence how we understand the world and how we take action.

An effective way to develop shared mental models is to establish teams to stimulate workrelated learning, solving real problems.

Communities of Practice are networks of people who work together and regularly share
information and knowledge.

Communities of Practice (CoPs) comprise individuals who share common values, goals, problems
or challenges, and a shared language for framing and exploring issues.

Often, members share a disciplinary background, though a CoP could be interdisciplinary.

Unlike a project team, a CoP has no formal mandate, no formal designation of roles and
responsibilities, no predefined deliverables or preset lifespan and no specific defined
objective.
Social connections focus of interests: understand the way people organize the social world
Sharing experiences and info to see relevance in similar practices. Establishes ongoing relationships
with potential of helping each other. Bring challenge becomes a curriculum for the partnership.
Tools(not substitutes for learning partnership): discussion boards, wiki, file sharing, blogs

CoPs are the mechanism through which individuals gradually come to participate fully in a
profession or discipline.

The learning that occurs is largely informal, and based on exposure to the practices and
norms of the community. This form of learning is sometimes referred to as enculturation or
apprenticeship.

There is an upper limit on the number of individuals who can form a CoP. This limit is sometimes
pegged at the Dunbar Number after the sociologist Robin Dunbar, who studied the relationship
between the cognitive ability of different species and their sociability.
CoPs are naturally occurring phenomena. However, in modern organizational settings, there is a
great deal of focus on facilitating CoPs through information and communications technology, and even
on creating CoPs. It is an open question to what extent CoPs can be implemented artificially.

C. Knowledge Dissemination

Moving ideas requires a different set of skills.

Systems for sharing knowledge.

Shared mental models and language.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT):

Increased codification of knowledge; that is, its transformation into information that
can be easily transmitted.

Intranet and portals are critical components for managing knowledge.

Employee questions can be answered in hours instead of weeks.

CoPs are a mechanism for disseminating knowledge (particularly tacit knowledge).

D. Use/Application
In the sphere of KM, it is important to monitor:
How knowledge is being used.

Where it is being used.

Who is using it.

E. Evaluation

A consideration of the value and potential of the knowledge.

Could be rated by employees and managers.

Could be gauged through measurable outcomes (e.g., the return-on-investment of a best

practice or an innovation).
Could be based on usage (e.g., number of searches in a repository in a given subject area).

F. Knowledge Retention

The way in which useful knowledge is stored and organized in such a way that it can be
easily retrieved.

Knowledge repositories are inventories of knowledge that organizations compile and

store, which can be easily retrieved.

Some repositories are more informal lists of lessons learned, white papers,
presentations, and so on.

Most have links to the originator of the documents.

Includes content and document management systems, public file structures, and
libraries.

Connection Between Organizational Learning and Training:

Training is an important element of learning.

Learning organizations exceed other organizations in terms of both training practices and
expenditures.

Increased spending on training alone does not entail a learning organization.

Individuals learn through training and development.

psychological and physical fidelity. What it really means is the correspondence

between the training institution and system and the organization to which the training will be
the applied.

The principle is the greater to symmetry between the learning and the application
environments the higher the probability that the training will be effective

Key Points

Organizational learning is the process of creating, sharing, diffusing, and applying knowledge
within an organization.

A learning organization is one that establishes and maintains conditions for organizational
learning to occur.

Senge (1990) identified five disciplines that are widely regarded as guiding principles for
creating learning organizations.

Learning organizations are characterized by four important principles.

Although explicit knowledge is the easiest to quantify and record, tacit knowledge is the most
valuable and the most difficult to maintain.

Knowledge management practices and intellectual capital have become increasingly important
in a competitive, knowledge-based economy.

Once knowledge is acquired, it is then interpreted, disseminated, applied, evaluated, and

retained/stored.

Organizations in Quebec, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and British Columbia are amongst the
top learning organizations in Canada.

Learning
Definition:

The process of acquiring knowledge and skills, and a change in individual behaviour as a
result of some experience. (Saks and Haccoun).

Learning is an interaction between the individual and the environment that results in a
relatively permanent change in behaviour. (ODonnell et al., 2009).

Learning is a persisting change in human performance or performance potential as a result of

experience. (Driscoll, 2000).
How does the brain perceive events?
Our brain perceives events through the five senses--the sense of sight, the sense of smell, the sense
of touch, etc. Once we recognize something as familiar or we can compare it to something else in our
brain we begin to organize the information in some way, and that helps us to remember it and that
helps us to attend to the stimulus. If something is so unique that we've never felt it or sensed it

before, we also, that's another way that we organize information; we start to create new categories of
events and perceptions that we've never had before.
Practice: Educational psychologists define practice as the rehearsal, the repetition of information
that we are trying to commit to memory, and we do that in many ways. The knowledge can be
procedural knowledge; the way to do something, or the knowledge can be an association between
two things. We put milk in our cereal, we learn that when we are very young. So by doing that over
and over and practising, we finally learn that those two things go together. We associate them with a
larger scheme that we call breakfast, and the brain organizes information in this way.
Relationship between practice and stimulus: Any stimulus becomes information in our brain and the
point of classroom instruction is to help learners to memorize to commit things to long-term memory;
whether those are procedures, the way that we do something or that could be what we call declarative
knowledge, things that we know, things that we say "Abraham Lincoln was the President during the
Civil War". So that mental stimulus becomes well-set in memory once we've repeated it, and
practiced it and/or rehearsed it many times.
Memory is the storage of information in the brain--or in the mind as some would say--that's there
for retrieval later on. We can have memory that goes far back to something we haven't remembered
in a long time; yet we rehearsed it, or it was so meaningful that it became a long-term memory for us
and we were able to organize it and store it long-term. Also we can hold things in memory by
practicing them.
Memory & education process: All learning will ultimately involve long-term memory. We want
learners to store new information, useful information, in their long-term memory, which means it has
little chance of fading away or being forgotten. To do that is really a long and complicated process for
human beings and is really the reason we have school.
What conditions stimulate learning: In the earlier part of the century it was thought that driving
around and getting used to your environment would stimulate learning. When a person is satiated or
not hungry, a person or organism tends to explore more. In all when a primary need is met or fulfilled,
a person will search for others to explore.??????
Boredom is basically a term that people use, or learners use, to describe why they didn't stay
interested in a particular task or a particular stimulus. When a task is too challenging/hard or not
challenging enough/easy.
Motivation is an internal drive. Motivation is often described as the amount that we're invested or
interested in the task, how much value it has to us, whether we want to learn to do it, try to do it, and
it's also related to whether we think we can do it or not.
Attention span, simply, is the ability to fixate or to focus on the features of a new stimulus;
meaning: to continue to explore any novel parts of that stimulus, anything new.
In school, much of what is presented to the children, is presented in terms of direct instruction. That
often involves the teacher modeling some sort of behavior, or some sort of procedure for children,
such as writing a friendly letter and the like. In order for children to learn, they then have to do this
on their own. They have to try it themselves and they have to construct the knowledge piece by piece.
They need to be able to focus on the presentation until the presentation is finished. They need to see
it from the beginning to the end, or they need to participate in some way from the beginning to the
end of the demonstration part or the lesson, so that they can then try doing the steps of the
procedure or taking a test of some sort to show that they have mastered the material. So attention
is very important -- that students are able to see all of the components of the task before
they begin to try it themselves

What is the Link Between Motivation and Learning?

In order for learning to occur, one has to be motivated in some capacity. Whether it be for
advancement on the job, getting a university degree, or pure curiosity, something triggers and
sustains the desire to acquire, refine, apply, and retain knowledge.
We should enable learning

Tangential learning: not what you are learned by being thought but what you learn by being
exposed to things in a context you are already engaged in. some portion of society will self educate
if you can introduce them to topics they already find interesting and engaging
Bring new ideas: references, indexes, exposing to new concepts
Enhancing learning of player without removing the enthusiasm
Motivation: degree of persistent effort that one directs toward a goal.

There are two forms of motivation:

Extrinsic Motivation:

Intrinsic Motivation:

stems from factors in the external

environment.

stems from a direct relationship between

worker and task.

Need Theories

Needs refer to physiological and psychological desires.

Needs are motivational because people are motivated to obtain the things that will satisfy their
needs.

1) Maslows hierarchy of needs

2. Clayton Alderfers ERG theory

Three needs:

Existence needs

Relatedness needs

Growth needs

ERG theory differs from Maslows in the following ways:

Not a rigid hierarchy of needs.

If unable to satisfy a higher need, then the desire to satisfy a lower level will increase.

Growth needs are the ones similar

Process Theories
1) Expectancy Theory

Process theory of motivation.

Energy or force that a person directs toward an activity is a direct result of three
factors:
A) Expectancy:

B) Instrumentality:

C) Valence:

individuals subjective
probability that they can
achieve a particular level of
performance on a task.

subjective likelihood that

attainment of a first-level
outcome such as an A or B
in this course will lead to
attractive consequences that
are known as second-level
outcomes.

refers to the attractiveness of

first- and second-level
outcomes.

D) Effort = Expectancy x (Instrumentality x Valence)

2. Goal Setting Theory

Peoples intentions are a good predictor of their behaviour.

Goals are motivational because they direct peoples efforts and energies and lead to
development of strategies to help them reach their goals.

Characteristics for goals

to be motivational are:

a.

Specific in terms of their level and time frame

b.

Challenging

c.

Must be accompanied by feedback

d.

People must accept them and be committed to them

Goal orientation
Performance goals:

Mastery/Learning goals:

Outcome-oriented goals that focus

attention on achievement of specific
performance outcomes

Process-oriented goals that focus on

learning process.

Training Motivation
Definition: The direction, intensity, and persistence of learning-directed behaviour in
training contexts.

Personality variables that predict

training motivation:

Locus of control

Achievement motivation

Anxiety

Conscientiousness

Self-efficacy

Learning Outcomes
Learning outcomes can be classified according to five general categories (Gagne,
1984):

1) Verbal
information

2) Intellectual
skills

Verbs: state, recite, tell, declare, define.

Example: Define the term learning.

Concepts, rules, and procedures (procedural knowledge).

Categories: discrimination, concrete concept, defined concept,

rule, higher-order rule.

Verbs: distinguish, identify, classify, solve, label, specify.

3) Cognitive
strategies

Application of information and techniques.

Understanding how and when to use the information.

Verbs: adopt, create, originate, invent.

Example: Create and explain your own strategy to solve the
following problem.

Coordination and execution of physical movements.

Verbs: execute, perform, demonstrate.

Example: Hit a ball with a baseball bat.

5) Attitudes

Example: Identify each instance as an example of procedural or

declarative knowledge.

4) Motor skills

Facts, knowledge, principles, information (declarative

knowledge).

Preferences and internal states associated with beliefs

and feelings.

Verbs: elect, favour, prefer, choose.

Example: Which learning theory do you prefer and why?

Stages of Learning a Skill

Stages
Declarative
knowledge:
Learning knowledge,
facts, and information.

Example in Reading
Learn the alphabet, learn conventions about direction of reading (in
North America: left-right, top-down) separation of words, purpose of
punctuation, rote learning of some words, learn some phonemes.

Attempts at reading involve the conscious application of this

knowledge to text.

Word recognition becomes automatic, however over time, a

Knowledge
proficient reader is able to grasp whole sentences and even
compilation: Integrating passages at a glance.
tasks into sequences to

This is because the comment sub skills involved in reading

simplify and streamline
have been completely automated and merged together,
the task.
overcoming limitations of working memory.
Learner no longer has to think deliberately and consciously about

Procedural knowledge: the sounds associated with letter combinations or the meaning of
Learner has mastered
individual words.
the task & performance

Comprehension increases as working memory no longer has

is automatic & habitual.
to perform the conscious tasks mentioned above.

Learning Styles
Definition: The way an individual gather, processes and evaluates information during the learning
process.
According to Kolb (1984), there are four ways in which individuals gain experience (and learn):
1.

Concrete experience (CE)

2.

Abstract conceptualization (AC)

3.

Reflective observation (RO)

4.

Active experimentation (AE)

An individuals preferred learning style is a combination of two of the modes of learning:

Converger (AC + AE) = thinking and doing

Diverger (CE + RO) = feeling and watching

Assimilator (AC + RO) = thinking and watching

Accomodator (CE + AE) = feeling and doing

Learning Theories
What is a learning theory?
A learning theory consists of a set of propositions and constructs that attempt to explain how
change in behaviour (learning) is achieved.
We will investigate three learning theories:
1.

Conditioning Theory (from Behaviourism)

Conditioning Theory

Learning is a result of reward and punishment contingencies that follow a response to a

stimulus.

A stimulus or cue would be followed by a response, which is then reinforced.

Strengthens the likelihood that response will occur again and that learning will result.

Positive Reinforcement:

application of a
positive stimulus after an
act.

Negative Reinforcement:

removal of a negative
stimulus after an act.

Punishment:

receiving a negative
consequence for an
undesirable act.

Note that both forms of reinforcement (postitive and negative) will increase or maintain
behaviour.
Shaping:

2.

Reinforcement of each
step in a process until it is
mastered.

Chaining:

Reinforcement of entire
sequence of a task.

Generalization:

Conditioned response
occurs in circumstances
different from those during
learning.

Situated Cognition (from Cognitivism)

Theory that builds on cognitive approaches to understanding learning. Cognitivism focuses on the
structures that are created in the mind, through experience, and that further mediate our
interpretation of experience.

These structures are called mental models or schema.

Schema evolve through different processes in which they are tweaked or extended to deal
with new experiences, or undergo radical restructuring, if required (accretion, tuning,
restructuring).
Schema serve as filters that focus our attention in different ways

Learning is seen as a process in which schema are further elaborated to contend with new
experiences.

Key processes are generalization and discrimination (in the former, a very concrete
concept becomes more abstract, and more inclusive; in the latter, a schema that reflects a broad
categorization is narrowed or restricted, to allow more contrast or discrimination).

Cognitive theories are also based on an information processing model of the mind.

Key elements in the basic model (there are variants) are short-term, working and
long-term memory stores or registers.

Sensory channels provide input to short-term and working memory. These are not
permanent storage units, and there are well-established limits on how much information can be
held in working memory and manipulated (7 plus or minus 2).

The object is to move information from working memory into long-term

memory, which is a stable repository, for future retrieval and use.

Situated Cognition builds on the cognitive paradigm.

If we learn and practice a new concept or skill over and over in the same or very similar
situations or contexts we will find that we are very well able to apply this learning when we
are confronted with a similar context.

3.

The insight captured in situated cognition is that at the time of learning we also
encode aspects of the situation in which we are learning. These become part of our
memory structures and affect our ability to successfully apply what we have learned
both facilitating and obstructing performance depending on circumstances. The
aspects of the situation that are encoded are, if you like, conditions of applicability.

Our ability to do this will likely exceed that of someone who has learned the principle
or concept in a more abstract (less situated, less applied) fashion.

However, it is also true that if we are placed in a novel context where the same learning could
be useful, we may be unable to recognize this, and fail to retrieve and apply the relevant
schema.

To enable learners to access and apply schema across a wide variety of relevant situations,
learning and practice must involve a variety of contexts.

Decontextualized or abstracted presentations of a topic may also lead to greater wide

transfer of what is learned.

Social Learning Theory

Three Key Components

1.
Observation

Learning by observing the actions of others and the consequences.

Four key critical elements: Attention, Retention, Reproduction,

Reinforcement

Judgments people have about their ability to successfully perform a

specific task.
Influenced by four sources of information in order of importance:

2. Selfefficacy

a.

Task performance outcomes

b.

Observation

c.

Verbal persuasion & social influence

d.

Physiological/emotional state

People who hold a low view of themselves will credit their achievements to
external factors rather than to their own capabilities. (Albert Bandura)

Managing ones own behaviour through a series of internal processes.

3. Selfmanagement

Observe personal behaviour, as well as the behaviour of others

Setting performance goals
Assessing personal progress

Rewarding oneself for goal achievement

Concepts: self-regulation, metacognition

The classic definition of a learning theory is a permanent or semi-permanent

change in behavior due to experience. It is very important that one understands the three
components of that definition: Permanent or semi-permanent means that it is not something
that occurs ever so briefly and we forget about. It is something that we retain over a relatively
long period of time.
eidetic memory, we simply pull in the information, we retain it long enough, in short term memory,
to use it and then we regurgitate
Nature-nurture: Nature is what we were pre-wired or have the capacity to do, nurture is what
the environment offers us. Learning is that interaction between what we are capable of doing
and what the environment in all of its complexity offers us in order to interact effectively
within our lives, our contexts, whether that be personal, whether that be in the workplace or
whatever it may be.

Behavioural, Cognitive and Socio-Cultural Theories

Behavioural, cognitive, and socio-cultural learning theories differ in the emphasis they place on
the environment, the individual, and behaviour.

Behaviourists will argue that an influence in the environment will have a change on ones
behaviour. Individual differences are not as important.

Cognitivists believe that the individual is key since individuals can perceive the
environment differently and their behaviour will differ accordingly.

Socio-cultural theorists focus on the effect of the environment on behaviour, but

particularly on the role of the community in shaping ones behaviour.

Adult Learning Theory

1. Andragogy:

2. Pedagogy:

An adult-oriented approach to learning

that takes into account the differences
between adult and child learners.

Factor

The traditional approach to learning used

to educate children and youth.

Children

Adults

Personality

Dependent

Independent

Motivation

Extrinsic

Instrinsic

Student

Employee

Child

parent, volunteer, spouse,

citizen

Openness to change

Keen

Ingrained habits and attitudes

Barrier to change

Few

Negative self-concept

Experience

Subject-centred

Problem-centred

Roles

Model of Training Effectiveness

Training motivation is also a strong predictor of learning and training outcomes.

Self-efficacy, cognitive ability, and personality characteristics also have an effect on learning.

Attitudes (i.e., job involvement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment).

Key issue for training is ensuring that what is learned is applied in the workplace (in the
operational context).

In the Model of Training Effectiveness, what part of the model flows into Individual
Behaviour and Performance: learning and retention
Degree of transfer attained in training is often limited.

The mechanisms of transfer of learning are the subject of the next lesson.

Key Points
The major goal of all training and development is learning.

Learning involves a change in behaviour by an individual based on their interaction with the
environment.
Different learning theories explain this relationship in various ways.

Behaviourist vs. cognitivist vs. social learning

Adult learning theory and theories of motivation have implications for the design of training
and development.

Organizational effectiveness is the end product of a model that involves training, employee
characteristics, attitudes, learning and retention, and performance.

What is Transfer of Training?

Definition: Transfer of training refers to generalization of knowledge and skills learned in training
on the job and maintenance of acquired knowledge and skills over time.

Two conditions:
Generalization

Maintenance

Use or application of learned material on the job.

Use or application of learned material on the job over a
period of time (repeated behaviour).

We take basic principles, basic competencies, and reapply them in a new

setting, accepting and, in a sense, incorporating the new variables that occur within that new
environment.
The idea of transfer, at the core, goes back to a concept that I talked about before and that is
authenticity and relatedness. In order for transfer to occur one needs to teach something, one
needs to train in the way in which it is going to be encountered
You have to understand that the process of transferring that information requires in a sense
anticipating that is to come and moving backwards

That is how you designed instruction: anticipating what is to come

Learning theories are complementary
t has to make successive
approximations towards anticipating the environment and enabling the individual to
undertake the activity in that particular context.
t has to make successive approximations towards anticipating the environment and enabling the
individual to undertake the activity in that particular context.

The Extent of Transfer of Training

Positive

Trainees effectively
apply new learning on the
job.

Zero

Trainees do not
apply new learning on the
job.

Negative

Trainees perform
worse on the job after
training.

Types of transfer of training:

Near: Applying new learning to situations that are very

similar to those in which training occurred.

Far: Applying new learning to situations that are different

from those in which training occurred.

Horizontal: Transfer across different setting at the same

level.
Vertical: Transfer from trainee level to organizational

level

Impact on quality of the work: You obtain results on effectiveness of a training method through
observation or indirect way

Training Inputs

Cognitive ability, training motivation, self-efficacy, personality

characteristics.

Trainee
Characteristics

Most likely to transfer:

High cognitive abilities, motivation to learn, self-efficacy.

Internal locus of control and high need for achievement.

High job involvement, job satisfaction, and organizational
commitment.

Active practice and conditions of practice.

These topics are covered in more detail in the next lesson - Training
Design.

Training Design

Learning principles:

Identical elements (authenticity)

General principles (theory)

Stimulus variability (practice)

Pre-training

Work
Environment

Management actions send messages/signals regarding importance

and organizational support of training.

Organizational constraints: lack of time, equipment, and/or

resources.

Post-training

Support provided by trainees supervisor.

Training transfer climate: Characteristics in the work

environment that can foster or inhibit applying the training to the job.

Learning culture: Transfer of training is greater in an

organization that values the acquisition of knowledge and skill (a
learning organization).

Facilitating and Improving Transfer of Training

Transfer of Training Activities Before Training
1. Management
Decide who should attend

Readiness to
learn/trainability

2. Trainer

3. Trainees

Ensure application of
ISD model.

Ensure both trainees

supervisor and trainees are
prepared in terms of

Find out about

training objectives prior to
attendance.
Meet with supervisor
to discuss training program

(Ability x Motivation x
Perceptions of the Work
Environment) = Readiness
to Learn and Trainability.

knowing objectives and

benefits.

Find out supervisor

and trainee needs and
expectations.

Ensure that trainees

are prepared for training in
terms of prerequisite
courses/readings, etc.

Trainability tests

Increase motivation to learn

Meet with employees

to discuss training needs.

WIIFM (whats in it
for me?)

and develop action plan for

learning and transfer.

Prepare for training

program.

Provide employees with

support for learning and
training.

Transfer of Training Activities During Training

1. Management

Participate in training
programs.

Speak about importance

of training programs.

Attend training
programs before trainees.
Reassign employees'
work while they are
attending training.

2. Trainer

Incorporate conditions

of practice, adult learning

principles, and other
learning principles in design.

Include content and

examples that are relevant

and meaningful.

Include instruction on
transfer of training.

Have trainees prepare a

performance contract.

3. Trainees
Enter training program
with positive attitude and
motivation to learn.
Engage themselves by
actively participating.
Develop an action plan
for application of training on
the job.

Transfer of Training Activities After Training

1. Management

2. Trainer

3. Trainees

Ensure trainees have

Conduct field visits
immediate and frequent
Observe trainees,
opportunities to practice and
provide
feedback and
apply what they learned.
support.
Encourage and
Offer booster sessions
reinforce trainees
application of new skills.

Definition: Extensions
Develop action plan
with trainees, reduce job
pressures and workload,
arrange practice sessions,
give promotional preference
to employees who have
received training and,
transfer and evaluate
employees use of trained
skills on the job.

Begin using new

knowledge and skills on the
job ASAP.

Meet with supervisor to

discuss opportunities for
transfer.

of training programs that

involve periodic face-to-face
contact between the trainer
and trainees.

Form a buddy system.

Consider high-risk
situations that might cause a
relapse and develop
strategies for overcoming
them and avoiding a relapse.

relapse prevention

Anticipate transfer obstacles and develop coping skills.

Self-management and self-coaching

Perform a series of steps to manage transfer behaviour and establish performance

maintenance and improvement goals.

Goal setting

Set specific, challenging goals to enhance transfer.

Goal setting interventions

Teach trainees about the goal setting process.

Booster sessions
Extensions of training programs that involve a review of the training material.

The Transfer System

Definition: All factors in the person, training and organization that influence transfer of learning to
job performance.

Transfer System Inventory (Blue = Specific factors, Green = General factors)

Key Points

The transfer of training to the workplace is a serious problem because it is difficult to measure
and there are many potential barriers.

Personal characteristics of the trainee, the design of the training, and the environment
in which it is delivered and applied.

Transfer can be affected by all stakeholders (management, trainer, trainee) before, during, and
after the training.

The transfer system combines human and organizational factors to model the effectiveness of
training.

The Learning System Transfer Inventory (LTSI) can be used to assess this system.

A performance contract is an agreement outlines how new skills are applied on the job.
managers lack of support is The number one barrier to transfer of training is that the skills are not
appropriate
According to Baldwin and Fords model of the transfer of training process, trainee characteristics,
training design, and the work environment have a direct effect on learning and retention.

Transfer of training can be inhibited by the bubble syndrome, in which the trainee is expected to use
the new skills without support from the environment
Self-management interventions focus on behavioural change and have their basis in self-regulation
and social cognitive theory.
Readiness to Learn and Trainability = (Ability X Motivation X Perceptions of the Work
Environment)
What is the concept that refers to providing trainees with training experiences and conditions that
closely resemble those in the actual work environment: identical elements
The Learning Transfer System Inventory (LTSI) consists of many specific factors including:
opportunities to use, learner readiness, transfer design, peer support, motivation to transfer and
supervisor sanctions. What is one additional specific factor for the LTSI: personal capacity for transfer