INTRODUCTION

Roberts- 4 changes in the art of war:

1. Revolution in tactics: the replacement of the lance and pike by the arrow and
musket, as the feudal knights fell before the firepower of massed gunners and
archers.
2. Growth in army size across Europe tenfold increase in size 1500 to 1700.
3. Adoption of more ambitious and complex strategies designed to bring these larger
armies into action
4. Impact of war on society greater costs, greater damage inflicted, greater
administrative challenges, war more of a burden than ever before for both rulers
and civilians
Parkers additions:
1. Specialized military education and academies laws of war, literature on the
art of war
2. It has been suggested that Roberts paid sufficient attention to naval developments,
underestimated the importance of siege warfare, exaggerated impact of Swedish
army reforms, overlooked changes in other armies
3. Severe administrative and logistical problems posed by the need for more
warships and fortresses, to raise and equip troops, in effect caused a revolution in
government the modern state.
4. Parker compares this military revolution to the decline of the Chou Dynasty
5. Military changes produce problems of supply and demand, which force warring
states to reshape their political structure.

Western success depended on the ability to wage war, exercise of force

Firearms transformed the conduct of defensive and offensive
Logistical problems need for bigger fortifications and bigger armies; how to solve
that problem?
Military revolution offered states an opportunity to extend their conflicts beyond their
own shores naval
o Conflicts in the ocean and conflicts on other continents
o Took their military knowledge and technology to other places; gained
control over their opponents.

CHAPTER 1

the introduction geometric fortification, and of the firearms that made them
necessary 6
commenced without fear, continued without danger, concluded without lossMachiavelli 6
new fortresses increase in army size, improve discipline and lengthen the service
of their men 7
military activity became the capture and defense of fortified places 7
emphasis on defense, war was primarily sieges 7
introduction of bombards (canon) problem of transporting them 7
some fortifications could withstand the blast by design 7
1498- venetian state- wars of the present time are influenced more by the force of
bombards and artillery than by men at arms 10
before battles were bloodless although artillery was already in use, it was
managed with such lack of skill that it caused little hurt Francesco Guicciardini 10
with guns, cities once considered impregnable were captured with ease 10
low, thick walls with bastions 10
the new designs were effective but incredibly expensive 12
trace italienne required months or years and a chain of seigeworks had to be built and
manned until the defenders were starved out or they were close enough to bombard12
tunnels were excavated under a bastion where gunpowder mines could be placed,
creating a breach capable of being stormed 13
to carry out an attack and defend ones own fortresses at the same time required
unprecedented concentrations of both men and muntions 14
revolution of siege warfare during the renaissance was accompanied by a revolution
in field warfare, as tactics which relied on the direct use of brute force gave way to
the use of firepower 16
o began in italy
o the English had used volleys of arrows and cavalry charges since the wars
of Edward I 16
guns first appeared on the battle field of Europe in the 1300s but they were inferior to
the bow in terms of accuracy and range 17
o well trained archer could fire 10 bows a minute, it would take several
minutes to reload a gun17
o gun remained attractive because it required no training for use; archers
might take years to train 17
volleys- the first line fired together then retired to reload while the next rank came
forward and then did the same- increase rate of musket fire, dutch method, William
Louis of nassau 19
o armies spread out to minimize target and maximize effect 19
o placed importance on the ability of units to move fast and in unison 20
o troops needed to be trained, men divided up into smaller formations 20

John of Nassau- advanced military training by creating an illustrated drill manual

which was rapidly translated into many languages 20
o 1616- he opened a military academy to train soldiers
improvements to artillery transformed fortress design 24
reliance on firepower led to the eclipse of cavalry by infantry and new tactical
arrangements that maximized the opportunity of giving fire 24
new tactics increase in army size
Parker: presence of trace italienne was crucial, where there were no bastions, wars of
smaller armies were still feasible 24
trace italienne still slow to spread, high cost and quick outdating were deterrents 27
the more fortifications, the greater the army, and the greater the number of
fortifications the more the army is dispersed and of less use 32
full trace italienne came only to Ireland and Scotland, with the construction of
offensive bastion defenses large enough to shelter a force capable of mounting a
counter attack incase of rebellion or invasion. 32
English brutality, made possible by an overwhelming superiority in firepower
eventually convinced the irish leaders of a need to embrace the gunpowder revolution
33
o Ireland- firearms rare. Both sides adopted a policy of beastliness kill
everyone 32
Leather guns- unsuccessful attempt and mobile field artillery 33-34
Military revolution progress was slow in Poland and Russia
Large part of military expense was spent on defense not offense- the great wall of the
dutch republic 39
Ten fewer fortresses meant 30,000 more men for the kings field army.
Conclude:
o 3 important, related developments transformed warfare:
new use of firepower
new type of fortifications
and increase in army size 43
strategic thinking had become crushed between sustained growth in army size and the
scarcity of food equipment and money 44

CHAPTER 2- Supplying war

Army size increases to unprecedented levels

1670s French armed forces exceed 200,000 395,000 in 1696. 46
Size posed problems of recruitment, supply, and development 46
Few governments had difficulties raising an army 46
o concripts drafted against their will
o majority were volunteers

soldier wages depended on labor and food prices varied greatly, affected the
availability of recruits 46
some people joined so they were guaranteed a meal. 1710, price of bread so high the
army offered the poor one of their few chances of survival. Hardship was the most
prominent reason for enlistment 47
o wages hard to come by, risk of being looted or bankrupt by heavy taxes high
even with volunteers it was still hard to supply a long war, entire units of men recruits
from other parts of Europe, enlisting soldiers of a defeated enemy, and drafting local
men against their will as a last resort
enlistment pardoned all crimes, but those pardoned couldnt return 50
all governments wanted veterans because they were already trained. High rewards
were offered to those who would switch from one service to another 51
veterans could win against more numerous forces. 51
veterans were encouraged to go fight for the other side after the wars over. But danger
in enlisting yesterdays enemy no sense of nationalism possibility of desertion
52
common method: draft criminals or the unemployed 52
compulsory recruiting in Sweden most soldiers were peasant farmers. Overall
recruitment had devastating impact on isolated communities 52
enlistment had become a death sentence. Deleterious consequences for Swedens
population. 52
ability to plunder civilians kept some from deserting. At the expense of the unarmed
civilian. 59
heterogeneous methods of recruiting, high wastage rates, and mobility within the
ranks destroyed any sense of corporate identity among individual formations 60
there were more soldiers and more weapons, it was more expensive. Each solider had
to be fed, clothed, and paid. 61
war dragged on for a long time the object is not to smash but tire warfare
entirely dependant on money, 61
he who has the most money wins 62
Spain went further and further into debt for war 63
Borrow borrow borrow to wage war 64
Governments paid private contractors and entrepreneurs to supply the military
services they could no longer afford to organize themselves. 64
Fire money- an army threatened to set fire to a community unless it produced cash or
goods to support the troops. In return the village gets a letter of protection 65 almost a
permanent military tax enforced by the army. Communities would hear that the army
was coming and get ready by sometimes importing goods from other nearby areas.
Struggle to supply large numbers of standard issue items. Some items defective,
overall extreme lack of supplies. 67
Uniforms difficult for everyone to wear the same thing, clothes ruined easily,
terrible conditions, replaced clothes with whatever they could. All those on the same
said would wear a sash or ribbon. 71

Once permanent regiments were established, uniforms made more sense. 1620s in
Sweden and Austria, 1660s in france and England 72
Standing armies gave rise to military hospitals. First permanent hospital opened in
1585 in spain. 72; france followed 1670; Britain 1681. 75
Tasks of feeding and lodging the troops was much harder because it was a daily
problem.
Providing was difficult because such large amounts had to be prepared on a daily
basis. Normal rationing of meet required 1,500 sheep every day. lots of beer, lots of
bread. 75-76
The ovens to cook the bread 250 carts, 250 animals to pull the carts. Long transport
distances.
Oliver Cromwell transported supplies by water to help alleviate this problem.
George Monck (cromwells successor) made the soldiers carry a weeks worth of food
at once. 76
Some armies would carry tents, or use huts. Most men didnt use the hut because it
was a lot of trouble to set up. Solution: armies carry enough tents, and build barracks
to put it in during the winter. 78
Army of Flanders solved all of its supply problems 80
By using contractors everything got done. Food shelter and clothing were all steadily
provided. This diminished mutinies that broke out when governments tried to provide
pay rather than provisions.

CHAPTER 3- Victory at Sea

Period between the great discoveries of the 1490s and the railways of the 1840s
where control of strategically important waters decided the balance of power in
Europe and beyond. 83
1372 bombard on Chinese ship, Chinese found it too difficult to supply a standard
caliber of shot and they were too prone to explode. They depreciated ship borne
artillery as too inaccurate. Chinese deliberately rejected ship borne artillery. 84
oared fighting ships, well armed galleys
quinquereme- largest wooden ship ever built. Built by venetians after many pirate
raids. 87
galass- 50 meters long instead of the galleys 40, propelled by oars and sails, far
better armed
size of the crew required was the galleys crucial weakness. How to carry all the
supplies could not stay at see long, ran out of supplies. 89
improvement in sail plans meant that sails could be used more efficiently for
propulsion less number of crew. with handguns, ships could be defended with
fewer men, boats in creased in size. 89
2 important inventions that changed the nature of sea warfare: 90

o muzzle loading bronze artillery joined breech loaders on ships. a gun

that could shoot an iron ball 60 pounds or more, blow through the side of
ship.
o These guns were very heavy, needed to be on a lower deck, hinged gun
ports were cut into the side of the larger ships making it possible to deploy
artillery on several levels.
Caravels to galleons specialized warships were totally unsuccessful. 92
Huge boats are not maneuverable 93
Spanish armada canons fired approximately one shot during battle because they
were so difficult to reload. 94/95
English race galleons designed in the 1570s 95
Main object of the navy: ramming and boarding, not the use of artillery 96
Dutch created the first sea fleet capable of operating at long range 99
Dutch frigates long breadth, low in the water, shallow in draft; they were swift
and sufficiently armed 99/100
First fleet that could operate on a permanent ongoing basis, credit was due
partially to the excellence of naval administration under the Republic which kept
the fleet properly supplied 102
France soon adopted and placed all her trust in frigates. With them fance could
patrol and protect the sea lanes to its colonies in America and asia more
effectively than her rivals because of the frigate. Cromwells admirals found that
frigates could sail to destinations far beyond the range of the battle ship 103
Overall size of the navy grew as the need for frigates grew. Britain: 173 ships to
323 ships. 103
Post 1588 Battle fleets, through number and design, were now capable of
pursuing strategic objectives far from home. 103
Decline of Portuguese empire as a result of overextension and attempts to
concqure territory but actually in crease in muslim seapower and threat to
Portuguese india provoked a shift towards territorial conquest not vise versa 106
o Dutch captured portugese bases along the coast of Ceylon in 1650s
Turtle ships- 33m long by 8m wide, encased in hexagonal metal plates so the
ships could neither be boarded nor holed. They came up very close to other
vessels and either fired broadsides or rammed the enemy, leaving other warships
to close in for the kill. 109
o Turtle ships used for admiral Yi Sun-sin to destroy several Japanese
flotillas- 72 vessels sunk.
Japanese Red-seal ships- a fleet of large unarmed merchantmen, they were
protected only by a passport bearing the shoguns red seal No Japanese
merchantmen were allowed to arm themselves- Japanese gov considered it
cheaper to persuade the safe passage of unarmed merchantmen than invest in new
ships with massive armament- they would retaliate for sea offenses by prohibiting
European access to Japanese markets. 110/111
o Until the Shuinsen ceased to trade in the 1630s this system worked well.
111

CHAPTER 4- Military revolution abroad

Ivory chess set- Indian army vs. native infantry of British East India Trading
Company. Indian soldiers have swords and shield while European soldiers are in
uniform and equipped with firearms. 115
European overseas expansion superiority of western weaponry and military
organization over most others changing military balance 115
Import of Asian spics, silver production in America, export of slaves was due to force
and violence 115
Sudden progress of western military methods after 1740s was so rapid it left many
Europeans bewildered 115
o Fashionable to attribute the rapid transformation to the innate moral
superiority of the White Man or industrial revolution but these explain the
35% to 84%, not the original 35% rise of the west broken down into
geographical and chronological components. 117
1650- west had achieved military mastery in Cent. + NE America, Siberia, a few
coastal areas of subsaran Africa, and the islands of SE asia. 117/118
o white men found inhabitants, fought dirty and fought to kill 118
o Indians might fight 7 years and not kill 7 men
Edmund scott- military organization in SE asia was shared with America and Africanative wars were fought to enslave enemies not exterminate them118
o Gain men not territory
o However, the aim of making war in Europe was never to secure slaves, as it
was in the non-european areas listed
Less civilized people to the north and south of incan and Aztec empires lacked
defenses118
o Natives knew the area, invaders did not 119
Indians adapted to Western superiority after the initial defeats, Indians avoided
battles with the Europeans because they almost always lost them.
o Soldiers would march to an Indiantown to find it gone 119
o Europeans realized that the only way to win was to adopt similar guerilla
methods
Indians obtained guns from French in 1640s 119
o Native Americans learned fast but lost ground because their numbers
dwindled diseases and influx of westerner immigration 119
Downfall of the Aztecs bottom of 119
Western armment may have aided in battles but it could seldom win wars 120
o On Swahili coast, prices could secure firearms from turks, 120
o Dutch began to trade guns for slaves 121
This inflow of Western technology scarcely affected most African military techniques
121

o Yoruba techniques- spread themselves out and fire until out of ammounition
tactics would prove ineffective against highly trained European forces. 121
Black Africa fought for slaves, guns were unless at securing fit and healthy slaves 121
o Use of pellets rather than bullets overcame this problem but did nothing to
help the adoption of the musket into African warfare, gun didnt fit into
African military tradition at all. 121
Slaves played important role in determining Muslim response to Europes military
challenge; slaves were central to Islamic warfare. 125
o Recruited while they were children, they often were a form of tribute paid by
non-Muslims to their conquerors.
Islamic warfare: Core of every major army composed of men without local ties,
devoted entirely to fulfilling their governments wishes, and fighting in a traditional
manner. 126
Ottoman empire adopted western military technology with speed and thoroughness
126
o Guns rapidly developed by Turks, advanced siege offense and defense
techniques evident from the 1520s,
Military revolution IMPERFECTLY practiced by Turks in 3 ways
o Despite abundant human and natural resources, troops could not match the
firepower of their Christian opponents Turks had few specialists with
muskets and many horses, western improvements like volley fire and
multiplication of field guns widened the gap. 126
Well-equipped Christians repeatedly defeated their Turkish
adversaries.
o In later centuries ottoman troops had become excellent imitators, but poor
innovators; they could copy any weapon they found but had difficulty
adopting it into the traditional framework. 127
Turks never learned to change think columns into thin lines they
never mastered siege warfare. 127 Ignorance of progress made them
stagnant as others advanced beyond their abilities.
o Metallurgical inferiority: arms/armor taken from Islamic forces were no use to
westerners poor quality metal 128
Indian armies may have been huge but they were congregations of individual heroic
warriors, who tried to close with as many enemies as possible during a single
combat130
Dutchmen in the east were convinced that no profit was to be had without power, and
no trade without war 132
o Trade maintained under protection of weapons, weapons paid for by the
profits from trade. Therefore trade cannot be maintained w/o war
British East India Company- increase in numerical strength and new, more reliable
flintlock muskets made it possible to challenge the smaller native states of India. 134
o They won the battle of Plassey and the right to collect state revenues in select
Indian providences earned a ton of money, millions of pounds sterling, with

the money they built impregnable fortresses and raised huge armies, the
prospect of European domination of India became a real possibility. 135
o Then native rulers adopted western military techniques under the guidance of
French discipline that stopped the British in their tracks for a little while, had
impressive numbers and field artillery, but the imitation was too little too late.
It seemed the Europeans not had the means to challenge even their most
powerful opponents. 136
America, Siberia, Black Africa, and the Philippines lost heir independence to Europe
because they had not time to adopt western military technology; Muslim world
succumbed because they saw no need to integrate it into their existing system 136
East Asia was different because they already knew the rules of the game, firearms and
fortresses had been there for a while. 136
o Both bronze and iron artillery were fully developed in china before they
spread westwards to Europe 136
o but after the mid 1300s, the two sects separated and began to evolve
differently guns of western manufacture were both more powerful and more
mobile than those of the east 137
Japanese had smaller army but made use of western firearms rapid adoption of the
gun to win battles. Europe concentrated on improving reloading time while Japanese
concentrated on accuracy. 140
Japanese leaders were perfectly prepared to take over western military innovations,
they always adapted them to local conditions in a distinctive way. 143
China had no need for western advances; gunpowder had been around for centuries
and the massive fortification of the Ming dynasty were designed to resist
bombardment and mining. 143
o Scale of fortification in East Asia rendered siege guns useless 144
After 1580, Japanese central government revoked all weapons from anyone who
might try to resist taxes or policies demilitarization of Japan 144
Japan and China remained unchallenged until the improvements from the industrial
revolution; they did not fall before the military revolution. 145

CHAPTER 5- Beyond the Revolution

Growth of an effective bureaucracy was essential for the creation, control, and supply
of larger and better equipped armies 147
Roberts originally proposed 1660, just before the prodigious armies and absolute
states of Louis XIV and his contemporaries. HOWEVER, military aims and problems
after this date are too similar to not include them. 147
Frederick II of Prussias military system- large army, huge death rate. Rapid fire was
main focus, rapid fire at close range lead to high losses of men. Increase in materials
needed: more muskets, gunpowder, more flour, uniforms. High cost of life/ high
financial cost (90%) still insufficient, lots of cut corners: plunder allowed, nothing
spent on the wounded, no pensions. 148

o Great accomplishment: improvements in supply could move his armies fast

148
War of Austrian Succession (1740-48): innovation of large armies into self-sufficient
units called divisions. Divisional organization kept enemies guessing when/ where
they would concentrate and attack. 150
Introduction of road systems to transport armies (France) 151
3 transformations: use of light troops, introduction of divisions and mobile strategies,
and the creation of fast and powerful artillery were associated after 1793 of military
manpower. French led the way (on land) 151
Most of the time, armies were now so large they could encircle the enemys strategic
forces, defend their own, and still send more men into the field. 153
Equilibrium of European navies was upset because Britain forged ahead while others
did not. 153
Britain had over 1000 purpose built ships, making an irresistible concentration of
force that could be applied anywhere in the world. 153