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Chapter 3
Mechanical Systems
Mechanical Systems
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A. Aziz Bazoune
CHAPTER CONTENTS
3-1
Introduction
3-2
Mechanical Elements
3-3
3-4
A. Aziz Bazoune
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
When you have finished this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Identify the mechanical elements (Mass, Spring and Damper) for translational and
rotational motion.
2. Model systems containing ideal spring elements and ideal damper elements.
3. Obtain the equivalent spring, mass and dampers.
4. Obtain Equations of Motion (EOM) for systems having spring and damper elements.
5. Apply Newtons second law to obtain EOM.
6. Apply energy methods to obtain EOM.
7. Obtain the free and forced response of mass-spring-damper systems.
8. Utilize MATLAB to assist in the response analysis.
A. Aziz Bazoune
Introduction
Mass
The mass of a body is the quantity of matter in it that is assumed to be constant.
Mass is the property of a body that gives it inertia, that is, resistance to starting and
stopping.
Weight
A body is attracted by the earth, and the magnitude of the force that the earth
exerts on the body is called its weight.
Force
Force can be defined as the cause that tends to produce a change in motion of a body on which it acts.
Force
Contact
Forces
Field
Forces
Mechanical Elements
Any mechanical system consists of mechanical elements. There are three types of basic elements in
mechanical systems:
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Spring Element
Translational Elements
All mechanical systems contain the three basic elements: spring, damper, and mass
(inertia element).
Acceleration
Displacement
Velocity
Spring
Element
damper
Element
Inertia
Element
F kd
F cv
F ma
Similarly we can obtain the same relationships for rotational (torsional) elements.
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Mass and inertia elements. Inertia may be defined as the change in force (torque) required to make a
unit change in acceleration (angular acceleration).
Motion
Translation
Symbol
change in force
inertia (mass) =
change in acceleration
m
or
Sketch
N
] or [kg]
ms
Nm
rads2
or
Rotation
=
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Units
change in torque
change in angular acceleration
or
[kg m ]
F kx
(3.1)
F k x1 x 2
(3.2)
= spring force,
= free length of the spring.
= elongation of the spring (displacement of one end with respect to the other) and
= spring stiffness or spring constant, and has units of [force/displacement] = [N/m] in SI units.
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Leaf Spring
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k t
(3.3)
(3.2)
k t 1 2
= spring torque,
= angular displacement and
= spring stiffness or spring constant, and has units of [ Torque/ang. Disp.] = [N-m/rad] in SI units.
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http://www.esm.psu.edu/courses/emch13d/design/animation/animation.htm
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Springs in parallel:
x x 1 x 2 1 k1 1 k 2 P
(1 k eq )P
F k 1x k 2 x
(k 1 k 2 )x k eq x
keq k1 k2
1
1
1
keq k 1 k 2
A. Aziz Bazoune
Springs in series:
In general
1
1
1
1
keq
k1 k2
kn
1
k
i 1 i
Equivalent to:
Springs in Parallel:
In general
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keq k1 k2 kn
ki
i 1
to a soft spring.
The reciprocal of the spring constant
Compliance,
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F kx
Nonlinear Spring
(Soft Spring)
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/mass-spring-lab/mass-spring-lab_en.html
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A. Aziz Bazoune
Damping Elements
In many practical systems, the mechanical energy of a system is gradually converted into heat or
sound.
The mechanism by which the vibrational energy is gradually converted into heat or sound is known as
damping.
An ideal damper is assumed to have neither mass nor elasticity, and damping force exists only if
there is relative velocity between the two ends of the damper.
http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/feschools/waves/shm4.htm
A. Aziz Bazoune
Translation
Rotation
x1
x2
2
x2
x1
(b)
(b) Torsional or rotational damper.
(a)
(a) Translational damper
F b x1 x2 bx
bt 1 2 bt
(3.5)
= damping force,
= damping torque,
(3.6)
angular velocity.
= viscous friction coefficient, [torque/angular
velocity] = [Nms/rad] in SI units.
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Door Closer
Vehicle Suspension
Bridge Suspension
Flyover Suspension
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A damper is an element that provides resistance in mechanical motion, and, as such, its effect on the
dynamic behavior of a mechanical system is similar to that of an electrical resistor on the dynamic
behavior of an electrical system.
Consequently, a damper is often referred to as a mechanical resistance element and the viscous
friction coefficient as the mechanical resistance.
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Friction that obeys a linear law is called linear friction, whereas friction that does not is described as
nonlinear.
Examples of nonlinear friction include static friction, sliding friction, and square-law friction. Square
law-friction occurs when a solid body moves in a fluid medium.
http://www.mwit.ac.th/~physicslab/applet_04/fun@learning/JAVA/dho/dho2.html
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x
f
f
bT
A. Aziz Bazoune
kT
OBJECTIVES
When you have finished this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Apply Newtons Second Law (NSL) to obtain Equations of Motion (EOM).
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Rigid Body
When any real body is accelerated, internal elastic deflections are always present. If
these internal deflections are negligibly small relative to the gross motion of the entire body, the body is
called rigid body. Thus, a rigid body does not deform.
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First Law:
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F a
or
F ma
F
a
F
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or
or
: acceleration
: force
. If
F m a
(3-7)
The line of action of the force acting on a body must pass through the center of mass of
the body. Otherwise, rotational motion will also be involved.
(Rotational Motion): For a rigid body in pure rotation about a fixed axis, Newtons second
law states that
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(3-8)
Third Law
The mutual forces of action and reaction between two bodies are equal,
opposite, and collinear.
FB,A FA,B
Body A
FB , A
FA, B
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Body B
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= Nm
in SI units
Moment of Inertia
The moment of inertia
r dm
2
(3-9)
: element of mass,
:
m
dm
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Z
ME 413 System Dynamics & Control
A. Aziz Bazoune
J z ' JG md 2
m
A. Aziz Bazoune
z
CH 03 Mechanical Systems Slide 35
Example
A homogeneous cylinder of mass
inertia,
and radius
is
C
Jc
1
mR2
2
X
R
Jx Jc mR
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is
1
3
2
2
mR mR mR2
2
2
Forced
response
Natural
response
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x t
xh t
x p t
Homogeneous solution
or transient solution
Particular solution or
steady state solution
steady state
General
Solution
http://math.mit.edu/daimp/ForcedDampedVib.html
http://www.aw-bc.com/ide/idefiles/media/JavaTools/vibefdmp.html
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A. Aziz Bazoune
Translational motion
Rotational motion
Linear Displacement,
Linear Velocity,
Linear Acceleration,
Linear Momentum,
Forces
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Angular Displacement,
Angular Velocity,
Angular Acceleration,
Angular Momentum,
Moments (torques)
Rotational System
Find the free response of a rotor that is mounted in bearings as
shown in figure 3-8. The moment of inertia of the rotor about the axis
J J
J b 0
where
J b
=
A. Aziz Bazoune
b J
1
0 0
b
FBD
1
0
The above Eq. represents the EOM as well as the mathematical model of the system shown.
It represents a first order system. To find the response
previous equation
1
s s 0 s 0
where
L t
gives
s 1
t e
b / J t
1 / t
e t
=0
=0.2
=0.5
(t)
=0.7
=1
0.5
=2
=5
=10
0
0
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10
time (t)
15
20
Time Constant
A time constant is that value of time that makes the exponent equal to -1.
For this system, the time constant
time constant
J /b
0.37
4 0.02
http://www.sciences.univnantes.fr/physique/perso/gtulloue/equadiff/equadiff.html
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W mg kst
where
= weight of mass m,
= static deflection
= acceleration due to gravity
Since
, we obtain
mx kx k st W
static equilibrium
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FBD
gives
mx k (x st ) W
FBD
x k m x 0
http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/mass-spring-lab/mass-spring-lab_en.html
Free Vibration
The EOM of the mass- spring system shown in the Figure can be given by
x k m x 0
or
x n2 x 0
where
k m
0 =
and
0 =
m
x t
Mass-spring system
s 2X s sx 0 x 0 n2 X s 0
L x
gives
Characteristic Eq.
X s
A. Aziz Bazoune
sx x
s 2 n2
s 2 n2 0
Poles of the characteristic Eq.
s1,2 jn
ME 413 System Dynamics & Control
X s
The response
sx x
is given by
x t L
The response
s 2 n2
x
n
s
x
n s 2 n2
s 2 n2
X s sin nt x cos nt
n
x t
slope x
Amplitude
Im
and .
If
0 =
to
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x t x cos nt
Re
n
s plane
Period T
http://www.sciences.univnantes.fr/physique/perso/gtulloue/equadiff/equadiff.html
The period ( ): is the time required for a periodic motion to repeat itself.
2
T
n
x t
slope x
Amplitude
1
f
T 2
Period T
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Re
n
that is 1 Hz = 1 cps.
Underdamped frequency (
s plane
n
Im
n 2 fn
. If it is measured in rad/sec, it is
k m
Solution
m x
bx kx mx
mx bx kx 0
Rearranging gives
The above equation represents the mathematical model as well as the free
If
= 0.1 kg,
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bx
0.1x 0.4x 4x 0
x t
kx
, assume
x 4x 40 x 0
0 =
and
0 = 0.
m
Free Body Diagram
(FBD)
s 2 X s s x 0 x 0 4 sX s x 0 40 X s 0
L x t
x t
L xt
L
Substituting
0 =
&
X s
sx
4x
s 4s 40
gives
s 4
s
4s 40
Characteristic polynomial
G s
X s
x
s 4
2
s
4s 40
Characteristic polynomial
where
x
Input
s 4
2
s
4
s
40
Characteristic polynomial
Xs
Output
Transfer function
+4 + 40 = 0
The roots of the characteristic Eq. can be found by completing the square ,i.e.,
2
2
s 2 4s 40 s
4s 4 36 s 2 62 0
2
s 2
The expression of
X s
Solving for
or
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s1,2 2 j 6
can be written
s 4
2
s 4s 40
s 2
x
2
s 2 62
yields
s 2 2
x
2
2
s 2 6
x t L
s 2
x
2
2
s 2 6
2
2
s 2
1
6
x
2
3 s 2 62
X s x e 2t cos 6t 1 e 2t sin 6t
x t
10
x e 2t sin 6t 71.56
3
x t
Imaginary part
Real part
2t
Im
s1 2 j 6
s plane
1
x t x e2t cos 6t e2t sin 6t
3
j6
Re
j6
Td
s2 2 j 6
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0 =
&
0 = 0.
Pole-Zero Map
10
s 4
0
Imaginary Axis
s1 2 j 6
2
s
4s 40
Characteristic polynomial
Zeros of
-5
-3.5
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
Symbol in
PZ-map
s40
s 4
s 2 2 j 6
-10
-4
s 4
G s
Pole-Zero Map
-0.5
Real Axis
Poles of
1.5
1
x t L1 X s x e 2t cos 6t e 2t sin 6t
x(t)
xo
Symbol in
PZ-map
s 2 4s 40 0
s1,2 2 j 6
0.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
t (sec)
3.5
4.5
http://mathlets.org/mathlets/damped-vibrations/
A. Aziz Bazoune
+ 4 + 40 = 0 with I. C s
0 =
&
0 = 0.
Work
torque and the angular displacement) through which the force is exerted with both force
and distance measured in the same direction.
1
k x dx k x 2
2
F
W F d cos q
W F d
Figure 3-19
F
q
F
l
lx
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kt d
1
kt 2
2
ME 413 System Dynamics & Control
Energy
Energy can be found in many different forms and can be converted from one
form to another.
For instance, an electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy, a
battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy, and so forth.
According to the law of conservation of energy, energy can be neither created nor destroyed.
This means that the increase in the total energy within a system is equal to the net energy input to
the system. So if there is no energy input, there is no change in the total energy of the system.
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The Energy that a body possesses because of its position is called potential
Potential
Energy
energy.
In mechanical systems, only mass and spring can store potential energy.
The change in the potential energy stored in a system equals the work required to
change the systems configuration.
Potential energy is always measured with reference to some chosen level and is
relative to that level.
of the mass
mg dx
is
mgh
mg
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F dx
k x dx
are
1 2
kx
2
and
, respectively, then
x2
x2
F dx
x1
k x dx
x1
1 2 1 2
k x 2 k x1
2
2
T d
1
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kT d
1
1
kT 22 kT 12
2
2
Kinetic
Energy
1
T m x 2
2
T W
1
1
m x 22 m x 12
2
2
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1 2
J
2
T W
1 2
1
J 2 J 12
2
2
Dissipated
Energy
Consider the damper shown in figure in which one end is fixed and the other
end is moved from
to
x1
x2
F dx
x1
t2
t2
dx
b x d x b x
d t b x 2 d t
dt
t
t
F
x2
x1
x
b
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Power
Power =
Passive
Elements
Active
Elements
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dW
dt
s
s
Conservative Systems
Systems that do not involve friction (damping) are called conservative systems.
T U
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T U
or
T U C on s ta n t
Example
A system is said to be conservative if no energy is lost due to friction or energy dissipating.
If no work is done on the conservative system by external forces, the total energy of the system remains
constant. Thus the principle of conservation of energy can be expressed as:
d
(T U ) 0
dt
T U constant
Kinetic energy
Strain energy
(E-1)
1
2
(E-2)
1
=
2
(E-3)
Substitution of Eqs. (E-2) & (E-3) into Eq. (E-1) yields the desired equation
T U
1
1
mx 2 kx 2
2
2
d
d 1
1 2
2
mx
kx 0
T U
dt
dt 2
2
x mx kx 0
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1
1
2kxx 0
2mxx
2
2
Since
0, then
x k m x 0
(E-4)
Example
The natural frequency of a conservative system can be obtained from a consideration of the kinetic
energy and the potential energy of the system.
Assuming that the datum line for the potential energy at the equilibrium state is zero.
For such a conservative system, the max. kinetic energy equals the max. potential energy ,
Tmax U max
Example
The spring force is a conservative force, so in a frictionless system the energy is constant.
The displacement of the mass-spring system is given by
x A sin t
1 mx 2
2
k 2 2
2
1 kA2 cos2 t
A
cos
2
2
1
2
Kinetic energy
Strain energy
U 21 kx 2 21 kA2 sin2 t
Total energy
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Total energy
constant
U
T
U 21 kx 2
T 21 mx 2
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1
1
mx 2 J 2
2
2
Translation
Rotation
x r
1
1
x
1
J 2
1
2
T = mx J
m x meq x 2
2
2 r2
2
2
r 2
meq
r 2
1
1
1
1
T = mr 2 2 J 2 mr 2 J 2 Jeq 2
2
2
2
2
A. Aziz Bazoune
Jeq mr 2 J
CH 03 Mechanical Systems Slide 65
Example:
Use the energy method to calculate the EOM and natural frequency of an airplanes steering
mechanism for the nose wheel of its landing gear. The mechanism is modeled as the SDOF system
illustrated in the figure below. The steering wheel and tire assembly are modeled as being fixed at
ground for this calculation. The steering rod gear system is modeled as a linear spring and mass
system ( ,
inertia
) oscillating in the
Solution
Kinematic relation
Kinetic Energy:
and
1
1
mx 2 J 2
2
2
Translation
Potential Energy:
Rotation
1
1
k2x 2 k1 2
2
2
Translation
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Rotation
T U
Total Energy:
Substitute
and
1
1
1
1
mx 2 J 2 k2x 2 k1 2
2
2
2
2
Equivalent Mass:
k1 2
1
J 2 1
T U m x k2 x
2
2
2
r 2
r
Meq
Meq m J r 2
Equivalent Stiffness:
Keq
Jeq k2 k1 r 2
d
T U Meq xx Keq xx 0
dt
Since
Meq x Keq x 0
A. Aziz Bazoune
or
x n2 x 0
Keq
Meq
k2
m
k1
r2
J
r2
Example:
A control pedal of an aircraft can be modeled as the single-degree-of-freedom system as shown in the
figure below. Consider the lever as a massless shaft and the pedal as a lumped mass at the end of
the shaft. Use the energy method to determine the equation of motion in
frequency of the system. Assume the spring to be unstretched at
Solution
is 1
cos
Kinetic Energy:
1
1
mx 2 m l22 2
2
2
Potential Energy:
2
1
k l1 mgl2 1 cos
2
Total Energy:
T +U
= 0.
2
1 2 2 1
m l2 k l1 mgl2 1 cos
2
2
d
k l 2 mgl sin 0
T +U m l22
1
2
dt
ME 413 System Dynamics & Control
Ieq Keq 0
Equivalent Inertia:
Equivalent Stiffness:
Ieq ml22
Keq kl12 mgl2
The above Eq. is a harmonic Eq. that can be written in a standard form as
Keq
Ieq
A. Aziz Bazoune
or
n2 0
Keq
Ieq
kl12 mgl2
m l22
and mass
Assuming that the cylinder rolls on a rough surface without sliding, obtain the kinetic energy and
potential energy of the system.
Derive the EOM from the fact that the total energy is constant. Assume that
and
are measured
Solution
Kinematic relation
Kinetic Energy:
2
1
1
1
1
x
1
J 2
2
2
2
T mx J mx J m
x
2
2
2
2 R
2
R
Potential Energy:
1 2
kx
2
+U = const in this
1
J 2 1 2
T U m
x kx const.
2
2
2
R
Since =
T U
3
1
mx 2 kx 2 const.
4
2
d
3
kxx 0
T +U mxx
dt
2
or
3
mx kx 0
2
or
A. Aziz Bazoune
2k
x 0
3m
x n2 x 0
2k
3m
http://www.mwit.ac.th/~physicslab/applet_04/fun@learning/JAVA/dho/dho2.html
http://www.geneseo.edu/~heap/applets/Spring/spring.html
http://www.cabrillo.edu/~jmccullough/Applets/oscillations.html
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/mass-spring-lab
QUESTIONS ...?
A. Aziz Bazoune