A

CKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praise is to Almighty ALLAH, the Beneficent, and the Merciful. He showered His great
blessings upon us in the form of HOLY PROPHET, HAZRAT MUHAMMAD (P.B.U.H).
With much effort and time spent, we thank God for being able to complete the internship in
HEAVY ELECTRICAL COMPLEX HATTAR.
We wish to take this space and opportunity to express our thanks to all workers for providing
us with helpful information and exchanging thoughts, family members for their financial
support and HEC for supporting us in doing our project. It is always a pleasure to remind the
fine people in the Engineering Workshops for their sincere guidance I received to uphold my
practical as well as theoretical skills in engineering.
Finally I apologize all other unnamed who helped me in various ways to have a good
training.
Knowledge is power and unity is strength.

Thank you.

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PREFACE

Practical knowledge has become important in the industrial environment to produce

products for the service of mankind. The knowledge of manufacturing practices is highly
essential for all engineers for familiarizing themselves with modern concepts of
manufacturing technologies. The basic need is to provide practical knowledge of
manufacturing processes to all the internee students. Therefore, an attempt has been
made through this internship to present the practical knowledge. Considering the general
needs of internee students and the fact that they hardly get any exposure to hand tools,
equipments, machines and manufacturing setups, this internship will be very useful to them
in their future.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chp. No
1

2
3

Workshops & Labs

Page no.

Introduction

Services and Major Functions

Different Sections and Close Relationships

Materials and Cutting Speeds

Mach inability rate and spindle speed
Machine Tools and Specifications

6
7
11

Planning Machine

11

Universal Milling Machine

13

Shaper

14

Hand Drill

16

Cnc Machining Center

17

Hitachi Seiki Va35 Cnc Machining Center

17

Machine Specifications

18

G Code and M Code

20

An Example Program

21

Steps in Using the Machine

25

Manufacturing Cross Flow Turbines

27

Introduction

27

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A Cross Flow Turbine

28

Couplings

29

Generator

30

Problems and Difficulties Encountered and Conclusion 31

Conclusion

32

Suggestions for the Improvement of the Engineering Workshops

Suggestions for the Improvement of Training Program
33

CHP NO 1

32

INTRODUCTION OF HEC

Overwhelming Heavy Electrical Complex (Pvt) Constrained is a main building merchandise

producing endeavor in Pakistan situated at Hattar Haripur around 32 Kilometers north of capital
Islamabad. It is a professionally overseen dynamic association with more than 160,000 sq.
meters secured offices and 1,100 representatives. Overwhelming Electrical Complex Ltd. (HEC),
Hattar Haripur is a noteworthy substantial building backup of the State Designing Enterprise
(SEC) under the Service of Commercial ventures and Creation, Legislature of Pakistan.
In 1969, General YAHYA KHAN laid the premise of HEC. At that point in 1971, HEC began its
creation. In 1975, PM of Pakistan ZULFIQAR ALI BHUTTO introduced the HFF. For a few
years, these two commercial ventures worked independently. Be that as it may, after a few years,
both were consolidated on the grounds that for some works they had need of each other HEC
characterizes itself as "A specialized establishment in which a wide range of machines including
Sugar plants, Concrete Plants, Street rollers, Over Head Cranes going from 0.5 to 50 tons Heat
Exchanger boilers, Unique Barrier parts (i.e., NDC works), Uncommon Vibratory Rollers (which
can tolerate factually 10 to 12 tons vibratory burden) and Pakistan steel works. Some different
procedures that are likewise done by HEC are Planning and assembling and amassing and
establishment with the affirmation of ISO 9001 and ASME Gauges.
The Overwhelming Electrical Complex (HEC), the greatest undertaking of its sort in Pakistan,
was set up in 1976 with Chinese help. The Overwhelming Manufacture Plant (HFF) at this
complex has demonstrated pivotal for Pakistan's protection generation needs. HEC has the
ability for outlining, designing and assembling of mechanical plants and hardware. HEC has the
biggest creation and machining offices in the nation furnished with PC Helped Outlining
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(computer aided design) and can embrace an assortment of manufacture/machining

employments on sub-contracting premise.
HEC fabricates gear for hydro-electric force plants, warm power plants, Sulphuric corrosive
plants, modern liquor plants, oil and gas preparing plants, and concoction and petro-substance
plants, and so on. Boilers, cranes, development hardware, material taking care of gear, steel
structure, railroad hardware, and so on are a portion of alternate items which are delivered on
normal premise. The organization's abilities incorporate building and assembling of Sugar
Factories going between 1,500 - 12,000 TCD (huge amounts of stick pulverizing limit every
day), Portland Bond Plants of 700-5,500 TPD (tons every day) module and White Concrete Plant
of 50 - 1,000 TPD. HEC have the assets to handle substantial tasks with requesting conveyance
plans. Being the biggest and most broad manufacture and machining office outfitted with best in
class innovation. HEC give producing administrations both all alone or clients outline.
SERVICES AND MAJOR FUNCTIONS
The infrastructure of the Engineering Workshops could provide the following listed services to
its consumers both in academic and non-academic terms.
Machining of metals
Welding
Foundry work
Smith and fitting work
Wood work
Vehicle repair
Subject to the rules established by the Faculty and the University, deploying the following
functions was expected from it.

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Provide above mentioned services to the engineering undergraduates to carry out their
academic activities such as practicals, experiments and etc.
Provide above mentioned services to the Faculty of Engineering and the University as a
whole if requested.
Within the feasibility limits, provide above mentioned services to the public. (Service cost
is usually expected to be charged from the service consumers).
It is important to distinctly note that the Engineering Workshops could provide related
knowledge wise services to other engineering organizations and to the public who need
assistance in their work.

DIFFERENT SECTIONS AND CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS

The Engineering Workshops itself is a collection of five different subsections that are
interrelated. Brief descriptions about them are given below.

DIFFERENT SECTIONS
Metal Workshop
The Metal Workshop is the place for machining metals. It comprises the following prominent
machine tools with other supporting machines and equipments.
Drilling machines

Milling machines

Engraving machines

Planers

Gear shapers

Shaping machines

Grinding machines

Slotting machines

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Lathe machines
Several varieties of some of these machine tools could be found for specialized operations.

Welding and Foundry Shop

The Welding and Foundry shop comprised equipment to deploy following services:
Arc welding

oxyacetylene welding

Metal casting

Spot welding

Mig welding

Tig welding

Smithy and Fitting Shop

The Smithy and Fitting Shop mostly comprised hand tools (anvils, hammers, chisel, etc.) and
some machine tools (Electric hammer and sheet metal rollers, benders and cutters).
Woodwork Shop

Comprised of 10 carpenters and 2 laborers the Woodwork Shop enclosed the following machine
tools.
Band saw

Saw and planner

Circular saw

Thickness planner

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Disc and bobbin sander

Wood planer

Wood turning lathes

Pattern miller

Drill
Router

Vehicle Repair Unit

The Vehicle Repair Unit extends its services to the whole University. It comprised the following
work force:
Electricians (1)
Greasers (3)
Mechanics (3)
Welders (1)
Other Sections

The Tool Store and the Consumable Good Store being separate from the above supply the tools
and consumable goods to all the above five subsections.
CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS

The Engineering Workshops has close relationships with the other departments of the Faculty
and especially with the Department of Production Engineering through which the academic
activities are conducted. On the other hand, machine tools and equipments of the Department of
Production Engineering are also used to carry out the tasks of the Engineering Workshops freely.
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CHP NO 2

MATERIALS AND CUTTING SPEEDS

Production of an item with desired qualities inherently involves the knowledge of the materials
that should be used for the product and the qualities of them. A simple example is using stainless
steel for a product that should not get stained.
Furthermore the effective processing of these materials until a finished product is obtained
requires the knowledge of processing characteristics of the materials. For example consider
machining stainless steel. Some important points to be considered are:
The tool material that should be used.
The level of machining (i.e. rough or finish)
The cutting speed

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Work
piece
Cast Mild
Cast
Material iron Steel Malleable iron
iron

Bronze Aluminums Stainless

steel

Brass

Rough
cut
50-60 40-50 80-110 45-60 110-150

400

100-120 200-300

700

100-120 200-300

800

140-200 600-1000

1000

240-360 600-1000

HSStools

(ft/min)

Carbide tools

Finish
cut 80-110 65-90 110-130 70-90 150-180
(ft/min)
Rough
cut
120- 140150200 160 250-300 180
600
(ft/min)
Finish
cut

350- 250200400 300 300-400 250

1000

(ft/min)
Requirement of coolants
Table 2-1 gives the cutting speeds of the commonly used materials under different conditions.
Table 2-1 Cutting Speeds

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 Mach inability rating

The mach inability rating of a material attempts to quantify the mach inability of various
materials. It is expressed as a percentage or a normalized value. The American (AISI)
determined mach inability ratings for a wide variety of materials by running turning tests at
180 surface feet per minute (spam). It then arbitrarily assigned 160 Brinell B1112 steel a mach
inability rating of 100%. The mach inability rating is determined by measuring the weighed
averages of the normal cutting speed, surface finish, and tool life for each material. Note that a
material with a mach inability rating less than 100% would be more difficult to machine than
B1112 and material with a value more than 100% easier. Mach inability ratings can be used in
conjunction with the Taylor tool life equation, Van = C, in order to determine cutting speeds or
tool life. It is known that B1112 has a tool life of 60 minutes at a cutting speed of 100 spams. If a
material has a mach inability rating of 70%, it can be determined, with the above knowns, that
in order to maintain the same tool life (60 minutes) the cutting speed must be 70 spam (assuming
the same tooling is used).When calculating for other copper alloys the machine rating is arrived
at by assuming the 100 rating of 600 SFM. For example, phosphorus bronze (grades AD) has a
mach inability rating of 20. This means that phosphor bronze runs at 20% the speed of 600 SFM
or 120 SFM. However, 165 SFM is generally accepted as the basic 100% rating for "grading
steels".

Spindle speed
The spindle speed is the rotational frequency of the spindle of the machine, measured in
revolutions per minute (RPM). The preferred speed is determined by working backward from the
desired surface speed (s-m or m/min) and incorporating the diameter (of work piece or cutter).
The spindle may hold the:

Material (as in a screw machine)

Drill bit in a drill

Milling cutter in a milling machine

Router bit in a wood router

Shaper cutter or knife in a wood shaper or spindle molder

Grinding wheel on a grinding machine.

Or it may hold the chuck, which then holds the work piece in a lathe. In these cases the
tool is often a stationary tool bit, although there are plenty of exceptions, such as in thread
milling.

Excessive spindle speed will cause premature tool wear, breakages, and can cause tool chatter,
all of which can lead to potentially dangerous conditions. Using the correct spindle speed for the
material and tools will greatly enhance tool life and the quality of the surface finish.
For a given machining operation, the cutting speed will remain constant for most situations;
therefore the spindle speed will also remain constant. However, facing, forming, parting off, and
recess operations on a lathe or screw machine involve the machining of a constantly changing
diameter. Ideally this means changing the spindle speed as the cut advances across the face of the
work piece, producing constant surface speed (CSS). Mechanical arrangements to affect CSS
have existed for centuries, but they were never applied commonly to machine tool control. In the
pre-CNC era, the ideal of CSS was ignored for most work. For unusual work that demanded it,
special pains were taken to achieve it. The introduction of CNC-controlled lathes has provided a
practical, everyday solution via automated CSS. By means of the machine's software
and variable speed electric motors, the lathe can increase the RPM of the spindle as the cutter
gets closer to the center of the part.
Grinding wheels are designed to be run at a maximum safe speed, the spindle speed of the
grinding machine may be variable but this should only be changed with due attention to the safe
working speed of the wheel. As a wheel wears it will decrease in diameter, and its effective
cutting speed will be reduced. Some grinders have the provision to increase the spindle speed,
which corrects for this loss of cutting ability; however, increasing the speed beyond the wheels
rating will destroy the wheel and create a serious hazard to life and limb.
Generally speaking, spindle speeds and feed rates are less critical in woodworking than
metalworking. Most woodworking machines including power saws such as circular and band
saws, jointers, Thickness planers rotate at a fixed RPM. In those machines, cutting speed is
regulated through the feed rate. The required feed rate can be extremely variable depending on
the power of the motor, the hardness of the wood or other material being machined, and the
sharpness of the cutting tool.

In woodworking, the ideal feed rate is one that is slow enough not to bog down the motor, yet
fast enough to avoid burning the material. Certain woods, such as black and maple are more
prone to burning than others. The right feed rate is usually obtained by "feel" if the material is
hand fed, or by trial and error if a power feeder is used. In thicknesses (planers), the wood is
usually fed automatically through rubber or corrugated steel rollers. Some of these machines
allow varying the feed rate, usually by changing pulleys. A slower feed rate usually results in a
finer surface as more cuts are made for any length of wood.
Spindle speed becomes important in the operation of routers, spindle molders or shapers, and
drills. Older and smaller routers often rotate at a fixed spindle speed, usually between 20,000 and
25,000 rpm. While these speeds are fine for small router bits, using larger bits, say more than 1inch (25 mm) or 25 millimeters in diameter, can be dangerous and can lead to chatter. Larger
routers now have variable speeds and larger bits require slower speed. Drilling wood generally
uses higher spindle speeds than metal, and the speed is not as critical. However, larger diameter
drill bits do require slower speeds to avoid burning.
Cutting feeds and speeds, and the spindle speeds that are derived from them, are the ideal cutting
conditions for a tool. If the conditions are less than ideal then adjustments are made to the
spindle's speed, this adjustment is usually a reduction in RPM to the closest available speed, or
one that is deemed (through knowledge and experience) to be correct.
Some materials, such as machinable wax, can be cut at a wide variety of spindle speeds, while
others, such as stainless steel require much more careful control as the cutting speed is critical, to
avoid overheating both the cutter and work piece. Stainless steel is one material that work
hardens very easily, therefore insufficient feed rate or incorrect spindle speed can lead to less
than ideal cutting conditions as the work piece will quickly harden and resist the tool's cutting
action. The liberal application of cutting fluid can improve these cutting conditions; however, the
correct selection of speeds is the critical factor.

Spindle speed calculations

Most metalworking books have monograms or tables of spindle speeds and feed rates for
different cutters and work piece materials; similar tables are also likely available from the
manufacturer of the cutter used.
The spindle speeds may be calculated for all machining operations once the SFM or MPM is
known. In most cases we are dealing with a cylindrical object such as a milling cutter or a work
piece turning in a lathe so we need to determine the speed at the periphery of this round object.

This speed at the periphery (of a point on the circumference, moving past a stationary point) will
depend on the rotational speed (RPM) and diameter of the object.
One analogy would be a skateboard rider and a bicycle rider travelling side by side along the
road. For a given surface speed (the speed of this pair along the road) the rotational speed (RPM)
of their wheels (large for the skater and small for the bicycle rider) will be different. This
rotational speed (RPM) is what we are calculating, given a fixed surface speed (speed along the
road) and known values for their wheel sizes (cutter or work piece).

Feed rate
Feed rate is the velocity at which the cutter is fed, that is, advanced against the work piece. It is
expressed in units of distance per revolution for turning and boring (typically inches per
revolution [pier] or millimeters per revolution). It can be expressed thus for milling also, but it is
often expressed in units of distance per time for milling (typically inches per minute [imp]
or millimeters per minute), with considerations of how many teeth (or flutes) the cutter has then
determining what that means for each tooth.
Feed rate is dependent on the:

Type of tool (a small drill or a large drill, high speed or carbide, a box tool or recess, a
thin form tool or wide form tool, a slide knurl or a turret straddle knurl).

Surface finish desired.

Power available at the spindle (to prevent stalling of the cutter or work piece).

Rigidity of the machine and tooling setup (ability to withstand vibration or chatter).

Strength of the work piece (high feed rates will collapse thin wall tubing)

Characteristics of the material being cut, chip flow depends on material type and feed
rate. The ideal chip shape is small and breaks free early, carrying heat away from the tool
and work.

Threads per inch (TPI) for taps die heads and threading tools.

When deciding what feed rate to use for a certain cutting operation, the calculation is fairly
straightforward for single-point cutting tools, because all of the cutting work is done at one point

(done by "one tooth", as it were). With a milling machine or jointer, where multi-tipped/multifluted cutting tools are involved, then the desirable feed rate becomes dependent on the number
of teeth on the cutter, as well as the desired amount of material per tooth to cut (expressed as
chip load). The greater the number of cutting edges, the higher the feed rate permissible: for a
cutting edge to work efficiently it must remove sufficient material to cut rather than rub; it also
must do its fair share of work.

CHP NO 3

MACHINE TOOLS AND SPECIFICATION

PLANNING MACHINE
Unlike most of other machines, the planning machine contains a sliding table which carries the
work piece. Cutting tools do not move but the work piece. The one in Metal Workshop was not
frequently used because of the heavy operating cost. It was only used for heavy duty metal
works.
Linear planning
The most common applications of planers and shapers are linear-tool path ones, such as:
Generating accurate flat surfaces. (While not as precise as grinding, a planer can remove a
tremendous amount of material in one pass with high accuracy. Cutting slots (such as keyways).
It is even possible to do work that might now be done by wire EDM in some cases. Starting from
a drilled or cored hole, a planer with a boring-bar type tool can cut internal features that don't
lend themselves to milling or boring (such as irregularly shaped holes with tight corners).
Helical planning
Although the archetypal tool path of a planer is linear, helical cutting can be
accomplished by coupling the table's linear motion to simultaneous rotation.
The helical planning idea is similar to both helical milling and single-point
Volts
Amps

115/39
25/113

HP

15/4.5

Rpm

1500/720/225

Excitation Volts

110

Rating

Cont

Insulation Class

Year

1965

BSS

261 315 7

screw cutting.
The prime mover of the sliding table is a DC motor
with the following specifications.

The DC supply for the above motor is obtained from a DC generator which is directly coupled
to an induction motor driven by main AC supply of the Metal Workshop. The ratings of those are
as follows:

DC Generator Specifications:
Volts

115/39

Current

113 A

The DC supply for the above motor is obtained from a DC generator which is directly coupled to
an induction motor driven by main AC supply of the Metal Workshop. The ratings of those are as
follows:

Power
rpm

13 kW
1440

Excitation

110 V

Winding

Comp.
Int.

Rating

Cont

Insulation Class

Year

1965

BSS

2613/57

Induction Motor Specifications:

Volts

400/440 (3 Phase 50Hz)

Current

27.5 A

Power

21 HP

Rpm

1440

Rating

Cont

Stator

Delta

Insulation Class

UNIVERSAL MILLING MACHINE

The universal milling machine in the Metal Workshop has a horizontally swivel bed and can be
used in both vertical and horizontal milling arrangements. The detachable milling head is used
when vertical milling is performed and can be turned vertically to mill at any other inclination.

Specifications of the machine are listed below.

Manufacturer
Spindle motor

Brown and Sharp MFG Company, USA

230 V, 3 phase, 50 Hz,
9 A (full load)

Cutter Speeds
Feed rates

33 to 1275 rpm
3/8 to 16 7/8 inch/min

SHAPER
A shaper contains a table on which the work piece is mounted. The linear movement of the
cutting tool wipes away the excess material. This is exactly the opposite of what happens in the
planning machine where the tool is fixed and the work piece is linearly moved.
The Metal Workshop has two shapers, a fully mechanical one and a hydraulic operated one. The
ram moving motor of the fully mechanical shaper is of 2HP and that of the hydraulic one is
7.5HP.
The mechanical shaper has a constant speed prime mover which turns a disk as shown in Figure 3-1
to convert the rotational movement of the prime mover into reciprocal motion of the cutting tool.

TOO
e

Figure 3-1 Rotational Into Reciprocal Motion Conversion

This arrangement allows quick return motion. Further more this allows feed rate change without
any gear arrangement or control of speed of motor. This is done by varying the eccentricity e.
The higher the e, the higher the feed rate is. A simple trade off of this feed rate control system is
that as the feed rate is reduced, the stroke of the ram also gets reduced. The hydraulic type shaper
does not have this problem and the feed rate and the stroke can be independently controlled.
Figure 3-2 shows the hydraulic arrangement. This machine has been manufactured by Rockford
Machine Tool, Rockford, Illinois, USA.

CYLINDER

PISTON CONNECTED TO RAM

HYDRAULIC
SWITCH

HUDRAULIC
PUMP

OIL
SUMP

Figure 3-2 Hydraulic Arrangement Of The Shaper

 HAND DRILL
A hand drill is versatile equipment which can be freely used for drilling holes as well as for some
other purposes where a portable rotational prime mover is required. In the workshop you
probably use a hand drill and a ratchet brace as part of practical work. These are used for
drilling a range of sizes of hole and they are very useful especially if machine drills are not
available. The hand drill generally holds drill sizes from 1mm to 9mm whilst the brace will hold
larger drill bits called forester bits and auger bits. These larger bits can be used to drill blind
holes

(holes

that

do

not

go

the

entire

way

through

material).

When using these drills, always hold them so that they are vertical and turn the handles in a
clockwise direction. The common mistake is to turn the handles anticlockwise as this makes it
almost impossible to drill even the smallest holes. Also, put scrap material underneath the
material to be drilled so that the bench is not damaged by the bit as it bursts through the other
side.
The specifications of the NHP1030 hand drill manufactured by Makita Corporation, Japan are
given below.

Supply
Power

230 VAC, 2.0 A,

50-60 Hz
430 W

Speed

0-2700 rpm

Maximu
m
bit size

drill

10 mm

CHP NO 4

CNC MACHINING CENTER

HITACHI SEIKI VA35 CNC MACHINING CENTER

The Hitachi Seiki VA35 CNC (Computer Numeric Controlled) machining center that belongs to
the Department of Production Engineering is frequently used for accurate and automated
machining of metals as well as for wood, plastic and other materials. The machining accuracy of
the machine is 0.001mm. Figure 4-2 shows various parts of the machine tool.

Figure 4-1 Hitachi Seiki VA35 CNC Machining Center

Figure 4-2 Hitachi Seiki VA35 CNC Machining Center

Manufactured by Hitachi Seiki Co. Ltd., Japan, the control unit of this numerically controlled milling
machine is of Fanuc System 6M-B. The controlling is based on two Intel 8085 microprocessors.

MACHINE SPECIFICATIONS
GENERAL INFORMATION:
Manufacturer

Hitachi Seiki
Co. Ltd., Japan
VA 35II

Model
Control unit

Fanuc System
6MB

Weight

4000 kg

TABLE
Working area

*355 mm

Maximum carrying capacity

500 Kg

 STROKES
x-axis stroke in the crosswise direction of the table

560 mm

y-axis stroke in the longitudinal direction of the table

350 mm

z-axis stroke in the vertical direction of the spindle head

400 mm

Distance between the spindle nose and top of the table

150-550 mm

SPINDLE HEAD
Spindle nose
contour
Spindle speed
Spindle speed
change

NT 40 60-600
rpm Steeples
(s-4 digit)
AC 5.5 kW (30 min)

Spindle motor

Least increment

1.1

Cutting feed rate

3600 mm/min

Rapid traverse

mm

13000 mm/min

FEED

 AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGE (ATC)

No. of tools
Shank type

30
BT 40, CAT 40

Maximum tool diameter

95 mm

Maximum tool length

250 mm

Maximum tool weight

10 kg

Tool selection method

Random shortest
course

Pull stud type

MAS 1

G CODE AND M CODE

The entire functioning of the machine is based on G Code and M Code specifications.
G Codes define the preparatory functions of the machine. In simple terms, they control the
movement and machining related functions of the machine tool. For example, the code "G76"
followed by some related arguments is used for fine boring. "G00" with X,Y,Z arguments rapidly
moves the bed and the spindle head to the position specified by the arguments.
M Codes are known as auxiliary functions. They control specific behaviors of the machine. For
example "M08" turns on the coolant, M05 stops the spindle.

AN EXAMPLE PROGRAM
The listing given below is a program which was used to bore holes in couplings of two turbines
which were manufactured in the Engineering Workshops. It is written in G and M Codes.

Unless otherwise stated, all the dimensions are in mm.

G0
0

Motion

G01

Move in a
straight line
at rapids
speed.
Motion

XYZ of endpoint

G02

Motion

G03

Motion

Counter-clockwise
circular arc at
(F)federate

G04

Motion

Dwell: Stop for a

specified time.

G05

Motion

G09

Motion

FADAL Non-Modal
Rapids
Exact stop check

G10
G15

Compensatio
n
Coordinate

G16

Coordinate

G17

Coordinate

Programmable
parameter input
Turn Polar
Coordinates OFF,
return to
Cartesian
Coordinates
Turn Polar
Coordinates ON
Select X-Y plane

G18

Coordinate

Select X-Z plane

G19

Coordinate

Select Y-Z plane

Move in a straight
line at last speed
commanded by a
Federate
Clockwise circular
arc at (F)federate

Linear
Motion:
G00 and
G01
XYZ of
endpoint

XYZ of
endpoint
IJK relative
to center
R for
radius
XYZ of
endpoint
IJK relative
to center
R for
radius
P for
millisecon
ds
X for
seconds

G00 and MDI.

G01 and MDI.

Linear Motion:
G00 and G01
G02 / G03
Tutorial and
Examples

G02 / G03
Tutorial and
Examples

Precise Timing
and Speed:
Dwell, Exact
Stop, Backlash
Compensation

Precise Timing
and Speed:
Dwell, Exact
Stop, Backlash
Compensation

G15/G16 Polar
Coordinates

G15/G16 Polar
Coordinates
CNC G-Code
Coordinates
CNC G-Code
Coordinates
CNC G-Code

G20

Coordinate

G21

Coordinate

G27

Motion

G28

Motion

G29

Motion

G30

Motion

G32

Canned

G40

Compensatio
n

G41

Compensatio
n

G42

Compensatio
n

G43

Compensatio
n

G44

Compensatio
n

G49

Compensatio
n

G50

G52

Compensatio
n
Compensatio
n
Coordinate

G53

Coordinate

G51

Program
coordinates are
inches
Program
coordinates are
mm
Reference point
return check
Return to home
position
Return from the
reference position
Return to the
2nd, 3rd, and 4th
reference point
Constant lead
threading (like
G01 synchronized
with spindle)
Tool cutter
compensation off
(radius comp.)
Tool cutter
compensation left
(radius comp.)
Tool cutter
compensation
right (radius
comp.)
Apply tool length
compensation
(plus)
Apply tool length
compensation
(minus)
Tool length
compensation
cancel
Reset all scale
factors to 1.0
Turn on scale
factors
Local work shift
for all coordinate
systems: add XYZ
offsets
Machine
coordinate
system (cancel
work offsets)

Coordinates
G20 and G21:
Unit Conversion
G20 and G21:
Unit Conversion
G28: Return to
Reference Point
G28: Return to
Reference Point
G28: Return to
Reference Point
G28: Return to
Reference Point

G54

Coordinate

G55

Coordinate

G56

Coordinate

G57

Coordinate

G58

Coordinate

G59

Coordinate

G61

Other

G62

Other

G63
G64
G65

Other
Other
Other

G68

Coordinate

G69

Coordinate

G73

Canned

G74

Canned

G76
G80

Canned
Canned

G81

Canned

G82

Canned

G83

Canned

G84

Canned

Work coordinate
system (1st Work
piece)
Work coordinate
system (2nd Work
piece)
Work coordinate
system (3rd Work
piece)
Work coordinate
system (4th Work
piece)
Work coordinate
system (5th Work
piece)
Work coordinate
system (6th Work
piece)
Exact stop check
mode

Automatic corner
override
Tapping mode
Best speed path
Custom macro
simple call
Coordinate
System Rotation
Cancel
Coordinate
System Rotation
High speed
drilling cycle
(small retract)
Left hand tapping
cycle
Fine boring cycle
Cancel canned
cycle
Simple drilling
cycle
Drilling cycle with
dwell (counter
boring)
Peck drilling cycle
(full retract)
Tapping cycle

Precise Timing
and Speed:
Dwell, Exact
Stop, Backlash
Compensation

Subprograms
and Macros
G68 and G69
Tutorial and
Examples
G68 and G69
Tutorial and
Examples

G85

Canned

G86

Canned

G87

Canned

G88

Canned

G89

Canned

G90

Coordinate

G90.1

Coordinate

G91

Coordinate

G91.1

Coordinate

G92

Coordinate

G92
(alterna
te)
G92.1

Motion

G92.2

Coordinate

G92.3

Coordinate

G94

Motion

G95

Motion

Coordinate

Boring canned
cycle, no dwell,
feed out
Boring canned
cycle, spindle
stop, rapid out
Back boring
canned cycle
Boring canned
cycle, spindle
stop, manual out
Boring canned
cycle, dwell, feed
out
Absolute
programming of
XYZ (type B and
C systems)
Absolute
programming IJK
(type B and C
systems)
Incremental
programming of
XYZ (type B and
C systems)
Incremental
programming IJK
(type B and C
systems)
Offset coordinate
system and save
parameters
Clamp of
maximum spindle
speed
Cancel offset and
zero parameters
Cancel offset and
retain parameters
Offset coordinate
system with
saved parameters
Units per minute
feed mode. Units
in inches or mm.
Units per
revolution feed
mode. Units in
inches or mm.

G96

Motion

G97

Motion

G98

Canned

G99

Canned

Constant surface
speed
Cancel constant
surface speed
Return to initial Z
plane after
canned cycle
Return to initial R
plane after
canned cycle

G96: Constant
Surface Speed
G96: Constant
Surface Speed

M-Codes
Cod
e

Categor
y

Function

M00
M01

M-Code
M-Code

M02
M03
M04
M05
M06
M07
M08
M09

M-Code
M-Code
M-Code
M-Code
M-Code
M-Code
M-Code
M-Code

M17
M29
M30

M-Code
M-Code
M-Code

FADAL subroutine return

Rigid Tapping Mode on Fanuc Controls
End of Program, Rewind and Reset
Modes

M97

M-Code

Haas-Style Subprogram Call

M98

M-Code

Subprogram Call

M99

M-Code

Return from Subprogram

Tutorials
Note
s

Program Stop (non-optional)

Optional Stop: Operator Selected to
Enable
End of Program
Spindle ON (CW Rotation)
Spindle ON (CCW Rotation)
Spindle Stop
Tool Change
Mist Coolant ON
Flood Coolant ON
Coolant OFF

M03 and MDI.

M05 and MDI.
M07 and MDI.
M08 and MDI.
M09 and MDI.

Subprograms and
Macros
Subprograms and
Macros
Subprograms and
Macros

STEPS IN USING THE MACHINE

The distinct operations involved in using the CNC machines are listed below in sequence they
are done.
1. Generating the program (in G & M Codes)

2. Sending it to the machine

3. Running the program
First a drawing of the machined work piece is created using AutoCAD in a PC. Then using a
special routine of AutoCAD, the contours of the cutting tool are generated. This is finally stored
as a text file in the hard drive of the PC.
Next, the CNC machine is set to retrieve this file. Through the coaxial cable which links the PC
and CNC machine, it is then fed into the machine tool. A numeric name for the program is given
at the beginning of the file retrieval to figure out the starting point (or the address in the
memory) of the retrieving program from earlier read programs.
Using this numeric name of the program, it is taken to the front from other programs in the
memory and it stays waiting to run. Pressing the "Start" button sequentially executes the listing.
Figure 4-4 shows the monitor (on the Main Control Panel) displaying a program waiting to be
executed.
If needed a program can directly be written using the Main Control Panel of the CNC machine
and executed. This is tedious and errors may occur easily.

Figure 4-4 A Program Waiting To Be Executed (Sub Control Panel Display)

CHP NO 5

MANUFACTURING CROSS FLOW

TURBINES

INTRODUCTION
During the time of training, two similar 280kW cross flow turbines were manufactured in the
Engineering Workshops. They were intended to be directly coupled to the generator as
shown in Figure 5-1.

WATER

TURBINE

GENERATOR
COUPLING

WATER

Figure 5-1 Direct Coupled Turbine

The following sections describe each component of the above system.

A CROSS FLOW TURBINE

Figure 5-2 shows the cross section of a cross flow turbine that had been manufactured earlier in
the Engineering Workshops.

Figure 5-2 A Cross Flow Turbine

In a cross flow turbine, the blades are arranged in a squirrel cage. Water from the penstock hits a
blade and travels across the cage, hits a second blade and leaves out. This is illustrated in Figure
5-2.
The turbine shown in Figure 5-2 has a governor connected to it internally. The latter produced
ones do not contain governors.

COUPLINGS
The connection between the turbine and the generator is established by a set of cast iron
couplings shown in Figure 5-5. Each of these couplings contains fifteen nylon bushes. Each bush
on the turbine side coupling is connected to one bush on the generator side coupling using a
metal rod. The nylon bush arrangement reduces vibrations and related failures due to possible
eccentricities that may exist between two shafts.

one set of
connectors

METAL ROD

Nylon Bushes
Turbine Side

Generator Side

Figure 5-3 Coupling Between Turbine And Generator

 GENERATOR
The alternator for an above turbine is of brushless self excited type with an automatic voltage
regulator fitted into it. Figure 5-6 is a simple representation of such an alternator.

GENERATOR

EXCITER

ARMATUR
3
RECT
FIELD

FIELD

ARMATURE

AVR

3 OUT
Figure 5-4 Brushless, Automatic Voltage Regulated Alternator

CHP NO 6

PROBLEMS AND DIFFICULTIES

ENCOUNTERED AND CONCLUSION

Several problems and difficulties that were encountered during the training are listed below.
Getting a job done by a lazy workman:
Sometimes it was very difficult to find some workmen and get something done. Some
workmen were inherently lazy and they seemed to be postponing their work giving

various excuses. Following are some of their own words:

Now it is the teatime.
We will do it after the lunch.
Mr. X may be working in the machine now and ask him to do the work.
I will come soon.
Steeling tools:
Sometimes it was found that tools suddenly disappear from the Workshops. It was not
possible to find the person who took them and it was usual to see people pointing others
leading to unpleasant situations.
Sometimes some workmen temporarily borrowed others equipment and later just left
them in the place they worked without returning them. When they were asked about them
it was common to get the answer I kept it right here. Somebody seems to have taken it.
Collaboration problems with the workmen:
People differ. Some wanted to do their job disregarding others jobs. On the other hand
some just wanted to learn all the things in the Workshops doing nothing. Collaborating
with them was difficult

CONCLUSION
The profit of an organization entirely depends on the way the top chairs manage the resources
the organization has. Whatever the other aspects may be, it was seen that managing human
resource was extremely difficult. The stability or the sustainability of the organization mostly
depends on this factor.
On the other hand, it was prominently seen that thinking should precede doing. In most cases it
could be seen that there exists easier or better ways to do something.

As far as the above mentioned factor is considered, continuous knowledge mining followed by
experience in a cycle upholds the entire system in every aspect.
Earning and living a satisfactory life is the desire of all.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE

ENGINEERING WORKSHOPS
The experiences I had in the Engineering Workshops suggest me the following to be implemented for
the improvement of the place.
1. Maintain a simple booklet on materials that are used in the Engineering Workshops. This
should contain the properties and the processing aspects (cutting speeds, coolants, etc.)
2. Maintain a booklet on each machine about the capabilities of them and the current condition.
3. Implement a method to return the unused consumable goods to the stores.
4. Maintain a training program for the employees at least one session a month.
5. Teach the employees how to collaborate with others.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF TRAINING

PROGRAM
A group of 14 undergraduates including myself had the first year in-plant training at the Faculty
Workshop together and all of us did what we were supposed to do separately. Though we
discussed what we were doing among ourselves a little, I feel it would have been better if we
were explicitly encouraged by the Industrial Training Unit to had formal discussions at least
once a week. Some of the undergraduates (I feel I was one of that group) were seen to work
harder gaining more knowledge and the real taste of engineering and some were not. If
discussions of this nature were conducted, all of us could have gained a better knowledge and

improved ourselves collectively. The participation of the training supervisor would have been a
further encourage.
Furthermore I suggest that it would have been better if all the undergraduates were exposed to
some presentations on the in-plant training before we were released. Some illustrative.