Energy 115 (2016) 896e903

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

3-Dimensional numerical simulation of superadiabatic radiant porous

burner with enhanced heat recirculation
Vahid Vandadi a, Chanwoo Park b, *
a
b

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, 89557-0312, USA

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 2 November 2015
Received in revised form
11 August 2016
Accepted 6 September 2016

A two-layer porous (ne and coarse) burner consisting of radiation corridors (nned rods) and an
external preheater is numerically analyzed. The porous burner holds the ame and heats the nned rods
effectively conducting heat to radiating disks downstream, while the sensible energy of the ue gas is
recovered before exiting the burner by a preheater carrying a secondary air that mixes upstream with the
fuel and primary air. Combination of inherent internal heat recirculation in the porous burner, external
heat recovery and effective radiating pathways using the nned rods causes the exiting ue gas having a
temperature lower than the radiating disks. The synchronized heat recirculation and preheating extend
the lean ammability limit to 0.2 equivalence ratio and allow the radiating disk temperature higher than
the exiting ue gas. The thermal nonequilibria (internal heat recirculation, local superadiabatic combustion and external preheating) and effective heat routing using radiation corridors are responsible for
this reversed temperature leading to such a record thermal efciency as high as 50%.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Superadiabatic
Radiant burner
Porous media
Heat recirculation
Preheating
Lean combustion

1. Introduction
In recent decades researchers have been investigating the
combustion of lean fuel mixtures. Especially, the ignition of ultra
lean mixtures become difcult because the ignition temperature is
not easily achievable. Heat recirculation was known as an effective
way to increase the energy content of the mixture and to burn lean
fuel mixtures. The heat recirculation from combustion products has
been widely used which results in an excess enthalpy combustion
[1e12]. In porous burners, the excess enthalpy combustion is achieved using a solid matrix of high thermal conductivity as the
combustor [6,7,13e15]. The combustion heat is recirculated to the
upstream cold reactants internally, by the conduction and radiation
through the solid matrix [5,16e21].
The combustion in porous burners has been analyzed using
either thermal equilibrium model or using a non-thermal equilibrium model [8,19,20,22e24]. A review by Mujeebu et al. [25] on the
numerical modeling of the combustion in porous media reports
that as earlier works, monolithic burners were investigated in
which the ame moved at the combustion wave velocity resulting

* Corresponding author. Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,

University of Missouri, E3423 Lafferre Hall, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA.
E-mail address: parkchanw@missouri.edu (C. Park).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.09.036
0360-5442/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

in ltration combustion [26,27]. Recently, porous burners consisting of two porous layers with different porosities have been
investigated to study the ame stabilization inside the burner
[13,16,28,29]. Barra and Ellzey presented numerical results of a
two-layer porous burner [30]. They assumed that the uid ow and
heat transfer were macroscopically one-dimensional. They reported that the heat recirculation efciency as the ratio of solid to
gas convection in preheat zone and the ring rate decreased by
increasing the ame speed. Mishra et al. presented a heat transfer
analysis of a two-dimensional rectangular porous burner [16]. They
reported that thermal equilibrium was reached at a short distance
from the interface of small pores.
Despite the recent progresses [13,16,28e31], relatively low
thermal efciency and narrow ammability range still remains as
unsolved problems of conventional porous burners of hightemperature ceramic foam materials. It is well known that the
ame temperature of the excess enthalpy combustion in the porous
burners is much higher than the adiabatic ame temperature and is
often limited by the melting points of the combustor materials.
Ceramic materials such as Al2O3 and SiC are the popular materials
of choice because of their high melting temperatures. Low thermal
conductivities of those ceramic materials, however, hinder internal
heat recirculation and heat transfer of the combustion heat for
radiation conversion. It is obvious that insufcient internal heat

V. Vandadi, C. Park / Energy 115 (2016) 896e903

Nomenclature

897

Greek letters
exponent

porosity
r
emisivity
h
temperature exponent
m
viscosity [Pa-s]
y
stoichiometric coefcient
r
density [kg/m3]
se
extinction coefcient [1/m]
sSB
Stefan-Boltzmann constant [W/m2-K4]
f
equivalence ratio

b
A
Ags
C
Di,m
DT,i
Ea
E
h
hgs
Hr
J
k
kr
L
Mw
NuD,p
NR
P
R
Rg
Sg
T
t
u
x
Y

pre-factor of combustion reaction [1/s]

specic volume [1/m]
molar concentration [kmol/m3]
mass diffusion coefcient [m2/s]
thermal diffusion coefcient [m2/s]
activation energy [J/kmol]
total energy [J/kg]
enthalpy [J/kg]
interstitial heat transfer coefcient [W/m2-K]
heat of reaction [W]
diffusion ux [kg/m2]
thermal conductivity [W/m-K]
rate constant
length [m]
molecular weight [kg/kmol]
Nusselt number
number of reactions
pressure [Pa]
reaction rate [kg/m3-s]
universal gas constant [J/kmol-K]
heat of chemical reactions [W/m3]
temperature [K]
time [s]
velocity [m/s]
coordinate [m]
mass fraction of species

recirculation can't ignite lean mixtures leading to the narrow

ammability range.
In this paper, a three-dimensional analysis of a porous burner
using radiation corridors and an external preheater is conducted.
The radiation corridors made of a conductive material are used to
efciently convert the superadiabatic combustion heat to radiation.
The heat recovery using an external preheater and the internal heat
recirculation in the porous burner are used to extend the ammability limits of lean mixtures. The effects of operating parameters (gas velocity and equivalence ratio) on the combustion
characteristics and radiation efciency of the porous burner are
discussed. The results from a three-dimensional analysis of a
porous burner are compared to the results of one-dimensional
analysis.

Subscripts
a
activation
F
fuel or ame
g
gas phase
gs
gas to solid
i
index
j
index
p
pore or particle
r
radiation or reaction
s
solid phase
stoich
stoichiometric
Superscripts
m
exponent or coefcient

gas in the preheater area. It will be shown that the radiation rod
may be serve as a ame holding mechanism and therefore a one

2. Numerical analysis
The radiant porous burner considered for a numerical analysis is
presented in Fig. 1. The porous burner consists of two layers of
porous media (PM1 and PM2) and radiation rods (RR). Also a preheater is considered to recover the heat from the ue gas. The cold
inlet air is heated by the preheater using hot ue gas from the
porous burner. The preheated air is then mixed with the cold
gaseous fuel ow in the upstream porous medium (PM1). The
downstream porous medium (PM2) may serve as a ame holder to
stabilize the ame where the ns of the radiation rods are located.
The energy of combustion is extracted by the ns of the radiation rods (RR) and transferred through the radiation rods by conduction to the radiating surfaces. The radiation rods provide a
highly conducting path to transfer the heat of combustion directly
from the ame to the radiating surface. It is assumed that the stem
of radiation rod is coated with a low thermal conductivity material
(thermal insulator) to reduce the heat loss to the surrounding ue

Fig. 1. (a) Domain of superadiabatic radiant burner and schematic of external preheating, (b) Computational domain of superadiabatic radiant burner.

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V. Vandadi, C. Park / Energy 115 (2016) 896e903

structure porous medium may be used instead of using two

different porous media for upstream and downstream of the
burner.

kr AT b eEa =Rg Tg

The molar rate of creation or destruction of species i is given by

00

Ri;r ni;r  ni;r

2.1. Porous burner

(8)

0
@kr

N
Y

1
Cj;r

00

hj;r hj;r A

(9)

j1

The two-layer porous burner shown in Fig. 1 is analyzed based

on a non-thermal equilibrium treatment using ANSYS Fluent [32] in
which both solid and gas phases are considered in the governing
equations. The phases are assumed to be continuum. The energy
conservation equation for the gas phase is given by

"

h

i
v

!
rg Eg V, u rg Eg Pg V, kg VTg 
vt
hgs

!#
hi Ji


Ags 
Ts  Tg Sg
V

where the porosity, is dened as the ratio of the void volume to

the total volume of the porous media. rg is the gas density, and Pg,
kg, Tg and Sg are the gas pressure, thermal conductivity, temperature
and source term due to reactions, respectively. Eg is the total energy
of the gas phase given as

Pg

rg

u2
2

(2)

where hg is the sensible enthalpy dened for the ideal gas. The gas
phase interacts with the solid phase only through the interstitial
convection in which the specic area of the porous media is given
by Ags/V and the interstitial heat transfer coefcient is given by hgs.
The energy conservation equation of the solid phase of the porous
burner is given by


Ags 
v
1  rs Es  V,1  ks VTs  hgs
Tg  Ts
vt
V

Ri Mw;i

NR
X

Ri;r

(10)

r1

(1)

Eg hg 

and

(3)

where NR is the number of reactions that the species participate in.

The coefcients of the reaction rates are given in Table 1.
The density of the gas ow is computed from the ideal gas law,
in which the properties of the gas mixture are considered and is
given by

rg

Pg
:
Rg Tg

(11)

Interstitial convective heat transfer between the gas and solid

phases of a porous burner plays a signicant role in heat recirculation in the porous burner [16,22,29,33]. Younis and Viskanta
proposed correlations for the interstitial heat transfer coefcient in
the function of Reynolds number [34] and is given by

NuD;p

hgs D2p
kg

CRem ;

(12)

where, C and m values are listed in Table 2. Re is the Reynolds

number of the gas ow in the porous media. The specic area of
porous media used for the interstitial convective heat transfer is
given by



Ags V Dp :

(13)

where rs is the solid phase density, Es is the total energy of the solid
phase and ks and Ts are respectively the thermal conductivity and
temperature of the solid phase. The conservation equations of the
gas species are given by

The radiation heat transfer is considered only for the solid phase
and the gas phase is assumed to be a non-participating medium.
The effective thermal conductivity of the solid phase consists of the
volume-averaged thermal conductivity and the radiative thermal
conductivity of the solid phase and is given by





v

rg Yi V, rg !
u Yi V,Ji Ri
vt

ks;e 1  ks ks;r ;

(4)

where Yi is the mass fraction and Ji is the diffusion ux of species i.


Ji

VT
 rDi;m VYi  DT;i
T


(5)

where Di,m is the mass diffusion coefcient for species i in the

mixture, and DT,i is the thermal diffusion coefcient.
The premixed combustion model of ANSYS Fluent [32] is
considered. The reaction mechanisms are modeled using a twostep reaction of propane.

7
C3 H8 O2 /3CO 4H2 O for reaction r1
2

(6)

1
CO O2 /CO2 for reaction r2
2

(7)

where, the radiative thermal conductivity is given by

ks;r

16r sSB Ts3

:
3se

(15)

The perfect mixing of the preheated air and fuel is assumed at

the inlet of the burner. The equivalence ratio of the fuel/air mixture
is given by

Table 1
Coefcients of Arrhenius reaction rates [Eq. (8)] and the rate exponents [Eq. (9)] in
two-step propane reactions.
Pre-exponential, A [1/s] Activation energy, Ea
Reactionr1 5.62e09
Reactionr2 2.239e12

The rate constant for reaction r, kr is given by Arrhenius

expression

(14)

h, Rate exponent in reaction r1

h, Rate exponent in reaction r2

1.256e08
1.7e08
C3H8
0.1
CO
1

[J/kmol]

Exponent, b
0.0
0.0

O2
1.65
O2
0.25

CO
0.0
CO2
0

H2O
0.0

V. Vandadi, C. Park / Energy 115 (2016) 896e903

Table 2
The range of variables and the baseline condition and properties.

uin [m/s]

Minimum

Baseline

Maximum

0.04
0.2

0.05
0.5

0.10
0.65

Properties of the porous medium, radiation rod and preheater

ks [W/m-K]

krr [W/m-K]

PH

40

0.7

0.87

0.146

0.96

. .

. 


f rF;g rg
rF;g rg

stoich

(16)

2.2. Radiation rods and preheater

The radiation rods are modeled using the three-dimensional
heat conduction equation. The external preheating using the preheater plays a critical role in exploring the combustion of lean air/
fuel mixtures. The effect of preheating is analyzed by implementing
the preheater in the simulation as a User Dened Function. The
main variable in the design of a preheater is effectiveness which is
used to characterize the performance of the supreradiabatic burner.
Preheating not only affect the ammability limits but also greatly
affect the ame location and ame anchoring mechanism.
2.3. Boundary conditions
The ambient air enters the preheater as shown in Fig. 1(a). The
cold air is then preheated and enters the inlet of the burner where
the fuel is added to make a mixture. The velocity of the mixture is
then calculated using a User Dened Function (UDF) embedded in
ANSYS FLUENT and is applied to the inlet of the burner where the
inlet velocity boundary condition is applied. The concentrations
of fuel and air are calculated based on the prescribed equivalence

899

ratio and are applied as the prescribed inlet conditions to the inlet.
The temperature of the mixture is calculated using another UDF
that considers a preheater which preheats the cold air using the
energy of the ue gas. The calculated temperature is then applied to
the gas phase at the inlet as the prescribed temperature condition.
The pressure outlet boundary condition is applied to the outlet of
the burner.
The interstitial heat transfer coefcient hgs, used in Eqs. (1) and
(3) is applied to the gas and solid phase of the porous matrix inside
the burner. The interstitial heat transfer coefcient hgs calculated
using Eq. (12) is applied to both phases by a UDF. The thermal
interaction between the radiation rod and the gas phase is modeled
by using the no-temperature jump condition to the radiation rod.
It is also assumed that the radiation rod has no heat transfer with
the solid phase of the porous matrix. The radiating disk surface
radiates to a target at 298 K as shown in Fig. 1(a). It is also assumed
that the solid phase of the porous burner exchanges radiation heat
at the inlet and outlet of the burner to the surfaces at the preheated
air temperature and the average temperature of the preheater,
respectively. These temperatures are also calculated using UDFs.
3. Results and discussion
The range of different variables and the baseline conditions used
in this paper are presented in Table 2. The computational domain is
shown in Fig. 1(b) and is one eighth of the entire domain due to the
symmetric characteristics of the burner. It is assumed that the
superadiabatic radiant burner (SRB) presented in this paper is a
module and can be stacked up to make a bigger system of identical
modules, therefore symmetry boundary condition is considered for
all the side surfaces of the SRB.
3.1. Baseline results
The temperature contours of the gas and solid phases and the
heat release due to the reactions and fuel mass fraction are presented in Fig. 2. It is shown in Fig. 2 that the reaction starts right at

Fig. 2. Contours of (a) gas and solid phases temperature and (b) heat of reactions and fuel mass fraction for a diagonal cross section. The temperature contour of the radiation rod is
also illustarted.

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V. Vandadi, C. Park / Energy 115 (2016) 896e903

the tip of the rst n and is extended over the entire ns all the way
to the last n, however the majority of the reaction heat release is
occurred around the rst few ns and that is the reason that the gas
temperature rises along the radiation rod for the rst number of
ns. Also the difference between the temperature distribution of
the sold and gas phases demonstrates the role of the interstitial
heat transfer and the solid phase in internal heat recirculation. As
shown in Fig. 2, the uniform temperature distribution in radiation
rod demonstrates that the combustion heat is transferred to the
downstream and radiates to the target efciently, however the rst
and last n may lose heat to the upstream incoming ow and
downstream exiting ow respectively.
The temperature distribution of the solid and gas phases, fuel
concentration and the heat of reactions are presented at different
cross sections in Fig. 3. The temperature of the radiation rod is
excluded from the gures because it shows a very uniform temperature distribution due to high thermal conductivity of silicon
carbide. It is shown in Fig. 3(a) that the reactions start right at the
tip of the rst n and move away from the ns as shown in
Fig. 3(bed) because the fuel near the tip of the n is depleted. It is
shown in Fig. 3(aed) that as the ame moves away from the tip of
the ns the maximum gas and solid temperatures also move away
however it is also shown in Fig. 3(bec) that the temperature of the
solid phase is higher than the gas phase temperature near the tip of

the ns where the fuel is depleted and no reaction occurs. The

aforementioned non-equilibrium temperature is responsible for
the internal heat recirculation.
The role of the solid phase is more signicant in the gaps between the ns. As it is demonstrated in Fig. 3(eeh), the combustion
heat is transferred by the solid phase into the gaps of the ns and is
transferred to the gas phase. It is also shown that the gaps are lled
with the products because the reaction at the tip of the rst n
depletes the fuel in the ow entering the gaps. The reactions
become weaker as shown in Fig. 3(iel), therefore the temperature
of both solid and gas phases, decrease because the ow loses heat
to the radiation rod. Also it is shown that the temperature of the gas
and solid phases tend to reach an equilibrium state, however the
solid phase still plays a key role in internal heat recirculation and
transfers the heat of combustion to the gas phase near the radiation
rod. It is shown in Fig. 3(p) that the gas and solid phases are at
equilibrium state in the last gap, therefore the heat of reactions is
partially transferred to the radiation rods from the non-equilibrium
state between the gas and solid phase of the porous medium.
3.2. Heat recirculation
Internal heat recirculation has been studied extensively
[6,20,30], however the heat recirculation along the ow direction

Fig. 3. Gas and solid phase temperature, fuel mass fraction and heat of reaction contours at different cross sections of the superadiabatic radiant burner: (aed) Fin 1-4, (eeh) Gap
1e4, (iel) Fin 5-8, (mep) Gap 5-8.

V. Vandadi, C. Park / Energy 115 (2016) 896e903

was only considered. Radial heat recirculation is demonstrated in

Fig. 4. The temperature distributions of the gas and solid phases are
presented in Fig. 4(a) along the radial direction starting from the tip
of the ns as shown in the inset of Fig. 4(a). The temperature of the
gas phase above the tip of the rst n rises because of the high
reaction rates shown in Fig. 3(a) and it continues to rise for the
second and third ns. As it is shown in Fig. 4(a), the solid phase
temperature above the tip of the ns also increases. The heat is
conducted from the solid phase above the third n to the solid
phase above the second n (axial direction). Then the heat is
transferred to the gas phase above the tip of the second. It is shown
that the interstitial radial heat transfer from solid phase to gas
phase occurs near the tips.
Fig. 4(b) demonstrates the temperature distribution of the gas
and solid phases along the radial direction in the gaps between the

Fig. 4. Gas and solid phase temperature in the radial direction at different cross sections of the superadiabatic radiant burner: (a) starting from the tip of the ns, (b)
starting from the stem in the gaps.

901

ns as shown in the inset of Fig. 4(b). It is shown that the solid

phase in the rst gap recirculates the heat in radial direction toward
the stem of the radiation rod and also toward the symmetry
boundary. A combination of axial conduction heat transfer from the
downstream solid phases (Gap 2 and Gap 3) to upstream solid
phase (Gap 1) and radial conduction heat transfer is responsible for
internal heat recirculation. It is shown in Fig. 4(b) that the temperature of the gas and solid phases decreases for the downstream
gaps (Gap 6 & 8) because of weak reaction rates shown in Fig. 3.
The conventional heat recirculation is known as the heat recirculation along the ow direction. The variation of the solid and gas
phase temperature along the ow direction is presented in Fig. 5.
Four different axial locations with different proximity to the tip of
the ns are demonstrated in the inset of Fig. 5. It is shown in Fig. 5
that the gas temperature is initially lower than the solid phase
temperature. The gas temperature rises due to the heat of reactions
staring from the rst n [Fig. 2(b)]. It is also shown that the gas
temperature around the radiation rod is greatly affected by the heat
transfer to the radiation rod where the gas temperature around the
tip of the n experiences a drop. It is also shown in Fig. 5 that gas
and solid phase temperature approach an equilibrium state not
only along the ow direction but also in the radial direction.
The heat of combustion is transferred to the radiation rod at the
non-equilibrium state between the solid and the gas. The transferred heat ux to the radiation rod and the average temperature of
the radiation rod are presented in Fig. 6. It is shown that the heat
ux to the radiation rod is positive except for the small front are of
the rst n of the radiation rod and the last gap. The negative heat
ux at the front of the rst n is due the low temperature incoming
ow. In fact the rise in the temperature of the radiation rod up to
the third n shows that the radiation itself plays as a solid phase to
recirculate the heat to the upstream cold mixture. However the rest
of the radiation rod transfers the combustion heat to the target. As
shown in Fig. 6 the heat ux gain of the radiation rod is positive at
most of the ns and gaps and reaches a maximum at the tip of the
ns which is responsible for the temperature rise at the tip of the
n and also temperature drop in the gas phase at the tip of the ns
(Fig. 5). The negative heat ux at the last gap is a demonstration of
the temperature inversion of between the radiation rod and the gas

Fig. 5. Variation of gas and solid phase temperature in axial direction for different
radial locations.

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V. Vandadi, C. Park / Energy 115 (2016) 896e903

Fig. 6. Variation of radiation rod heat ux and average temperature along the axial
direction.

phase. The temperature inversion occurs because of an effective

heat transfer from the gas phase at non-equilibrium state to the
radiation rod.

inlet velocity because the combustion heat release is increased.

Although higher inlet velocity results in a better heat transfer from
the gas phase to the radiation rod and higher radiation output, but
the increase in the combustion heat excels the increase in the radiation output.
It is also shown in Fig. 7 that the combustion is limited at low
equivalence ratios where the ignition becomes impossible due to
the heat extraction by the radiation rod that results in an extinguishing ame. As equivalence ratio decreases the Peclet number
decreases and the ame is unable to propagate and quenching
occurs. It is shown that at higher velocities lower equivalence ratios
can be ignited because of the increase in the preheating effect at
higher velocities. High equivalence ratios are limited by the ashback because of high preheated air temperature at the inlet.
The thermal efciency for different equivalence ratios at the
baseline velocity for a two-section burner is also presented in Fig. 7.
It is assumed that the porosity of the porous burner is 0.835 up to
the rst n of the radiation rod. It is shown that the change in the
thermal efciency is insignicant because the radiation rod itself
serves as a ame holder and a two-section burner is no longer
needed to stabilize the ame. As shown in Fig. 7, The thermal efciency of the three-dimensional simulation of the superadiabatic
porous burner at the baseline velocity is in good agreement with
the results from Vandadi et al. [20] where a one-dimensional twomedium treatment was used. It is also shown in this gure that the
ammability limits are in a reasonable agreement.
4. Conclusions

3.3. Effect of fuel ratio and gas velocity on thermal efciency

Thermal efciency is dened as the ratio of the radiation output
from the radiating surface (Fig. 1) and the heat release due to
combustion. The variation of the thermal efciency for different
equivalence ratios and inlet velocities are presented in Fig. 7. It is
shown in Fig. 7 that the thermal efciency increases with
increasing equivalence ratios. Higher heat release results in higher
ame temperature and therefore higher radiating surface temperature which increases the radiation output and the thermal efciency. However the thermal efciency decreases by increasing the

A high-efciency porous radiant burner using radiation corridors and an external preheater to enhance super-adiabatic combustion and extend lean ammability limit was numerically
analyzed. From a three-dimensional simulation, the lean ammability limit was found to be lowered to 0.2 because of the combined
effect of the internal heat recirculation in the porous burner and
external preheating. The external preheater was critical to recover
the heat from the ue gas and increase the inlet air temperature so
that the burner could operate at ultra-lean conditions, while producing radiation output. Finned rods (radiation corridors) used as a
heat conduction path embedded in the burner, were effective to
transfer the combustion heat efciently to the radiating surface at
higher temperatures than the exhaust gas temperature leading to
high radiation output. As a result, the record thermal efciencies of
the porous burner as high as 50% was achieved. It was also found
that the radiation rods stabilize the ame around their ns so that
and a monolithic (one-section) burner design can be used instead
of the two-section design used in this study.
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Fig. 7. Variation of thermal efciency for different equivalence ratios and inlet
velocities.

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