JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

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MODULE 11.13
LANDING GEAR

engineering

CONTENTS
13 LANDING GEAR.............................................................................13-1
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5

13.6
13.7

13.8
13.9
13.10
13.11
13.12

13.13
13.14
13.15
13.16

13.17

13.18

Introduction...............................................................................13-1
General.......................................................................................13-2
Construction..............................................................................13-3
Multiple Axles And Wheels.......................................................13-5
Shock Absorbing.......................................................................13-6
13.5.1 Oleo-pneumatic without separator.................................13-6
13.5.2 Oleo-pneumatic with separator......................................13-8
13.5.3 Liquid Spring..................................................................13-8
Servicing Filling and Charging..............................................13-8
Extension And Retraction Systems.........................................13-10
13.7.1 Extension System..........................................................13-11
13.7.2 Retraction System.........................................................13-12
Selector Valve............................................................................13-12
Uplock mechanism....................................................................13-13
Downlock mechanism...............................................................13-14
Emergency Landing Gear Operation.......................................13-16
Landing Gear Doors Sequencing.............................................13-17
13.12.1 Door Operated Sequencing System..............................13-18
13.12.2 Gear Operated Sequencing System..............................13-19
Safety bars.................................................................................13-19
Indications and Warning Indications and Warning.................13-19
Safety Switches.........................................................................13-25
Wheels, brakes, antiskid and autobraking..............................13-26
13.16.1 wheels...........................................................................13-26
13.16.2 Types of Wheels............................................................13-27
Tyres...........................................................................................13-29
13.17.1 Tyre inflation and deflation.............................................13-29
13.17.2 Tyre Construction...........................................................13-29
13.17.3 Tyre Wear Assessment..................................................13-30
13.17.4 Tyre Damage.................................................................13-33
13.17.5 Leak Holes (Awl Holes)..................................................13-33
13.17.6 Vent Holes.....................................................................13-33
13.17.7 Balance Marks...............................................................13-33
13.17.8 Electrically Conducting Tyres.........................................13-33
13.17.9 Aquaplaning...................................................................13-34
Brakes........................................................................................13-34
13.18.1 Energising Brakes..........................................................13-34
13.18.2 None Energising Brakes................................................13-34
13.18.3 Expander Tube Brakes..................................................13-35
13.18.4 Single Disc Brakes.........................................................13-35
13.18.5 Multi Disc Brakes...........................................................13-35
13.18.6 Brake systems...............................................................13-36

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13.18.7 Brake control valve........................................................13-38

13.19 Anti Skid Systems.....................................................................13-39
13.19.1 Introduction....................................................................13-39
13.19.2 Electronic Anti Skid System...........................................13-40
13.19.3 Mechanical Anti Skid System.........................................13-46
13.20 autobraking................................................................................13-48
13.20.1 Selector Panel...............................................................13-48
13.20.2 Auto-Brake Control Unit.................................................13-48
13.20.3 Auto Brake Solenoid Valve............................................13-49
13.20.4 System Operation..........................................................13-49
13.20.5 Auto Brake Termination..................................................13-49
13.21 steering......................................................................................13-50
13.21.1 Steering Mechanisms....................................................13-52
13.21.2 Nose Wheel Self Centring..............................................13-53

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13 LANDING GEAR
13.1 Introduction

Landing gears have two main functions:

Supporting the weight of the stationary aircraft on the ground
Absorbing the loads during touchdown, the landing run and taxiing.
They are divided into two main categories, fixed (non-retractable) or fully
retractable.
Early aircraft had fixed landing gear, which unfortunately produced a large
amount of parasitic drag in flight. Since drag increases at the square of forward
speed, as aircraft began to fly faster, the resulting amount of drag became too
prohibitive.
In the short term, this problem was resolved by simply installing streamlined
fairings over the wheels. However it soon became clear that this drag could be
almost completely eliminated, if the landing gear were retracted after take off and
stowed out of the air-stream.

Tail Wheel Type Undercarriage

FIGURE 1

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13.2 General
Early landing gear designs consisted of two main legs set just in front of the
centre of gravity (C of G) of the aircraft and a small tailwheel at the rear end of
the fuselage. Putting the C of G just aft of the main gear, ensured the aircraft very
quickly attained flying attitude during take off.
All aircraft at that time, were propeller-driven types and the inclined fuselage gave
ample clearance between the propeller and the ground during taxiing, take-off
and landing.
However the main disadvantage of this configuration was the risk that the aircraft
was likely to nose over when heavy braking was applied and poor vision for the
crew during taxiing and the initial part of the take off run.
This problem was overcome by the development of the Tricycle configuration,
which is now used almost exclusively. This places the main landing gear aft of the
C of G and a supporting nose gear at the forward end of the fuselage. As aircraft
became larger and heavier, landing gear design included multi-leg and multiwheel configurations.

Nose Wheel Type Undercarriage

Figure 2

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13.3 Construction

All landing gears have to be attached to strong points on either the fuselage or
the wing structure, so that the landing loads can be absorbed and transferred
safely to the aircraft structure.
Smaller light aircraft use a steel leaf or tubular steel spring to act as an
undercarriage (figure 3). One end is attached to a strong point on the airframe
while located on the other end is the wheel and axle. The deflection of the spring
tube on landing absorbs the landing loads and transmit them to the airframe. A
properly conducted landing will not cause any undercarriage rebound.

Spring Tube Type

Figure 3
Another simple method was to use elastic bungee cord encased in a loose weave
cotton braid (Figure 4). The bungee cord is located on a series of support struts
which support the wheel and axle. The bungee cord stretches on landing and
transfers the landing forces into the airframe.

BUNGEE SHOCK CORD

Bungee Cord Type Landing Gear
Figure 4
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Larger more modern aircraft, require more complex and heavier retractable
systems (Figure 5). The larger the aircraft the larger the system. The components
remain similar just the size and quantities change (Figure 6). Each landing gear
unit is basically a wheeled shock absorber (oleo). A forged cylinder body is
attached to the airframe on trunnions to allow it to pivot when lowered and raised.
Articulated side stays are located between the cylinder body and airframe strong
points to give the landing gear strength and rigidity and allow the landing gearleg
to fold. Drag or bracing struts may also be fitted. These absorb the high
acceleration loads during take off and deceleration loads during braking.
MAIN SUPPORT FRAMES

TRUNNION

MAIN ACTUATOR
DOWNLOCK ACTUATOR

BRACING STRUT

DOWNLOCK LINKAGE
(TOGGLE LEVERS)
SIDE STAY
MAIN OLEO

PISTON

Landing Gear Leg With Bracing Struts

Figure 5
The wheel and axle assembly (bogey) is attached to the piston end. A hinged
torque (scissor) link is located between the axle yoke and the cylinder body. This
allows the piston to move freely in and out of the cylinder but prevents the piston
and wheel assembly from swivelling.
Two actuators are usually fitted. A main actuator attached to the cylinder body to
raise and lower the gear and a downlock actuator located on the bracing strut
which operates to cause a mechanical lock when lowered. It also unlocks the
gear mechanism before raising.
A Hop Damper is often used with multi wheel units to align the bogie at the
correct angle for landing and absorbs minor shock loads during taxiing. It is
connected between the main landing gear body and the bogie.
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MAIN ACTUATOR

DOWNLOCK
ACTUATOR
CYLINDER
BRACING STRUT

PISTON
SCISSOR
(TORQUE) LINK

WHEEL

Oleo Type Landing Gear

Figure 6
13.4 Multiple Axles And Wheels
To allow for maximum utilisation of aircraft when operating from different runways
multi wheel landing gear is used. Typical configurations are shown in Figure 7.

SINGLE

D OU BLE

TAN DEM

BOGIE

Wheel Axle Configurations

Figure 7
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LANDING GEAR

The advantages of using multi-wheel configurations are:

They spread the landing loads over a larger area (footprint).

They are easier to stow as the wheel volume is reduced.

They provide greater safety. As the loads are spread over several wheels a
burst tyre is not so critical as the remaining wheels accept the extra loads.

The main disadvantages are:

There are more moving parts so they need more maintenance.

They are expensive to produce

Due to the large footprint the turning circle is increased to prevent the tyres
from crabbing and increasing wear.

13.5 Shock Absorbing

In order to absorb and dissipate the tremendous shock loads of landing, the
kinetic energy of the impact must be converted into other forms of energy. This is
achieved on most landing gear legs by using self-contained hydraulic shock
absorbing struts.
There are three main types of strut commonly used in commercial aircraft:

Oleo-pneumatic without separator

Oleo-pneumatic with separator
Liquid Spring

13.5.1 Oleo-pneumatic without separator

The strut uses a compressed gas (normally nitrogen) combined with a specific
quantity of hydraulic oil to absorb and dissipate the shock loads. It is essentially
an outer cylinder into which an inner hollow piston is inserted.
When the aircraft is airborne, the landing gear is no longer supporting the aircraft
weight, consequently the piston fully extends under the influence of the nitrogen
pressure. The nitrogen gas being lighter than oil, will settle in the upper portion of
the cylinder with the heavier oil at the bottom. Since in this particular type of strut
there is no separator between the oil and gas, there will be some aeration (froth)
as the oil and gas mix together at the demarcation line.

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On landing, the inner piston is forced up into the outer cylinder, reducing the
internal volume. A tapered metering pin and snubber knob which are an integral
part of the piston, are forced into a snubber tube carried by the outer cylinder.
(See Figure 8).
OIL BLEED VALVE

NITROGEN/OIL
CHARGING VALVE

FLAPPER VALVE (OPEN)

CYLINDER

FLAPPER
VALVE
(CLOSED)

INNER
CYLINDER

SNUBBER KNOB
CYLINDER

SNUBBER
TUBE

METERING PIN

SNUBBER
KNOB

PISTON

(Strut Compressed)
Figure 8

METERING
PIN
PISTON

Oleo - Pneumatic without separator

(Strut Extended)
Figure 9

Oil is forced into the upper chamber through a series of holes in the snubber tube
and through the open flapper valve. The tapered shape of the metering pin
steadily reduces the available orifice area as it compresses.
The landing energy is therefore absorbed by the oil, as it is forced through the
ever-decreasing sized orifice and by the compression of the nitrogen gas, as the
oil is forced into the reduced volume of the upper chamber.
The problem now is to absorb the recoil, to prevent the aircraft from bouncing
back up from the runway.
As the piston starts to extend, the oil is now forced downwards into the hollow
piston. The rate at which this transfer takes place is greatly restricted by the
flapper valve slamming shut, leaving only a reduced number of holes in the
snubber tube to permit transfer the oil. This restriction in flow and the associated
increase in internal volume, prevents rapid strut extension and thus dampens the
recoil energy. (See Figure 9).

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LANDING GEAR

13.5.2 Oleo-pneumatic with separator

In this design, the principle is exactly the same as the oleo-pneumatic without
separator type previously described. The main difference is the inclusion of a
floating piston, to separate the oil chamber from the nitrogen chamber and
therefore prevent oil and gas mixing together. It also means that the nitrogen
chamber does not have to be positioned at the top of the leg, or indeed be limited
to one chamber. This makes shock absorbing more efficient, less severe jolting
during taxiing and will simplify servicing (see later).
13.5.3 Liquid Spring

This type does not have a gas compartment. Instead, it relies on the fact that if a
piston is forced into a cylinder completely filled with oil under a static pressure,
energy absorption will take place due to oil compression.
Oil is generally considered to be incompressible, however it is a fluid and will
obey the same rules as for a gas. At normal hydraulic system pressures (typically
3000 psi), the amount of compression is negligible. However, in liquid spring
shock absorbers, pressures in excess of 60,000 psi will often be generated and in
this case the oil will be compressed.
During touchdown, the inner piston is forced up into the upper cylinder as before,
compressing the oil as the volume progressively reduces by what is known as,
jack ram displacement. A restrictor valve inserted as before, will absorb the
recoil in a similar manner to the previous two types.
13.6 Servicing Filling and Charging
To guarantee the correct operation of the shock absorber, the strut must be
serviced in order to fill the leg with the proper quantity of oil. Additionally, the oil
must be completely free of air. The nitrogen chamber must also be charged to the
correct value in order to maintain the correct oil/gas ratio.
When correctly filled and charged, the strut will adopt the correct extension when
supporting the aircraft on the ground and the risk of the inner piston coming into
contact with the outer cylinder (bottoming) during touchdown will be eliminated.
Filling and charging procedures will vary between aircraft type, will be detailed in
the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) and must be strictly adhered to. A
general sequence of events to fill and charge a typical oleo-pneumatic without
separator type of strut (conforming to relevant health and safety regulations), is
detailed as follows:

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Normally the aircraft will be positioned on jacks with the wheels clear of the
ground.
Using an approved adapter, completely release the nitrogen pressure via the
charging valve and ensure the valve remains open after all pressure has been
dissipated.
Place a bottle jack under the strut and carefully compress the leg, pushing the
inner piston into the outer cylinder until it bottoms and the leg is fully
compressed.
Open the hydraulic bleed valve and pump oil into the oil filling connection until
fresh clean oil, completely free of air bubbles, emerges from the bleed valve.
The leg is now completely filled with oil to the correct quantity.
Close and tighten the oil charging valve and oil bleed valve.
Remove the bottle jack, connect a nitrogen rig to the nitrogen charging valve.
Slowly and carefully inflate the leg with nitrogen until the leg is fully extended
and the inflation adapter gauge shows the correct gas pressure obtained from
the AMM.
Close and tighten the nitrogen charging valve and remove the charging rig.
Repeat if required on the other main leg.
Lower the aircraft off jacks.
The legs are now properly filled and charged.
OIL BLEED POINT

OIL CHARGING
VALVE
OIL
OIL BLEED

SEPARATOR

SEPARATOR

CHARGING
VALVE

GAS
OLEO - PNEUMATIC WITH
SEPARATOR
Figure 10
LEG EXTENDED
Figure 11

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Note 1:
If the leg is an oleo-pneumatic with separator type, there will be an
additional procedure before deflating the nitrogen pressure to ensure the
separator is in its correct position.
Note 2:
The procedure is similar with a liquid spring type regarding the oil filling
and bleeding, there will be no nitrogen charging procedure.
Note 3:
In-service, the serviceability of the shock struts can be monitored with
the use of a pressure/extension graph and adjustments may be made to the
nitrogen pressure as required.

GAS PRESSURE
(PSI)
(GAUGE PSI)

OLEO PRESSURE/EXTENSION GRAPH

Figure 12
13.7 Extension And Retraction Systems
As the speed of the aircraft becomes high enough that the parasite drag of the
landing gear is greater than the induced drag caused by the added weight of the
retracting system it becomes economically practical to retract the landing gear
into the aircraft structure.
Raising or lowering of the undercarriage is carried out either hydraulically or
pneumatically via a selector lever in the cockpit which is mechanically or
electrically linked to a selector valve. When the selector valve is operated it
directs the fluid to one side or the other of the piston.

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The landing gear is uplocked and downlocked mechanically or hydraulically

through the uplock boxes and the downlock toggle levers. Landing gear positions
are sensed by proximity switches or microswitches and transmit these positions
to the cockpit instrumentation via a control unit.
In the case of fluid or electrical failure, a mechanical emergency lowering system
is available. An emergency handle located in the cockpit is operated and by a
system of push-pull cables and gearboxes, the uplocks are released.
The landing gear selector valve or a freefall valve is also operated, which opens
all extension and retraction lines to return. The landing gear is allowed to fall
under gravity and aerodynamic forces but may be assisted by a spring or gas
operated free fall assister.
Smaller light aircraft may use differing methods for operating the landing gear.
Electric motors may drive actuators, a winding cable system, a simple operating
lever with safety locks or a manual hydraulic jacking system may be used to raise
or lower the landing gear.
Most modern light aircraft use a hydraulic power pack. This is a self-contained
system and was designed to be lightweight and easy to maintain. The pack
contains the fluid reservoir, sight glass, pressure pump, filter, thermal relief valve,
pressure relief valve, ground service and replenishment connections.
13.7.1 Extension System
When the selector lever is selected to GEAR DOWN a micro-switch on the lever
is made which powers up the hydraulic pump, the hydraulic pressure is then fed
to the uplock actuator valves to unlock the uplocks. Once operated, the uplock
hooks remain mechanically open under spring pressure. Movement of the
undercarriage legs break the uplock limit switches which indicates on the
instrumentation panel that the landing gears are in transit.(red triangles) and that
the undercarriage is unlocked.
The landing gear selector valve operates, and the down lines to the actuators and
the return lines to the reservoir are opened. The fluid pressure flows through the
selector valve to the actuators and extends the actuators. Once the main
actuators are fully extended and the undercarriage legs have mechanically
locked, excess pressure is bled back through the low pressure control valve to
the reservoir.
When all 3 wheels are down and locked, proximity switches send signals to a
control unit which turns the hydraulic pump off, closes the selector valve lines and
sends signals to the instrument panel indicating that the undercarriage is locked
down, (green triangles).

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13.7.2 Retraction System

The retraction procedure is basically the opposite of the extension procedure.
When the selector lever is selected GEAR UP a micro-switch on the lever is
made which powers up the hydraulic pump, the hydraulic pressure is then fed to
the downlock actuators to unlock the mechanical locks on the bracing struts. Its is
also fed to the selector valve and opens the uplines to the main actuators and the
return lines to the reservoir.
Movement of the undercarriage legs breaks the downlock proximity switches
which send signals to the control unit which indicates on the instrumentation
panel that the landing gears are in transit, (red triangles) and that the
undercarriage is unlocked.
The fluid pressure flows through the selector valve to the main actuators and
retracts the landing gear. The undercarriage legs on full retraction mechanically
lock the uplocks. Once the main actuators are fully retracted and the
undercarriage legs are locked up, excess pressure is bled back through the low
pressure control valve to the reservoir. When all 3 wheels are up and locked,
uplock limit switches send signals to a control unit which turns the hydraulic pump
off, closes the selector valve lines and change the red triangles to black on the
indicating panel.
If a red triangle remains on when the undercarriage is fully extended or retracted
there is a fault in the system. A squat switch system and an electro-mechanical
stop on the selector lever, will prevent the landing gear from being retracted when
the aircraft is on the ground. The landing gear will not be able to be retracted until
certain parameters are met. This is normally when all landing gear legs have fully
extended after take off. This is sensed by proximity switches on each leg.
13.8 Selector Valve
The selector valve on modern large aircraft will be normally operated by electrical
solenoids signalled from micro-switches in the landing gear selector lever, but on
some aircraft they may be mechanically operated. A spool valve in the selector
valve is moved from a neutral position one way or the other allowing hydraulic
pressure to one side of the main actuator piston, depending whether the landing
gear is to be raised or lowered .
Normal operation of the selector valve can be overridden in case the landing gear
has to be lowered in an emergency, if the landing gear fails to extend due to a
system fault. The spool valve is moved mechanically by a system of rods, cables
and levers to allow all lines to be opened to allow the free flow of hydraulic fluid
around the system. This operation is normally inter-linked with the emergency
mechanical opening of the uplocks.
A typical selector valve is shown in Figure 13

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SPOOL VALVE

SOLENOID

SOLENOID

MECHANICAL OVER-RIDE
LINKAGE

Selector Valve
Figure 13
13.9 Uplock mechanism
On large modern aircraft when the landing gear is being retracted the uplocks will
operate mechanically. A roller on the landing gear leg will locate and engage into
the uplock hook. Limit switches will sense when the landing gear leg has
engaged in the lock hook and will turn off the hydraulic pressure. The gear will
then be held retracted in place purely mechanically. (Figure 14)

LOCK LEVER ASSEMBLY

LIMIT SWITCH

UNLOCK ACTUATOR VALVE

LANDING GEAR LEG ROLLER
UPLOCK HOOK

Locked Uplock
Figure 14
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Normal release of the uplock is by a hydraulically actuated valve. The supplied

hydraulic pressure pushes a plunger against the lock lever which rotates about its
pivot. This action allows the uplock hook to disengage under its own spring
tension. The landing gear will then be extended hydraulically by the main
actuator. (Figure 15)
LOCK LEVER ASSEMBLY
LIMIT SWITCH

PLUNGER
UNLOCK ACTUATOR VALVE
UPLOCK HOOK

LANDING GEAR LEG ROLLER

13.10

Unlocked Uplock
Figure 15
Downlock mechanism

The downlock actuator can have either a single or double direction operation
depending on the aircraft. A single direction operation would unlock the downlock
mechanism (upper and lower toggles) prior to retraction, the leg relying on its own
extension to provide the over centre lock. The double direction actuator will lock
the downlock mechanism on extension and unlock it prior to retraction.
Once the landing gear has been fully extended and is sensed by a limit switch
hydraulic pressure is directed to the downlock actuator which extends the
actuator piston. The piston acts against a toggle lever which move both toggle
levers to an over centre position. This over centreing of the toggle levers forms a
mechanical lock which prevents the landing gear leg from collapsing. (Figure 16)

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MAIN LEG

DOWNLOCK ACTUATOR

PROXIMITY SWITCH

SIDE BRACE

UPPER TOGGLE
LEVER
LOWER TOGGLE
LEVER

PROXIMITY SWITCH
CENTRE LINE

OVER CENTRE POSITION

Linkage Downlocked
Figure 16
Once the aircraft has landed and parked up, a red flagged safety pin is inserted
through alignment holes in the toggle levers to prevent inadvertent collapse or
retraction of the landing gear on the ground. This safety pin is removed before
flight.

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On selecting the landing gear up, the hydraulic pressure is directed initially to the
downlock actuator and retracts the piston. As the piston retracts it moves the
lower toggle overcoming the mechanical lock, moving both toggle levers from the
over centre position to an under centre position, so that the landing gear can now
fold. (Figure 17)

MAIN LEG

DOWNLOCK ACTUATOR

PROXIMITY SWITCH

SIDE STAY
UPPER TOGGLE
LEVER
UNDER CENTRE POSIITION

LOWER TOGGLE
LEVER
PROXIMITY SWITCH

CENTRE LINE

Linkage Unlocked
Figure 17
13.11

Emergency Landing Gear Operation

The uplocks can be released manually if the actuator or hydraulic system fails. An
emergency landing gear lever, operated from the cockpit will act on and rotate the
hook locks, releasing the landing gear legs from the uplock hooks. The
emergency mechanism lever will also operate a lever on the landing gear selector
valve which will open all hydraulic lines to return. This allows the hydraulic fluid to
free flow through the system, to allow the landing gear to extend.
Once the uplocks are released the landing gear legs will extend under gravity and
aerodynamic forces. Spring or gas operated free fall assistors may be used to
help the gear extend. The proximity and limit switches will operate as normal
giving a cockpit indication of the gear in transit and down locked.

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HOOK LINK ASSEMBLY

LIMIT SWITCH

LEVER

UPLOCK HOOK
UNLOCK ACTUATOR VALVE
CABLE

EMERGENCY
OPERATING HANDLE

Emergency Release Mechanism

Figure 18
On aircraft fitted with hydraulically sequenced doors if the hydraulic system fails,
the door jack is mechanically unlocked. This will also be carried out by a
mechanical linkage connected to the cockpits emergency release mechanism
(Figure 18)
13.12

Landing Gear Doors Sequencing

To keep the aircraft as streamlined as possible and to reduce drag, the landing
gear is normally retracted into bays within the aircraft structure. However some
aircrafts landing gear do not fully retract into the structure and some access doors
do not fully enclose the landing gear.
The bays have access doors which open and close in relation to the movement of
the landing gear. Some doors are mechanically linked to the landing gear, by a
system of connecting rods, bellcranks and links, whilst other doors open and
close under operation from a hydraulic sequencing valve, signalled by microswitches or proximity switches via a control unit.
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To further reduce the drag some doors will close when the landing gear has been
extended. The landing gear doors may have a manual unlocking mechanism to
allow the door to be opened on the ground for access in carrying out
maintenance tasks and inspections.
Anything that jeopardises the sequence can cause considerable damage to the
aircraft structure and could lead to an unsafe landing condition. Door sequencing
relies on the movement of valves operated by the doors and the movement of the
legs. The sequencing valve can be therefore be either door operated or gear
operated.
13.12.1 Door Operated Sequencing System
Only when the door is fully open is pressure allowed to flow to the main actuator.
If the door is not fully open the main actuator remains isolated. Hydraulic
pressure is initially fed to the landing gear door actuator which operates to open
the door. When the door reaches its maximum travel it abuts against. and
depresses a plunger. (Figure 19) The movement of the plunger unseats a valve in
the sequence valve, which opens a gallery to allow fluid pressure to the main
actuator and extends the landing gear down.

TO DOOR ACTUATOR

PRESSURE IN
VALVE SEAT

PLUNGER

TO MAIN ACTUATOR

Sequence Valve Door Shut

Figure 19

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Retraction of the landing gear is reversed. Pressure is fed to the main actuator
which retracts the landing gear leg. When the landing gear leg is fully retracted it
abuts against and depresses a sequence valve plunger. The movement of the
plunger unseats a valve in the sequence valve, which opens a gallery to allow
fluid pressure to the door actuator which closes the door. (Figure 20)

TO DOOR ACTUATOR

PRESSURE IN
VALVE SEAT

PLUNGER

TO MAIN ACTUATOR

Sequence Valve Door Open

Figure 20
13.12.2 Gear Operated Sequencing System
The principle of operation is very similar to the door operated mechanism. The
difference being that the plunger (or slide) is operated via a cam and linkage
mechanism directly attached to the landing gear leg. This ensures that when the
gear starts to move the door starts to, or is in the process of opening.
13.13

Safety bars

On some aircraft with hydraulically sequenced doors if the hydraulics system was
to fail, to allow the landing gear to lower, the wheels will forcibly open the doors.
This is done by the landing gear legs pushing against safety bars which are fitted
to the doors. The doors will open without being damaged and once operated the
doors will remain open.
13.14

Indications and Warning Indications and Warning

All modern aircraft fitted with retractable landing gear will have a means of
indicating on the flight deck whether the legs are locked down, in transit or
correctly locked up. Additionally, a separate warning system may be included to
show faults, or to indicate that the legs are not in the position selected (nips).
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Normally leg position is shown, by a dedicated set of coloured indicators on the

front panel, near to the landing gear selector lever. Each leg will have its own set
of indicator lights.
On some aircraft a nips light is included in the selector lever itself.
The actual sequence of indication often varies from aircraft to aircraft, but the
modern dark cockpit philosophy during flight, usually means that all indicator
lights are extinguished (no lights), when the legs are properly locked up.
Red lights are often used when the legs are in transit (i.e.: not locked up and not
locked down) and green lights illuminate when each leg is down and locked.
RED TRANSIT
GREEN
LOCKED
DOWN

A RED LIGHT COMES ON WHENEVER:

1.
THE LEVER IS NOT DOWN AND GEAR
NOT UP.
2.
THE LEVER IS DOWN AND GEAR NOT
DOWN AND LOCKED.
3.
ENGINE No. 1 OR 2 THROTTLE IS IN
IDLE RANGE AND ANY GEAR NOT
DOWN AND LOCKED.
A GREEN LIGHT COMES ON WHENEVER:
1.
THE GEAR IS DOWN AND LOCKED.

Gear Position Indicator

Figure 21
On other aircraft, the red transit lights are replaced by the nips light in the
selector lever, and separate amber warning lights on the front panel will show a
fault. (I.e.: if any leg fails to reach its selected position, either locked up or locked
down, within a certain time limit.)
Also, where for example, visual confirmation from the cabin windows is not
possible, usually for nose gear, the locked down indicator may be duplicated, as
an additional confidence light, in case a bulb failure occurs.
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ADDITIONAL NOSE
LOCKED DOWN GREEN
GREEN
LOCKED
DOWN
LIGHTS

AMBER FAULT
LIGHTS

RED NIPS LIGHT

INSIDE HANDLE

Landing Gear Selector and Indications

Figure 22

Micro switches or proximity sensors are fitted to each leg to relay information the
flight deck indicators. A change the output voltage whenever the uplock or
downlock mechanisms are made or broken during the retraction or lowering
sequences, determine indicator output.

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MAIN LANDING GEAR

MAIN LANDING GEAR DOWNLOCK SENSOR

Gear Downlock Sensors
Figure 23

Other methods can be mechanical indicators outside the aircraft, visible from the
cockpit. There may be painted indicator lines on the landing gear legs toggle
levers which align when the gear is down and locked. (Figure 24)

UNLOCKED
LOCKED

Landing Gear Down Locked Visual Indicator

FIGURE 24
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Some aircraft have pop up indicators which stand proud on the upper wing
surface when the gear is down and locked (Figure 25). These are plunger
operated through a cable linkage attached to the toggle levers. When the landing
gear extends and is locked down a plate attached to the toggle lever operates a
spring loaded plunger which by cable connection moves the indicator from its
housing, proud of the airframe skin. The indicator returns under spring pressure
into its housing when the landing gear is retracted

POP UP INDICATOR

AIRFRAME SKIN

UNLOCK ACTUATOR
PLUNGER

TOGGLE
LEVERS
SIDE STRUT

POP UP INDICATOR

AIRFRAME SKIN

UNLOCK ACTUATOR
PLUNGER

TOGGLE
LEVERS

SIDE STRUT

Landing Gear pop Up Indicator

Figure 25

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To prevent the pilot from landing with his under carriage retracted there may be a
warning system connected to the centralised warning panel with associated
warning lights and audio warnings. The warning system may be activated when
the aircraft descends to a certain height above the ground detected by the radio
altimeter, or when the landing configuration is incorrect ie, when the engine power
levers or flaps are set incorrectly.

SAFETY LATCH PIN

UP

LANDING GEAR
SELECTOR LEVER

DOWN
SAFETY

LANDING

SOLENOID

GEAR LEG

DE-ENERGISED

EXTENSION
CONTROL UNIT

LIMIT
SWITCHES

Landing Gear Selector Lever Safety Interlock

Figure 26

SAFETY LATCH PIN

UP

LANDING GEAR
SELECTOR LEVER

DOWN
SAFETY
LANDING

SOLENOID

GEAR LEG

ENERGISED

EXTENSION
CONTROL UNIT

LIMIT
SWITCHES

Landing Gear Selector Lever Safety Interlock

Figure 27
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The landing gear may have an electro-mechanical safety device, which prevents
operation of the selector lever on the ground. When all the landing gear legs are
compressed a safety solenoid is de-energised which moves a latch pin under the
landing gear selector lever. So long as the solenoid remains de-energised the
latch pin prevents the selector lever from operating.
As soon as each landing gear leg is fully extended the limit switch is made which
sends a signal to the control unit. When the control unit receives signals from all
the landing gear legs an earth is made and the safety solenoid is energised. The
latch pin is withdrawn from beneath the selector lever allowing gear up when
selected. (Figures 26 and 27)
13.15

Safety Switches

Proximity switches on each landing gear leg will indicate that the landing gear leg
is either downlocked or is in transit. The switch will be made when the target on
the landing gear leg comes into alignment with the switch probe indicating that
the landing gear is downlocked. The gap between the probe and target is set in
accordance with the maintenance manual for the aircraft. When the proximity
switche probes are out of alignment with their targets, the switches are broken
and it is sensed that the landing gear leg is in transit.
The signals will be sent to an electronic control unit or computer where they are
processed and will illuminate an associated green triangle on the landing gear
panel when locked down and a red triangle when the landing gear is in transit.
Limit micro-switches on the uplocks will sense when the landing gear is locked up
and limit switches on the oleos will sense when the oleo leg is fully extended. The
signals will be sent to an electronic control unit or a computer where they are
processed. When the landing gear is locked up the limit switch will change the
red triangles to black. When the oleos are fully extended the limit switches will
allow the landing gear to be retracted.
The proximity switches and limit switches form part of the weight on wheels,
weight off wheels squat switch system and will prevent inadvertent retraction of
landing gear on the ground and will only allow retraction when certain
circumstances are met. This mainly being that all 3 landing gear legs are weight
off wheels and are fully extended, and the downlocks have been unlocked.

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13.16

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LANDING GEAR

Wheels, brakes, antiskid and autobraking

13.16.1 wheels

The wheels on the landing gear leg provides some form of suspension and
adhesion between the aircraft and the ground. Early wheels and tyres were of the
bicycle type with spoke rims and with the tyres fitted using tyre levers. Most light
aircraft have fixed flange one piece forged or cast wheels (Figure 28).

Fixed Flange Wheel

Figure 28
Modern tyres are much more rigid, due to the load-bearing requirements, which
results in the wheels having to be of two piece construction (Figure 29). The two
piece wheel construction, are of 2 types, removable rim or split wheel. The
removable rim wheel has an inner tube where as the split wheel is tubeless and
requires a perfect seal between the halves. An O ring is located between the
mating surfaces. To be as light and strong as possible they are usually
constructed from alluminium or magnesium alloys and may be cast or forged.
The inboard wheel section is fitted with key ways that allows the brake discs to
slot into. These key ways drive the brake discs with the wheels. Larger aircraft
wheels have one or more fusible plugs fitted. These plugs have a centre hole
which is filled with a low melting point alloy. In the event of the tyre overheating,
when a temperature limit is reached the low melting point alloy melts and allows
the tyre to safely deflate.

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13.16.2 Types of Wheels

There are three basic types of wheel used for aircraft:

Well-based
Divided (or Split)
Loose and Detachable Flange
13.16.2.1 WELL-BASED

This type is limited to smaller light aircraft and is similar to those found on a
typical family car.
13.16.2.2 DIVIDED (OR SPLIT)

This type is used on most modern commercial airliners. It consists two half
assemblies matched up and bolted together to form the complete wheel. Each
half is more or less identical and has its own tapered bearing assembly.
A sealing ring is incorporated between the two halves, to provide an airtight joint
when the wheel is used with a tubeless tyre. Additionally, the inner half will carry
the brake rotor drive blocks and the outer half may be fitted with fusible plugs.
Half Hub Assembly

Outer Bearing
Inner Bearing
Sealing Ring
Drive Block Mounting
Divided (Split) Wheel
Figure 29

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13.16.2.3 LOOSE AND DETACHABLE FLANGE

This type of wheel has a main hub, which carries both bearings, brake rotor drive
blocks and fusible plugs. To facilitate tyre replacement, one of the two wheel
flanges can be removed. The flange when refitted to the wheel hub is retained by
a locking ring (loose flange) or by means of a series of nuts and bolts (detachable
flange). As with the divided wheel a sealing ring is incorporated in the flange
recess to provide the airtight joint when used with tubeless tyres.

Locking Ring

Loose Flanged sealing

Figure 30

Loose Flange

Spigot Joint

Three Piece Loose Flanged Wheel

Figure 31

Inner Bearing

Outer Bearing
Drive Blocks

Detachable Flanged Wheel

Figure 32
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13.17

Tyres

Tyres with patterned tread became important when aircraft got effective brakes
that could be used for slowing the aircraft during landing. At first the treads were
a diamond pattern that provided good braking on wet grass but the ribbed tread
proved to be more suitable for operation on hard surface runways. Today almost
all aircraft tyres have a ribbed tread that consists of straight grooves, which run
around the tyres circumference.
13.17.1 Tyre inflation and deflation

The tyres are inflated with nitrogen from a ground cart. The required pressure will
be laid down in the AMM and a tyre inflation box is used to regulate the charge
rate and pressure. A deflation tool is used to release the pressure and any ice
that forms must be allowed to thaw before the valve core is removed.
13.17.2 Tyre Construction

The Bead

The bead gives the tyre its strength and stiffness to assure a firm mounting on the
wheel. The bead is made up of bundles of high strength carbon steel wire with
two or three bead bundles on each side of the tyre. Rubber strips streamline the
round bead bundles to allow the fabric to fit smoothly around them without any
gaps. The bead bundles are enclosed in layers of rubberised fabric, to insulate
the carcass plies from the heat absorbed in the bead wires.

The Carcass

The carcass (or chord body) is the body of the tyre that is made up of layers of
rubberised fabric cut in strips with the threads running at an angle of about 45
degrees to the length of the strip. These strips extend completely across the tyre
around the bead and partially up the side. Each ply is put on in such a way that
the threads cross each other at about 90 degrees to that of the adjacent ply. This
type of construction is known as bias ply.
The cords of the ply fabric were originally cotton, then nylon and now aramid
fibres (kevlar) are used. This is stronger than nylon, polyester or fibreglass and
even strong pound for pound than steel.
Chafing strips are rubberised strips of fabric that wrap around the edges of the
carcass plies and enclose the bead area. The chafing strips provide a smooth
chafe resistant surface between the tyre and the bead seat of the wheel.

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The undertread is a layer of compound rubber between the plies and the tread
rubber that provides good adhesion between the tread and the carcass. On top of
the undertread are more plies of strong fabric that strengthen the tread and
oppose centrifugal forces that try to pull the tread from the carcass during high
speed rotation.
The inner liner is a thin coating of rubber over the inside plies. For tubeless tyres
it is made from a compound which is less permeable than other rubbers used. It
seals the tyre and reduces the amount of leakage. On tyres with inner tubes the
liner is very smooth to help prevent chafing.

TREAD
PLIES

SIDEWALL
CHAFING STRIPS

CARCASS

BEAD BUNDLE

BEAD WIRES

Aircraft Tyre Construction

Figure 33

The Tread

The tread is the thick layered rubber around the outer circumference of the tyre
that serves as a wearing surface. The tread has a series of moulded grooves
moulded into its surface to give optimum traction with the runway surface.
13.17.3 Tyre Wear Assessment

The manner in which tread wear of a tyre is established, is dependent upon which
of a number of methods of indicating wear has been incorporated into the tyre by
the manufacturer.
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Tyres used on modern aircraft have a series of circumferential grooves in the

tread, primarily to displace water on the runway and so help to prevent the tyre
from aquaplaning. These grooves can be also used as a means of establishing
tyre wear.
If this method is adopted, then wear which results in any groove being less than
2mm in depth, for more than 25% of the tread circumference, requires the tyre to
be replaced.
Other ways of establishing wear assessment are by the use of:
Tie Bars
Wear indicator Grooves
Sipes
13.17.3.1 TIE BARS

These are small transverse bars of rubber, moulded at intervals in the

circumferential grooves around the tyre as described above. They are set at a
depth of 2mm, or as required by the particular manufacture and thus provide an
easy visual means of establishing wear limits.
Limits tyre worn to the top of the tie bar.

Tie Bars

Tie Bars
Figure 34
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13.17.3.2 WEAR INDICATOR GROOVES

These are dedicated grooves set in the tread pattern and have a depth graduated
by the manufacturer, but typically 2mm shallower than the water-displacing
grooves.
Limits tyre worn to the bottom of the indicator groove anywhere on the
circumference of the tyre.

Wear Indicator Grooves

Figure 35
13.17.3.3 SIPES

Certain tyres, normally those having a zigzag tread pattern have an axial slit in
the tread rubber at some of the zigzag corners. The slit does not extend into the
depth of the tread and is called a sipe.
Limits Tyre worn to the bottom of the sipe.

Sipes

Sipes
Figure 36

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13.17.4 Tyre Damage

The amount of tyre damage a tyre can suffer without becoming unserviceable is
very small. Damage in the vicinity of the bead is rarely tolerated, while cuts in the
casing plies must be assessed very carefully in accordance with the
manufacturers requirements before deciding on the degree of serviceability.
Normally if the chords are exposed due any form of damage, including splits or
crazing, then the tyre will be classed as unserviceable.
NOTE: Always consult the Aircraft/Component Maintenance Manual.
13.17.5 Leak Holes (Awl Holes)

During inflation of a tyre/tube assembly, air may become trapped between the
tube and the inside surface of the tyre, giving an incorrectly inflated assembly.
The risk is reduced by allowing the air to escape through Leak Holes, pierced
completely through the sidewall of the tyre, during manufacture. The holes are
often made with a pointed tool called an Awl. Because of this, the holes are
sometimes referred to as Awl Holes. The position of these holes is indicated by a
series of 6mm diameter spots of grey or green litho ink, usually grey.
13.17.6 Vent Holes

During the manufacture of tubeless tyres, air that gets trapped between layers in
the casing is permitted to escape to atmosphere through vent holes pierced in the
sidewall. The vent holes do not penetrate right through the sidewall in this case
and are identified, as with leak holes, by 6mm diameter spots of grey or green
litho ink, usually green.
13.17.7 Balance Marks

A red spot (sometimes triangular) on either side of the tyre indicates its lightest
point around the circumference as ascertained during the manufacturers
balancing procedure.
During assembly with the wheel the red spot should be aligned with the inflation
valve on a tubeless assembly. On a tubed assembly, the spot should be aligned
with a red line (heavy point) on the tube. If it has no red line, align with the
inflation valve of the tube.
13.17.8 Electrically Conducting Tyres

Some wheel assemblies are fitted with tyres that are designed to conduct
electrical charges to earth as the aircraft touches down. Such tyres are identified
with the word CONDUCTIVE or the letters ECTA (electrically conducting tyre
assembly) on the sidewall.

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13.17.9 Aquaplaning

Aquaplaning is a condition that occurs on wet runways when a wave of water

builds up in front of a spinning wheel. This could result in the tyre being lifted from
the runway surface and to float on the thin layer of water. This is dangerous, as a
complete loss of braking efficiency will occur.
Although it appears only to be an aircrew problem, there is a significant factor that
affects the maintenance engineer.
Mathematically there is a formula for Aquaplaning speed Aquaplaning Speed (Kt.) = 9 (approx.) x Square Root of the Tyre Pressure.
This speed will be placarded for the crew, so that in wet conditions they will
quickly traverse through it on landing.
However, if the tyre pressures are incorrect, the placarded speed will be useless
and aquaplaning will occur at a different speed.
Take care, therefore, to maintain tyre pressures at their correct value at all times.
13.18

Brakes

Aircraft brake systems convert kinetic energy from the motion of the aircraft into
heat energy, which is generated by the fiction between the brake linings and the
brake drum or disc.
There are two types of brakes in use energising (servo) and none energising.
Energising brakes use the friction developed between the rotating and stationary
parts to produce a wedging action that uses the momentum of the aircraft to
increase the braking force which reduces the pilots effort needed in producing the
required braking action. None energising brakes do not use this wedging action.
13.18.1 Energising Brakes

Energising brakes used on some smaller light aircraft have a single servo action
and only operate with forward motion. Energising brakes have their shoes and
linings mounted on a torque plate in such a way that they are free to move out
against the rotating drum. When the brakes are applied two pistons move out and
push the linings against the drum that rotates with the wheel. Rotation of the
brake drum wedges the linings against it. When the hydraulic pressure is
released, a retracting spring pulls the linings form the drum and releases the
brakes.
13.18.2 None Energising Brakes

This is the most common type of brake used on aircraft. These brakes are
actuated by hydraulic pressure and the amount of braking action depends on the
pressure applied. Expander tube, single disc and multiple disc brakes are the
main types of none energising brakes used.

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13.18.3 Expander Tube Brakes

Expander brakes utilise a heavy neoprene tube, but are rarely use on modern
aircraft. Hydraulic fluid from the master cylinder is directed into the expander tube
which is located on the circumference of a torque flange. When this tube is
expanded it pushes the brake block linings out against the brake drum and the
friction between the linings and the drum slows the aircraft.
The heat generated in the linings is kept from damaging the expander tube by
stainless steel heat shields placed between each of the lining blocks. As soon as
the brake pedal is released, the return springs between the brake lining blocks
collapse the expander tube and force the fluid back into the cylinder reservoir.
13.18.4 Single Disc Brakes

This is most common on light aircraft. The brakes are actuated by hydraulic
pressure from a master cylinder and friction is produced when the rotating disc is
squeezed between the brake linings in the brake caliper.
There are two types of single disc brakes, one has the disc keyed into the wheel
and it is free to move in and out as the brake is applied. This type is called
floating disc fixed caliper. The second type of brake disc is rigidly attached to the
wheel and the caliper moves in and out on anchor bolts. This type is called fixed
disc floating caliper.
Some single disc brakes have automatic adjusters and wear indicators. The
automatic adjusting pin is pulled through the grip when brakes are applied. When
the brakes are released the piston and the linings move back only under pressure
of the return spring. The protrusion on the adjuster pin indicates lining wear. In
general, when the pin is flush with the housing the linings are replaced.
13.18.5 Multi Disc Brakes

The gross weight of the aircraft and the speed at the time of brake application
determines what size brakes are required. As the aircrafts size, weight and
landing speed increases there is a need for greater braking surfaces and heat
dissipation.
Segmented rotor, multiple disc brakes are standard on most modern high
performance aircraft. The segmented disc brake has three rotating discs keyed
on to the wheel. The rotors are segmented to allow for cooling and for expansion
caused by the high temperatures generated during braking.
Between each disc is a stator plate or brake-lining disc, keyed on to the axle
shaft. Riveted on to each side of the stator plates are the brake linings. A
pressure plate is located on the inboard side of the axle shaft and a backing plate
is located on the outboard side.
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Automatic adjusting pins are pulled through the grip when brakes are applied.
When the brakes are released the pressure plate moves back under pressure of
their return springs. The protrusion on the adjuster pins indicates lining wear. In
general, when the pin is flush with the housing the linings are replaced.
PRESSURE PLATE
PISTON
BRAKE LINER
SEGMENTED
ROTOR
CYLINDERS
PADS

STATOR PLATE

BACKING
PLATE

WEAR PINS

Multi Disc Brake Unit

Figure 37
The brakes used on most large jet aircraft use a number of brake cylinders
instead of a single annular cylinder. (Figure 37) Each cylinder has a piston which
presses against the pressure plate when hydraulic pressure is applied. Each
cylinder will be supplied from separate hydraulic systems so if one fails full
braking can be applied from the other system.
Some aircraft may have their brake discs made from carbon fibre. These are
lighter in weight and they can function at higher temperatures. They are
expensive to use and generally only used on transport aircraft where the weight
saving makes them more cost effective.
13.18.6 Brake systems

Light aircraft will generally use hydraulic pressure generated by the pilots feet.
When the pilot depresses the rudder pedals, pressurised fluid is moved from the
master cylinder, to a slave cylinder operating the brakes. Larger aircraft will use
the aircrafts main hydraulic systems to provide the pressure to operate the
brakes.
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The pressure applied to the brakes must be proportional to the force exerted on
the brake pedals; the pilot must be able to hold the brakes partially applied
without a build up in pressure. The hydraulic pressure to the brakes is much
higher but remains proportional to the input. This is achieved with a brake control
valve also known as a metering valve.
The rudder pedals are connected to the brake control valve by various methods
including hydraulically by use of a master cylinder (also known as foot motors),
rods or cables.
The hydraulic systems will operate simultaneously and usually a different system
will feed the inboard wheels to the outboard. In the event of a system hydraulic
failure, braking is still maintained to at least one set of wheels.
PILOTS FOOT MOTORS

1ST

PILOTS FOOT MOTORS

1ST

2ND
SYSTEM
PRESSURE

2ND

RETURN

BRAKE CONTROL
VALVE
1 2

Brake control system

Figure 38

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13.18.7 Brake control valve

The schematic drawings of the brake control valve (figures 39, 40 and 41) shows
a simplified version of how the proportional application is achieved. The centre
slide moves to the left as the pilot applies the brakes, opening the pressure line
and closing the return line. This allows pressure to the brakes and they are
applied. At the same time pressure is directed to the metering chamber were
pressure builds up until it equals the pedal input pressure. When the pressures
are equal the slide moves to the right, until it is in the central position, with both
the pressure and return lines blocked. This holds the brake pressure constant
until the pressure is either increased or decreased by a change in the pilots
input. If the pedals are released the slider will move to the right opening a line
from the brakes to return, dissipating the pressure.
PRESSURE

RETURN

BRAKES

Figure 39
Brakes released -The return line is open for the pressure to dissipate.

PRESSURE

RETURN

BRAKES

Applied
brake
pressure

Monitoring
chamber
pressure
Figure 40

As brake pressure is applied the slider moves to the left blocking the return line
and opening the brake line to the pressure. Pressure is fed to the monitoring
chamber were it starts to move the slide to the right as it equals the input force.

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Monitoring
chamber
pressure

PRESSURE

RETURN

BRAKES

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Figure 41
With the pressure equal to the input force the slide moves to the central position
with both the pressure and return lines blocked off. In this position a constant
brake pressure is held to the brakes.
13.19

Anti Skid Systems

13.19.1 Introduction

The anti skid system is designed to provide maximum effective braking for any
runway condition without skidding and is often used in conjunction with an
autobrake system.
It operates by automatically overriding or modifying the metered input brake
pressure from the flight deck, or braking commands from the autobrake system.
Hydraulic pressure is automatically controlled at each brake unit, maintaining the
optimum wheel braking requirement, regardless of prevailing weather conditions
(ie: ice/heavy rain/crosswind etc). Aircraft stopping distances are minimised and
directional control is maintained. Maximum braking efficiency occurs when all
main wheels are at the maximum rate of deceleration just before an impending
wheel skid.
The system continuously modulates the hydraulic pressure at each individual
brake unit in response to actual wheel speed, thus preventing blown tyres, flat
spots or the risk of aquaplaning caused by a locked wheel.
On a normal landing sequence, there is no need for a corrective signal as long as
the rate of wheel deceleration is within limits. However, if the rate is above these
limits, this is sensed as an approaching skid. A corrective signal is applied to
momentarily reduce the applied brake pressure at the relevant wheel. The
corrective signal is removed when the wheel speed increases again and the
process repeated as required, until the deceleration rate remains within limits
once more.
The anti skid system can be either electronically or mechanically controlled. Most
modern systems are electronic, since mechanically controlled systems are only
fitted to older aircraft types.

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13.19.2 Electronic Anti Skid System

The system consists of the following components:

A wheel speed transducer, located in each main landing gear axle and driven
by the wheel rotation.
An electronic antiskid control unit, normally located in the electronic/electrical
equipment bay, with BITE facility to provide continuous self test and fault
warning.
An antiskid control valve for each mainwheel, normally located in the hydraulic
equipment bay.
A control switch and failure warning indicator, on the flight deck panel.

Electronic Anti-Skid System With AutoBrake Facility

Figure 42

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13.19.2.1 WHEELSPEED TRANSDUCER

The transducer is a speed sensing generator-type device, which sends an output

voltage directly proportional to wheel rotation to the electronic antiskid control
unit.
The control unit compares the transducer output voltage, with a reference voltage
scheduled to the maximum deceleration rate for the aircraft.
If the transducer output voltage exceeds the reference voltage, the error signal
will be sent to the relevant antiskid control valve. This results in the hydraulic
pressure at the corresponding brake unit momentarily reducing, until the voltages
agree once more.

WHEELSPEED
SENSOR
RING NUT

GENERATOR
CARRIER

DRIVE CAP

V-CLAMP
Wheel speed Transducers
Figure 43
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13.19.2.2 ANTI SKID CONTROL VALVE

This valve is a two-stage electro-hydraulic servo valve, which meters pressure

applied to the brake unit in accordance with signals from the anti skid control unit.
The first stage is a torque motor-operated flapper valve set between two hydraulic
ports (return and pressure). The second stage is a spool valve, spring biased to
brakes on position and hydraulically controlled, by directing oil pressure into a
drilled passage way at either end of the spool.
When there is no control signal to the torque motor, the flapper valve is biased
towards the return nozzle and maximum braking is possible. However, a signal
(increase in current), will be sent to the torque motor windings from the Control
Unit, if it in turn receives a signal from a wheel speed transducer that a wheel is
slowing down too quickly and may skid. This causes the flapper valve to move
towards the pressure nozzle, restricting fluid into the chamber and allowing more
to escape to return.
As a result pressure reduces in the first stage chamber and the reduction is felt
on the bias spring side of the second stage spool valve. Pressure on the opposite
end of the spool forces the valve to move, closing off the pressure line and
connecting the brake line to return. The amount of second stage valve movement
is directly proportional to torque motor current in the first stage, which in turn
depends on the amount of brake pressure reduction required to achieve wheel
spin up.
As the mainwheel spins up again to its correct speed, the current at torque motor
windings reduces. This allows the flapper to move back to the return nozzle and
moves the spool valve back, closing off the return line and causing brake
pressure to be re-applied to the wheel brake.
If necessary, the complete cycle can be repeated, often with a rapid Brakes off/
Brakes on modulation rate of up to 50 cycles/second.

Anti-skid Control Valve

Figure 44
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Anti-skid Control Valves

Figure 45
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13.19.2.3 ANTI SKID CONTROL UNIT

This contains all the electrical circuits necessary for full anti skid control and
circuits for BITE and monitoring of control valves and transducers. Circuits for a
typical aircraft having four mainwheels ( Boeing 737) are normally arranged into
two separate channels, for inboard and outboard pairs of wheels.
As we have seen, skid control for each individual wheel requires a self-generated
signal from its wheelspeed transducer.

Two types of anti-skid control unit

Figure 46
The system has three modes of operation:
Touch-down protection, which prevents landing with brakes on.
Skid-control, which makes sure there is maximum braking efficiency.
Locked-wheel protection, which prevents any wheel from locking up due to the
runway condition.
When the aircraft is airborne, an in-flight signal is sent to the Control Unit via the
ground/flight switch relay. The signal is sent to the Touchdown protection mode
circuit, causing a full brake release signal (full dump) to be sent to the skid control
valves. This prevents any pressure from going to the brakes and ensures that all
brake units are always connected to return, even if the brake pedals are fully
depressed. The full dump signal will be removed on touchdown when the inflight signal is replaced by a on-ground signal.
The Skid control mode will not commence until the wheels have spun up to predetermined speed for the particular aircraft concerned. (Examples are; 30kts and
70kts for Fokker 50 and Boeing 737 respectively). Brake pressure is now
controlled by modulation of the antiskid control valves as previously described.
In addition to the Skid Control mode which ensures maximum braking efficiency
for the level metered from the flight deck, the Locked-wheel protection mode
circuitry looks at the inboard and outboard pairs of wheels and compares their
speed. Should one of the pair slow down to a pre-determined difference, a full
dump signal will be momentarily sent to the slower wheel in order to restore
equilibrium. (Examples are; 30% and 40% difference for Fokker 50 and Boeing
737 respectively). Below about 15kts this mode is switched off (drops out) but
Skid control mode remains.
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13.19.2.4 CONTROL SWITCH AND WARNING SYSTEM

This is normally located on the front panel of the flight deck and is often combined
with the auto brake selector, if applicable to the particular aircraft type. It usually
consists of a simple on/off switch to power up the anti skid circuitry. It also
contains a warning light to give a warning of system malfunction.
Following illumination of this warning light, it is possible to interrogate the Anti
Skid Control Unit and pinpoint the cause for example a particular transducer,
valve or the control unit itself.

Flight deck control panel for anti-skid and autobrake

Figure 47

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13.19.3 Mechanical Anti Skid System

This older type system modulates brake pressure as with the electronic type, but
the modulation is achieved mechanically by a single self-contained device, one
for each wheel.
The device, often referred to as a maxaret (maximum arresting) unit, detects a
rapid deceleration of the wheel and momentarily releases the brake pressure as
before. It will normally be mounted externally on the brake unit torque plate and
driven by a small rubber tyred wheel in contact with the aircraft mainwheel.
Alternatively, it can be mounted inside the axle and driven by the aircraft
mainwheel via a splined drive shaft in the hub cap.
Both types, wheel or axle mounted, incorporate an internally mounted heavy
flywheel, sensitive to the angular deceleration that occurs when braking. When
the braking is severe or just before the wheel is about to lock up, the flywheel is
permitted to continue rotating at the higher speed due to its inertia. It will advance
through an arc until it contacts a set of limit stops.
The flywheel, is connected mechanically to two hydraulic system metering valves
within the maxaret unit. Using a pair of thrust balls and push rods the valves
change their position from the normal pressure to brakes position, to the no
pressure in and brakes to return position.
With brake pressure removed, the wheel regains speed and the flywheel returns
to its original position assisted by a return spring. The brakes are re-applied and
the brakes on/ brakes off sequence will continue until the deceleration returns to
normal limits.
BRAKE UNIT

MAXARET
DRIVE WHEEL
MAIN WHEEL
SPRING TO PUSH
DRIVE WHEEL
ON TO MAIN WHEEL
Mechanical anti-skid unit
Figure 48
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To
brake

Base of
Cam
Pressure
supply

Thrust
plate

Thrust
rod
A. - Normal Braking
Condition
From
return
brake

Wheel

Base of
Cam
profile
60

Pressure
supply
B. - Anti-Skid Condition
Operation of Rim-Driven Unit
Figure 49
Main shaft
Valve spring

Flywheel

Drive ring

Clutch friction pad

Thrust bearing
Input shaft

Clutch cover
Clutch plate
spring
Sun gear RingClutch
gear
Drive spring
Planet gear

Valve

Main spring
Valve thrust rod

Axle mounted anti-skid unit

Figure 50
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13.20

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MODULE NO 11.13
LANDING GEAR

autobraking

Some modern aircraft have auto-braking systems. A selector switch on the

instrument panel allows the pilot to select a deceleration rate that will be
controlled automatically after landing. On landing the auto-braking system will
smoothly apply the brakes to achieve the selected deceleration rate down to a
complete stop without any further action from the aircrew. This allows the aircrew
to concentrate on other activities during landing.
The auto brake system utilises the normal anti-skid and brake units but instead of
using pressure from the brake metering valve, hydraulic pressure is sent via
solenoid valves which allow a pre-determined amount of pressure through the
anti-skid valves to the brake units.
13.20.1 Selector Panel

The selector panel consists of a solenoid latched switch which will hold a selected
position only if all the arming conditions for that setting are met. If the system
cannot be armed the switch will automatically return to the DISARM position and
a warning will illuminate on the local panel and centralised warning panel. The
panel will have a number of settings that the pilot can select depending on the
rate of deceleration that is required.
13.20.2 Auto-Brake Control Unit

Selection on the auto brake selector panel will send an electrical signal to the
auto-brake control unit. The signal is processed by the control unit, which
commands the solenoid valve to direct pressure to the brake units.
The brake pressure must be gradually built up and released to prevent brake
snatch and jerking. To prevent this a time delay and an electrical ramp are used.
The time delay ensures that the aircraft is firmly on the ground before the system
activates. The terminology used to indicate the auto-brake operation is:

On Ramp A gradual build up of brake pressure to the amount required for

the selected rate of deceleration.
Off Ramp A gradual decrease in pressure down to zero at the end of the
landing run or cancellation of auto-brake.
Drop Out Instantaneous pressure release to zero (go around mode).

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Autobrake On-Ramp
Figure 51

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LANDING GEAR

13.20.3 Auto Brake Solenoid Valve

These valves are electrically controlled, hydraulic valves that allow pressure to
the brake units at a specific setting. The greater the deceleration rate the higher
the setting. These valves are fitted just upstream of the anti-skid valves.
The solenoid will open when all the arming conditions are met and the aircraft is
weight on wheels. It is also the solenoid valves that immediately shuts on Drop
Out.
A solenoid servo valve modulates the brake pressure to regulate the deceleration
rate. A pressure switch is connected to the DISARM warning light to monitor zero
pressure when auto-brakes are armed.
13.20.4 System Operation

Once the aircraft lands and is weight on wheels the anti skid transducers send
signals to the control unit. When the wheels have achieved a certain speed or
after a pre-determined time delay the brakes will be applied Up The Ramp.
Once the selected rate of deceleration is reached the auto-brake pressure is
modulated to hold that rate.
As the wheel speed slows down to more than the deceleration rate, the servo
valve will close slightly reducing the brake pressure causing the wheel to speed
up. Once the aircraft has come to a stop or the aircraft is below a certain speed
the auto-brakes will switch off to enable the aircraft to taxi.
13.20.5 Auto Brake Termination

Auto-Brake can be cancelled at any time. Depending on the aircraft, the system
can be over-ridden by:

The pilot moving the selector lever to disarm or off.

The pilot using manual braking.

Auto-brake needs to be immediately cancelled if the pilot has to initiate a go

round procedure. The following actions will cause immediate DROP OUT:

The thrust levers are advanced from the idle gate.

The speed brake lever is moved to stow the speed brakes.

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13.21

steering

To improve the ground operation of aircraft nose wheel systems are used. These
improve tyre life through less scrub, reduce brake wear, save fuel and engine life
as brakes and engine thrust are no longer required to turn the aircraft.
Most nose wheel steering systems use servo jack operated scissor links attached
to a collar on the landing gear leg, the collar being driven by the servo jacks
which rotates the nose wheel leg via the scissor links. Steering inputs to the servo
jacks come from a tiller on the pilots side of the cockpit. Inputs can also come
from the rudder pedals.
Apart from mechanical steering systems there are three basic methods of
operation:

Single Servo Jack.

This system is used on smaller light aircraft (Figure 52). Both ends of the jack
ram are attached to the landing gear leg. Fluid is directed to move the jack body
along its ram. A cam and link assembly is attached to the jack body. Movement of
the jack body operates the link which rotates the cam and turns the wheel. Action
of the shock absorber is unaffected as the shock absorber is splined on to the
steering shaft to allow the compression and extension of the absorber.
JACK BODY
PISTON
LINK

CAM

SPLINED SHAFT

STRUT
AXLE

Single Servo Steering

Figure 52
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Double Servo Jack.

Larger aircraft use a two servo jack system (Figure 53). The two jacks are fixed to
a steering collar, which is free to rotate around the landing gear leg. The steering
collar is attached to the upper scissor link. When the servo jacks are actuated
they rotate the wheels and axle through the scissor link. assembly

Double Servo Jack

Figure 53

Rack and Pinion

Some aircraft use a rack and pinion steering system. Hydraulically operated racks
rotate a pinion which rotates the wheel and axle. A mechanical linkage from the
cockpit tiller operates a servo valve in a hydraulic metering valve. The servo valve
when operated directs fluid to one side or the other of the rack piston. The rack
then moves and rotates the pinion and turns the aircraft nose wheel in the
required direction.
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13.21.1 Steering Mechanisms

On some small aircraft the nose wheel is steered by direct linkages from the
rudder pedals, or on small retractable landing gear aircraft, from the rudder
pedals to a steering bar which locates against a steering arm on the landing gear
leg. (Figure 54) Once the wheel is stowed the mechanism is ineffective.

STEERING BAR

STEERING ARMS

STEERING LUGS

Nose Wheel Steering Mechanism

Figure 54
The nose wheels or tail wheels on light aircraft mat be steerable or castoring. A
castoring nose wheel aircraft is steered by the independent use of the brakes and
rudder inputs. Some light aircraft have limited tail wheel steering via a mechanism
interlinked with the rudder pedals. The tail wheel will brake out if the turning circle
is too small to allow the tail wheel to castor. Once centralised the tail wheel
becomes steerable again. Some aircraft have a tail skid mechanism (Figure 55)

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Tail Skid Mechanism

Figure 55
Inputs to the hydraulic control valves which direct pressure to the steering jacks
are carried out by a mechanical system of cables, bellcranks, levers and
gearboxes from the hand operated tiller and the rudder pedals. The input has a
follow up action through interconnected links or cables which neutralise the nose
wheel movement when the desired rate of turn has been achieved.
Rudder pedals movement can also be inputted to the control valve, but this is
usually restricted to a small degree of movement either side of the aircraft centre
line. Rudder pedal steering is normally used on take off or landing and is isolated
when the aircraft is airborne.
13.21.2 Nose Wheel Self Centring

It is important that when a steerable nose wheel is being retracted that the wheel
is centred so that it fits into the wheel well to prevent any damage to the aircraft
structure as well as the landing gear. This can be done by a centring cam inside
the oleo strut. When the strut is compressed the piston cam disengages from the
cylinder cam receptacle to allow the wheel to be steered. On take off when the
strut extends the piston cam is forced into the cylinder receptacle to hold the
wheel in the desired position for stowing. Double servo jacks can centralise the
wheel by supplying pressure to a centralising jack. This is normally initiated by
the weight-on-wheels micro-switches as the aircraft takes off.

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