RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH METHOD/DESIGN
Research Method/Design
Specific techniques/procedures used to collect and
analyze data
Research methods may be understood as all those
methods/techniques that are used for conduction of
research.
Examples
Recording of notes
Statistical manipulations
Use of audio visual recording devices

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Methodology
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the
research problem. It may be understood as a science of
studying how research is done scientifically.
In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by
a researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them.
Frameworks and assumptions used to inform research
The paradigm that dictates which method are used, and how
they are applied and arranged.

CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH METHODS

Quantitative
answers are found through numerical data
explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are
analysed using mathematically based methods (in particular
statistics). Aliaga and Gunderson Interactive Statistics 3rd Edition
(2005)

CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH METHODS

Qualitative
Answers are found through textual data
seeks to answer questions about why and how people
behave in the way that they do. It provides in-depth
information about human behaviour.
It often involves words or language, but may also use
pictures
or
photographs
and
observations.

RESEARCH METHOD: SURVEYS

The survey is a group of research methods commonly
used to determine the present status of a given
phenomenon.
A survey is a systematic method of collecting
primary data based on a sample
Survey may be used for exploratory, descriptive and
causal studies.
For example: We want to explore the opinion of top
executives on HR Manager.

RESEARCH METHODS: SURVEY

Collecting standardized information from
people using an interview or self-report
format.
To standardized the information one uses a
questionnaire with set questions.
Ideally the questionnaire has been validated
Representativeness of the sample is very
important.

SURVEY METHODS
1. Interview
Advantage
Comprehensive
Ensure participant understands the question
Minimizes missing data
Enables clarification of unclear responses

Disadvantage
Expensive
People more like to refuse participation
Can be risky for interviewer
Interviewer may bias the responses

SURVEY METHODS
2. Face to face interviews
Expensive and time-consuming

3. Telephone interviews
Need to use random-digit dialing to reach both listed
and unlisted numbers

4. Mail (Snail or Online)

Return rate is usually low (20-30 %)
5. Social Media
Not sure if that is the real respondents

T YPES OF QUESTIONS
IN AN INTERVIEW
Open-ended
Example: Can you tell me about your typical
experience with dating?

Close-ended
Example: How do you typically meet someone to
date?
Introduced by someone
Social event
In university class or place or work
At a bar
Through sports or other athletic events

RESEARCH DESIGN / METHOD

A research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure
The research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the
blue print for the collection, measurement and
analysis of the data.

RESEARCH DESIGN / METHOD

(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be
used?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Experimental design refers to the framework
or structure of an experiment and as such
there are several experimental designs.
Categories
1. Informal Experimental Design
- Those designs that normally use a less sophisticated
form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes

2. Formal Experimental Design

- Offer relatively more control and use precise
statistical procedures for analysis

RESEARCH PROCESS / METHODOLOGY

Research process consists of series of actions or
steps necessary to effectively carry out research and
the desired sequencing of these steps

Research
Problem

Literature
Survey

Working
Hypothesis

Analysis of
Data

Collection of
Data

Research
Design

Interpretation
of Data

Reporting of
data

EXAMPLE OF A RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY

EXAMPLE OF A RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Development of working hypothesis
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the
piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.
The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher
by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on
the right track.

HYPOTHESES
Hypothesis testing refers to the formal procedures used
by statisticians to accept or reject statistical
hypotheses.

There are two types of statistical hypotheses.

Null hypothesis. The null hypothesis, denoted by H 0, is
usually the hypothesis that sample observations
result purely from chance.
Alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis,
denoted by H 1 or H a , is the hypothesis that sample
observations are influenced by some non-random
cause.

Research
Problem

Literature
Survey

Research
Design

Analysis of
Data

Collection of
Data

Working
Hypothesis

Interpretation
of Data

Reporting of
data

COLLECTION OF DATA
4. Determining sample design
Example of Sample Designs

Deliberate Sampling
Simple random sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Quota Sampling
Cluster Sampling and area sampling
Multi-stage sampling
Sequential sampling

STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

Type of universe clearly define the set of objects technically
called the Universe to be studied
Example
Finite population of a city and number of workers
Infinite number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio
programmed and throwing of dice

Sampling Unit
Example: State, district, village, family, club and other

Source List
Also known as sampling frame from which sample is to be drawn.

Size of Sample
Number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a
sample.

STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

Parameters of interest
Budgetary constraint
Sampling procedure
Decide on what technique to be used in selecting the
items for the sample.

SAMPLING WITH FINITE

NUMBER OF SAMPLE
n = N / (1 + Ne)
Where:
n = number of samples
N = total population
e = error margin (.05 or .01)
or level of confidence

MARGIN OF ERROR IS 0.01

TOTAL POPULATION

TARGET POPULATION

50

50

100

99

200

196

500

476

1000

909

5000

3333

10000

5000

MARGIN OF ERROR IS 0.05

TOTAL POPULATION

TARGET POPULATION

50

44

100

80

200

133

500

222

1000

286

5000

370

10000

385

SAMPLING WITH INFINITE NUMBER

OF SAMPLE
=

2 ( )(1 )
2

Confidence Level

Z Score

Margin of Error

90 %

1.645

10 % or 0.1

95 %

1.96

5 % or 0.05

99 %

2.326

1 % or 0.01

Standard of Deviation
- the safe decision is to use .5 this is the most forgiving
number and ensures that your sample will be large enough.

SAMPLE SIZE IN INFINITE SAMPLE

Confidence
Level

Z Score

Margin of
Error

Standard
Deviation

Target
Sample

90 %

1.645

10 % or 0.1

0.5

68

95 %

1.96

5 % or 0.05

0.5

96

99 %

2.326

1 % or 0.01

0.5

136

T YPES OF SAMPLING
Simple Random Sampling
is the basic sampling technique where we select a group of subjects
(a sample) for study from a larger group (a population).
Each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the
population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

T YPES OF SAMPLING
Systematic sampling
The most practical way of sampling is to select every ith item
on a list

 Stratified sampling:
If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not
constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique
is generally applied in order to obtain a representative sample.
Under stratified sampling the population is divided into several
sub-populations that are individually more homogeneous than
the total population (the different sub-populations are called
strata) and then we select items from each stratum to
constitute a sample.

STRATIFIED SAMPLING

CLUSTER SAMPLING
Cluster sampling
If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a
convenient way in which a sample can be taken is to divide the
area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then
to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (usually
called clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all (or
samples of) units in these small areas or clusters.

CLUSTER SAMPLING

Research
Problem

Literature
Survey

Research
Design

Analysis of
Data

Collection of
Data

Working
Hypothesis

Interpretation
of Data

Reporting of
data

 Collecting the data

By observation
Through personal interview
Through telephone interview
By mailing of questionnaires
Through schedules

COLLECTION OF DATA
Observation Method
the information is sought by way of investigators own
direct observation without asking from the
respondent.
Advantages
Subjective bias is eliminated
The information obtained under this method relates to what
is currently happening
Independent of respondents willingness to respond

This method is particularly suitable in studies which

deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not
capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for
one reason or the other

OBSERVATION METHOD
Limitations of Observation Method
Expensive method
Information provided is very limited
Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational list

INTERVIEW METHOD
The interview method of collecting data involves
presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms
of oral-verbal responses.
Types
1. Personal Interview
2. Telephone Interview

SOURCES OF ERROR IN INTERVIEW METHOD

(a) Respondent:
At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative
feelings or it is just possible that he may have very little knowledge
but may not admit his ignorance.
All this reluctance is likely to result in an interview of guesses.
Transient factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may limit the
ability of the respondent to respond accurately and fully.

(b) Situation:
Situational factors may also come in the way of correct
measurement. Any condition which places a strain on interview can
have serious effects on the interviewer-respondent rapport.
For instance, if someone else is present, he can distort responses by
joining in or merely by being present. If the respondent feels that
anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to express certain
feelings.

SOURCES OF ERROR IN INTERVIEW METHOD

(c) Measurer:
The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or
reordering questions. His behavior, style and looks may
encourage or discourage certain replies from respondents.

(d) Instrument:
Error may arise because of the defective measuring
instrument.
The use of complex words, beyond the comprehension of the
respondent, ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate
space for replies, response choice omissions, etc. are a few
things that make the measuring instrument defective and may
result in measurement errors.

GUIDELINES FOR
SUCCESSFUL INTERVIEWING
He must choose a suitable time and place so that
the interviewee may be at ease during the interview
period.
Interviewers approach must be friendly and
informal.
All possible effort should be made to establish
proper rapport with the interviewee; people are
motivated to communicate when the atmosphere is
favorable.

GUIDELINES FOR
SUCCESSFUL INTERVIEWING
Interviewer must know that ability to listen with
understanding, respect and curiosity is the gateway
to communication, and hence must act accordingly
during the interview.
To the extent possible there should be a free-flowing
interview and the questions must be well phrased in
order to have full cooperation of the interviewee.
In case of big enquiries, where the task of collecting
information is to be accomplished by several
interviewers, there should be an interview guide to
be observed by all so as to ensure reasonable
uniformity in respect of all salient points in the
study.

QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in
case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by private
individuals, research workers, private and public organizations
and even by governments.
Advantages
There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely
spread geographically.
It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in
respondents own words.
Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached
conveniently.
Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made
more dependable and reliable.

QUESTIONNAIRES METHOD
Disadvantages
Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to
no-response is often indeterminate.
It can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating.
The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending
the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched.
There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of
replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions
is difficult.
It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly
representative.
This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

GUIDELINES FOR
CONSTRUCTING QUESTIONNAIRE
1 . The researcher must keep in view the problem he is to study for
it
provides
the
starting
point
for
developing
the
Questionnaire/Schedule .
2. Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of
information sought, the sampled respondents and the kind of
analysis intended.
3. Rough draft of the Questionnaire/Schedule be prepared, giving
due thought to the appropriate sequence of putting questions.
4. Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may
revise the rough draf t for a better one.
5. Pilot study should be under taken for pre-testing the
questionnaire
6. Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward
directions for the respondents so that they may not feel any
dif ficulty in answering the questions.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
SURVEY AND EXPERIMENT
Surveys are conducted in case of descriptive research studies
where as experiments are a part of experimental research
studies.
Survey research have larger samples while experiment need
small samples
Surveys are concerned with describing, recording, analyzing
and interpreting conditions that either exist or existed. The
researcher does not manipulate the variable or arrange for
events to happen.
Experimental research provides a systematic and logical
method for answering the question
Surveys are usually appropriate in case of social and
behavioral sciences where as experiments are mostly an
essential feature of physical and natural sciences.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
SURVEY AND EXPERIMENT
Surveys are an example of field research where as
experiments generally constitute an example of
laboratory research.
Surveys are concerned with hypothesis formulation
and testing the analysis of the relationship between
non-manipulated variables. Experimentation provides
a method of hypothesis testing.

Research
Problem

Literature
Survey

Research
Design

Analysis of
Data

Collection of
Data

Working
Hypothesis

Interpretation
of Data

Reporting of
data

 Execution of the project

Execution of the project is a very important step in the
research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on
correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable.
The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time.

 Analysis of data
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the
task of analyzing them.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as establishment of categories, the
application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
Hypothesis-testing
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been
developed by statisticians for the purpose.
The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of
such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research
inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it.

Research
Problem

Literature
Survey

Research
Design

Analysis of
Data

Collection of
Data

Working
Hypothesis

Interpretation
of Data

Reporting of
data

 Generalizations and interpretation:

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be
possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to
build a theory.

Preparation of the report or the thesis:

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has
been done by him.